ENCTCLOPjEDIA BRITANNICA;
OR, A
C T I O N A R Y
O F
ARTS, S C I E N C E S,
AND
MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE
Conftrufted on a Plan,
BY WH ICH
THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS
Are digefled into the Form of Diftind
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COMPREUENUINQ
The History, Theory, and Practice, of each,
according to the Latetl Difcoveries and Improvements;
^ND FVLL EXPLANATIONS given of the
VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE,
WHETHER RELATING TO
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Civil, Military, Commercial, 6v.
Including Elucidations of the moft important Topics relative to Religion, Morals^,
Manners, and the Oeconomy of Life :
TOGETHER V'lTU
A Description of all the Countries, Cities, principal I^lountains, Seas, Rivers, ^c.
throughout the W o r L D j
A General Histort, Ancient and Moderuy of the different Empires, Kingdoms,, and Stdte&>
AND
An Account of the Lives of the mofl. Eminent Perfons in every Nation,
from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times.
Compiled from ihe -writl'igs of tie btjl Authois, in federal languages ; the mofi approved BlBionarits. as ivdl of gener.il fcience m of iU parti-
cular branches; the TranfaSlivn,, Journals, and Memoirs, of Learned SociHies, both at home and abroad; the MS. LeBures of
Eminent Profeffors on diffetent fciences ; and avariety if Original Materials, furnifhed hy un Fxtenfise Correfponience.
THE THIRD EDITION, IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, GREA TLT IMPROVED,
ILLUSTRATED WITH FIVE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO COPPERPLATES.
VOL. XVIL
INDOCri DISCJNT, ET A M S H T MRMINISS E PERITI.
EDINBURGH.
tRlNTED FOR A. BELL AND C. MACFARQJJH^AR.
MDCCXCVir.
CntereU in mntionm ^aH in Cermief ef tfte of Parliament
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
X^Hlftory of ScoTLAKD continued from tBe preceding l^olume.'}
"Scotland.
3<5o
James re-
Solver to in
SCO
JAMES could never forgive Henry for the lofs of his
brave officer. He fent to demand fatisfaftion ; but
all the anfwer he received was, that Barton and his crews
were lawlefs pirates, and that what had been done a-
gainft them ought never to have been refented amongft
fovcreign princes. James afferted, that Barton was no
pirate, becaufe he bore his commiffion ; and that he
ought to have been convifted of piratical afts before
he was treated as being guilty of them. Henry inti-
mated to James, that he Was wiUing to accommodate
the affair by way of negociation ; but James thought
himfelf affronted by the propofal.
Various negociatiens took place concerning this and
-Other affairs till the year 1513 ; when James, though
■*ade £rg- he had for fome time before been fully refolved upon a
war witli England, thought it highly neceffary that it
fhould have the fanftion of his parliament, which he af-
fembled for that purpofe. The yonng nobility were not
only infpired with the fentiments of James, but had been
won over by the French ; and the majority of them, as
well as of the clergy (which was fomevvhat extraordinaiy,
as James was, ineffeA, to fight againft the pope and his
allies), were keen for a war with England. The old
counfellors, on the other hand, who faw the flourifhing
Rate of Scotland, arifing fiom a long peace and their
commerce, which was protected by a fleet, dreaded the
minous confequences of the war. The queen naturally
headed this party ; and (he was joined by the earl ot
Angus and the wifeft part of the nobility. Their ar-
guments made no impreflion upon James, who had re-
ceived a prefent from Louis of four fhips laden with
wine and flour, and two fliips of war completely equip-
ped, one of them carrying 34. pieces ot brafs ordnance.
He promifed to the French queen, upon his honour,
that he wo'ald take the field againll the Enghfli ; and (he
had fcnt him a frefh letter, gently reproaching him for
want of gallantry, and for not bemg fo good as his word.
In {hort, the reafonings of the wifeft and beft part of
the nobility were over rvied, and the expedition againft
England was refolved on.
The' Scots '^"^^ of Hume, who was chamberlain of Scot-
defeated, land, was, at this junfture, at the head of 7000 or
8coo men, with whom- he committed prodi;gious de-
VxH-. XVn. Part L
Scotlantki
SCO
vaftations on the Engllfh borders. Henry's queen,
Catharine of Spain, whom he had left reg^^t of his ,
dominions, iffued a ccmmiffion of array, direfted to
Sir Thomas Lovel, knight ©f the garter, for afierri-
bling the militia of the counties of Nottingham, Der-
by» Warwick, Leicefter, Stafford, Rutland, Northamp-
ton, and Lincoln. '^l"'he management of the war, how-
ever, was chiefly committed to the earl of Surry, who
affembled the militia of Chefter, Lancafter, Northum-
berland, Weftmoreland, Cumberland, and the bifliopric
of Durham. The earl of Hume had by this time laid
great part of Northumberland walle ; and his men were
returning home laden with booty. The earl of Surry,
refolving to intercept them, ordered Sir William Bui«
mer to form an ambufli with 1000 archers, at a place
called Broomhoufe, which was extremely convenient for
that purpofe, as the Scots were obliged to paf^ that way.
As the latter expeiled nothing of that kind, Bulmcr
executed his orders with great fuccefs. The archers
aflaulted the Scots all at once, and made fo good ufe of
their arrows, that their main body was put to flight, 5"oo
were killed, and 400 taken, with the Lord Hume's
ffandard, which he left on the field of battle ; the greatell
part of the plunder being recovered at the fame time.
The commonalty of Scotland termed this expedition t)f
the Lord Hume's the /// road,
James was more exafperated than ever by this de- yj^^ ^ ^^^^^
feat, and continued his preparations for invading Eng- endeavoars
land with additional vigour. His queen did alh that t;> di/Tuade
became a wife and prudent wife t© divert him from his J^"'"^*^*'-^'^-
fatal purpofe. She endeavoured to work upon his
perftition, by recounting to him her ominous dreams
and boding apprehenfions. James treating thefe as
mere illufions and KAions of the brain, Ihe had recourfe
to other arts. While James was waiting at l^inhth-
gow for the arrival of his army from the north and the
Highlands, he afiifted one afternoon at the vefpers
the church of St Michael. Being placed in o:ie of the ^(^^
canon's feats, a venerable, comely man of about 52Ap!iai;.
years of age, entered, dreffed in a long garment of an tomappeirff
azure colour, and girded round with a towel or roll
of linen, his forehead bald, and his yellow locks hang*
ing down his flaoulders ; in Ihort, he v/as drelTcd and
A forraci
Scotland.
364
anies de-
ded
SCO [ 2
formed to appear like St Andrew, the apoftle of
' Scotland, as he is reprefented in painting and fculp-
ture. The church beins; crowded, this perfonage, with
feme difficulty, made his way to the king's feat ; and
leaning over it, he fpoke to the following purpofe :
*• Sir (faid he), I am fent hither to intreat you for
this time to delay your expedition, and to proceed no
farther in your intended journey : for if you do, you
fhall not profper in your enterprife, nor any of your
followers. I am further charged to warn you, if ye
be fo refraftory as to go forward, not to ufe the ac-
quaintance, company, or counfcl of women, as ye ten-
der your honour, life, and ellatc." After delivering
thofe words, he retired through the crowd, and was no
more feen, though, when the fervice was ended, James
earneftly inquired after him.
That this fcene was afted, feems to be paft difpute ;
for Sir David Lindfay, who was then a young man,
and prefent in the church, reported it both to Bucha-
nan and Lindfay the hiftorian. It is, however, equally
certain, that the whole was a contrivance of the queen,
to whofe other alBiftions the flings of jealoufy were
now added. In one of the Scotch inroads into Eng-
land, one Heron, the proprietor of the caftle of Ford,
.ismulrcfs. jjg^j jjgg^ taken prifoner, and fent to Scotland ; where
he was detained on a charge of murder, of which he
feems to have been innocent. The Englifh hiftorians
mention this as having paifed after James entered Eng- "
land : but from the latter part of the fuppofed phan-
tom's fpeech, it is probable that it happened before ;
and that Heron's wife and beautiful daughter had been
for fome time follciting James for his deliverance. Be
that as it may, it is too probable that James was fmitten
with the charms of the daughter ; and that her mo-
ther, who was a moft artful woman, knew how to avail
herfelf of the conqueft. Pretending that fhe had in-
tered enough to procure the releafe of the lord Johnfton
and Alexander Home, who were p'rifoners in England,
flic was permitted by James to keep a conftant corre-
fpondence with the earl of Surry, to whom fhe is faid
to have betrayed all James's fecrets and meafures. The
rendezvous of James's army was at the Burrov/-moor,
to which James repaired ; and having given orders for
the march of his aitilleiy, he lodged at the abbey of
Holyroodhoufe. While he was there, another at-
tempt was made to divert him from his purpofe of in-
vading England : but James, deaf to all the felicita-
tions and inventions of his queen, muftered his army ;
and on the 22d of Augufb he paffed the Tweed, en-
camping that night near the banks of the Twiffel. On
Jus arrival at Twiflclhaugh on the 14th, he called an
affembly of his lords together, and made a declaration,
that the heirs of all fuch as fhoidd die in the army, or
be killed by the enemy during his ftay in England,
fliould have their wards, relief, and mamages of the
king; who, upon that account, difpenfed with their
age. This is faid to have been the crifis of that prince's
fate. Abandoned to his paflion for lu's Enghfh mif-
trefs, fhe prevailed with him, at her mother's inftiga-
tion, to trifle away his time for fome days ; during
which interval, the junftion of the Englilh army was
formed. The earl of Surry, the Enghfh general, was
then at Pomfret : but ordered the landholders of the
neighbouring counties to certify to him in writing what
Bumber of men each could furnilh, charging them to
] SCO
be ready at an hour's warning ; and he laid his plan fo, ScotlaR*?.
as not to bring his army into the field till James had
advanced fo far into England as to render it very dif-
ficult for him to retire without a general battle. This
precaution aflifted the lady Ford (as {he is called) in
perfuading James that there was no danger in the de-
lay, becaufe the Englifh had not the face of an army in
the field.
In the mean time, the earl of Surry ordered the go-
vernors of Berwick and Norham, the two ftrongeft
places on the frontiers of England, to prepare for a
vigorous refiftance in cafe they were attacked ; and di-
refted them to certify how long they could hold out,
in hopes, that if they made a refolute defence, James
would march on^ and leave them in his rear. The go-
vernor of Norham's anfwer was, that his caftle was fo
well provided, as to leave him no doubt, in cafe of a
fiege, to be able to defend it till king Henry fhould
return from abroad, and relieve it in perfon. J^i^^s, -p^e /cot«
however, befieged it oh the 25th of Auguft, and bat- take the '
tered it fo furioufly, that he took it by capitulation the^aftles of
fixth day after. James then proceeded to the caftle of g
Etal belonging to the family of Manners (now duke yv^^^j^^"
of Rutland) ; which he took and demolilhed likewife, ag
he alfo did Wark, and arrived before the caftle of Ford.
The Scotch army is generally allowed to have conlifted
of at leaft 50,000 men when it pafl'ed the Tweed. At
this time it was encamped on the heights of Cheviot, in
the heart of a country naturally barren, and now defo-
late through the precautions taken by the Englifh ge-
neral. Being obliged to extend their quarters for the
benefit of fubfiftence, the mercenary part of them had
acquired a confiderable plunder, with which, as ufual,
they retired to their own country, as many more did for
want of fubfiftence. The earl of Surry knew their
fituation, and ordered the rendezvous of his army, firft
at Newcaftle, and then near Norham, having certain in-
telligence of the vaft defertions daily happening in the
Scotch army, which had reduced it greatly. The wet-
nefs of the feafon rendered his march, efpecially that
of the artillery, extremely difficult ; but being joined
by feveral perfons of diftinftion, he marched on the
3d of September to Alnwic, where he was reinforeed
by 5000 hardy veteran troops, fent from the Englifh
army on the continent, under the command of his fon
the lord admiral of England ; fo that the Englifh
authors admit his army to have confifted of 26,000
men, all completely armed and provided for the field.
James having, in the manifefto which he difperfed on
his entering England, given the death of Barton as one
of the caufes of his Invafion, the lord-admiral had pre-
vailed with Henry to fend him upon this fervice ; and he
informed James by a letter, that he intended to juftify
the death of that pirate in the front of the Engh'fh army.
By this time the a/^my of James was, by defertion Tanies^d'
and other caufes, reduced to lefs than half its numbers 'y^uds ftve,
but the chief misfortune attending it was his own con-ral of his
duft. His indolence and inactivity, joined to the fcan- ""'^''"y^
dalous examples of his amours, at fuch a feafon, had dif-
gufted feveral of his greateft men and befl friends ; and
fome of them more than fufpedled a correfpondence be-
tween the Englifh lady aud the earl of Surry. James
was deaf to all their remonftrances ; and the earl of
Angus declared, that he was refolved to return home»
as he forefuw that the ruin of the army was inevitable
through
S G O
[ 3 1
SCO
BcotlanA
367
Encamps
in an ad-
vantageous
£tuatioD.
-,68
Refblves
to fight,
contrary to
the opi-
nion of all
his officers.
tKrougK the obftinacy of James. He accorcHn jly with-
drew to Scotland, but left behind him his two fons.
The lord Hume and the earl of Huntley were likewife
difcontented. The former had brought his men into
the field ; but, according to fome Scotch hiftorians,
with a defign rather to betray than to ferve James :
but Huntley, though he difliked his mailer's conduft,
remained firmly attached to his perfon.
The defeftion or backwardnefs of thofe great men
feemed to make no impreflion upon James. He had
chofen a ftrong camp in the neighbourhood of Ford,
on the fide of a mountain called Floddon-hill j and he
was feparated from the Englifn army by the river Till.
This advantageous fituation put the earl of Surry un-
der great difficulties ; for it rendered the Scotch army
inaccefiible, as it was fortified by artillery, and was
now well fupplied with provifions by the change of its
fituation. The earl drew up a manifefto, with which
he charged Rouge Croix herald, who was attended by
a trumpet. It contained fome propofals for an ex-
change of prifoners, which feems to have been calcu-
lated to give the lady Ford the more credit with James ;
but concluded with reproaches for his perfidious inva-
fion of England, and a defiance to James to fight him
in a general battle. The herald was farther charged
with a verbal commifiion to acquaint James, that the
earl of Surry had iffued orders that no quarter {hould
be given to any of the Scotch army but the king him-
felf.
A council of war was called on this occafion ; in
which the earl of Huntley and others made ftrong re-
monftrances againft a general eagagement. They ihew-
ed how fatal it muft be to Scotland, (hould it prove un-
fuccefsful ; and that the wifeft courfe James could fol-
low was to return home, where, if he was purfued by
the enemy, he could fight to great advantage. The
earl of Huntley, however, added, that his opinion (hould
be determined by that of the king and council ; and
that he was equally ready to fhare in his majefty's dan-
ger as his glory.
Huntley and the other noblemen were oppofed by
the French ambaffador, who reprefented a retreat as dtf-
graceful to the nobility of Scotland and the arms of
James ; and ufed many romantic arguments of the fame
kind, which but too well fuited with the king's difpo-
fition. According to Drummond, the council were of
opinion, that the king Ihould immediately befiege Ber-
wick ; but be that as it will, the majority of them were
certainly of opinion, that it was beneath the dignity of
James to fight the earl of Surry at that nobleman's re-
quifition, and' that James could lofe no honour by re-
turning home. Patrick lord Lindfay of Byres, men-
tioned on a former occafion, and who was prefident of
the council, exprelTed himfelf fo ftrongly on that head,
that James, in a paflion, is fald by the hiftorian Lind-
fay to have fworn, that if ever he lived to return to
Scotland, he would hang that nobleman at his own
gate. He ordered Rouge Croix to be called in ; and
after treating him with great politenefs, he fent a mef-
fage to the earl of Surry by one of his own heralds
(Iflay), importing, that he would give the Englifh
battle on the Friday following ; and that had he re-
ceived fuch a meflage from the earl even in his own
caftle of Edinburgh, he would have left that, and all
other buiinefsy to have fought him. With this melTage,
Scotland,
a fmall manifel1:o, in vindication of James's conduft, wa»
fent by the fame herald.
The earl of Suny, who was then fo infirm that he
was carried about in a fedan or chariot, had forefeeu
that James, would return an anfwer by one of iiis own
heralds ; but, unwilling that he fhould obtain any
knowledge of the fituation of the Englifh camp, he
ordered proper perfons to receive him at two miles di-
ftance, where foon after he attended himfelf in perfon.
Iflay executed his commiffion without . paying much
refpeft to the, perfon of the Englifli general ; who dif-
milTed him, after beftowing great compliments upon
the honour and courage of James. I'he earl then or-
dered his array to march in the, line of battle towards
Wollerhaugh. There he was joined by Rouge Croix,
herald, who gave him an account of the ftrong fitua-
tion of the Scotttifh camp ; but the advanced pofts of
the Englifli army were then within three miles of 'their
enemies, and the earl of Surry found his difficulties
daily increafing. The roads were broken up, the fwell-
ing of the rivers cut him off from the neceflaiy com-
munications for fupplying his army, and nothing but a
battle could fave him either from being diftianded or
deftroyed.
James feems to have fo far regarded the advice of
his wifeft counfellors, as not to abandon his ftrong fi-
tuation. They endeavoured to perfuade him, that it
was a fufficient guard to his honour, if he did not de-
cline the battle on the day appointed ; and that his en-
gagement did not bind him to fight upon difadvanta-
geous ground. The Scots, at the fame time, knew of
their enemy's diftreffcs ; and, as Drummond elegantly
exprefles it, they remonftrated to their king, that he
lacked nothing but patience to be viftorious. The His"' in rir.
Scots thus lying on the defenfive, the earl of Surry con-
again fent Rouge Croix to inform James that he was'^"^*
ready to give him battle. James was fenfibly nettled at
this tacit imputation upon his honour, and perhaps was
inwardly vexed for having followed the wife advice of
his noblemen. It is certain, from the beft authorities,
that he neglefled the'neceflary precautions for guarding *
the paffages of the Till, which the Englifli croffed, part-
ly at a place where it was fordable, and partly at a
bridge. We are told, not without a great appearance
of probability, that while the Englifli were paffing the
bridge, Borthwick, mafter of the Scotch artillery, fell up-
on his knees, and begged permiffion from James to point
his cannon againft the bridge ; but that James anfwer-
ed him in a paffion, that it muft be at the peril of his
(Borthwick's) head, and that he was refolved to fee all
his enemies that day on the plain before him in a body.
The earl of Surry, after paffing the Till, took poflef-
fion of Braxton, which lay to the right of the Scotch
camp ; and by that fituation he cut off the communica-
tion of his enemies with the Tweed, and commanded
the Till below Eton-caftle. The Scotch generals faw
themfelves now in danger of being reduced to the fame
ftraits in which their enemies had been involved two
days before, and their country open to an invafion of
the Englifli army. James had fecret intelligence that
this was far from being the intention of the Englifli
general ; and imagining that the latter's intention was
to take poffeffion of a Arong camp upon a hill between
him and the Tweed, which would give the Englifli a
fartlier command of the country, he refolved to be be-
A 2 fore-
st?
SCO [4
Scotland, fare-hand with the earl, and gave orders for making
large fires of green wood, that the fmoke might cover
his march along the height, to take advantage of that
eminence. But while this flratagem concealed his
march from the Englifh, their movements were con-
cealed from him : for when he carpe to the brow of
the height over which he had marched, he found the
enemy drawn up in order of battle on the plain, but fo
tlofe to the height where he was, thgt his artillery, on
^ ^ which his great dependence was, muft over{hoot them.
Acrount of A battle was now not only unavoidable, but the only
the battle of me»iis of faving the Scotch army, which was probably
fiodden. f^y from being a difagreeable circumftance to James.
His perfon was fo dear to his troops, that many of
them drelfed themfelves as nearly as they could in the
fame coats of armour and with the fame diftinftions
that James wore that day. His generals had earneftly
defired him to retire to a place of fafety, where his per-
fon would be fecure in all events : but he obftinately
refuftd to follow their advice ; and on the ninth of
September, early in the morning, difpofitions were
ordered for the line of battle. The command of the
van was allotted to the earl of Huntley ; the earls ©f
Lenox and Argyle commanded the Highlanders under
James, who, fomc fay, ferved only as a volunteer; and
the earls cf Crawford and Montrofe led the body of re-
ferve. The earl of Surry gave the command of his
van to his fon, the lord-admiral ; his right wing was
commanded by his other fon, Sir Edward Howard ;
and his left by Sir Marmaduke Conllable. The rear
was commanded by the earl himfelf, lord Dacres, and
Sir Edward Stanley. Under thofe leaders ferved the
flower of all the nobility and genti^ then in England.
Other writers give different accounts of the difpofition
of the Englifh army, but they may be reconciled by the
cHfFerent forms into which the battle was thrown before
it was decided. The lord Hunie is mentioned as fer-
ving under the eai-ls of Crawford and Montrofe, and
Hepburn carl of Bothwel was in the rear.
The firft motion of the Englilh army was by the
lord-admiral, who fuddenly wheeled to the right, and
feized a pafs at Milford, where he planted his artillery
fo as to comm.and the moll floping part of the afcent
vihere the Scots were drawn up ; and it did great ex-
ecution. The Scots had t.ot forefeen this manoeuvre ;
and it put them into fuch diforder, that the earl of
Huntley found it necelfary to attack the lord-admiral ;
which he did with fo much fury, that he drove him
from his polt; and the confequence muft have been
fatal to the Engli(h, had not his precipitate retreat
been covered by fome fquadrons of horfe under the lord
Dacrcs, which gave the lord-admiral an opportunity
of rallying and new- forming his men. The earl of
Surry now found it neccffary to advance to the front,
fo that the Engliih army formed one continued line,
which galled the Scots with perpetual difcharges of
their artillery and bows. The Highlanders, as ufual^
impatient to come to a clofe fight, and to fhare in the
honour of the day, which they now thought their own,
rufhed down the declivity with their broad-fwords, but
without order or difcipline, and before the refl ot the
army, particularly the divifi<>n under lord Hume, ad-
vanced to fupport them. Their impetuofity, Ijowever^
made a.confiderable impreflxon upon the main battle of
the Efighfh } and tlie king bringing up the earl of
Scotland;
371
] SCO
Bothwel's referve, the battle became general and doubt-
ful ; but by this time the lord-admiral, having again
formed his men, came to the affiftance of his father,
and charged the divifion under the earls of Crawford
and Montrofe, who were marching up to fupport the
Highlanders, among whom the king and his attendant «
were now fighting on foot : while Stanley, making »
circuit round the hill, attacked the Highlanders in the
rear. Crawford and Montrofe, not being feconded, ac-
cording to the Scotch hiftorians, by the Humes, were
routed; and thus all that part of the Scotch army
which vvas engaged under their king, was completely
furrounded by the divifion of the Englifh under Surry,
Stanley, and the lord-admiral. In this terrible fitua-
tion, James afted with a coolnefs not common to his
temper. He drew up his men in a circular form, and
their valour mote than once opened the ranks of the
Enghfh, or obliged them to ftand aloof, and again have
lecourfe to their bows and ailillery. I'he chief of the
Scotch nobihty made frefii attempts to prevail with-
James to make his efcape while it was praiiicable ; but
he obftinately continued the fight ; and thereby became
acceifory to his own ruin, and that of his troops,
whom the Englifh would gladly have fuffered to re-
treat. He faw the earls of Montrofe, Crawfo rd, The 'Sr ots
Argyle, and Lenox, fall by his fide, with the braveft^^^*^^^^-^
of his men lying dead on the fpot ; and darknefs now ' j^^j
coining on, he himfelf was killed by an unknown hand,
'i'he Englifli were ignorant of the victory they had
gained; and had- actually retreated from the field of
battle, with a defign of renewing it next morning.
This difafter was evidently owing to the romantic
difpofition of the king himfelf, and to the want of dif-
cipline among many of his foldiers ; though fome
writers have afcribed it to the treachery of lord Hume.
Many of James's domeftics knew and mourned over his
body ; and it appeared that he had received two mortal,
wounds, one through the trunk with an arrow, and
the other on the head with a ball. His coat of armour
was prefented to queen Catharine, who infoa-med her
hufband, then, in France, of the victory over the Scots.
The lofs on both fides, in this engagement, is far from
being afcertained ; though Polydore Virgil, who lived
at the time, mentions the lofs of the Englifh at 5000,
and that of the Scots at 10,000.
_ After the death of king James TV. the adminiftra-Thc t .
tion devolved on the queen-dowager ; but fite being bigdow age: .
with a pofthumous child, artd unable to bear the weight
of public bufmefs, accepted of Beaton archbiniop of^^^^^"'
Glafgow and chancellor of Scotland, with the earls of
Huntley, Angus, and Arran, to affift her in the affairs
of government. Soon after her hufband's death flie wrke! - •
had wrote an affeding letter to her brother the king of the king
England, informing him of her pregnancy, fetting forth Englaii'-i
the deplorable ftate of the kingdom, with her own condi-
tion, and imploring his friendfhip and protedtion for her-
felf and her infant fon. This letter fcems never to have
been communicated by Henry to his council ; but he
anfwered it, and informed his filler, that if the Scots
would have peace, they .fhould have peace, and war it
they chofe it. " He added (according to Drum-
mond), that her hufband had fallen by his own indif-
creet rafhnefs, and foolifli kindnefs to France ; that h«;
regretted his death as his ally,, and fhould be willing to
prohibit ilU boftility agaiaft, the country of Scotland
SCO [
Scotland, during the minority of her fon. For a reraet^y of pre-
fent evils, one year's truce and a day longer was yielded
unto ; in which time he had lelfure to profecute his
defi{Tns againft France, without fear of beiniT dillurbed
or diverted by the incurfions and inroads of the Scots
upon his borders."
The'scot- Thus far Drummond : but though Henry might
ti(h affairs grant this time to his fifter's intreaty, yet it certainly
in great did not become a national meafure ; for it appears by
iifulion. g letter dated two years after, from che Scots council
to the king of France, publifhed by Rymer, that the
Scots never had deiired a truce. So far from that,
the Frencli influence, joined to a defire of revenge, re-
mained fo ftrong in the kingdom, that after the meet-
ing of the parliament, fome of the members were fo
violent as to propofe a renewal of the war. This mo-
tion was indeed over-ruled by the more moderate part
of the affembly : but they could not be brought to
make any advances towards Henry for a peace ; and
every day was now big with public cala-nity, whidh
feems to have fathered ftrength while the queen was in
child-bed. The archbifhopric of St Andrew's being va-
cant, it was offered by univerfal confent to Elphinfton
blHiop of Aberdeen ; but being now old and infirm, he
declined it. Tliree competitors for that high dignity
then appeared. The firft was Gawin Douglas, who
was then abbot of Aberbrothwic, to which he was pre-
fented by the queen upon her recovery (having been
brought to bed of a fon) the very day before her mar-
riage with his nephew the earl of Angus : and upon
the death of bifhop Elphinfton in November following,
fhe prefented him likewife to the archbifhopric of St
Ar.drew's. The fecond competitor was John Hepburn,
prior of St Andrew's ; a bold, avaricious, reftlefs, but
ihrewd and fenfible prieft. By his office he had re-
ceivea the rents of the fee during its vacancy ; and
having prevailed with the canons, on pretence of an-
cient privileges, to eleft him archbiihop, without re-
gard to the nomination either of the queen or pope, he
drove Douglas's fervants from the caftle of St Andrew's,
of which they had taken poffeffion. The third and*
moft powerful competitor was Forman h'fhop of Moray
in Scotland, and archbiihop of Bourges in France, a
dignity to which he had been raifed for his pubhc fer-
vices. He had in his intereft not only the duke of Al-
bany (fon to the traitor duke) firft pi-ince of the blood,
but alfo the court of Rome itfelf ; and having received
the pope's bull and nomination to tlie dignity, he was
confidered by the Scotch clergy in general, and by the
principal tenants and dependents upon the fee, as the
legal archbifliop.
The preference given to Forman difcouraged Dou-
glas from purfuing his pretenfions ; but Hepbum, be-
ing-fupported by the clan of his own name and by the
Humes, made fo formidable a head againll his rivals,
that noVie could be found daring enough to pubHfh the
papal bull in favour of Forman. The friends of the
latter, however, having intimated to the earl of Hume,
that his credit at the court of Rome could eafily pro-
cure the rich abbey of Coldingham for his younger-
brother, the earl put himfelf at the head of his fol-
lowers, and, notwithftanding all the oppofition given
by the Hepburns, he proclaimed the pope's bull over
the crofs of Edinburgh, This daring aftion plainly
, proved that the eail of Hume had i\x>re power than
c 1 SCO
the queen-regent herfelf ; but Hepburn's refolutlon, ScetlanJ^
and the greatnefs of his friends, obliged Forman to * •
agree to a compromife. Hepburn was advanced to
the fee of Moray, without accounting for the revenues
of the archbifhopric, which he had received during
its vacancy ; and he gave Forman a prefent of three
thoufand crowns, to be divided among his friends and
followers. ^75
In April 15 14, the pofthumous fon, of whom the PHe queen* -
queen had been delivered in Stirling caftle, was by the dowager
bifhop of Caithnefs baprized Alexander. On the 6th JJ^rri^ed to
of Auguft this year fhe was married to the earl of An- ^j,gy,^
gus ; than which nothing could be accounted more im-
pohtic. She had neither confulted her brother nor
the ftates of Scotland in the match ; and by her ha-
ving accepted of a huiband, fhe in fatt refigned all
claim to the regency under the late king's will. The
Douirlaffes did not difpute her having divefted herfelf
of the regency : but they affirmed, that the ftates
might lawfully reinftate her in it ; and that the peace
of the kingdom required it, as it was the only meafure
that could preferve the happy tranquilHty which then '
fubfifted between Scotland and England. The carl
of Hume put himfelf at the head of the oppofition to
this propofal. He knew that he had enemies, and he
dreaded that the farther aggrandizement of Angus
muft weaken his intereft on the borders. He was join- ■
ed by a number of the young nobility, who, though
otherwife divided, united againft Angus. In fhort,
the general opinion was, that the Douglaffes were al-
ready too great ; and thati fhould the queen be rein-
ftated in the regency, they muft be abfolute within the
kingdom, and engrofs all places of power and profit.
It was added by the earl of Hume, that he had, out
of refpeft to 'the late king's memory, fubmitted to the
queeufs ^bvcrnmcnt ; r.nd that, now fhe had made a
voluntary abdication of it by her marriage, it ought not
to be renewed. ^76
After fome delibj" ations, the duke of Albany was The duliC
chofen regent. He was a man poffsffed of all the qua- of Albanyv"
lities requifite for a good governor ; nor did he deceive "^^"'^^ ^^'^
the expeftations of the puhhc. On his arrival at^^*^'*
Glafgow, he took upon him the titles of earl of March,
Marr, Garioch, lord of Annandale, and of the ifle of
Man, regent and proteAor of the kingdom of Scotland.
On his arrival at Edinburgh he was received in form
by the thi'ee eftates of the kingdom, and the queen
had met him at fome diftance from the town. The
parliament then refumetl its feffion, and the three
eftates took an oath of obedience, till the king, then an
infant of four years old, fnould arrive at the years of
maturity.
I he frrft thing at which the regent aimed, was the
conciHating the difteiences amongft the various con-
tending families in the kingdom ; at the fame time
that he fuppreffed fome daring robbers, one of whom
is faid to have had no fewer than 800 attendants in his
infamous profcffion. So great was his love of good
order and decency, that he punifhed the lord Drum-
mond with the lofs of his eftate for having ftruck Lyon
king at arms, whofe perfon, as the firtl herald in c'cot- •
land, ought to have been held facred. Nay, it was ■
at the eameft folicitation of Lyon himfeU. and many
of the chief nobility, that a grcaier punifliment was -
not inflicted. However, the furfytme was afterwards
remitted 4 .
SCO
[ 6 1
SCO
Scotland, remitted ; but not before Drummond had, upon his
^"""^^ knees, acknowledged his ofFcnce, and fubmitted himfelf
before Lyon.
Hepburn The regent had not been long in office before he
^'j^comes his took into favour Hepburn the prior of St Andrew'*,
vourite" confultcd for information concerning the ftate
of Scotland. Hepburn acquainted him wiih all the
feuds and animofities which raged among the great
» families of Scotland, tlieir ferocious charafter, and bar-
barous behaviour to their enemies. He reprefented the
civil power as too weak to curb thefe potent chieftains;
and gave it as his opinion that the regent's adminiilra-
tioH ought to be fupported by foreign arms, meaning
thofe of France.
Hepburn is faid alfo to have gained an afcendency
over the regent by means of large fums of money laid
out among his domeftics, by a fawning and plaufible
addrefs, and by well-dii-e6led flatteries ; andJie employed
this afcendency to deftroy thofe who were obnoxious to
He at- himfelf. The earl of Hume, as being the firft fubjedl
tempts to in rank and authority, became obnoxious to the regent
^^^"■^y'*^^ through the infinuations of Hepburn; and as that
Hume. f-obleman had frequent occafion to be at court in virtue
of his office of chamberlain, he foon perceived that
neither he nor his friends were welcome guefts there.
Alarmed for his own fafety, he refolved to form a party
alongft with the queen-mother and her new hufband
againft the regent. This was by no means a difficult
tallc : for the queen naturally imagined that her new
hufband ought to have had fome fhare in the govern-
ment ; and the earl of Angus readily concurred in the
, fcheme. In the mean time, the regent was making a
progrefs. through Scotland, while bloody feuds were
raging among the nobles : but before any remedy
could be applied to thefe diforders, he was informed of
" the fchemes laid by the queen-mother and her party ;
and that flie had refolved to fly into England with
her tw0 infants. On this he, inftantly .returned to
Edinburgh ; and, as no time was to be loft, fet out at
midnight that very night, and furprifed the caftle of
Stirhng, where he found the queen-mother and her two
infants.
The regent, after this bold ftep, took care to ffiow
that the care of the royal infants was his chief ftudy.
As he himfelf was nearly allied to the crown, in order
to remove all fufpicions and calumnies on that account,
he committed the care of the king and his brother to
three noblemen of the mofl; unexceptionable charafters
in the kingdom, but of whom we now know the name
only of one, viz. the earl of Lenox. They were ap-
pointed to attend the princes by turns ; to whom alfo
a guard, confifting partly of French and partly of Scots,
was affigncd ; and the queen-mother was left at liberty
to refide where fhe pleafed.
Who 13 . The earl of Hume, finding his fchemes thus abor-
idriven int» tive, retired to his own eftate ; from whence he was
England, foon after drawn, and obliged to fly into England, by
the earls of Arran and Lenox. The queen-mother
retired to a monaftery at Coldftream ; and meflengers
were difpatched to the court of England, to know how
Henry would have his fifter difpofed of. He ordered
the lord Dacres, his warden of the marches, to attend
her to Harbottle-caftlt in Northumberland ; and here
Ihe was dehvered of her daughter the Lady Mary Dou-
Iglas, mother to Henry lord Darnley, father to James I.
of England. The regent difpatched ambafTadori; to Hen- Scotland,
ry, in order to vindicate his own condudl. He likewife — ^-v—- '
fent to aflTure the queen that fhe had nothing to fear in
Scotland; and to invite her to return thither, where
fhe fhould at all times be admitted to fee her children.
This offer, however, fhe declined ; and fet out for Lon-The queen
don, where fhe was afFe6lionately received and enter- Roes to
tained by her brother. But in the meantime many ^"S'^"**'
diforders were committed throughout the kingdom by
the party of the queen-mother ; though, by the inter-
pofition of archbifhop Forman, they were at prefent
terminated without bloodfhed, and fome of the princi-
pal offenders were perfuaded to return to their duty.
Among thefe was the earl of Angus himfelf, the queen's He? huf-
hufband ; which when king Henry heard, he exclaim- band fu fe-
ed, " That the earl, by deierting his wife, had a£ted
mits to th$
/iha Scot." Lord Hume refufed to furrender himfelf, '"^S^"''
or to accept of the regent's terms ; and was of confe-
quence declared a traitor, and his eflate confifcated.
AH this time he had been infeiting the borders at the
head of a lawlcfs banditti ; and now he began to com-
mit fuch devaftations, that the regent found it neceflary
to march againft him at the head of looo difciplined
troops. Hume being obliged to lay down his arms,
was fent prifoner to Edinburgh caflle ; where the re-
gent very unaccountably committed him to the charge
of his brother-in-law the earl of Arran, Hume eafiljr
found means to gain over this near relation to his own
party ; and both of them, in the month of October
15 15, efcaped to the borders, where they foon renewed Rg^^elHoT
hoftilities. Both the earla were now proclaimed traitors, and com-
but Hume was allowed fifteen days to furrender him- mofions s,
felf. This fhort interval the regent employed in quafh-'^'^'^^'^"^
ing the rebellion, for which purpofe the parliament had^'"^**
allowed him 15,000 men. He befieged the caftle of
Hamilton, the earl of Arran's chief feat, which was in
no condition of defence : but he was prevailed upon by
Arran's mother, daughter to James II, and aunt to the
regent himfelf, to forbear further hoftilities, and even
to pardon her fon, provided he fhould return to his
duty. Arran accordingly fubmitted ; but the public
tranquilHty was not by that means reftored. An affo-
ciation, at the head of which was the earl of Moray,
the king's natural brother, had been formed agamft the
earl of Huntley. That nobleman was too well attend-
ed to fear any danger by day; but his enemies found
means to introduce fome armed troops in the night-
time into Edinburgh. On this a fierce fkirmifh enfu-
ed, in which fome were killed on both fides ; but far-
ther bloodftied was prevented by the regent, who con-
fined all the lords in prifon till he had brought about
a general reconcihation. One Hay, who had been
very adive in ftirring up the quarrels, was baniflied to
France ; and only the earl of Hume now continued in
arms.
In 1516 died the yeung duke of Rothefay: an event
which brought the regent one degree nearer the crown,
fo that he was declared heir in cafe of the demife of
young James.^ Negociations were then entered int»
^bout prolonging the truce which at that time fubfifted
with England ; but Henry infifting upon a removal of
the regent from his place, they were for the prefent
dropped. Finding, however, that he could neither
prevail on the parliament as a body to difmifs the re-
gent, nor form a party of any copfequence againft him,
I he
SCO
q
returns to
Scotland.
Scotland, he at lall eonfented to a prolongation of the truce for
The earl ^5'7» ^lie affairs of the regent requiring his pre-
Hunic put fence in France, he refolved, before his departure, to
to death, remove the earl of Hume, who, as we have feen, alone
continued to diflurb the public tranquillity. Under
pretence of fettling fome differences which ftill remain-
ed with England, he called a convention of the nobility;
and fent fpecial letters to the earl of Hume and his
brother to attend, on account of their great knowledge
in Englidi affairs. Both of them imprudently obeyed
the fummons, and were feized and executed as foon as
they arrived at Edinburgh. But whatever occafion
there might be for this fe verity, it loft the affections of
the people to fuch a degree, that the regent could
fcarce get the place filled up which Lord Hume had
poffeffed. That of lord warden of the marches he at
laft gave to his French favourite La Beaute, called by
hiitorians Sir Anthony D'Arcy. The poll of lord
chamberlain was given to Lord Fleming. Soon after
this, the regent levied an army, on pretence of reprefs-
ing fome difturbances on the borders. Thefe being
fpeedily quelled, he feized on his return upon the earl
of Lenox, and forced him to deliver up his caftle of
The regent Dumbarton ; not choofing to leave it, during his in-
goesto tended abfence in France, in the cuftody of a neble-
tiie'qvee^" fufpefted fidelity ; and from fimilar motives, he
afterwards took him along with him on his departure
for the coHtinent. He then procured himfelf to be
nominated ambaffador to France, in which character
he left the kingdom ; having committed the govern-
ment to the archbifhops of St Andrew's and Glafgow,
the earls of Arran, Angus, Huntley, and Argyle,
with the warden D'Arcy, on whom was his chief de-
pendence.
On the departure of the regent, the queen-mother
left the Englifli court ; and arrived with a noble re-
tinue at Berwick, on purpofe to viilt her fon. Here
ftie was received by her hufband ; for whom fiie had
contracted an invincible aveiiion, either on account of
his infidelities to her bed, or becaufe he had deferted
her in the manner already related. However, fhe fup-
prefTed her refentment for the prefent, and accompanied
him to Edinburgh. Here, in confequence of the pro-
pofals made by the regent, (he demanded accefs to her
fon ; but was refufed by D'Arcy. Lord Erflcine, how-
ever, who was one of thofe to whom the care of the
young king was committed, conveyed him to the caflle
of Craigmillar (where D'Arcy had no junfdi(ition), on
pretence that the plague was in Edinburgh ; and there
the queen was admitted ; but this gave fuch offence
to D'Arcy, that Lord Erfkine was obliged to carry
back the king to the caftle of Edinburgh, where all
further accels was denied to his mother. lu fhort, the
behaviour of this favourite was on all occafions fo
haughty and violent, that he rendered himfelf univer-
fally odious ; and was at laft murdered, with all his at-
tendants, in his way to Dunfe, where he propofed to
hold a court of juftice. — His death was very little re-
gretted ; yet his murderers were profecuted with the
utmoft feverity, and feveral perfons of diftindtion de-
clared rebels on that account.
Meanwhile, the regent was treated with high marks
of diftinftion in France. The king fiiowed him the
greateft refped, promifed to aflift in eftabhftiing hia
[ 7 1
SCO
authority in Scotland, and folemnly confirmecf the an- Scotlancf.
cient league between the two kingdoms. Soon after, """^
the earl of Lenox arrived from France, with affurances
of protection and afiiftance from the king, who was
highly pleafed at the zeal of the governors in punifhv
ing D'Arcy's murderers ; and 500 foldiers arrived
with him, to reinforce the garrifons, efpecially that of
Dunbar.
All this time the queen-mother continued at Edin- The queen-
burgh, employing herfelf in attempts to procure a di- atfempts to
vorce from her huft)and, under pretence of his having ^^q!^^^^^'^
been previoufly contracted to another. The affairs of
the kingdom again began to fall into confufion, and
many murders and commotions happened in different
parts of the country. The earl of Arrati had the chief
direction in the ftate ; but the earl of Angus, notwith-
ftanding the difference with his wife, had ftill great in-
tereft, and waited every opportunity to oppofe him.
This emulation produced an encounter at Edinburgh ; skirmifh
in which victory declared for Angus, and 7 2 of the bet ween tha-
routed party were killed. This feirmifti was fought on followers o£
the 30th of April 1519, and has been known in Scots ^^j.^^'^^j^^
hiftory by the name of Clsanfe the Caufeivay. Angus.
On the 1 9th of November 15 21, the regent returned
from France. He found the kingdom in great diibr-
der. The earl of Atigus domineered in the field, but
his antagonifts outvoted his party in the parliament;
The queen mother, who had fixed her affeCtions on a
third hufband, hated all parties almoft equally ; but
joined the duke of Albany, in hopes of his depriving
the other two of their power. This happened accord-
ing to her expectation ; and fhe was with the regent
when he made a kind of triumphal entry into Edin-
burgh, attended by a number of perfons of the firft
rank. — The carl of Angus was now fummoncd to ap-
pear as a criminal ; but his wife interceded for him, not
out of any remains of affeCtion,^ but becaufe he gave
her no oppofition in the procefs of divorce which was
depending between them. — In the mean time. Hen-
ry Vin. of England, perceiving that the Scots were War wit?t
entirely devoted t-o the French intereft', fent a letter ful^EnglanJ».
of accufations againft the regent, and threats againft
the whole nation, if they did not renounce that alliance.
No regard being paid to thefe requifitions, lord Dacres
was ordered to proclaim upon tlie borders, that the
Scots muft ftand to their peril if they did not fall in
with his meafures by the firft of 'March' 1 522. This
producing no cffeCt, Henry feized the effeCls of all the
Scots refiding in England, and baniftied them his do-
minions, after marking them, according to bifhop Lef-
ley, with a crofs, to diftinguifh them from, his other
fubje&s. A war was the unavoidable confequence of
thefe proceedings; and, on the 30th of April, the earl
of Shrewfbui*y» Henry's fteward of the houfehold,-
and knight of the garter, was appointed commander
in chief of the army that was to aCt againft the Scots ;.
and, in the mean time, Lord Dacres made an inroad'
3:8 far as Kelfo, plundering and burning wherever he
came. _ ^gg
The regent ordered his army to rendezvous at Rof- The Scots
lin ; but the Scots, remembering the difafter at Flod-'^^''^'^^"
don, fhowed an extreme averfion to the war, and ^v<^u^^^||^ ^'^g-
told the regent to his face, that though they would de-
fend themfelves in cafe they were attacked, they would
not engage iu a Freuch cuarrel. The regent remon^
ftrated;,.
SCO [
Scotland, ftrated, but without effld ; and as tlic malcontents
—"—r^ continued obftinate, he was in danger of beins:^ left
by himfelf, when the queen-mother interpofed, and pre-
vailed upon Lord Dacres to agree to a conference, the
event of which was a renewal of the negociationa for
peace.
The regent perceiving, by the difgrace of this ex-
8 ]
SCO
389
The regent
J oes to
if'rancc
.aiiUidtKe.
;i<'iancc' for P^'^-'^'O"' ^^^^ ^^^^'-^ ^^^^ former popularity, deter-
mined to revenge himfelf ; and therefore told thofe
whom he could truft, that he v/as about to return to
IVance, from whence he fliould bring fuch a force by
fea and land, as fliould render it unnecefiary for him to
aflc leave of the Scots any more to invade England.
Accordingly he embarked for France on the 25th of
Oftober, but publicly gave out that he would return
tlie enfuing Auguft.
On the regent's arrival in France, he made a de-
mand of 1 0/200 foot and 5000 horfe for carrjn'ng on
the war againft England ; but the fitnation of King
Francis did not then allow him to fpare fo many at
once, though he was daily fending over fhips with men,
-Qo ammunition, and money, for the French garrifons in
trhe En^. Scotland. At lail it was publicly known in Eng-
iifh refolve land that the regent was about to return with a llrong
Jihi"'^"^^' fleet, and 4000 of the bell troops in France j upon
which Henry determined, if pofilble, to inteicept him.
Sir William Fitz-Williams, with 36 large fhips, was or-
dered to block up the French fquadron in the harbour
of Fiuhead ; Sir Anthony Poyntz cruized with ano-
ther in the weftern feas, as Sir Chriftopher Dow and
Sir Henry Shireburn did in the northern with a third
iquadron. The duke of Albany, being unable to cope
with Fitz-Williams, was obliged to fet out from ano-
ther port with 1 2 Ihips, having fome troops on board.
They fell in with Fitz-Williams's fquadron ; two of
their (hips were funk, and the reft driven back to
Dieppe. Fitz-Williams then made a df'fcent at Tre-
.port, where he burnt 18 French fhips, and returned to
his ftation off Finh^ad. By this time the French had
given the duke fuch a reinforcement as made him an
overmatch for the Englifh admiral, had the men been
equally good ; but the regent had no dependence upon
French failors when put in competition with the Eng-
.He'outwits ''^h. Inllead of coming to an engagement, therefore,
-them, and as foon as Fitz-Williams appeared, he difembarked his
lands in foldiers, as if he had intended to delay his expedition
Lo, an . yg^^ ^ 1^^^ ^ ftorm foon arifnig, which obliged
the Englifh fleet to return to the Downs, the regent
took that opportunity of.reimbarking his men, and; fail-
S9» ■'"ij by the wefl.ern coafts, arrived fafe in Scotland.
-Cruel deva- All this time the earl of Surry had been carrying
lUuoiis of on the moft cruel and deftruftive war againft Scotland;
infomuch that, according to Cardinal Wylfey, " there
was left neither lioufe, fortrefs, village, tree, cattle, corn,
nor other fuccour for man," in the countries of Tweed-
dale artd March. The regent's return did not im.me-
diately put a ftop to thefe devaftations ; for the inte-
ftine divifions in Scotland prevented him from taking
the field. His party was weakene-d by his long ab-
fence, and the queen-mother had been very aftive in
ilrengthenlng the En.^lifh intereft. A parliament was
called in 152a, where it was debated. Whether peace
or war with England fliould be refolved on ? and the
•determinatiors of this parliament were evidently on the
»vorft fide of the queftion. Henry was at this time fo
the Eng.
well dI{jpofed to cultivate a' friendfhip with Scotland, Scotland
that he offered to James his eldeft filter Mary in mar-
riage ; but the Scots, animated by the appearance of
their French auxiliaries, and corrupted by their gold, 303
rejefted all terms, and refolved upon war. However, *^e"'y of-
when the army was affembled, and had advanced to the
borders, he found the fame difficulty he had formerly remedied!
experienced ; for they flatly refufed to enter England.
With great difficulty he prevailed upon part of the ar-
my to pafs the Tweed ; but not meeting with fuccefs,
he was obliged to return to Scotland, which at this
time was divided into four fadlions. One of thefe
was headed by the regent, another by the queen, a
third by the earl of Arran, and a fourth by the earl of
Angus, who had lived as an exile under Henry's pro-
teftion. Had it been poffible for the earl of Angus
and his wife to have been reconciled to each other, it
would have been much for the intereft of the king-
dom ; but all the art even of Cardinal Wolfey could The diik<"
not effeft this. At laft, the duke of Albany, finding of Albuny-
all parties united againft him, refigned his office of re-'^^}^^^
gent of Scotland. On the 14th of March that year.^^^IJ^
lie went onboard one of his own fhips for France, from^
whence he never returned to Scotland. He did not
indeed make a formal abdication of his government ;
fo far from that, he requefted the nobility, whom he
convened for that purpofe, to enter into no alliance with
England during his abfence, which he faid would con-
tinue no longer than the firft oF September following ;
to make no alteration in the government ; and to keep
the king at Stirling.
The nobility, who were impatient for the abfence of
the regent, readily promifed whatever he required, but
Vk'ithout any intention of performing it : nor, indeed,
was it in their power to comply ; for it had been previ-
oufly determined that James himfelf fliould now take
the adminiilration into his own hands. According to
Buchanan, the regent had no fooner retarned to France
than Scotland relapfed into all the miferies of anarchy,
Tl>e queen-dowager had the management of public af-
fairs, but her power was limited. The earl of Arran,
apprehending danger from the Englifh, entered into the
views of the French party. The queen-mother^s diflike
to her hufband continued as great as ever, which pre-
vented an union among thofe who were in the Englifh
intereft ; and Wolfey took that opportunity of reftoring
the earl of Angus to all his importance in Scotland. —
The queen- mother, therefore, had no other way left
to keep herftlf in power, but to bring James himfelf
into aftion. On the 29th of July, therefore, he re-
moved from Stirling to the abbey of Holyroodhoufe ; Jmicstaks
where he took upon hlmielc the exercife of government,"?""
by convoking the nobility, and obliging them to fwe?T*^'.!^J_'^j^^j^T
allegiance to his pcrfon a fecond time. The truce with
England was now prolonged, and the queen's party car-
ried all before them. On t!ie very day in which the laft
truce was figned with England, the earl of Angus en-
tered Scotland. He had been invited from his exile in
France into Enirland, where he was careffedby Henry,
who dlfregarded all liIs fifter's intreaties to fend him T'lie earl 0
back to France, and now rtfolved to fupport him in fungus re-
Scotland. Yet, though his declared intention in fend-^"''"'
ing the earl to Scotland was, that the latter might ba- ^'^'^^
lance the French party there, the king enjoined h.ira to
fue, in llie moft humble manner, for a rccoaciliatlon
2 with
SCO
t
. 397
Negocia-
ioti'- for
iMtland. %srhih hh wi&j 5itm3 to co-operate witli t%e of Ar-
••V""" ran, w'ho now a<9:ed a« prnne minifter, as k>ng as he
ftould oppafe the French party. -On lus return,
however, he foun^d hfmfelf excluded from all fhare in
the government, but foon found means to form a ftrong
party in oppofition to An-au. In the mean time, ara-
baffadors were fent to the court of Jln^land, in order
to treat of a perpetual peace between the two nations.
At the fame time a match was propofed between the
. ^ young king of Scotland and Henry's daughter. This
England' originally been a fcheme of Henry hrmfelf ; but
the empei-or Charles V. had refolved to outbid him, by
offering James a princefs of his own family, with an
immenfe treafure. The ambafiadors arrived at London
on the 1 9th of December, and foun-d Henry very much
-difpofed both to the peace and to the match. Com-
miffioners were appointed to treat of both ; but they
were inftrufted to demand by way of preliminary, that
the Scots fhoifld abfolutely renounce their league with
France, and that James (hould be fent for education to
England till he {hould be of a proper age for marriage.
The Scottifh commiflioners declared, that they had no
mftni^lions on thefe points : but one of them, the earl
1 of Caflils, offered to return to Scotland, and bring a
I definitive anfwer from the three ftates ; and in the mean
time the truce was prolonged to the 1 5th oi May 1525.
The earl of On his arrival at Edinburgh, he found the earl of An-
Angus j-y^e leading man in parliament ; by whofe influeuce
tomes into determined that th-e Scots fhotild renounce their
' league with France, and fubftitute in place of it a fi-
miiar league with England ; and that the king Ihould
be brought up at the Englifh court till he was of an
age proper for marriage : but at the fame time they re-
quired of Henry to break off all engagements with
Charles V. who was the bitter enemy of Francis, and
at that tim.e detained him prifoner. To this the
Englifh monarch returned but a cold anfwer, being
then engaged in a number of treaties with the emperor,
among which one was concerning the marriage of the
princefs Mary with his imperial majefty hinifelf ; .how-
ever, before Caffils returned, a trucp of two years and
a half wag concluded between England and -Scotland.
But now the queen-mother, though ihe had always
been a warm advocate for an alliance between the two
nations, yet difliked the means of bringing it about. —
She faw her hufband's party incrcafing every day in
power ; fo that now fhe had no other refource than in
keeping polTefdon of the king's perfon, whom fhe
removed to the caftle of Edinburgh. Being now un-
der the necefiity of convening a parliament, it was le-
lolved to hold it within the caftle ; which, being an un-
conftitutional meafure, gave a great handle to the earl
of Arran and his party to complain of the innovation.
Who \i^e- They began with remonftrances ; but finding them In-
fieged in effeftual, they formed a blockade of the caftle with
Edinburgh 2000 men, and cut off all communication with the town
cailie. rneafig trenches. As no provifions could thus be
got into the caftle, the queen ordered fome of the can-
non to be turned againft the town, in order to force the
xitizentj to put an end to the blockade . Several fhot were
fired: hut when all things appeared ready for a civil war,
matters were compromifed, though in fuch an imper;e6i:
flnapner as left very little room to hope for perfeft tran-
«[uillity. It was agreed, that the king fhould remove
out of the caftle of Edinburgh to the palace of Hely-
Veu XVII. Part L
fs oppofed
by the
queen-
lother,
9 1 SCO
roodhoufe ; from whence he fhould repalf with all pot Scotlana.^
fible magnificence to hk parliament, in the houfe where ^ '
it was commonly held ; md there a finifliing hand was to
be put to all differences. This agreement was figned oa 401
the 2cth of February 1526.. The parhament accord- Mat riage
ingly met, and the kmg's marriage witli tlie prmcels of ^j^j, ^'^
England was confirmed ; but no mention was made of^nglidi
the'^king's being fent for his education into that coun-priuceft ro
try ; on the contrary, he was committed to the care of Solved on.
eight lords of parliament. Thefe were to have the ^
cullodyof the king's peifon, every one his month fuc-
ceffiveiy, and the whole to ftand for the government of
the ftate ; yet with this limitation, " that the king, by
their counfel, ftiould not ordain or determine any thirig
in great affairs to which the queen, as princefs and
dowager, did not give her confent." This partition of
power, by giving the queen a negative in all public
matters, foon threw every thing into confufion. The
earl of Angus, by leading the king into various fcenes
of pleafure and difilpation, fo gained the afcendency
over him, that he became in a manner totally guided by
him. The queen-mother, perceiving that fhe could
not have accefs to her fon, without at the fame time be-
ing in company, with her hufband, whom flie hated, re- 40*
tired fuddenly with her domeftics to Stirling. Thus theHeJs left
king was left under the fole tuition of the earl of An-j^^^^^^^^
gus, who made a very bad ufe of his power, engroffing jf^g ^jrl of
into his own hands, or thofe of his friends, all theAnguf.
places of honour or profit. The archbifhop of St
Andrew's, having now joined the king's party, advifed
her to make a formal demand upon her hufband, that
the order of government which had been fettled laft par-
hament fhould tal^ place, and that under a penalty he
fhould fet the king at liberty. To this the earl an-
fwered by a kind of 'manifefto drawn up by his brother;
in which he declared, that " the earl of Angus having
been fa highly favoured by his good un-cle the king of
England, and that James himfelf being under great
obligations to him, neither the queen nor the other
lords need be in any pain about him, as he chofe to
fpend his time with the earl of Angus rather than with
any lord in the kingdom." James himfelf, however, Attempts
had difcernment fufficient to perceive, that, notwith- to recover
flanding all the fair pretences of the earl of Angus, he '''^
was in faft no better than his prifoner ; and refolved to
attempt the recovery oi his liberty. The earls of Ar-
gyle and Arran had for fome time retired from court,
where they had no fhare in the adminiftr-ation, and were
living on their own eftates ; but the earl of Lenox dif-
fembled his fentiment? fo well, that he was neither fuf-
jeSed by the earl of Angus, nor any of the Douglas
family, who were his partifans. The king being gain-
ed upon by his infinuating behaviour, opened his mind
to him, and requefled his affiftance againft his treacher-
ous keepers. At the fame time he fent lette;s to his
mother, and the heads of her party, by fome of his
domeftics whom Lenox had pointed out, intreating
them to remove hiin from the earl, and not fuffer him
any longer to remain under his imperious jurlfdiftion j
adding, that if this -could not be done by any other
means, they fliould ufe force of arms.
On receiving this letter, the queen and her party
affembled their forces at Stirling, and without lofs of
time began their march for Edinburgh. Angus, on
the other hand, prepared to give them a warm recep*
£ tion,
404
1* ind.fpo
40:
SCO [ I
Shetland, tiott, but at the fame tiitie to cariry alon?^ with him the
king. This refolution bring made known to the queen-
fnother, (he was fd much concerned for the fafety of
her fon, that the whole party difbanded themfelves ;
and thus the authority of the earl of Angus feemed to
be more eftablifhed than ever. Nothing, indeed, was
now wanting to render him defpotic but the poffeffion
of the great feal, which the archbifhop of St Andrew's
had carried with him to Dunfermline. As no deed of
any confequence coiJd be executed without this, he pre-
vailed upon the king to demand it by a fpecial mtiTagt:;
in conlequence of which, the archbiihop was obliged to
niother"" '^^^^ '^^ About this time the divorce which had
Torces b^r agitation between the queen-mother and
bu£band. the earl of Angiis aftually took place ; which, no
doubt, increafed the diflike of James to his confinement,
while the imprudence of Angus gave every day frtfh
matter of difgult. As Animus knew that he had no
£rm fupport but In the attachment of his fcjllowers to
his perfon, he fiiffercd them to rob and plunder the
eftates of his opponents witliout msrcy. 1 hcfc, again,
did not fail to make reprifals ; fo that, towards the end
of the year 1526, tli';;re was fcarctlv any appearance of
civil government in Scotland. Thus the court became
•» almoft totally deferted ; every nobleman being obliged
to go home to defend his own eftate. Even Angus
himielf fliared in the common calamity, and hence was
frequently obliged to leave the king to the cuftody of
Lenox. To this nobleman, the king now made the
mo(t grievous complaints, and charged him to contrive
The baron fome plan for his efcape. JLenox accordingly recom-
©f Buc- mended to him the baron of Buccleugh, who was very
tempts to" pow^''^'^^ fouthern parts, and a violent enemy to
tefcue the Angus and the t\'hole family of Douglas. To him he
king, but is gave orders to foment the diforders in the fouthern parts
defeated, {^ch a degree as to require the king's perfonal pre-
fence to compole them. Buccleugh was then to attack
the party, and take the king by force from the Dou-
glafies. This fcheme was put in execution, but Buc-
cleugh had the misfortune to be defeated ; fo that the
attempt proved abortive, and James found himfelf in a
worfe fituation than ever. After this atttmpt, how-
ever, as the earl of Angus could not but know that
Lenox had been accelTory to it, the former behaved te-
tvards him with fuch vifible indifference, that Lenox
©penly declared againft him, and advifed the king to
form a friendfliip with the archblfhop of St Andrtsw's,
in Older to effect his liberty. This was accordingly
done ; but the intereft of the archblfhop and Lenox
was overbalanced by that of Arran and the Hamilton
407 family, whom the earl of Angus now drew over to fiis
Another party. However, the earl of Lenox, having received
l!enox'^^ powers from the king for that purpofe, fuddenly retired
from court ; and publifhed a manifeilo, inviting all loyal
fubjefts to affift him in delivering the king from con-
finement. In confequence of this he was foon joined by
a nuTnerous army, with whom he advanced towards
Edinburgh. Angus did not fail to affemble his adhe-
rents ; and fent orders to the inhabitants of Edinburgh
to take the field, with the king at their head. I'he
citizens immediately put themfelves under arms 'f but
James, pretending to be indifpofed. Sir George DoUf
glas, brother to the earl of Angus, made him the fol-
lowing fpeech : " Sir, rather than our enemies fhould
take you from «8> We wili lay hold of your perfoB ;
o ] SCO
and (hould you ht torn in pieces in the ftruggle, we Sco'lMtA
will carry off part of your Ijody." Upon this fpeech, »
which James never forgot, he mounted his horfe and fet
forward to Linlithgow, but with a very flow pace ; in-
fomuch that Sir George Douglas, afraid of not coming
in time to fucCour his brother, made ufe of many inde-
cent exprelTions and aAions to puih James on to the
field of battle. Tnree expreffes arrived from the eartl
of Anc^us ; the firft informino his brother that he was
about to engage with al'uperior army ; the fecond, that
Angus was engaged witu a divifion of Lenox's army,
commanded hy the earl of Glcncairn ; :tnd that Lenox
himfelf was engaged with the Hamiltons. The third
informed him that Lenox, if not adauahy defeated, was
on the point of being fo. Upon receiviu<^ thi^ lafl 40?
news, James haltened to the held of battle, that he ^'"'^'^ 's cJe-
mi.'ht five Lenox, and p it an end to the bloadflied. —
But lie came too late : for the royal party was ali'cady
defeated with gi'cat flaughter ; and Lenox himteU, af-
ter being v/ounded and taken priioner, was murdered
by vSir james Hamilton.
Oh the niglit of the battle, the king was removed
to Linlithgow ; and though he was under the gfeatei
grief for the fate of Lenox, tfve behaviour of the Dou-
glafles ftruck htm with luch terror that he diflembled his
fentlments. The earl of Angus led his viclorlous troops
into Fife, in hopes of furprifrng the queen and the ^^g
^archblfhop of St Andrew's. I'he queen, on the newsTtie queen»f
of his approach, fled, with her new hufband Henry '""j^'^^j^"*'"^
Stuart, brother to lord Evandale, to Edinburgh, 2"d ^'(^'jjVgj 1
both were admitted into the caille. The archbifhop fledfijr. |
to the mountains, wl-ere he was obliged to keep cattle ]
as a fhepherd. Angus, after having plundered the caf- |
tie of St Andrew's and the abbey of Dunfermline, re-
turned in triumph to Edinburgh, where he prepared to
befie^e the caille ; but the queen, hearing that her fon
was among the number of the befiegers, ordered the j
gates of the caftle to be thrown open, and furrendered j
herfelf and her hufband prifoners to James, who was j
advifed to con'ine them to the caftle. After thefe re- !
peated fucccffes, the earl of Angus effablifhed a kind !
of court of juftice, in which he profecuted thofe who 4T0 j
had oppofed him, among whom was the earl of Caffils. Trial an.i^ |
He was offered by Sir James Hamilton, natural fon ^"^^^'^^^'^j^^ £
the earl of Arran, the fame who had murdered Lenox, Caflils. ' ',
an indemnity if he would own himfelf a vaflal of that
houfe ; but this condition was rejected. Being called
to his trial, and accufed of having taken amis againft
the king, a gentleman of his r>ame and family, who
was his advocate, denied the charge, and offered to
produce a letter under James's own hand, defiring him
to aifift in delivering him Irom his gaolei-8. This ftri^'
king evidence confounded the profecutor fo mach, that
the earl was acquitted ; but on his return home he was-
way-laid and murdered by one Hugh Campbell, at the.
inftigation of Sir James Hamilton.^
During thefe tranla£tions in the fouth, many of the
Highland clans were perpetratiag the mofl horrid fcenes
of rapine and murder, which in fome places reigned alfo
in the Lowlands. The ftate of the borders was little
better than that of the Highlands ; but it engaged the
attention of Angus more, as he had great ifltereft in.
thefe parts* Marching, therefore, againil the banditti
which infefted thefe parts, he foon reduced them to rea^
fon. liis powor feemed now to be firmly -eftablifhed,
3 iofomuch.
SCO [ I
Scotland, infomtich that the archbifhop of St Andrew's began to
treat with Sir George Douglas, to whom he offered
[antes lucrative leafes and other emoluments if he would inter-
ifcapei cede with the regent, as Angus was called, in his fa-
rotn his vour. This was readily agreed to ; and the archbifhop
or fine- y^-^^ allowed to return in iafety to hie palace about the
fame time that Angus returned from his expedition
againft the borderers. .Nothing was then feen at court
but feftivities of every kind, in which the queen-mother,
who was HQW relieved from her confinement, took part :
and fhe was afterwards fuffered to depart to the caftle
of Stirlinfff ; which Angus, not attending to its value,
had negletted to fecure. In the mean time the arch-
bifhop invited the Douglafles to fpend feme days with
him at his caftle ; which they accordiniily did, and car-
ried the king alon^ with them. Hei-e James diffembled
fo well, and feemed to be fo enamoured of his new way
of life, that Angus thought there could be no danger
in leaving him in the hands of his friends till he (hould
return to Lothian to fettle fome public as well as pri-
vate affairs. Having taken leave of the king, he left
him in the cuftody of his uncle Archibald, his brother
■Sir George, and one James Douglas of Parkhead, who
was captain of the guards that watched his majeily on
pretence of doing him honour. The earl was no foon-
■cr gone than the archbilhop fent an invitation to Sir
'George Douglas, defiring him to come to St Andrew's,
and there put the laft hand to the leafes, and finifh the
bargains that had been fpoken of between them. This
was fo plaufible, that he immediately fet out for St An-
■drew's ; while his uncle the treafurer went to Dundee,
where he had an amour. James thinking this to be
the beft opportunity that ever prefented to him for an
«fcape, refolved to avail himfelf of it at all events ; and
found means, by a private meffage, to apprife his mo-
ther of his defign. It was then the feafon for hunting
and diverfion, which James often followed in the park
■of Falkland ; and calling for hics forrefter, he told him,
that as the weather was fine, he intended to kill a llag
next morning, ordering him at the fame time to fum-
mon all the gentlemen in the neighbourhood to attend
hiin with their beft dogs. He then called for his chief
ilomeilics, and commanded them to get his fupper ear-
ly, becaufe he intended to be in the field by day-break ;
and he talked with the captain of his guard of nothing
but the excellent fport he expedted next morning. In
the mean time, he had engaged two young men, the
vne a page of his own, the ether John Hart, a helper
sbout his rtablcs, to attend him in his fliglit, and to
provide him witli the drefs of a groom for a difguife.
Having formally taken leave of his attendants, charging
them to be ready early in the morning, and being left
alone, he ftole foftly out of his bed-chamber, went to
the ftabk unpcrceived by the guards, dreffed himfelf in
his difguife ; and he and his companions mounting the
three heft horfes there, galloped to Stirling caftle ; into
which, by the queen's appointment, he was admitted
foon after day-break. He commanded all the gates to
be fecured ; and the queen having previoufly prepared
every thing for a vigorous defence, orders were given
that none fhould be admitted into the caftle without the
king's permlflion.
About an hour after the king cfcaped from Falkland,
Sir George Douglas returned } and being affured that
ias "taai^&.y wa» afleep, he went to bed. It appears
I ] SCO
that James had been feen and known in his fJlght ; For ScotIan#«
in the morning the bailiff of Abernethy came poft-hafte - '
to inform Sir George that the king had paflfed Stirling'
bridge. They had, however, fome glimmering hope
that the king might be gone to Bambrigh : but that
furmife was foon found to be falfe ; and an exprefs w^
difpatched, informing Angus of all that had happened.
T he earl quickly repaired to Falkland, where he and hia
friends came to a refolution of going to Stirling, and
demanding accefs to the king. 4xt
James by this time had iffaed letters to the earls of V^^"
Huntley, Argyle, Athol, Glencairn, Menteith, Rothes, v^cge himi
and Eglinton; the lords Graham, Levingfton, Lindfay. fdf.
Sinclair, Ruthven, Drummond, Evandale, Maxwell, and
Semple. Before all of them could arrive at Stirling,
the earl of Angus and his friends were upon their jour-
ney to the fame place ; but were ftopped by a herald
at arms, commanding them on their allegiance not to
approach within fix miles of the king's refidence. This
order having fufhciently intimated what they were to
expeft, the earl deliberated with his party how to pro-
ceed. Some of them were for marching on and taking
the caftle by furprife : but that was found to be imprac-
ticable, efpecially as they had no artillery. The earl
and his brother therefore refolved to make a fliow of
fubmiffion to the king's order ; and they accordingly
went to Linhthgow. By this time all the nobility al-
ready mentioned, and many others, had afTembled^at
StirUng ; and James, calhng them to council, inveigh-
ed againft the tyranny of the Douglaffcs with an a'cri-
mony that fufficiently difcovered what pain it rauft have
given him when he was obliged to bear it in filence.
He concluded his fpeech with thefe words : " There-
fore I defire, my lords, that I may be fatisfied of the
faid earl, his kin, and friends. For I vow that Scot-
land fliall not hold us both, while 1 be revenged on hi;u
and his."
The refiilt of the council's deliberation was, that pro-
clamation fhould be made, renewing the order for the
Douglaffes not to approach the court, anddiveft.ing the
earl of Angus and his brother of all their pubhc em-
ployments. In the mean time, fuch was the nioder^-
tion of the affembly, that by their advice James ordered
the carl to retire to the north of the Spey till his plea-
fure (hould be known ; but his brother was commund-
ed to furrender himfcU a prifoner in the caftle of Edin-
burgh, to take his trial in a. very lull parhament (all
the members being fummoiied to attend), to he held in
that city next September. The earl and his brother
confulered their compliance with thofe conditions as a
prelude to their deftrudtion ; and refolved to juftify
their treafons by ftill greater exceffes, in furprifing the
town oi Edinbmgh, and hokling it againft the king
and parliament, before the latter could aftemble. Hi-
ftorians have not done that juftice to the proceedings of
the royal party on this occafion which they deierve.
The management of the king's efcape, his leccption
into Stirhng, the fortifying that caftle, and the ready
obedience of his great nobility, fome of whom attended
him with their followers before they received any fum-
monfes for that purpofe, are proofs of wife and fpirited
deliberations. Their conduit at this time was equally
confiftent with the fame plan of furefight.
It was naturally to be fuppofed that the Douglaffes,
who remained aftembled in a numerous* body, woyld
B 3 make
SCO
Scotlancl
413
H:s ene-
aiiies difap.
pointed in
their de-
414
They are
<?ej;railcd
and for-
feited.
415
They ra-
vage the
fouthcrn
faits.
make the attempt already meiitioned b-tit t%e royalifts
liad the precaution to difpatch the Lord Maxwell and
the baron of Lochinvar, with a body of troops, to take
poIfclTion of the town, till James could arrive with 2000
forces to their relief. Maxwell and Lochinvar made
filch difpatch, that they were in poffeffion of the town
■when the DouglafTes appeared before it, and repulfed
:them ; while a moil terrible ftorm 1- •\ fcattered the
troops under James before he could come to their af-
fillance, fo efFeaually, that, being left almoft without
attendants, his perfon might have been taken by the
fmallelt party of the enemy. Upon the retreat of the
Douglafi'es from Edinburgh, the parhament met ; and
none of them appearing In purfuance of their fumnwns,
the earl of Angus, his brother Sir George Douglas, his
uncle Archibald Douglas, and Alexander Drummond
of Carnock, with fome of their chief dependents, were
indifted and forfeited for the following offences: "The
aflembling of the king's lieges, with intention to have
affailed his perfori ; the detaining of the kins^ againft
his will and pleafure, and contrary to the articles agreed
upon, for the fpace of two years and more ; all which
time the king was in fear and danger of his life." We
know of no advocate for the earl and his friends but
one Banantyne, who had the courage to plead their
caufe againit thofe heinous charges ; and fo'exafperated
were both the king and parliament againft them, that
the former fwore he iiever would forgive them, and the
latter that they never would intercede for their pardon.
Thus it was not deemed fufficient fimply to declare
their refolutions ; but the folemnity of oaths was added
with an intention to difcourage the king of England
from continuing the vigorous applications he was every
^ay making, by letters and otherwife, for the pardon of
Angus ; and to (hut out all hopes of that kind, James
created his mother's third hufband (to whom ihe liad
been married for fome time) lord Methven, and gave
him the direftion -of his artillery.
The difgrace and forfeiture of the Douglaffes having
created many vacancies in the ftate, Gavin Dunbar,
• archbifhop of Glafgow, and tutor to the king, was no-
minated lord chancellor, though but indifferently quali-
fied for a poll that ought'"to have been filled by an able
ftatefman ; and Robert Carncrofs, a perfon (fays Bu-
chanan) more eminent for wealth than virtue, was made
treafurer : but this laft was foon after difplaced, being
fufpeded of favouring the Douglaffes ; and Robert
Barton, one of the king's favourites, was appointed to
fucceed him. The Douglaffes ftill kept their arms ;
and being joined by a great number of outlaws and rob-
bers in the fouth, they ravaged all the lands of their
enemies, carrying their devattations to the very gates
of Edinburgh. A commiffion of lieutenancy was offer-
ed to the earl of Bothwell to aft againft thofe rebels :
but he dechning it, it was accepted by the earl of Ar-
gyle and lord Hume, who did great fervice in pjoteft-
ing the country from the outlaws. Several villages,
however, in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, were
burnt ; and all the provifions the Douglaffes could find
were carried off to their caftle of Tantallon, which now
ferved as their head-quarters, and was threatened with
a fiege.
It is remarkable, that the caftle of Dunbar remained
in the hapdsofthe duke of Albany's garrifon, who
jccognifed no mafter but him. The place was well
416'
2 1 SCO
•ftored Avith artillery of all kinds ; and tyisg so tl^ $.e<4ar,<i
neighbourhood of Tantallon, it was eafy to tranfport
them to the fiege : but James thought he had no right
to make ufe of them without the confent of one Mau-
rice, governor of the caftle. Having fummoned, by
proclamation, the inhabitants of Fife, Angus, Strath-
ern, Stirlingfliircj Lothian, Merfe, and Teviotdale, to
be ready to compear at Edinburgh on the i oth of De-
cember, with 40 days victuals, to afilft in the fiege, he
fent three noblemen to borrow artillery from Maurice,
and to remain as pledges for the fafe redelivery of the
fame ; and the feveral pieces required were accordingly
fent him. '['his delicacy is the more remarkable, as wejamerjs
are told that the duke of Albany had given orders that difappoin
every thing in his caftle ftiould be at the king's fervn'ce. "^'^ ^'^
However unanimous the parliament mieht appear a<rainft.^'^'^*^'^'^
. ^ ^ revenue
the Douglaffes, yet James was but ill-fecouded in this
attempt. The unfortunate, if fcverely proceeded againft,
generally find friends'; and the enemies of the Douglaf-
fes had impolitically rendered it treafonable for any per-
fon to flicker or protedl the earl of Angus, his kinfmen.,
or followers. This proceeding, in a country where the
Douglaflfcs had fo many connexions, carried with it an
appearance of cruelty and a thirft of revenge, efpecially
as James had chofen fuch a feafon of the year for carry-
ing on the fiege. In ftiort, after battering the place for
fome days, and lofing one Falconer, his chief engineer,
the king was obliged to abandon his enterprife, or ra-
ther to turn the fiege into a blockade, with no great
credit to his firft effay in the field. Some hiftorians in-
timate, that Angus found means to corrupt the other
engineers ; but we find, that before this time, a nego-
ciation was going forward between James and the king
of England ; the nature of which, proves that the for-
mer was now rendered more placable towards the Dou.
glaffes, and was the true reafon why the fiege was fuf-
pended.
The truce between Scotland and England was now-
near expiring ; and Henry, under that pretence, gave
a commifiion to the prior of Durham, Thomas Magnus,
Sir Anthony Ughtred captain of the town and caftle of
Berwick, William Frankeiyn chancellor of Durham, and
Sir Thomas Tempeft. James feems to have been in
no hafte to enter upon this negociation, becaufe he un-
derftood that the Englifli commiflioners were privately
inftrufted to infift upon the Douglaffes being reftored
to their eftates and dignities. England was at that time ; f,e
the principal ally of p'rancis againft the emperor ; and glaffes o
this gave a handle for Francis to interpofe fo far in fa-'^^'" * fe
vour of the Douglaffes, that he brought James to con-^"'^
fent to a prehminary negociation tor their obtaining at
leaft a fecure retreat in England. I'his was at laft
complied with.
James being now delivered from all dread of the Dou-
glaffes, and under no controul from any party, ftiowed
excellent difpofitions for government. Finding that the jameiTre-
borderers were by no means plea^fed with the late treaty, duce- tha
and that they were renewing their depredations, he re-'™'''^"^'**
folved to ftrike at the root of an evil which had fo long
proved difgraceful and dangerous to his anceftors, by
giving no quaiter to the chiefs of thefe robbers, whofe
principal^ refidence was in Liddefdale. This was the
more neceffajy, as their daring attempts had exafperated
the Englifh 10 much, that they had aftually burnt a
town in Teviotdale j and they had killed pne Robeiit
Keri,.
418
SCO I f$
i(!k!©t1and. %jerrf <sl fm.n «f fonne e^MJ&queuce. Two the chiefs
***'-'v~~ of the Scotch borderers were Cockburn of Kenderkvv,
■ and Adam Scot, comjnonly called ^ing of the thkvss.
E.oth of them were barons ; and iiad b.een fo inured to
the praftice, that tliey thought there was no crime in
robbing : they therefore appeared publicly in Edln-
btirgh ; where James ordered ihem to be apprehended,
tried, and hanged. He next proceeded with great firm-
«efs againft many noblemen and principal gentlemen,
who were only fufpefted ot" being difafiected to the late
peace. AH of them had behaved with great loyalty,
and fome of them had done him the mod importaut fer-
vices. Of this number were the^arl of Hume, the lord
Maxwell, with the barons of 'Buccleugh, Farniherft,
Polwart, Johnfton, and Mark Kerr. Though we know
nothing particularly of what was laid to the charge of
thofe noblemen and gentlemen, yet fo ztalous was Jame*
for the impartial adminillration of juftice, that he or-
dered them all, with xc^ny other chief gentlemen of the
borders, to be fent to prifon ; where they lay till they
entered into recognizances themfelves, and found bail for
their good behaviour.
Of all the party of the DouglafTes, none of any note
excepting Alexander Drummond of Carnock was fuf-
fered to return home, at the earneit requell of the am-
baffadors and the treafurer Barton. This lenity was of
very little ^onfequencej for James having appointed the
earl of Murray to be, fole warden of the Scotch march-
es, with power to treat with the earl of Northumber-
land, their conferences had broken off on account of
frefh violences happening every day ; and fome infor-
mation he had received from them, had prevailed with
James to imprifon the noblemen and gentlemen we have
already mentioned. He now refolved to attempt in
perfon what his predeceflbrs and he had fo often failed
in by their deputies. As he was known to be violent-
ly addifted to liunting, he fumraoned his nobility, even
on the north of the Forth, to attend him with their horfes
and dogs; which they did fuch numbers, that his hunt-
ing retinue confifted of above 8000 perfons, two-thirds
of whom were well armed. This preparation gave no
fufplcion to' the borderers, as great hunting-matches in
thofe days commonly confifted of fome thoufands ; and
James having fet out upon his diverlion, is faid to have
killed 540 deer. Among the other gentlemen who had
4»9 been fummoned to attend him, was John Armftrong of
Hangs GilnockhaU. He was the head of a numerous clan,
^^™g^°"^'who hved with great pomp and fplendour upon the con^
robber, tributions under which they laid the Enghfh on the
vith 26 of borders. He was himfelf always attended by twenty-
liis foliow- fjjj gentlemen on horfeback, well mounted ^nd armed,
as his body-guards. Having received the king's invi-
tation, he was fond of difplaying his magnificence to
his fovereign ; and attiring himfelf and his guard more
pompoufly than ufual, they prefented themfelves be-
fore James, from whom they expefted fome particular
mark of diftinftioa f o* their fervices againil the Eng-
lifli, and for the remarkable proteftion they had always
given to their countrymen the Scots. On their .firil
appearance, James, nut knowing who he was, returned
Armftrong's falute, imagining him to be fome great no-
1 SCO
He^nafi % Iwjt vfm hearing his name, wdere^ fei'm '^^^^'^^^^
and his followers to be immediately apprehended, and
fentenced them to be hanged upon the fpot. It is fai<J
that James, turning to his attendants, aflced them, point-
ing at Armltrong, " What does that knave want that
a king fhoukl have, but a crown and a fword of ho- »
nour V Armftroug begged hard for his life ; and offer-
ed to ferve the king in the held with forty horfemen,
bcfides making him large prefents of jewels and money,
with many other tempting offers. Finding the king in-
exorable, " Fool that I am (faid he ) to look for warni
wrater under ice, by aflcing grace of a gracelefs face ;'*
and then he and his followers fubmitted to their fate.
Thofe and fome other executions of the fame kind xe^
ilored peace to the borders.
420
HiTHERt® we have confidered only the civil tranfac- Account oS
tions of Scotland ; but henceforth religion will claim a^^^J^^^^'"
confiderable fhare of the hiftorian's attention. The ppi-
.nions of Luther had been prapagated in, Britain fooa
after his preaching in 15,17. They had for fome years
infenfibly gained ground ; and, at the time the conten-
tions began between James and his nobility, were be-
come formidable to the eftablifhed religion.. We have
feen how James efcaped from the hands of his nobles
by means of the archblfhop- of St. Andrew's. To the
clergy, therefore, he was naturally favourable ; and as 441
they of neceflity oppofed the reformation, James became Why jHi«e»
a zealous perfecutor of the reformed. On the other '^g^^-
hand, the nobility having already oppofed the king and
clergy in civil affairs, did fo llkewife in thofe of religion.
The clergy finding themfelves unequal in argument, had
recourfe to more violent methods. Rigorous inquifi-
tions were made after heretics, and fires were everywhere
prepared f or them.. 421
The firll perfon who was called upen to fuffer for Martyrdento
the reformed religion was Patrick Hamilton, abbot of "J ^ ^^ul^
. » , • 1 1- IT 1 1 1 1 Haniiuon..
r'erne. At an early period ot life tie had been ap-
pointed to tliis abbacy ; and having imbibed a favour-
able idea of tlie doftrines of Luther, he had travelled
into Germany, where, becoming acquainted with the
moft eminent reformers,, he was fully confirmed in theii
opinions. Upon his return to Scotland, lie ventured to
expofe the corruptions of the church, and to inliil oa
tlie advantages of the tenets which he had embraced.
A conduft fo bold, and the avidity with which his dif-
courfes were received by the people, gave an alarm to the
clergy. Under the pretence of a religious and friendly
conference, he was fed need to St Andrew's by Alexan-
der Campbell, a dominican friar, v;ho was initrudfed to
remonftrate with him on. the fubjeft of the reformation.
The converfations they held only ferved to eftabliflithe
abbot more firmly in his fentiments, and to inflame his
zeal to propagate them. The archblfhop. of St An-
drew's, the archblfhop of Glafgow, and other dignita-
ries of the church, conftituting a court, called him to
appear before them.
The abbot neither Ibfl his courage nor renounced hi*,
opinions. He was convifted accordingly of herctical-
pravlty, delivered over to the fecular arm, and executed
in the year 1527 (n). This reformer had not attained
the
4n) His tenets were of the following import, and are enumerated in the fentence pronounced againft him.
4 "Maij-
SCO [
JBcoflana. tlie 24tli year of his age. His youth, his vbtuc, his
' ' magnanimity, and his fufferings, all operated in his fa-
vour with the people- To Alexander Campbell, who
infulted him at the ftake, he objeded his treachery, and
•cited him t9 anfwer for his behaviour before the judge-
Jnent-fcat of Chrift. And this perCecutor, a few days
after, being ftized w-ith a frenzy, and dying in that
condition, it was believed with the greater fincerity and
confidence, that Mr Hamilton was an innocent man and
413 a true martyr.
Excues pe- A deed fo afFe£^innr, from its novelty and in its cir-
*^^^^^°'^'^'cumftance8) excited throughout the kingdom an univer-
fal curioftty and indignation. Minute and particular in-
quiries were made into the tenets of Mr Hamilton.
Converts to the new opinions were multiplying in every
■quarter, and a partiality to them bej^:;an to prevail even
among the Romifh clergy therafelves. Alexander Se-
ton, the king's confefibr, took the liberty to inveigh
againil the errors and ab\ifes of Popery ; to negleft, in
his difcourfes, all mention of purgatory, and pilgrima-
;ges, and faints ; and to recommend the doftrines of the
reformed. What he taught was impugned ; and his
feoldnefs rifing with contradidlion, he defended warmly
liis opinions, and even ventured to affirm, that in Scot-
land there were no true and faithf ul bifhops, if a judge-
ment of men in this ftation is to be formed from the
■virtues which St Paul has required of them. A farcafm
fo juft, and fo daring, inflamed the whole body of the
prelacy with refentment. They ftudied to compafs his
deftruftion ; and, as Mr Seton had given offence to the
king, whom he had exhorted to a greater purity of life,
they flattered themfelves with the hope of condutling;
him to the ftake ; but, being apprehenfive of danger,
4*4 he made his efcape into England.
«ft"burnt" ^S5i* Hemy Forefl, abenediftine friar, who dif-
' covered a propenfity to the reformed doftrines, was not
fo fortunate. After having been impiifoned for iomt
time in the tov^er of St Andrew's, he was brouglit to
his trial, condemned, and led out to the flames. He
had faid, that Mr Hamilton was a pious man, and a
martyr ; and that the tenets for which he fuffered
might be vindicated, '^l^his guilt was aggravated by the
difcovery that friar Foreft was in pofFclTion of a New
Teftament in the Englifh lann;uage ; for the priefts ef-
teemed a careful attention to the Scriptures to be an in-
fallible fymptom of herefy. A cruelty fo repugnant to
the cammon fenfe and., feelings of mankind, while it
pleafed the infoleiit pride of the eccleiiailics, was de-
stroying their impoilance, and exciting; a general difpo-
-iition in the people to adopt in the fullelt latitude the
principles and fentiments of the reformed.
The following year, James Beaton archbifhop of
St Andrew's, though remarkable for prudence and mo-
deration, was overawed by his nepliew and coadjutor
David Beaton, and by the clergy. In his own pcrfon,
or by commifTion granted by him, perfecutions were
carried on with violence. Many were driven into ba-
14 ]
SCO
nifhment, and many were forced to acknowledge what Scotland,
they did not believe. The naore ftrenuous and refolute /— —
were delivered over to punilhment. Among thefe were \,
two private gentlemen, Norman Gourlay and David Gourlay
Straton. They were tried at Holyroodhoufe before a"'' Str«-
the blfliop of Rofs ; and rcfufing to recant, were con- •
demned. King Jam.es, who was prefent, appeared ex-
ceedingly folic itous that they (hould recant their o-
pinions ; and David Straton, upon being adjudged to
the fire, having begged for his mercy, waa about to re-
ceive it, when the priefts proudly pronounced, that the
grace of the fovereign could not be extended to a cri-
minal whom their law and determination had doomed
to fufFer.
A few years after, the bifiiops. having affembled atWithfeve-
Edinburgh, two Dominican friars, KiUor and Beverage, otherfc
with Sir Duncan Sympfon a prieft, Robert Forrefler a
gentleman of Stirling, and Thomas Forreft. vicar of Do-
lour in Perthfhire, were condenuied to be confumed in
the fame fire.
At Glafgow, a fimilar fcene v/as afted in 1539:
Hieronymus RufTcl a gray-friar, and a young gentleman
of the name of Kennedy, were accufed of herefy before
the bifhop of that fee. RufTel, when brought to the
ftake, difplaying a deliberate demeanour, reafoned grave-
ly with his accufers, and was only anfwcred with re-
proaches. Mr Kennedy, who was not yet 18 years of
age, feemed difpofed to difavow his opinions, and to
fink under the weight of a cruel atHidlion ; but the ex-
hortation and example of RufTel awakening his courage,
bis mind afl'umed a firmnefs and conftaocy, his counte-
nance became cheerful, and he exclaimed with a joyful
voice, " No«v, I defy thee. Death ; I praife my God,
I am ready." 417
James Beaton, the archbifhop of St Andrew's, ha- ^'""'""'^U
ving died about this time, the ambition of David Bea- ^^.^^^^J"
ton, his coadjutor, was gratified in the fullefl manner.
He had before been created a cardinal of the Roman
church, and he was now advanced into the pofTefhon of
the primacy of Scotland. No Scott ifh ecclefiaftic had
been ever invctled with greater authority ; and the re-
formers had every thing to fear from fo formidable an
enemy. The natural violence of his temper had fixed
itfelf in an overbearing infoience, from the fuccefa 439
which had attended him. His youth had been paffed chirac-
in fcenes of policy and intrigue, which, while they com-^'^'^*
municated to him addrefs and the knowledge of men,
corrupted altogether the fimplicity and candour of his
mind. He was dark, defigning, and artificial. ' No
principles of juftiee were any bar to hii> fchemes ; nor
did his heart open to any imprcfiions of pity. His
ruling paffion was an inordinate love of power ; and the
fupport of his confequent:e depending alone upon the
church of Rome, he v/as animated to maintain its fu-
perflitions with the warmefl zeal. He feemed to take
a delight in perrdioufnefs and -diflimulalion : he had no
religion ; and he was ftaiii.ed with an inhuman cruelty,
and
** Man hath no free-will. Man is in fin fo long as he liveth. Children, incontinent after their baptifme, are fin-
ners. All Chriflians, that be worthle to be called Chriftians, do know that they are in grace. No man is jufti-
fie4 by works, but by faith only. Good works make not a good man, but a good man doth make good works.
And faith, hope, and charity, are fo knit, that he that hath the one hath the reft ; and he that wanteth the one
thera wanteth the reft." Keith^ Hifi, of the Church and State of Scot/and, Jpfendistt p. 3.
SCO [I
l«»tlan<J. an4 the moft open profligacy of manners. In connec-
tion with thefe defeas, he poffeffed a perfevering obfti-
oacy in purfuing his meafures, the ability to perceive
and to praaife all the arts which were neceffary to ad-
vance them, and the allurements of ollentation and pro-
digallty.
He was fcarcely Invefted in the primacy, when he ex-
hibited an example of his talte for magnificence, and of
his averfton to the reformed. He proceeded to St An-
drew's with an uncommon pomp and parade. Tiie earls
of Huntley, Avran, Marllchnl, and Montrofe, with the
lords Flem.ing, Liadfoy, Evfkine, and Scton, honoured
him with their attendance ; and there appeared in his
train, Gavin archb;{hv)p of Glafgow and lord high chan-
cdior, four bilhops, fix abbots, a great many piivate
jventlemen, and a vail: multitude of the inferior cicvgy.
Ill the cathedral church of St Andrew's, from a thiune
erefted by his command, he harangued concerning the
ftate of reUgion and the cluirch, to this company, and
to a crowd of other auditors. He lamented the increafe
of heretics ; lie infifted upon their audacity and con-
tempt of order ; he fald, that even in the court of the
foverei<'-n too much attention vvas Ihown to them ; and
he urg^d the llrong neceffity of cvfting againft them
oir jonn with the greateft rigour. He informed this aflembly,
Borthwlck that he had cited Sir John Borthwick to appear before
impeached, maintaining tenets of faith hoiiile to the church,
and for difperfing heretical books ; and he deli red that
he might be affifted in bringing him to jullice. The
articles of accufation (o) were accordingly read againft
him ; but he iieither appeared in his. own perfon,
nor by any agent or deputy. He was found, notwith-
{landing, to be guihy ; and the cardinal, with a folem-
nity calculated to ftrike with awe and terror, pronoun-
ced fentence againft him. His goods and eltate were
conHfcated ; a painted reprefentation of hira was burn-
ed publicly, in teftiniony of the malediflion of the
church,, and as a memorial of his obftinacy and con-
demnation. It was ordained, that in the event of his
being apprehended, he ftiould fuffer as a heretic, with-
out hope of grace or mercy. All Chriftians, whether
men or women, and of whatever degree or condition,
were prohibited from affording him any harbour or £uf~
450
4^9
Sir John
5 ] SCO
tenance. It was declared, that every office of bumant.
ty, comfort, and folacement, extended to hira, (hould be
confulercd as criminal, and be paniftied with coniifca-
tions and forfeitures.
Sir John Borthwick having been apprifed of his He flj«« iiiw
danger, fled into England ; where he was kindly ^-[2^"^'
ceived by Henry VII l. who employed him in negoci- *
atiens with the Proteftant princes of Germany. Car-
dinal Beaton perceived with concern that this aft of
feverity did not terrify the people. New defedlions
from the church were announced to him. Andrew
Cunningham fon to the mafter of Glencairn, Jame$
Hamilton brother to Patrick Hamilton the martyr,
and the, celebrated George Buchanan the hillorian, were
imprifoncd upon fufpicions of herefy ; and, if they had
not found means to efcape, mull have died at the
ftake. In this declining condition of Popery, the car-
dinal held many mournful confultations with the brfhops.
All their intrigues and wifdom were employed to devife
methods to fupport themfelves. The projedl of an in-
quifitprial court was conceived, and exhibited a diftant
view of the extirpation of heretics. To ereft this tri-
bunal, they allured James V. with the hopes of the con*
fifcation and fpoils, which might enrich him, from the
perfecution and punilhment of the reformed. He yield-
ed himfelf to their folicitatione, and gave them the fanc-
tion of his authority.
A formal commifiion was granted, conftituting a court
of inquiry after heretics, and nominating for its prefidenc 431
Sir James Hamilton of Fennard, natural brother to the 3ir James-
earl of Arran. The of&cious afllduity of this man, I'isf ^'Jl'^^te^
ambition, and his thirft of blood, were acceptable in a^^^j^j pg.
high degree to the clergy ; and to ,this bad eminence in<iuifitoiw
their recommejidation had promoted him. Upon the
flighteft fufpieion he was allowed to call any perfon be-
fore him, to fcrutinize into his creed, and to abfolve or
to condemn him. A tribunal {o di-eadful could not
have found a direftor more fuited to it. He was ia
haftc to fill the prifons of the kingdom with culprits,
and was marking down in lifts the names of all thofe t»
whom herefy was imputed by popular report, and whom
the arts of malicious men had reprefented as the objefts-
of corrcdlion and puni&ment. But, while he was brood-
ing:
to) They are preferved hy archbifhop Spotifwood, and difplay great liberality of mind, in a period when phi-
lofophy may be faid to have been unknown in Scotland. They are thus detailed by this judicious writer.
1. " That he held the pope to have no greater authority over Chriftians than any other bifhop or prelate had.
2. That indulgences and pardons granted by the pope were of no force nor effed, but devifcd to abufe
people, and deceive poor ignorant fouls.
5. " That bilhcops, prietts, and other clergymen, may lawfully marry.
4. " That the herefies, commonly called herejies of England, and' their new liturgy, vw:re commendable, and to
Ijc embraped of all Chriftians.
5. That the people of Scotlsmd are blinded by their clergy, andpTofefted not the true faith.
'6. " That churchmen ought not to enjoy temporahies.
7. « That the king ought to convert the rents of the church into other pious ufes.
S. ** That the church of Scotland ought to be governed after the manner of the Englifh.
9. " That the canons and decrees of the church were of no force, as being contrary to the law of God.
Xo. « That the orders of the friars and monks (hould be abolifhed, as had been done in England.
11. " That he did openly call the pope Jimoniac, for that he fold fpiritual things.
1 2. " That he did read heretical books, and the New Teftament in Englifh, and fome other treatife« written:
by Melandhon, Oecolampadius, and Erafmus, which he gave likewife unto others.
13. «♦ The laft and greateft point was, that he refufed to acknowledge the authority of the Roman fee,, or be.-
fi&jea thereunto." Bj^. of the Church, p. 70. ^
SCO
-Scotland.
43*
Proie(3:s
the ruin of
Patrick
Hamilton's
i5x other.
c o
43.1
"By whom
he IS accu-
icd of trea-
434
Cotideml^-
«d and ex-
•ecuted.
435
James re-
gulates the
€ourts of
in^r mer mifclilcf, and multiplying in fancy tlsetriumplis
of hi* wickednefs, an unexpefied turn of affairs prefent-
td himfelf in the light of a criminal, and condudted him
to the fcaffold.
The brother of Mr Hamilton the martyr, to avoid
perfecution, had been obli^jed to go into bamfliment ;
but, by the interceGion of his friends, he was permit-
ted to return for a fliort time to his own country, that
Tie might regulate the affairs of bis family. He was
connefted with Sir James Hamilton ; and, trufting to
the ties of blood, A^entured to prolong his ftay beyond
the period allotted to him. This trelpafs was trivial.
Sir James Hamilton, being willing to give a fignal
example of feverity, and by this means to ingratiate
Jhim.felf the more with the prieflhood, took the rcfo-
lution to make his own relation the firft vidim of his
power. Mr Hamilton, attentive to his perfonal fecu-
rity, and not unacquainted with the moll private ma-
chinatioHo of this inquifitor, difpatched his fon to the
-king, who was about to pafs the Forth in a barge,
and' intreated him to provide foi; his fafety, as Sir
James Hamilton had confpired with the hotife of Dou-
glas to affafiinate him. James V. being at variance
with the houfe of Douglas, had reafons of fufpicion,
and was diipofed to believe evei-y thing that is moft
■flagitious of Sir James Hamilton. He inftrufted the
young gt%itleman to go with expedition to Edinburgh,
and to open the matter to the privy-council ; and that
he might be treated with the greater refpeft, he fur-
niflied him with the ring which he was accullomed to
fend to them upon thofe important occaCons which re-
quired their addrefs and aflivity. Sir James Hamil-
ton was apprehended and imprifoned. An accufation
of having devifed and attempted the king's death at
different times, was preferred agalnft him. His de-
fence appeared to be weak and unfatisfaftory. A jury,
which confifted of men of rank and character, pro-
nounced him guilty ; and, being condemned to fuffer
the death of a traitor, he loll his head, and the quar-
ters of his body were expofed upon the gates of the
<:ity of Edinburgh. The clergy, who could not pre-
vent his trial and execution, regretted his death, but
xJid not think of appointijig a iucceffor to him in their
court of inquifition.
In other refpecls, however, James Ihowed great con-
cern for the welfare of his people. Being diffatislied
with the ordinary adminiftration of juftice, he had re-
courfe to the parliament of Paris for a model of the
like inftitution in Scotland. Great objeftions lay to
juries in civil matters, and to ambulatory courts oi ju-
ftice. The authority of the heritable jurifdiftions was
almoft excluhve of all law ; for though the king might
.prefide in them, yet he feldom did ; and appeals before
the council were difagreeable and expenfive. The in-
ftitution of the lords of articles threw too much weight
into tlveir fcale, as no buhnefs could be tranfafted in
parliament but what they allowed of and prepared ;
and it w as always in the power of the crown to diredl
them as the king pleafed. The true fource of the pub-
lic grievances, in matters of piopeity, lay in the dlfre-
gard fhown to the excellent a6ts which had pafft^ du-
■ring the reigns of the three firft James's, and which
had not been fufficiently iupported in the late reigns.
The evil had gathered ftrength during the minority of
James V, j and he reiblved to eftablilh a landing Jury
for all meters ef law and equity (for, prcjpf'rly fpe3&» ScotUn^l
iflg, the court of feflion in Scotland is no other), with "
a prefidcnt, who was to be the mouth of the alTembly. Qfjgjn of
On the 13th of May, this year, as we find by a curious the court
manufcript in the Britifli mufcum, the lords of the ar- of feflion.
tides laid before the parliament the propofition for in-
ftituting this court, in the following words : " Item,
anent (concerning) the fecond artickel concerning the
order of juftice ; becaufe our fovereign lord is maift de-
firous to have an permanent order of juftice for the uni-
verfal of all his liege ; and therefore tendis to inftitute
an college of cunning and wile men for doing and ad-
miniftration of juftice in all civil aftions ; and there-
fore thinke to be chofen certain perTons maift conve-
nient and qualified yalr (there), to the number of fif-
teen perfons, half fpiritual, half temporal, with an pre-
fident."
In the year 1533, hoftlHties were recommenced with
England ; but after fome flight incurfions on both fides, 437
a truce again took place. The moft remarkable tranf- Negocia=
aftions of thefe years, however, next to the religious
perfecutions already mentioned, were the r'sj^ociations^gj.j.-^^'
for the king's marriage. Indeed, there is Icarce any
monarch mentioned in hiftory who feems to have had a
greater variety of choices, or who was more difficult to
be pleafed. The fituation of affairs on the continent
of Europe, had rendered Scotland a kingdom of great
confequence, as holding the balance between France,
England, and the emperor of Germany ; and each of
the rival powers endeavoured to gain the favour of
James, by giving him a wife. — In 1534, king Francis
offered him his daughter ; and the match was ftrongly
recommended by the duke of Albany, who w^as ftill li-
ving in France, and fetved James with great fidelity. 43S
The fame year the Imperial ambaffador arrived in Scot- <^^ffe''^ of ■
land, and prefented, in the name of his mafter, the <5''-^|^,r o[^q^"
der of the golden fleece to James, who had already been many,
iinvefted with that of -St Micliael by Francis. At the
fame time, he offered him his choice of three princeffes;
Mary of Auftria, the emperor's filler, and widow .of
I^ewie king of Hungary ; Mary of Portugal, the
dauijhter of his fifter Eleonora of Auftria ; or Mary of
England, the daughter of Catharine and Henry. An-
other condition, however, was annexed to this propo-
fal, viz. that, to fupprefs the herefies of the time, a
council ftiould be held for obviating the calamities
which threatened the Chriftian religion. Thofe pro-
posals would have met with a moie ready acceptance
from James, had not his clergy, at this time, been dif-
gufted with Charles, for allowing too great a latitude
to the Proteftants of Germany. James, in his anfwer, which ar«
returned the emperor his acknowledgments in the moftfeie<51:ed by^
polite terms, for the fplendid alliances he bad offered J^"^^^**
him. He touched the propofal of the council as being
a meafure rather to be wiftied for than hoped, becaufe
it ought to be free and holy, and upon the model of
the fiift councils ; its members confifting of the moft
charitable, quiet, and difinterefted part of the clergy.
He faid, ijiat if fuch a council could be obtained, he
would willingly fend ecclefiaftics to it ; but if not, that
every prince ought to reform the errors of doftrine,
and the faults of the clergy, within his own dominions.
He bewailed the obftinate condu£l of his uncle in his
divorce and marriage ; and offered his beft offices f6r
effecting a reconciliation between him and the emperoc,
wilhing
SCO I I
wlMn'f tU^t nil the princes of ChnflenJom would unite
their arms againll their common enemy the Turks.
He hinted, veryjnftly, that his Imperial majefty had
offered more than he could perform, becaufe his con-
fin, Mary of England, was not at his difpofah The
ambafTador replied, that his mailer, if perfuafions failed,
xvould compel Henry by force of arms to refign her.
James anfwered this ridiculous declaration by obferving,
that the emperor then would be guilty of a breach of
fill laws both divine and human ; that it would be im-
politic to give a preference to any of the three prin-
ceffes, all of them being fo illuftrious and defervinr' ;
but, to ihow how much he valued an alliance with his
Imperial majefty, he would become a fuppliant to that
prince far his niece, daughter to Chriftiern king of
Denmark, to become his bride. The ambaifador's an-
fwer to this unexpefted requeft wa?, that fhe was alrea-
dy betrothed to the count palatine, and that before that
time the marriage wa« probably confummated.
But whether the Imperial ambalTador had any right
to offer th-s EngUfh princefs or not, it is agreed by
mod hiftoriaiis, that he was offered eitlier Mary or Eli-
zabeth by their father Heniy himfell'. To Mary of
Bourbon, the daughter of the duke of Vendofmc, he
-6 ia faid to have been contratfted ; but for fome reafon
^ or other all thefe matches were broken off ; and the
king at laft went to France, where he married Mag-
dalen the eldeft daughter of Francis. The nuptials
were celebrated at Paris in the year 1537, with great
magnificence ; and among other things fervcd up by
way of defert at the mariage-feafti were a number of
covered cups fdled with pieces off gold and gold-dull,
the native produft of Scotland, which James diflribu-
ted amonx the guells. This gold w?.s found iu the
mines of Crawford-moor, which were then worked by
the Germans. In the beginning of May, the royal
pair embarked for Leitli, under convoy of four large
{hips of war, and landed on the 28th of the fame
month. The joy of the Scots was inexpreffible, but it
* was of fliort continuance ; for the young queen died of
a fever on the 2 2d of July the fame year.
King James did not long remain a widower ; for the
fame year he fent Beaton abbot of Arbroath, to ti-eat
of his fecond marria>i;e with a French lady, Mary of
Guife, duchef8-dowa'.jer of Longueville. In this he
J was rivalled by his uncle Henry VIII. but not before
James had been contra6led to her. But this was no-
■thlng to Henry 5 for he not only infilled upon having
this lady for hi;; wife, but threw out fome menaces
againft Francis, becaufe he would not comply wiih this
iinjuftifiable requell. In January 1538, Ihe was mar-
ried to Jam.es, and efcorted to Scotland by the admi-
ral of France with a confiderable fquadron ; both James
and Francis being fufplcious that Henry would make
fome attempt to intercept the royal bride. But no-
thiW of this kind happened, and Ihe landed fafely at
Fifenefs ; from whence (he was conduced to the king
«t St Andrew's.
But while James appeared thus to be giving him-
felf up to the pleafures of love, he was in other refpefti
- fliowing hiir.felf a bloody tyrant. Some diffei-eiices
fuhhltt'd between the families oi' Gordon and Forbes in
^ the north. The heir of the houfe lalt -mentioned had
been edtu-ated in a loofe diffipated manner, and kept
Vol. XVII. Fart i.
7 ] SCO
company with H woi'thlefs fellow n^med Strahan, Ha- Scotland,
ving refufed this favourite fomething he had aflted, the "
latter attached himfelf to Gordon earl of Huntley,
who, it is faid, affiiled him in forming a charge of trea-
fon againft Forbes. He was accufed of intending to
reilore the Dounrlaffes to their forfeited e Hates and ho-
nours ; which impi-obable flory being fupported by
fome venal evidences, the unhappy young man was con-
demned and executed as a traitor. The king could not
but fee the injutllce of this execution ; and, in order to
make fome amends for it, baniffied Strahan the kingdom.
The following execution, which happened a few days
aPter, was much more inhuman, infomuch that it would
have ilained the annals even of the moil defpotic tyrants.
The earl of Angus, finding that he could not regain
the favour of the king, had recourfe to the method
ufual in thofe days, viz. the committin ^ of depredations 444
on the borders. Tills crime was fuflicient with James Antl of tha
fo occafion the death of his innocent filler, the ^"^^&<^'"'fjj^j^^Qia*
lady of Glamis. She had been courted by one Lyon,j^^-g_
whom flie had rejefted in favour of a gentleman of the
name of CampbelL Lyon, exafperated at his repulfe,
found means of admittance to James, whom he filled with
the greatefl terrors on account of the praftices of the
family of Angus ; and at lail charged the lady, her liuf-
band, and an old priett, with a defign of poifoning
the king in order to reilore Angus. The parties
were all remarkable for the qaict and innocent lives
they led ; and even this circumllance was by their dia-
bolical accufer turned to their prejudice, by i-eprefent-
ing it as the effect of cunning or caution. In this
reign an accufation of treafon was always followed by
condemnation. However, the evidence againll the lady
appeared fo abfur-d and contradiftory, that fome of thi
judges were tor dropping the profecution, and others
for recommending her cafe to the king : but the majo-
rity pr-evailcd to have it determined by a jury, who
brought her in guilty ; and ihe was condemned to be
burnt alive in the Ca'lle-hlll of Edinburgh. The de-
fence fhe made would have done honoiu" to the ableft
orator, and undeniably proved her Innocence ; but tho'
it was reported to James, it was fo far from miti ja-
tlng her fenterce, that it was aggravated by her huf- 4.4.-
band being obliged to behold her execution. The un-^^*^^'**
happy hulband himfelf endeavoured to make his way
over the caftle wall of Edinburgh ; but the rope pro-
ving too fhort, he was daflied in pieces : and lord Gla-
mis her fon, though but a child, was imprifoned during
the remainder of this reign. The old prieil, though
put to the torture, confeffed nothing, and was freed.
Lyon, like the other accufer already mentioned, was
bani'hed the klngdam". 446
Whether theic and other cruelii.^s had affefted the^'^- ,
king's confcience, or whether his brain had been ^"^j^fj^jj of'*
touched by the dillra6lIons of the diffei-ent parties, is dulradioa.
unknown ; but it is certain, that, in the year 1540, he
began to live retired : his palace appeared like the clol-
llered retreat of monks ; his deep was haunted by the
moll frii^htful dreams, which he conltrued into appai-i-
tions ; and the body ot Sir James Hamilton, whole ex-
ecution has already been mentioned, fecmed continually
prefent to Lis eyes. Perhaps the lofs of his two fond,
who died on the fame day that Sir James was executed,
might have contributed to bring this man more remark*
C ably
447
Hoftiliries
commence
between
Scotland
and Eng-
land.
448
The fove-
rcignty of
Irtland
claimed by
both kings
449
An adl of
indemnity
for crimes
committetl
during the
kipj^'s niir
nority.
450
Prepara-
tions of
Heniy
SCO [I
ably to Kis remembrance. No doubt, it added to the
gloom of his mind ; and he now faw his court abandon-
ed by almoft all his nobility.
At laft James was in fome degree roufed from his
inadlion, by the preparations made againft him by his
uncle Henry VIII. of England. Some differences had
already taken place ; to accommodate which, Henry
had defired a conference with James at York. But
this the latter, by the advice of his parHament, had
declined. The confequence was a rupture between the
two courts, and the Encrhfh had taken 20 of the Scots
trading vefTels. Henry threatened to revive the anti-
quated claim of the Englifli fuperiority over Scotland,
and had given orders for a formidable invafion of the
Scotch borders. He complained that James had u-
furped his ti^e of Defender of the Faith, to which he
had added the word Chriftian, implying that Henry
was an infidel : but the kings of Scotland had, fome
time before, been complimented by the papal fee with
that title. James, on the other hand, threw his eyes
towards Ireland, the north part of which was adlually
peopled with inhabitants who owned no fovereign but
the king of Scotland, and who offered to ferve James
againft the Englifh ; fome of their chiefs having aftual-
ly repaired to Scotland, and done homage to James.
Henry had, about this time, declai-ed himfelf king of
Ireland, of which he was before only ilyled the lord ;
and James roundly afferted, that he had a preferable
claim to at leaft one half of that ifland, which had been
peopled by the fubjefts of Scotland. Though the
Scotch hiflorians of this reign take very little notice of
this incident, yet James appears to have been very te-
nacious of his title ; and that there was a vaft inter-
eourfe carried on between the fubjefts of Scotland and
the northern Irifh, who unanimoufly acknowledged
James for their natural fovereign. Indeed, this was
the only ground of quarrel that the king, with the leafl
fhadow of juftice, could allege againft Henry.
His parliament being met, many public-fpirited afts
were p.ifTed ; and before the affembly was diffolved,
the members renewed the afts againll leafmg-making ;
by which is meant the mifreprefenting of the king to his
nobles, or the nobles to their king : and James, to
difmifs them in good humour, paffed an aft of free
grace for all crlmjes committed in his minority ; the earl
of Angus, and Sir George and Sir Archibald Douglas,
being excepted.
Henr)', after cutting off the head of his wife Ca-
tharine Howard, married and divorced the princefs
Anne of Cleves, and found himfelf either deferted or
diilrufted by all the princes on the continent, Prote-
ftant as well as Roman Catholic. James and his clergy
relied greatly on this public odium incurred by Henry;
but the emperor having again quarrelled with Francis,
left Henry, whofe dominions they had threatened joint-
ly to invade, at liberty to continue his preparations a-
galnft the Scots. He firft ordered his fleet, then the
moi^ formidable of any in the world, to make frefli de-
fcents upon Scotland. At the fame time, he appoint-
ed a very confiderable army to rendezvous upon the
borders, under the command of Sir Robert Bowes, one
of his wardens, the earl of Angus, and his two bro-
thers Sir George and Sir Archibald Douglas, James
was every day expefting fuppHes of money, arms, and
other neceflaries from Francis ; but thefe not arriving,
8 ] SCO
he reafTembled his parliament on the 14th of March, Scotland
which gratified him in all his demands- Many excel- """^
lent regulations were made for the internal government,
peace, and fecurity of the kingdom, and againft the ex-
portation of money inftead of merchandife. Afts were
pafTcd for fortifying and eribellifhing the town of E-
dinburgh, and for better fupplying the fubjefts with
wine and all the other neceffaries of life. The royal
revenue was incrcafed by many additional eftates ; and
the laft hand was put to one of the beft plans for a na-
tional militia that perhaps ever appeared. As yet,
excepting in the difappointment which Henry met with
from his nephew in not meeting him at York, he had •
no grounds for commencing hoftilities. But it is here Dtath ni
proper to obferve, that the queen mother was thent-equeei
dead; and confequently the connection between James"'"'
and Henry was weakened. Whatever her private cha-
racter might have been, fhe was certainly a happy in-
ftrument of preventing bloodflied between the two
kingdoms. She was buried with royal honours at
Perth.
James, to all appearance, was at this time in a moft
defirable fltuation. His domain, by forfeitures and o-
therwife, far exceeded that of any of his predeceffors.
He could command the purfes of his clergy ; he had
large f\ims of ready money in his exchequer ; his forts
were well ftored and fortified ; and he was now daily
receiving remittances of money, arms, and ammunition 454
from France. All this fhow of happinefs was only in James loi
appearance ; for the afFcClions of his nobility, and the [l^g^^g^'^^^j^
wifer part of his fubjefts, were now alienated from him f^jij'jg^*^^^
more than ever, by the exceffive attachment he fhowed
to bigotry and perfecution.
He had nominated the earl of Huntley to command
his army on the borders, confifting of 10,000 men;
and his lieutenant-general was Sir Walter Lindfay of
Torphichen, who had feen a great deal of foreign fer-
vice, and was efteemed an excellent officer. Huntley
acquitted himfelf admirably well in his commiffion ;
and was fo well ferved by his fpies, as to have certain
intelligence that the Englifh intended to furprife and
burn Jedburgh and Kelfo. The Englifh army under
Sir Robert Bowes and the DouglafTes, with other nor-
thern Enghfhmen, continued ftill upon the borders ;
and one of the refolutions the Scotch nobility and gen-
try had come to, was, not to attack them on their owh
ground, nor to aft offenfively, unlefs their enemies in-
vaded Scotland. Huntly being informed that the Eng-
lifh had advanced, on the 24th of Auguft, to a place
called Haldanrigy and that they had deftroyed great
part of the Scotch and debateable lands, refolved to
engage them : and the Englifh were aftonifhed, when
at day -break they faw the Scotch army drawn up in
order of battle. Neither party could now retreat with- The Enj
out fighting ; and Torphichen, who led the van, coH-Ufh defe;
fifting of 2000 of the beft troops of Scotland, charged ^^^^y^'**
the Englifh fo furioufly, that Huntley gained a com- Hunt's/^
plete and an eafy viAory. Above 200 of the Eng. "
lifh were killed, and 600 taken prifoners ; among whom
were their general Sir Robert Bowes, Sir William
Mowbray, and about 60 of the moft diftinguifhed nor-
thern barons ; the earl of Angus efcaping by the fwift-
nefs of his horfe. The lofs of the Scots was inconfider-
able.
In the meanwhile, the duke. of Norfolk having rai-
a fed
454
SCO r
•thai, fed a great army, had orders to march northwards, and
to difperfe a manifeflo, complaining of James for ha-
ving difappointed him of the interview at York, and
reviving the ridiculous claim of his own and his ancef-
tors fuperiority over the kingdom of Scotland. It
was plain, from the words of this raanifcfto, that Hen-
ry was (till placable towards James ; and that he would
eafily have dropt that claim, if his nephew would have
made any perfonal advances towards a reconciliation.
The condition of James was now deplorable. The
few faithful counfellors he had' about him, fuch as Kirk-
aldy of Grange, who was then lord treafurer, plainly
intimated, that he could have no dependence upon his
'^jon nobles, as he was devoted to the clergy ; and James,
James, fometimes, In a fit of diftraftion, would draw his dag-
ger upon the cardinal and other ecclefiaftics when they
came to him with frefh propofitions of murder and pro-
fcriptions, and drive them out of his prefence. But he
had no conftancy of mind ; and he certainly put into
his pocket a bloody fcroU that had been brought him
by his priefts, beginning with the earl of Arran, the
firft fubjedt of the kingdom. In one of his cooler
moments, he appointed the lord Erflcine, and fome o-
thers of his nobility, to make a frefh attempt to gain
time ; and Henry even condtfcended to order the duke
of Norfolk (who was then advanced as far as York),
the lord privy feal, the bifhop of Durham, and others,
to treat with him. The conferences were fhort and un-
fuccefsful. The duke bitterly complained, that the
Scots fought only to amufe him till the feafon for ac-
tion was over. In fliort, he confidered both them and
Learmouth, who was ordered to attend him, as fo ma-
e^duke '^'Y fp'^s, and treated them accordingly. It was the
Norfolk 2 ift of Oftober before he entered the eaft borders of
iters Scot- Scotland. According to the Scotch hiftorians, his ar-
my confifted of 40,000 men ; but the Englifli have fix-
ed it at 20>ooo.
James afPedled to complain of this invafion as being
unprovoked ; but he lolt no time in preparing to repel
the danger. The fituation of his nobility, who were
prefled by a foreign invafion on the one hand, and do-
Dieftic tyrants on the other, induced them to held fre-
quent confultations ; and in one of them, they refolved
to renew the fcene that had been a£led at Lavvder
bridge under James III. by hanging all his grandfon's
evil counfellors. The Scots hiftorians fay, that this
refolution was not executed, becaufe the nobility could
meb's fa- jjot agree about the viftims that were, to be facrificed ;
>untest j^l^g^ king, who was encamped with his array
at Fallamoor, having InteUigence of their confultation,
removed hattily to Edinburgh ; from which he fent
orders for his army to advance, and give battle to the
duke of Norfolk, who appears as yet not to have en-
tered the Scotch borders. The anfwcr of the nobility
was, that they were determined not to attack the duke
upon Engiilh ground ; but that if he invaded Scotland,
they knew their duty. The earl of Huntley, who
commanded the van of the Scottifii army, confilling of
jOjOco men, was of the fame opinion : but no fooner
did Norfolk pafs the Tweed, than he haraffed the
Englifh army, cut off their foraging parties, and di-
ftreffed them in fuch a manner, tbat the duke agreed
once more to a conference for peace ; which was mana-
obiigeJ ged, on the part of the Scots, by the bifhop of Ork-
retreat. j^ey and Sir James Learmouth ; but nothing was con-
nd with
rmidable
my.
456
nnftjiracy
ill
Scotland.
458
4^7
he Eng-
19 ] SCO
eluded. The Englifh general, finding It now impof-
fible on many accounts to profccute his invafion, repaf-
fed the Tweed ; and was haraffed in his march by the
earl of Huntley, who defifted from the purfuit the mo-
ment his enemies gained Englifh ground.
James, whofe army at this time amounted to above The >
3C,ooo men, continued (till at Edinburgh, from which refufe tc
he fent frequent meflages to order his nobility and ge-P"'^'^"^'
nerals to follow the duke of Norfolk Into England 1
but thefc were difregarded. James was flattered, that
now he had It In his power to be revenged for all the
Indignities that had been offered by England to Scot-
land. In this he was encouraged by the French am-
bafTador, and the high opinion he had of his own
troops. About the beginning of November, he came
to a refolution of reaffembling his army, which was dif*-
banded upon the duke of Norfolk's retreat. This pro-
jeft appeared fo feafible and fo promlfing, that feveral
of the nobility are faid to have fallen in v/ith It, parti-
cularly the lord Maxwell, the earls of Arran, Caffils,
and Glencairn, with the lords Fleming, Somervllle, and
Erfliine : others repiefented, but in vain, that the arms
of Scotland had already gained fufficlent honour, by
obliging the powerful army of the Englifh, with their
mofl experienced general at their head, to make a
fhameful retreat before a handful ; that the force of
Scotland was inferior to that of England ; and that an
honourable peace was flill pradllcable. It was faid, in
reply to thofe confideratlons, that the flate of the quar-
rel was now greatly altered ; that Henry had in his
manifeflo declared his Intention to enflave their coun-
try ; that he treated the nobility as his vaffals ; that the
duke of Norfolk had been guilty of burning the dwel-
lings of the defencelefs inhabitants, by laying above 20
villages and towns in afhes ; and that no Scotchman,
who was not corrupted by Henry's gold, would op-
pofe the king's will. The laft, perhaps, was the ^'^^'^^3^^.^^^JJ^(^
argument that prevailed on the lord Maxwell, a noble- ^^^. ^^j^^
man of great honour and courage, to agree to carry theM,vade
war into England by Solway, provided he was at the England,
head of 10,000 men. It w^as at laft agreed that the
earl of Arran and the cardinal fliould openly raife men,
as If they intended to enter the eafl marches, where
they were to make only a feint, while the lord Max-
well was to make the real attempt upon the weft. Pri-
vate letters were everywhere circulated to raife the men
who were to ferve under the lord Maxwell ; among
whom were the earls of CafTiIs and Glencairn, the lords
Fleming, Somervllle, Erfliine, and many other perfons
of great confideration. James, who never was fufpeit-
ed of want of courage, probably would have put liim-
felf at the head of this expedition, had he not been dif-
fuaded from it by his priefts and minions, who remind-
ed him of the confultations at Fallamoor, and the
other trealonable pradtlces of the nobility. They ad-
ded, that mofl of them being corrupted by the Eng-
glifh gold, he could not be too much on his guard. He
was at laft perfuaded to repair to the caitle of Loch-
maben or Carlaverock, and there to wait the IfTue of ^gj.'^ Mar-
the inroad. well fuper-
It was probably at this place that James was pre- ie<ied in
vailed on to come to tlie fatal refolution of appointing
one Oliver Sinclair, a fon of the houfe of Roflin, and Qiiyer sm<»
a favourite minion at court, to command the army in clalr.
chief i and his commifiion was made out accordingly.
C 3 Oil
Seotland,
461
7'he Scots
lhamefully
defeated at
Kolway
Mofs.
4^2
James V.
flies of
grief.
SCO [20
On the 2 5(3 of November, the Scots began thdr mp.rch
at midnight ; and having pafled the Eflc, all the ad-
jacent villages were feen in flames by the break of day.
Sir Thomas Wharton, the JEnglilh warden of thole
marches, the baitavd Dacres, and Mufgrave, haftily rai-
fed a few troopc, the whole not exceeding 500 men,
and drew them up upon an advantageoHs ground ; when
Sinclair, ordering the royal banner to be difplayed, and
bein» mounted on the fhouldcrs of two tall men, pro-
duced and read his commifijon. It is impofTible to i-
magine the contternation into which the Scots were
thrown upon this occafion ; and their leaders fetting
the example, the whole army declared (according to
the Scotch authors), that they would rather furrendcr
themfelves prifoners to the EngliRi, than fubmit to be
commanded by fuch a generah In an inftant, all order
in the Scotch army was broken down ; horfe and foot,
foldiers and fcullions, noblemen and peafants, were in-
termingled. It was cafy for the Englifti general to
perceive this confufion, and perhaps to guefs at its
caufe, A hundred of his light- horfe happened to ad-
vance : they met no refiftance : the nobles were the firft
who iurrendered themfelves prifoners ; and the reft of
the Engliih advancing, they obtained a bloodlefs vic-
tory ; for even the womicn and the boys made prifoners
of Scotch foldiers, and few or none were killed. The
lord -Herbert relates the circumftances of this (hameful
affair with fome immaterial difFerences ; but agrees v/ith
the Scotch authorities upon the whole. He mentions,
however, no mor€ than 800 common foldiers having
been made prifoners. The chief of the prifoners were
the earls of Caffils and Glencairn, the lords Maxwell,
Fleming, Somervjlle, Oliphant, and Gray, with above
200 gentlemen befides.
James was then at Cailaverock, which is about 12
miles diflant from the place of aftion, deprefl'cd in his
fpirits, and anxious about the event of the expedition,
which is to this day called the Raid of Soiiuay mojs.
When the news came to his ears, and that the earl of
Arran and the cardinal were returned to Edinburgh,
he was feized with an additional dejeftiun of mind,
which brought him to his grave. In fuch a fitu-
ation every cruel aftion of his former life wounded
his conlcience ; and he at lall funk into a fullen melan-
choly, which admitted of no confolation. From Car-
laverock he removed to Falkland ; and was fometimes
hear d to exprefs himfelf as if he thought that the whole
body of his nobility were in a confpiracy againft his
per-fon arrd dignity. The prefence of the few attend-
ants who were admitted into his chamber, and who
were the wicked inllrumcnts of his mifconduft, feemed
to aggravate his fufferings, and he either could not or,
would not take any fuftenance. His death being now
inevitable, Beaton approached his bed-fide with a pa-
per, to which he is faid to have dircfted the king's
hand, pretending that it was his laft will. On the 1 8th
of December, while James was in this deplorable Hate,
a meifenger came from Einlithgow, with an account
that the queen was brought to bed of a daughter ; and
the laft words he was diftirrftly heard to fay, were, " It
will end as it began : the crown came by a woman, and
it wiU go with one ; many miferies approach this poor
kingdom ; king Henry will either maftcr it by arms, or
win it by marriage." He then turned his face to the
wall, aiid ia broken ejaculations pronouoced the word
1
SCO
So/nvay m^ftf iind fome fsi'nt cxpreflTions nlludrHg to the ScotlanrJ
difgrace he fuffered. In thi» ftate he languilhed for
fome days; for it is certain he did not furviye the
James V. was fucceetied by his infant daugliter Mary, j, fuccLdl
whole birth we have ahrady mentioned. James had ed by Ma
taken no fteps for the fecurity of his kingdom, lo thatry-
ambitious men had now another opportunity of throw-
ing the public affeirs into confuiion. The fituatiorj
of Scotland indeed at this time was very critical. ^
Many ol the nobility were prifoners in Eir;;,land, andcridcal ft.
thofe who remained at home were faftious and turbu- tuation of
lent. The nation was difpiiited by an unfuccefsful'''*^^"*'
war. Commotions were daily excited on account of
religion, and Henry VIII. had formed a defign of add-
ing Scotland to his othei^ dominions. By a teftamen-
tary deed which cardirral Beaton had forged in the
nam.e of his fovereigri, he was appointed tutor to the
queen and governor of the realm, and three of the
princrpal nobility were named to aft as his counfellors
in the adminiftration. The nobihty and the people,
however-, calling in queftion the autheilticity of this
deed, which he could not eftablifh, the cardinal was
degraded from the dignity he had afiumed ; and the ^
eftates of the kingdom advanced into the regency Earl ..f 4
James Hamilton, earl of An-an, whom they jirdged ran ap-
to be entitled to this diftinftion, as the fecond pcrfon po'"''^'^
of the kingdom, and the neareft heir, after Mar)^, to the ■
crown.
The difgrace of cardinal Beaton might have proved
the deftruftion of his party, if the earl of Arran h'jd
been endowed with vigour of nrind and ability. But
his views were circumicnbed ; and he did not compen-
fate for this defett by any hrmnels of purpoie. He ditr
was too indolent to gain partizans, and too irrefoluteter.
to fix them. Shght diliiculties filled him with em-
barraffment, and great ones overpowei-ed him. His
enemiies, applying themfelves to the timidity of his drf-
pofition, betrayed him into weaknefits ; and the eileem
which his gentlenefs had pr;ocured him in private life,
was loft in the contempt attending his pubhc conduCl,
which was feeble, fluctuating, and inconiiftent.
'i"he attachment which the regent was known to
profefs for the reformed religion, drew to him the love comes po
of the people ; his high birth, and the mildncfs of hispi^iar on
virtues, conciliated their refpeft ; and from the circima-^""""'
ftance, that his name was at the head of the roll of he- Jl^r*!*^!
• 1-111 ' mcijc Lt> I
reticB which the clergy had preiented to the late king, areforma-
fentimeiit of tendernefs was rningltd with his populari- tion.
ty. His condudt corr-efponded, at hrft, with the im^
prefllons entertained in his favour. Thomas Guillame
and John Rough, two celebrated preachers, were in-
vited to live in his houfe ; and he permitted them to-
declaim openly againft the errors of the church of
Rome. They attacked and expofcd. the fupremacy of
the pope, the worfhip of images, and the invocation of
faints. Cardinal Beaton and the pr elates were exceed-
ingly provoked, and indefatigably active to defend the
eitablilhed do&rines.
'i his public fanftion afforded to the reformation was
of little confcquence, however, when compared with a. ^^'^
meafure which was foon after adopted by Robert lord ^^^n^^tec
Maxwell. He propofed, that the liberty of reading the fo read tl
Icriptures ia the vulgar tongue fhould be permitted to fcrij. ture<
tlie people j and that, for the futuie, no heretical suiit'" ^'^^"^
n~ y I mother-
Af>r
be.
SCO
[ at 1
S C 0
Motlsnt^, (liou'.d be in ''erred agalnft '4r,y perfon for havm;^ them
V^' in his pofftfUon, cr for making nic of ihern. The re-
gent and the three eftates acknowlcged, the propriety of
this propofal. Gavin Dunbar archbifhop of Glafgow,
and chancellor of Scotland, protefted, indeed, for him-
felf and for the church, that no a£l on this fubjccl
fhould pafs and be clfeftual, till a provincial council of
all the clergy of the kingdom fhould conhder and de-
termine, whether there was a ntceffity that the people
{hould confiilt and ftudy the fcriptures in the vulgar
tongue. But his prateftation being difregarded, the
bill of the lard Maxwell w as carried into a law, and the
regent made it generally known by a proclamation.
From tliis period copies of the Bible were import-
ed in great numbers from England ; and men, allured
by an appeal fo flattering to their reafon, were proud
to recover from the fupine ignorance in which they
had been kept by an aitful priefthocd. To read be-
came a common accomplifhment : and books were mul-
tiplied in every quarter, which difclofed the pride, the
tyranny, and the abfurdities of the Romifli church and
luperftitions.
^^%\U "^^^ death of James V. proved very favourable to
prnpofes to ambitious defigns of Henity. He now propofed
unite ti e an union of the two kingdoms by the marr iage of his
lungdon^s fon Edward VI. with Mary the young queen of Scot-
'^'"'^ "j?^^'land. To promote this, he releafed the noblemen who
w^J^rd Vl.'had been taken prifoners at Sol way, after having en-
vvjth Mary, gaged thtm on oath, not only to concur in promoting
the alliance, but to endeavour to procure him the charge
and Gufkody of the young queen, with the government
of her kingdom, and the pofTeflion of her caltles. The
carl of Angus and his brother, who had been filteen
years in exile, accompanied them to Scotland, and
brought letters from Henry recommending them to the
refi-itution of their honours and eftates. The regent
was inclined to favour tlic demands of perfons of fuch
eminent ftation ; but though the ftates were inclined
to the marriage, they refufed to permit the removal of
the queen into England, and treated with contempt the
idea of giving the government of Scotland and the care
of the caftles to the king of England. Sir Ralph Sad-
ler, the Englifh ambaflador, exerted all his endeavours
to induce the regent to comply with the requifitions of
his mafter ; but all his intrigues were unfuccefsful ; and
^7° Henry perceiving that he muff depart from fuch extra-
^arttTrom ^^gant conditions, at laft authorifcd the ccmmiflioners
fume of his to conftnt to t\eaties of amity and marriage, on the
propofals. rnoil favourable terms that could be procured. In con-
fcquence of thefe powers given to the commiflioners, it
was a'^reed that a fiim peace and alliance fhould take
place between the two nations, and that they fhould
mutually defend and prottft one another in cafe of an
invafion. The queen was to remain within her own
dominions till Ihc was ten years of age ; and Henry
was not to claim any fliare in the government. Six
Kobles, or their appar ent heirs, were to be furrendtred
to him in fecurity for the conveyance of the young
queen into England, and for her marriage with prince
Edward, as foon as fhc was ten years of age. It was
alfo llipulated, that though the queen fliould have iffue
by Edward, Scotland fliould retain not only its name,
The''^ regent but its law s and liberties.
oj-pofcd by Thefe conditions, however advantageous to Scot-
cardinal lan-d, yet did not give entire fatisfadioii Cardinal
Sexton,
Beaton, who had been imprlfuued on pretence of ing. Hctlan^
fonable fchemes, and was now releafed from his confine. -'■^—■ •^
meat by the influence of the queen-dowager, took all
opportunities of exclaiming againft the alliance, as
tending to deflroy the independency of the kingdom.
He pointed out to the churchmen the dangers which
arofe from the prevalence of herefy, and urged them to
unanimity and zeal. Awakein"ng all their fears and
feltifonefs, they granted him a large fum of money with
which he m.ight gain partizans ; the friars were initruft-
ed to preach againfl the treaties with England ; and
fanatical mtn were inflrntled to difplay their rage ia
offering indignities to Sir Ralph Sadler. 4 7*
Cardinal Beaton was not th'e only antagonlfl the re- And by fc-
gent had to deal with. The Earls of Atgylc, Hunt-
ley, Kothwel, and Murray, concurred in the oppofi-
tion ; and having colleftcd feme troops, and pdfTef'ed
themfelves of the queen's perfon, they affnmed all the
authority. They were joined by the earl of Lenox,
who was made to hope that he might efpoufe the queen-
dowager and obtain the regency. He was aiio in-
clined to oppofe the earl of Arran, from an ancient
quarrel which had fubfifted between their two fam.i-
lits ; and from a claim he had to fuperfede him, net
only in the enjoyment of his perfonal cflates, but in the
fuccefSon to the crown. The regent, alarmed at fuch
a powerful combination againil him, inchned to attend
to fome advances which were made him by the queen-
dowager and cardinal. To refufe to confirm the treaties, But coi>
after he had brought them to a conclufion, was, how- [''''"^^'^^'l^^^p
ever, a flep fo repugnant to probity, that he could not ^'^^^j^^
be prevailed upon to adopt it. He therefore, in a marriatte
folemn manner, ratified them in the abbey-church ofwithKng-
Holyroodhoufe, and commanded the great feal of Scot- l'i'"i-
land to be appended to them. The fame day he vyent
to St Andrew's, and iffued a mandate to the cardinal,
requiring him to return to his allegiance. To this the
prelate refufed to pay any attention, or to move from
his calUe ; upon which the regent denounced him a
rebel, and threatened to compel him to fubinifTion by
military force. But in a few days after, the pufillani- He aban-
mous regent meeting with Beaton, forfook the interefl dons the
of Elenry VIH. and embraced that of the q^'^^n-dow- Sng'^I^^IJI^' '
ager and of France. Being in hafte alfo to reconcile rt„ou'nces
himfelf to the church of Rome, he renounced publicly, d e Pn tif.
at Stirling, the opinions of the reformed, and received tniit reli»
abfclution from the hands of the cardinah 8'°"'
By this mean-fpirited conduft the regent expofed
himfelf to univerfal contempt, while cardinal Beaton
ulurped the whole authority. The earl of Lenox,
finding that he had no hopes of fuccefs in his fuit to
the queen dowager, engaged in negociations with Henry,
to place iumfelf at the head of the ScoUiflx lords who
were in the Enghfh iaterefl, and to afl'ert the cauie of
the reformation. The confequcnce of all this was afjg^,^',
rupture with England. Henry not only delayed to vioiei.t pro*
latify the treaties on his part, but ordered all the Scot- cecJing*.
tifh fhips in the harbours of England to be taken and
confifcated. This violent proceeding inflamed the na-
tional difgufts againfl the Englifh alliance ; and the
party of the cardinal and queen- dowager thus obtained
an increafe of popularity. Henry himfelf, however,
was fo much acculiomed to afts of outrage and vio-
lence, that he feemed to think the ftep he had juft now
taken. a matter of no moment ; and therefore he def-
raanded;^
The queen
crowned.
SCO I 2
^ScotUn^ manded that tke hoftages, In terms of the treaty of
» marriage, ftiould ftlll be deHvered up to him. But the
ca-dinal and rejTent informed his ambafiador, Sir Ralph
Sadler, that from their Own authority they could not
command any of the nobles to be committted to him
as hoftages ; and that the offenfive ftrain of behaviour
aflfumed by the Englifh monarch might have altered
the fentiments of the Scottifh parliament with regard
to a meafure of fuch importance. After much alterca-
The nego- tion, the conferences were broken off; and as the lords
ciations who were releafed from captivity had promifed to re-
broRen oil. turn pnfoners to England, it now remained with them
to fulfil their promife. None of them, however, had
the courage to do fo, excepting the earl of Caffils ;
and Henry, being ftruck with his punftilious fenfe of
honour, difmiffed him loaded with prefents.
Cardinal Beaton being thus in pofTeffion of power,
took meafures to fecure it. The folemnity of the co-
ronation of the young ^ueen was celebrated at Stirling.
A council was chofen to direA and aflill the regent m
the greater affairs of ftate, at the head of which was
the queen-dowager. John Hamilton, the abbot of
Paiflcy, who had acquired an afcendcncy over the re-
gent, was alfo promoted to the privy feal, and made
treafurer of the kingdom ; and cardinal Beaton, upon
tlie requeft of the regent and the three eftates, accept-
€d the office of lord high chancellor.
Enmity be- After the flatteries and the hopes with which the
d7r,TBeT T'^ ^'"^ '^'^ ^^^^'"^1 had rea-
ton and the , " '° ^^^^^ utmofi warmth of his rcfentment. He
earl of Le- '^^^ therefore written to Francis I. giving a detail of
aoi. the critical fittintion of affairs in Scotland, and intreat-
jng him to rec:.il to France the earl of Lenox, who was
new interelied to oppofe the influence and operations
of the queen-dowager. But the indignation with
which the treachery of the cardinal had ^inflamed the
carl of Lenox, precipitated him into immediate adion,
Hoftilities ^"'^ defeated the intention of this artifice. In the ho-
committed ffile fituation of his mind towards Scotland, an oppor-
I'y^ the lat- tunity of commencing hoftilities had prefented itfelf.
Five |hips had arrived in the Clyde from France, load-
ed with warlike liores, and having on board the pa-
triarch of Venice, Peter Contareni, legate from Paul IIL
with La Broffc, and James Mefnaige, ambaffadors from
France ; and 30,000 crowns, which were to be em-
ployed in Itrengthening the French fadion, and to be
diftributed by the queen-dowager and the cardinal. Pre-
vajhng with the commanders of thefe veffels, who con-
ceived him_ to be the faft friend of their monarch, he
fecuted this money for his own ufe, and depofited the
military ftores in his caftle of Dumbarton, under the
care of Geoige Stirling the deputy -governor, who at
this time was entirely in his interefts.
By the fuccefsful application of this wealth, the earl
of Lenox called forth the full exertion of his party in
levying a formidable army, with which he threatened
the deftruaion of the regent and the cardinal, offering
them battle in the fields between I.eith and Edinburgh^
The regent, not^ being in a condition to accept the
480 challenge of his rival, had recourfe to negociation. Car-
Lenox fuf. dinal Beaton and the earl of Huntley propofed terms
fers himfcif of amity, and exerted themfelves with fo much addrefs,
fed by^his"' ^^.^^ 5^^'^ °^ Lenox, lofing the opportunity of cha-
-«n€mies. ^'^"g his enemies, confented to an accommodation,
and indulged anew the hope of obtaining the queen-
2 ]
SCO
dowager in rcan-iage. His army was difmiffed, and 3-.)t'atii.
he threw himfelf at the feet of his miftrefs, by whom v— ■
he was, in appearance, favourably received : but many
of his friends were feduced from him under different pre-
tences ; and at laft, apprehending his total ruin from
fome fecret enterprife, he fled to Glafgow, and fortified 431
himfeJf in that city. The regent, collecfting an army, And i<.
marched againfl him; and having defeated'his friend 'S^*^
the earl of Glencairn in a bloody encounter, was able to
reduce the place of ftrength in which he confided. In
this ebb of his fortune, the earl of Lenox had no hope
but from Enpland.
The revolution produced in the pohtlcal ftate of
Scotland by the arts of cardinal Beaton, while it de-
feated the intrigues of Henry VIII. pointed all its
ftrength againft the progrefs of the reformation. Af-
ter abandoning his old friends, the regent, in connec-
tion with the cardinal, was ambitious to undo all the o
fervices he had i-endered t® them. The three eftates \lil*e
annulled the treaties of amity and marriage, and em- with Francs
powered commiffioners to conclude an aUiance with*^'^"''^'^'^^*
France. The regent difcharged the two preachei-Sprieftants
Gmllame and Rough, whom he had invited to impugn perfecuced.
the doftrines of the churxh. He drove back into Eng-
land many pious perfons, whofe zeal had brought them
to Scotland, to explain and advance the new opinions.
He careffed with particular refpeft the legate whom
the pope had fent to difcourage the marriaae of the
young queen with the prince of Wales, and to promife
his affiitance againft the entei-pr-ifes of Henry VIII.
He procured an aft of parliament to be paffed for the
perfecution of heretics; and, upon the foundation ©f
this authority, the moft rigorous proceedings were
conceited againft the refoimtd; when the arms of
England, roufing the apprehenfions of the nation, gave
the fulleft employment to the regent and his counfellors.
In the rage and anguifli of dilappointed ambition,! '^^^
the earl of Lenox made an offer to aflift the views of^rageTin '°
the king of England; who, ti-eating him as an ally,theEngliQi
engaged, in the event of fuccefs, to give him in mar-i"^^""*^'
riage his niece the lady Margaret Douglas, and to in-
veft him in the i-egency of Scotland. To eftablifh the
reformation in Sc tland, to acquire the fuperiority over
it to Henry VIII. and to effeauate the marriage of the
prince of Wales with the queen of Scots, were the
great objefts of their confederacy.
Henry, though engaged in a war with France, which EDglifii
required all his military toice, could not refift the earlieft ^""^
opportunity in his power to execute his vengeance 1'"/'^°^"
againft Scotland. Edward Symour eail of Hartford "
was appointed to command 10,000 men ; who were cm-
barktd at Tinmouth, aboard a fleet of 200 ftiips, under
the direftion of Sir John Dudley lord Lifle. This
army was landed without oppofition near Leith ; and
the earl of Hartford made it known to Sir Adam Ot-
terburn, the provoft of Edinburgh, that his commiffion
empowered him to lay the country wafte and defolate,
unlefs the regent fliould deliver up the young queen to
the king of England. It was anfwered, that every ex-
tremity of diftrefs would be endured, before the Scot-
tifti nation would fubmit to fo ignominious a demand. ^/^^^
Sjx thoufand horfe from Berwick, under the lord ,T;ircn?eT
Evers, now joined the earl of Hartioid. Leith and devafta-
Edrnburgh, after a feeble i-efiftance, yielded to the *"<i
Enghfii commander ; who abandoned them to pillage, den^r^ '
and tire.
SCO
r
485
!U fuccefs
of the earl
of Lenox.
Stcriand. and then fet fire to them. A cruel devaftation enfued
m the furrounding villages and country, and an immenfe
booty was conveyed on board the Englifh fleet. But,
while an extreme terror was everywhere excited, the earl
of Hartford rc-imbarked a part of his troops, and order-
ed the remainder to march with expedition to the fron-
tiers of England.
The regent, affifted by cardinal Beaton and the earls
of Huntley, Argyle, Bothwell, and Murray, was aftive,
in the mean time, to colleft an army,, and to provide
for the fecurity of the kingdom. He felt, therefore,
the greateft furprife on being relieved fo unexpeftedly
from the moft imminent dan^:rer ; and an expedition,
condufted with fo little difcernment, did not advance
the meafures of Henry VHI. To accomplifli the
marriage of the young queen with the prince of Wales,
to poflefs himfelf of her perfon, or to atchieve a con-
queft over Scotland, were all circumftances apparently
within the reach of the EngllHi commander : and yet,
in the moment of victory, he neglefted to profecute bis
advantages ; and having inflamed the animofities of the
Scottilh nation, by a difplay of the paflions and cruelty
of his mafter, left them to recover from their difaller,
and to improve in their refources.
The earl of Lenox, taking the opportunity of the
Engllfli fleet, went to confult with Henry VIII. upon
the defperate fl:ate of his affairs. He renewed his en-
gagements with this monarch ; and received in mar-
riage the lady Margaret Douglas, with polfeflions in
England Soon after, he arrived in the frith of Clyde,
with 1 8 (hips and 6co foldiers, that he might fecure
the caftle orDumbarton, and employ himfelf in plun-
dering and devailation. But George Stirling, to
whom the caftle was intrufl:ed, refufed to furrender
it ; and even obliged him to reimbark his troops. After
engaging in a few petty incurfions and flcirmlfhes, he
returned to England.
In 1 544, Henry confented to a truce ; and Scot-
land, after having fufPered the miferies of war, was fub-
jefted to the horrors of pcrfecution. The regent had
procured an a<St of parHament for the perfecutlon of
the reformed ; and the cardinal, to draw to himfelt an
additional fplendour and power, had obtained from the
pope the dignity of legate ^ latere. A vifitation of his
OAvn diocefe appeared to him the moft proper method
of commencing the propofed extirpation of herefy ; and
he carried with him in his train the regent, and many
perfons of dIftin<ftIon, to aflift in his judicatories, and to
fhare in his difgrace.
Many cruel I" the town of Perth a great many perfons were
txecutions accufed and condemned. The moft trifling offences
on accuui;t were regarded as atrocious crimes, and made the fub-
jefts of profecution and punifliment. Robert Lamb
was hanged for affirming that the invocation of faints
had no merit to fave. William Anderfon, James Rey-
nold, and James Finlayfon, fuffered the fame death,
for having abufcd an image of St Francis, by putting
boms upon his head. James Hunter, having kept
their company, was .found to be equally guilty, and
puniflied in the fame manner. Helen Stirke, having
refufed, when in labour, to invoke the afliftance of the
Virgin, was drowned in a pool of water. Many of the
burgefies of Perth, being fufpefted of herefy, were fent
into banifliment ; and the lord Ruthwn, the provoft,
was upon the fame account difmiffed from his office.
4?7
A truce
concluded
with Eng-
land.
of reli-
3 1 , S ^, O .
The cardinal was ftrenuous In perfecuting herefy Jrj ■Scotland,
other parts of his diocefe. But the difcontents and — v"""*
clamour attending the executions of men of inferior fta-
tion were now loft in the fame of the martyrdom of
George WIfhart; a perfon who, while he was refpec- Account of
table by his birth, was highly eminent from the opi- Mr George
nion entertained of his capacity and endowments. TheWifliart*
l^Iftorians of the Proteftant perfuafion have fpoken of
this reformer in terms of the higheft admiration. They
extol his learning as exteniive, infift on the extreme can-
dour of his difpofition, and afcribe to him the utmoft -
purity of morals. But while the ftiain of their pane-
gyric is expofed to fufpicion from its excefs, they have
ventured to impute to him the fpirit of prophecy ; fo •
that we muft neceffarlly receive their eulogiums with
fome abatement. It may be fufficient to affirm, that
Mr Wifhart was the moft eminent preacher who had
hitherto appeared in Scotland. His mind was certainly
cultivated by refleftlon and ftudy, and he was amply
poflTefled of thofe abilities and qualifications which
awaken and agitate the paflions of the people. His
miniftry had been attended with the moft flattering fucj-
cefs ; and his courage to encounter danger grew with
his reputation. The day before he was apprehended,
he faid to John Knox, who attended him ; " I an-j
weary of the world, fince I perceive that men are weary
of God." He had already reconciled himfelf to that
terrible death which awaited him. He was found in
the houfe of Cockburn of Ormifton, in Eaft Lothian ;
who refufing to deliver him to the fervants of the re-
gent, the earl of Bothwell, the flierlff' of the county,
required that he fhould be intrufted to his care, and
promifed that no injury fliould be done to him. But
the authority of the regent and his counfellors obliged
the earl to furrender his charge. He was conveyed to
the cardinal's caftle at St Andrew's, and his trial was
hurried on with precipitation. The cardinal and the
clergy proceeding in it without the concurrence of the
fecular power, adjudged him to be burnt alive. In the
circumftances of his execution there appears a deliberate
and moft barbarous cruelty. When led out to the
ftake, he was met by priefta, who, mocking his condi-
tion, called upon him to pray to the virgin, that flie
might intercede with her Son for mercy to him, " For-
bear to tempt me, my brethern," was his mild reply
to them. A black c®at of linen was put upon him ■
by one executioner, and bags of powder were faftened
to his body by another. Some pieces of ordnance
were pointed to the place of execution. He fpoke to -
the fpeftators, intreating them to remember that he -
was to die for the true gofpel of Chrift. Fire was ■
communicated to the faggots. From a balcony in a
tower of his caftle, which was hung with tapeftry, the -
cardinal and the prelates, reclinini:^ upon rich cufhions,
beheld the inhuman fcene. This infolent triumph,
more than all his affli£lIons, affefted the magnanimity of
the fufferer. He exclaimed, that the enemy, who fo
proudly folaced himfelf, would perifli in a few days, and ■
be expofed ignominioufly in the place which he now oc-' -
cupied.
Cardinal Beaton took a pleafure la receivlirg the ^
congratulations of the clergy upon a deed, which, it
was thouoht, would fill the enemies of the church with
terror. l^'Ut the Indignation of the people was more
excited than their fears. All ranks of men were dif*
SCO r 24 1
?>co land, guHctl y. ilh asi fxerclfc of pov^'er whicfi t'cfpifdd every
• ~^f^ boundary of mo.'leration and juilLo, 'I'he prediftlon
Cardinal Wifhart, fuiTgeikd by the general odium which
.ijjdaton attended the cardinal, was coafidcred by the difciples
if'airjnated . of this maityr as tht; efl'iiljon of a prophet ; and pe!»
liaps gave occalion to the air^ifiuation that followed,
Their complaints were attended to by Not man Lefly,
the eldeft foii of the carl of Rothes, whom the cardinal
had treated with indignity, thou.^h he had orofited by
hia fcrvicee. He confented to be their leader, The
cardinal wag in his caille at St Andrew's, which he v/aa
fortifying after the ftrongeft faAiion of that age. The
ejionfplratora, at different times, early in the morning,
c?ntered Into it. The gates were fecured ; and appoint-
ing a guard, that no Intimation of their proceedings
might go to the cardinal, thej- difmiflird from the caftle
all his workmen feparately, to the number of joo, and
all his domcftica, who amounted to no few^r than 50
perfons. The eldell fon of the carl of Arran, whorn
he kept as an hoftage for hh father's behaviour, waa
alone detained by thenil. The prelate, alarmed with
their nolfe, looked from his wmdow, and was informed
that his caftle was taken by Norman LeQy. It wag in
\ain that he endeavoured to fecure the door of hh
chamber by bolts and chefts. The confpirators brought
f:re, and were readv to apply it, when, admitting them
into his prefence, he implored their mercy. Two of
them ftruck him haftily with their fwords. But Jame)»
Melvil, rebuking their paflion, told them, that this work
i*nd judgment of God, though fecret, ought to be done
with gravity. He reminded the cardinal, in general
terms, of the enormity of his fins, and reproached him
in a more particular manner with the deach of Mr
Wifliart. He fwore, that no hopes of his riches, no
<lread of his power, and no hatred to hia perfon, were
any motives which adfuated him ; but that he was moved
to accompHfh his deftrudion, by the obftinacy and zeal
uiaaifeited by him againft Chrlft Jefus and hia holy
gofpel. Waiting for no anfwer to his harangue, he
ihruft the cardinal three times throws'^h the body with
his dagger, on the 29th of May i 54.6,
The rumour that the taltle wart taken giving an alarm
to the inhabitants of St Andrew's, they came in crowds
to pratlfy their curiofity, and to offer their afliftance, ac-
cording to the fentimente they entertained. The adhe-
rents and dependents of tike cardiiml were clamorous to
fee him ; and the confpirators, carrying his dead body
to the very place from «hic!j he had beheld the fuffer-
^p, ings of Mr Wifhart, expofcd it to their view.
Treaty cf The truce, in the mean time, which had been con-
V^'^'^^^i''^ eluded with England was frequently interrupted ; but
'"^"".'^ memorable battles were fought. Mutual depreda-
fvAnc^, amitlons kept jiHve the hoitile fpirit of the two kingdoms ;
i-cotiand^ and while the regent was making military prs-partstiona,
which gave the promife of important events, a trcatv of
peace was finifhed between England and France', in
which Franci« I. took care to comprehend the Scottifh
nation. In this treaty it was Ih'pulated by Henry, that
he was not to w3i!;e war againft Scotland, tmlefs he
jhould be provoked by new and jnft caufes of holUItty,
But the murderers of cardinal Beaton, ^pprehenfive
of their fafety, had difpatched mefiengers inu> England,
with applications to Henry fc»r affiftance j and being
loined by more than 120 of their fri'.nds, tiiey took
the rcfo!ution of keeping the caftle, and of defending
c o
themfelvea. Henry, notwithftanding his treaty witli Sct5tI*!«<J,
France, refolved to embrace this opportunity of aug-
menting the difturbances of ScQtlynd. He hallened to
collect troops ; and the regent and hh couufellors prefl'.
ed France for fupplies in men and money, and military
ilores and artillery. 492
The high places which the cardinal occupied vrere .^^"^ce^l-
filled up immediately upon his death. John Hamilton 1^1'^^^.^^^!'
abbot of Paifley was elefted archbiihop of St Andrew's, ers thq*
and George earl of Huntley was promoted to be chan- c^rdiu^i,
cellor. By thefe officers the regent waa urged to pro'
ceed with vigour againft the confpiratora ; and it was a
matter of the greateft anxiety to him to recover his
cldeft fon, whom they detained in cuftody. The clergy
had, in the moft folcma manner, pronounced thcni to
be accurfed ; and agreed to furnilh, for four months, a
ruonthly fubfidy of 3000 1. to defray the expence of re-
ducing them to obedience. The queen dowager and
the French fa(S!;ion were eag'jr, at the fame time, to
concur in avenging the alTaflination of a man to whofe
couniels and fervicea they were fo greatly indebted, —
And that no dangerous ufe might be made of the eldeft
fon of the earl of Arran, who, after his father, was
the heir of the monarchy, an acl of parliament was
pafled, excluding him from hh birthright while he re^
mained In the pofleflion of the enemies of his country^
and fubftjtuting hh brothers in his place, according to
their feniority. The dark politics of Henry fuegeifed
the necefiity of this expedient \ and in its meaning and
tendency there may be remarked the fpirit and great nefa
of a free people-
A powerful army laid Hege to the caftle of St An.CafU?of
drew's, and continued their operations during four^^A'd.^w
months; but no fuccefs attended the affailants. The ^'^•'^i^'"''
fortifications were llrong ; and a communication with
the betlcged was open by fea to the king of England,
who fupplied them vvith arms and provifions. The gar-
rifon received his pay, and the principal confpirator*j
had penfiona from him. In return for his generofity,
they were engaged to promote the marriaire of his f(m
with the young queen j to advance the reformation ; and
to keep in cuftody the eldeft fon of th« regent. Nego-
ciation fucceeded to hoftility } aad as the regent expeia-
ed ajfiftance from France, and the confpirators had the
prolpec^ of fupport from an Englifh army, both parties
were difpolcd to gain time. A treaty was entered into
and ^nin^adted, in which the regent engaged to procur,:
from_ Rome an abfolution to the confpiratore, and to
obtain to them from the three eilates an eKempttoa
from jnofecutions of every kind. Upon tlie part of
the befieged, if was ftipula'ted, that when thefe condi-
tionn were fulrilled, the caftle ihould be furrendtitrd, and
the regent's fon be delivered up to him. In the mean OeaSof
time Henry y III. died; and a f^w weeks after Fran- Hin.yVtj
ch E alft) paid his debt to nature. But the former, be- and tra!,"
lore his death, had recommended the profecution of the*
Scottlfti war; and Henry H. the fucceffor of Francis,
was eager to ihow bis attention to the ancient ally of
hh nation. When the abfolution arrived from Rome,
the confpirators refufed to confider it as valid ; and an
exprcffion ufed by the pope, implying an abfardity, fur-
ni filed an apology for their condutt. They knew chat
the counfcUors of Edward VL were making vigorous
preparations to invade 3cotland ; they were confident
of their prefent ability to defend tliemfdves 5 and the
7 sdvQcatv:*
tlat.d-
n Knox
ins to
nguilh
feif.
96
le of
w'fi ta-
L
97
Kland
[aded by
■ Eng.
SCO [2
advocates fov tKe reformation encouraged them with
hopes and with flattery.
The favourers of the reformation, in the mean time,
adopting the intolerant maxims of the Roman Catho-
lics, were highly pleafed with the affaflination of Bea-
ton ; and many of them congratulated the confpirators
upon what they called their godly deed and enterprife.
John Rough, who had formerly been chaplain to the
regent, entered the caftle and joined them. At this
time alfo John Knox began to diftinguifii himfelf in an
eminent manner, both by his fuccefs in argument and
the unbounded freedom of his difcourfe ; while the
Roman clergy, every where defeated and afhamed, im-
plored the iaffiftance of the regent and his council, who
affured them that the laws agaiuil heretics fhould be
put in execution.
In the mean time the caftle of St Andrew's being in-
veiled by a fle^t of 16 fail under admiral Strozzi from
France, was obliged to capitulate. Honourable condi-
tions w ere granted to the confpirators ; but after being
conveyed to France, they were cruelly ufed, from the
hatred entertained by the Catholics agalnft the Protef-
tants. Many were confined in prifons ; and others,
among whom, fays Dr Stuaut, was John Knox, were
fent to the galleys. The caftle itfelf was rafed to the
ground.
The fame year, 1547, Scotland was invaded by an
Enghfh army under the duke of Somerfet, who had
been chofen protestor of England during the minority
of Edward VI. The defign ef this invafion was to
oblige the Scots to comply with the fcheme of Hen-
ry VIII. and conclude a marriage between Edward and
the young queen of Scotland. The Englifh army con-
fifted of 18,000 men ; befides which the proteftor had
a fleet of 60 fail, one half of which were flilps of war,
and the others confifted of vefTels laden with provifions
and military ftores. _0n the other hand, the regent op-
pofed him with an army of 40,000 men. Before the
commencement of hoftilities, however, the duke of So-
merfet addrefled a letter or manifefto to the government,
in which he prefled the marriage with fuch powerful ar-
guments, and, fo clearly fhowed the benefits which would
refult from it to both nations, that the regent and his
party, who were averfe to peace, thought proper to
fupprefs it, and to circulate a report that the Englifh
had come to force away the queen, and to reduce the
kingdom to a ftate of dependence. All hopes of an
accommodation being thus removed, the Englifh army
advanced in order to give battle to the Scots. They
feund the latter polled in the mod advantageous fitua-
tlon, around the villages of Muffelburgh, Invereflc, and
Monckton ; fo that he could not force them to an ac-
tion, at the fame time that he found himfelf in danger
of having his communication with his fhips cut off, which
would have totally deprived his army of the means of
fubfiftence. In this dangerous fituation he had again
recourfe to negociation, and offered terms ftill more fa-
vourable than before. He now declared himfelf ready
to retire into England, and to make ample compenfa-
tion for the injuries committed by his army, if the Scot-
tlfh government would promlfe that the queen fliould not
be contrafted to a foreign prince, but fcould be kept at
home till fhe was of age to choofe a hufband for herfelf,
with the confcnt of the nobility, Thefe conceffions in-
creafcd the confidence of the regent fo much, that,
VoL.XVIJL. Parti.
5 3
SCO
without taking advantage of the ftrength of his fitua- Scotland,
tion, he refolved to come to a general engagement. — *
The proteftor moved towards Pinkey, a gentleman's Bat^^e of
houfe to the eailward of Muffelburgh ; and the regent Pinkey.
conceiving that he meant to take refuge in his fleet,
changed the ftrong ground in which he was encamp-
ed. He commanded his army to pafs the river Eflc,
and to approach the Englifh forces, which were polled
on the middle of Faiide-hlU. The earl of Angus led
on the van ; the main body of the battle marched un-
der the regent ; and the earl of Huntley commanded
in the rear. It was the regent's intention to feize the
top of the hill. The lord Gray, to defeat this purpofe,
charged the earl of Angus, at the head of the Englifh
cavalry. They were received upon the points of the
Scottifh fpears, which were longer than the lances of
the Englifh horfemen, and put to flight. The earl of
Wai"wick, more fuccefsful with his command of infan-
try, advanced to the attack. The ordnance from the
fleet aflifled his operations ; and a brillc fire from the
Englifh artillery, which was planted on a rifmg ground,
fei-ved flill more to intimidate the Scottifli foldlery. —
The remaining troops under the protedtor were moving
flowly, and in the bell order, to take a fhare in the
engagement. The earl of Angus was not well fup-
ported by the regent and the earl of Huntley. A pa-
nic fpread itfelf through the Scottifh anwy. It fled in
different ways, prefenting a fcene of the greateft havoc
and confufion. Few perifhed in the fight; but the
chafe continuing in one direction to Edinburgh, and in 495
another to Dalkeith, with the utmofl fury, a prodigi- The Scot*
ous flaughter was made. The lofs of the conquerors '^^f^^^'ed
did not amount to 500 men ; but 1 0,000 foldlcrs pe- flaughier!'^
rifhed on the fide of the vanquifhed. A multitude of
prilbners were taken ; and among thefe the earl of
Huntley, the lord high chancellor.
Amidft the conflernation of this decifive vi6lory,
the duke of Somei-fet had a full opportunity of effec-
tuating the marriage and union projeAed by Hen-
ry VIII. and on the fubjedl of which fuch fond anxie-
ty was entertained by the Enghfli nation. But the ca-
bals of his enemies threatening his deftrudllon at home,
he yielded to the neceffities of his private ambition, and
marched back into England. He took precautions, Duke of
however, to fccure an entry into Scotland, both by fea ■^omerlet
and land. A garrlfon of 200 men was placed in the '"'"^"f"*.^'*
ifie of St Columba in the Forth, and two fhips of war ^''S'*'''^-
were left as a guard to it. A garriion was alfo fl:atIon-
ed in the caftle of Broughty, which was fituated in
the mouth of the Tay. When he paffed through the
Merfe and Teviotdale, the leading men of thefe counties
repaired to him ; and taking an oath of allegiance to
king Edward, furrendered their places of fti-ength.
Some of thefe he dcmollfhed, and to others he added
new fortifications. Hume caftle was garrlfoned with
200 men, and intrufted to Sir Edward Dudley ; and
he poilcd 300 foldiers, with 200 pioneers, in the caftle
of Roxburgh, under the command of Sir Ralph Bul-
mer.
The only refaurce of the regent now was the hope
of affiftance from France. The young queen was lodged
in the caftle of Dumbarton, under the care of the loi-ds
Erf]<ine and Livlngftone ; and ambaffadbri were fent to
Henry II. of France, acquainting hini with the dlfaller
at Pinkey, and imploring his afliftancc. Tire' regent
D had
Scotland.
50a
The queen
fent to
503
Tht Eng.
lifh meet
with I'eve-
ral checks.
SCO [2
had afked permiffion from tlie proteftor to treat of
peace, and the earl of Warwick was appointed to wait
for them at Berwick ^^ut none were ever fent on the
part of Scotland. It was not long;, therefore, before
hoftilities were recommenced by the Englifh. Lord
Gray led an army into Scotland, fortified the town of
Haddington, took the caftles of Yefter and Dalkeith,
laid walte the Merfe, and the counties of Eall and Mid
Lothian. On the other hand, in June 1548' Monfieur
de Deffe, a French officer of great reputation, landed
at Leith with 6000 foldiers, and a formidable train of
artillery.
In the mean time, the reo^ent was in dlfgr?.ce on ac-
count of the difafter at Pinkey ; and the queen-do vager
being difpofed to fuperfede his authority, attempted to
improve this circumftance to her own advantage. As
fhe perceived that her power and intereft could bcft be
fupported by France, fhe refolved to enter into the
ftrideft alhance with that kino'dom. It had been pro-
pofed that the dauphin of France fhould marry the
queen of Scotland; and this 'propofal now met with
many partizans, the hoftilities of the Enghfh having
loft a great number of friends to the caufe of that
country. It was refolved to fend the queen immediate-
ly to France, which would remove the caufe of the
prefent contentions, and her fubfequent marriage with
tlie dauphin would in the fuUeft manner conhrm the
friendfliip betwixt the two nations. . The French go-
vernment aifo entered deeply into the fchcme ; and m
order to promote it made prefents of great value to
many of the ScottKh nobility. The regent himfelf was
gained over by a penfion of i 2,000 livi-es, and the title
of duke of Chatelherault. Monfieur de ViUegagnon,
who commanded four galleys in the harbour ot Leith,
making a feint as if he intended to proceed inftantly to
France, tacked about to the north, and, falhng round
the ides, received the queen at Dumbarton ; whence he
conveyed her to France, and delivered her to her
uncles the princes of Lorraine, in the month of July
J548.
I'hefe tranfaftions did not put an end to the mditary
operations. The fiege of Haddington had been un-
dertaken as foon as tlie French auxiliaries arrived, and
was now conducted with vigour. To reinforce the
garrifon, i 500 horfe advanced from Berwick; but an
ambufcade being laid for them, they were intercepted,
and almoft totally dcftroyed. Another body of Eng-
lifh troops, however, which amounted only to 300 per-
fons, was more fuccefsful. Eluding the vigilance of
the Scots and the French, they were able to enter
Haddington, and to fupply the befieged with ammuni-
tion and provlfions. The lord Seymour, high admiral
of England, made a defcent upon Fife with 1200
men, and fome pieces of artillery ; but was driven back
to his (hips with great flaughter by James Stuart, na-
tural brother to the young queen, who oppofed him at
the head of the militia of the county. A fecond de-
fcent was made by him at Montrofe ; but being equally
imfuccefsful there, he was obliged to leave Scotland
without performing any important or memorable at-
chievement.
Having coUeaed an army of 17,^00 men, and add-
in'^ to it 30CO German Proteftants, the protedor put
it under the direaion of the earl of Shrewfbury. Up-
ea the approach of the EngliOi, Deffe, thounh he had
504
6 ] SCO
been reinforced with 15,000 Scots, thought it more
prudent to retreat than to hazard a decilive battle. He
raifed the fiege of Haddington, and marched to Edin-
burgh. The earl of Shrewfbury did not follow him to
force an engagement ; jealoufies had arifen between the Q-ane!
Scots and the French. The infolcnce and vanity of be ween
the latter, encouraged by their fuperior flcill in military J^^^J^'^^^']'
arts, had offended the quick and Impatient fpirit of the
former. The fretfulnefs of the Scots was augmented
by the calamines infeparable from war ; and after the
conveyance of the young queen to France, the efiicaci-
ous and peculiar advantage conferred upon that king-
dom by this tranfaaion was fully undcrftood,_ and ap-
peared to them to be highly difgraceful and impolitic.
In this ftate of their humour, Delfe found not at Edin-
burgh the reception he expeded. The quartering of
his foldiers produced difputes, which ended in an Infur-
reaion of the inhabitants. The French fired among
the citizens. Several perfons of diftlnaion fell, and
amono- thefe were the provoft of Edinburgh and his fon.
The national difcontents and inquietudes were driven,
by this event, to the moft dangerous extremity ; and
Delfe, who was a man of ability, thought of giving,
employment to his troops, and of flattering the people
by the fplendour of fome martial exploit.
The earl of Shrewfbury, after fapplying J^J*^"^^
ton with troops, provifions, and military ftores, retired ^'J^
with his army into England. Its garrifon, in the en- jingto)
joyment of fecurity, and unfufpicious of danger, might
be furprlfed and overpowered. Marching in the night,
Deffe reached this important poft ; and deftroying a
fort of oblervation, prepared to ftorm the main gates
of the city, when the garrifon took the alarm. A
French deferter pointing a double cannon to the thickeft
ranks of the affailants, the fhot was incredibly de-
ftruaive, and threw them into confufion. In the
height of their confternation, a vigorous fally was
made by the befieged. Deffe renewed the affault in
the morning, and was again difcomfited. He now f,c6
turned his arms againft Broughty caftle ; and, though Deffe t
unable to reduce it, he yet recovered the neighbouring
town of Dundee, which had fallen into the poffeffion f^^^^ ,
of the enemy. Hume caftle was retaken by ftiatagem. vantag
Deffe entered Jedburgh, and put its garrifon to the
fword. Encouraged by this fuccefs, he ravaged the
Englifti borders in different incurfions, and obtained fe-
veral petty viaorics. Leith, which from a fmall village
had grown into a town, was fortit^ed by him ; and the
ifland of Inchkeith, which is nearly oppofite to that
harbour, being occupied by Englifh troops, he under-
took to expel them, and made them priloners after a
briflc encounter.
His adlvity and valour could not, however, com-
pofe the difcontents of the Scottifh nation ; and the
queen-dowager having written to Henry II. to recal
him, he was fuccecded in his command by Monfieur de
Thermes, who was accompanied into Scotland by Mon-
luc bhTiop of Valence, a perfon highly efteemed for his
addrefs and ability. This ecclefiaftic was defigned to
fupply the lofs of cardinal Beaton, and to difcharge the
office of lord high chancellor of Scotland. But the
jealoufies of the nation increafing, and the queen-dow-
ager herfelf fufpeaing his ambition and turbulence, he
attained not this dignity, and foon returned to his own
country. ^
SCO
r 27 1
SCO
15? TlifrfTie? brought with hiro from Fi ance a rein-
forcement of 1000 foot, 2000 horfe, and 100 men-
hLfur.at-arms. He erefted a fort at Aberlady, to diftrefa
8 of jhe the garrxfon of Haddington, and to intercept its fup-
Kh. plies of proviuon. At Coldingham he deltroyed a
troop of Spaniards in the Englifh pay. Faft-caftle
was regained by furprlfe. Diftradlions in the Engliih
court did not permit the proteftor to aft vigoroufly in
the war. The earl of Warwick was diverted from
inarching an army into Scotland. An infeftious dif-
temper had broke out in the garrifon at Haddington ;
and an apprehenfion prevailed, that it could not hold
out for any length of time againft the Scots. The earl
of Rutland, therefore, with a body of troops, entered
the town ; and after fetting fire to it, conduced the
garrifon and artillery to Berwick. The regent, in the
poffeffion of Haddington, was follcltoua to recover the
other places which were yet In the power of the Eng-
llfh. De Thermee laid fiege to Broughty caftle, and
took It. He then befieged Lawder ; and the garrifon
c8 was about to furrender at difcretion, when the news ar-
te con- rived that a peace was concluded between France, Eng»
j^^*^* land, and Scotland.
By this treaty Henry U. obtained the reftitution
of Boulogne and its dependencies, which had been
taken from him by the king of England, and for
which he paid 400,000 crowns. No oppofition was
to be given to the marriage of the queen of Scotland
with the dauphin : the fortreffes of Lawder and Dou-
glas were to be reftored to the Scots, and the EnglKh
J were to deftroy the caftles of Roxburgh and Eymouth.
queen- After the ratification of the articles, the queen-dowager
ifager embarked with Leon Strozzi for France, attended by
. many of the nobility. Having arrived there, (he com-
' municated to the king her defigii of afFumincf the go-
vernment of Scotland, and he promifed to aflift her to
the uttndl of his power. But the jealoufy which pre-
vailed between the Scots and French rendered the ac-
complifliment of this delign very difficult. To remove
the regent by an aft of power might endanger the
fcheme altogether ; but it might be pofiible to pcrfuade
him to rcfign his office voluntarily. For this purpofe
intrigiieg were immediately commenced ; and indeed the
regent himfelf contributed to promote their fcheme^ by
his violent perfecutltfn of the reformed. The peace was
liardly proclaimed, when he provoked the public re-
fentmcnt by an aftlon of fanguinary infolence. Adam
Wallace, a man of fimple manners, but of great zeal
for the reformation, was accufed of herefy, and brought
to trial in the church of the Black Friars at Edinburgh.
In the prefence of the regent, the earls of Angus,
Huntley, Glencairn, and other perfons of diftinftion
and rank, he was charged with preaching without any
authority of law, with baptizing one of his own chil-
dren, and with denying the doftrlne^ of purgatory }
and It was llrenuoufly objefted to him, that he ac-
counted prayers to the faints and the dead to be an ule-
lefs fuperftition, that he had pronounced the mafa to be
an idolatrous fervlce, and that he had affirmed that the
bread and wine In the facrament of the altar, after the
■words of the confecration, do not cliange their nature,
but continue to be bread and wine. Thefe offences
were efteemed too terrible to admit of any pardon. —
The earl of Glencairn alone protefted againll his pu-
mihment. The pious fufEerer bore with refig nation the
;©9
s to
mce, an
erne's a
lift the
[Clit.
<fio
damWal-Wallac
ce fufFers
account
religion
contumelious! infults of the clergy ; and by his courage ScotUnJ.
and patience at the itake gave a fanftion to the opinions. ' " "
he had embraced, o h " •
Other afts of atrocity and violence ftained the adml-jjjj^j^^^*"-
nlftration of the regent. In his own palace, William Jj^^ ^^^£,^[.3
Crichton, a man of family and reputation, was aflaflina-inhumai.icy
nated by the lord Semple. No attempt was made to and injur.
punifh the murderer. His daughter was the concubine
of the archbiihop of St Andrew's, and her tears and In-
treaties were more powerful than jullice. John Mclvil,
a perfon refpeftable by his birth and his fortune, had
written to an Englifh gentleman, recommending to his
care a friend who at that time was a captive in Eng-
land. This letter contained no improper information
in mattera of ilate, and no fufpicion of any crime againft
Melvil could be inferred from it. Yet the regent brought
him to trial upon a charge of high treafon ; and, for
an aft of humanity and friendlhip, he was condemned
to lofe his head. The eftate of Melvil, forfeited to his
family, was given to David the youngeft fou of tiie re-
gent, ^ 51*
Amidft the pleafures and amufements of the French Schemes of
court, the queen-dowager was not inattentive to the ^^^^Jl^'^^'f^"^'^
fcheme of ambition which flie had projefted. The earls ^t,).^;^
of Huntley and Sutherland, Marifchal and CaffiHs, with regency,
the lord Maxwell, and other perfons of eminence who
had accompanied her to France, were gained over to her
Interefts, Robert Carnegie of Kinnaird, David Panter
bifhop of Rofs, and Gavin Hamilton commendator of
Kilwinning, being alfo at this time in that kingdom,
and having the greateft weight with the regent, were
treated wilh a moft punftilious refpeft. Henry decla-
red to them his earnefl wifh that the queen-dowager
might attain the government of Scotland. In cafe the
regent Ihould confent to this meafure, he expreffed a
firm intention that no detriment fhould happen to his
confequence and affairs ; and he defired them to Inform
him, that he had already confirmed his title of duie of
Chatelheraulty had advanced his fon to be captain of the
Scots gendarmes in France, an<! was ready to tender
other marks of favour to his family and relations. Up-
on this bufinefs, and with this melfage, Mr Carnegie was
difpatched to Scotland ; and a few days after, he was
followed by the bifhop of Rofs. The bifliop being a
man of eloquence and authority, obtained, though with
great difficulty, a promife from the regent to refign his
high office ; and for this fervlce he received, as a recom-
penfe, an abbey In Poitou. 513
The queen-dowager, full of hopes, now prepared to She recurn«
return to Scotland, and in her way thither made ufe of |" ^^"t'
a fafe-conduft obtained from Edward VI. by the king *
of France, The Englifh monarch, however, had not
yet forgot the beautiful queen of Scotland ; and did
iiot fail to urge his fuperlorlty of claim to her over the
dauphin. The queen-dowager did not ferioufly enter
upon the bufinefs ; only in general terms complained of
the hoftilitles committed by the Engliih ; and two days
after this converfation, (he proceeded towards Scotland,
where fhe was condufted by the earl of Bothwel, lord
Hume, and fome other noblemen, to Edinburgh, amidft
the acclamations of the people. She had not long been
returned to the capital, when the bad conduft of the ^
regent afforded her an opportunity of exerting her in-
fluence and addrefs to the advantage of her projeft.
The regent having propofed a judicial circuit through
i) 2 the
SCO I 2
Scotland, the kingdom, under pretence of repreffing crimes and
'^^^ diforders, molcfted the people by plunder and rapine.
Rapacity Great fines were levied for offences pretended as well as
and ir.ju real ; and the Proteftants in particular feemed to be the
ftice of the objetis of his difpleafure and feverity. In his progrefs
regent. accompanied by the queen-dowager ; and as Ihe
affedted to behave in a manner direftly oppofite, the
moft difagrceable comparifons were made between her
and the regent. The bifhop of Rofs, to whom he had
promifed to refign his office, did not fail to put him in
mind of his engagements ; but he had now altered his
mind, and wifhed ftill to continue in power. His refo-
lution, however, failed him on the firft intimation of a
^j^, parliamentary inquiry into the errors of his admiuiftra-
He refipns tion. An agreement with the queen-dowager then took
his office, placie ; and it was ftipulated, that he fhould fucceed to
the throne upon the death of the queen without iffue ;
that his fon fhould enjoy the command of the gen-
darmes ; that no inquiry {hould be made into his expen-
diture of the royal treafures ; that no fcrutiny into his
government fhould take place ; and that he fhould en-
joy in the moft ample manner his duchy and his pen-
lion. Thefe articles were ratified at an affembly of par-
liament, and the queen-dowager was formally inveiled
with the regency.
Mary of Lorraine, the new regent, though fhe had
with great difficulty attained the fumnriit of her wifhes,
516 feemed to be much lefs verfant in the arts of govern-
£he renders ment than of intrigue. She was fcarcely fettled in her
herfelt un- Oip '
which is
j^iven to
the q^ueen
dowager.
popular.
517
Atteniprs
in vain to
eftablifli a
fta;idii;g
army.
new office when fhe rendered herfelf unpopular in two
refpedts ; one was by her too great attachment to France,
and the other by her perfecution of the reformed reli-
gion. She was entirely guided by the councils of her
brothers the duke of Guife and the cardinal of Lor-
raine ; and paid by far too much attention to M. d'Oy-
fel the French ambaflador, whom they recommended to
her as an able and faithful minifter. Several high of-
fices were filled with Frenchmen, which excited in the
highefl degree the refentment of the Scottifli nobility ;
and the commonalty were inflantly prejudiced againff
her by the partiality fhe fhowed to the Papifts. At
firlf, however, fhe enafted many falutary laws ; and
while fhe made a progrefs herfelf through the fouthern
provinces of the kingdom to hold jufticiary courts,
fhe endeavoured to introduce order and law into the
wefteiTn counties and ifles ; firft by the earl of Hunt-
ley, and afterwards by the earls of Argyle and Athole,
to whom fhe granted commiffions for this purpofe with
effeftual powers. In another, improvement, which the
queen-regent attempted by the advice of her French
council, fhe found herfelf oppofed by her own people.
It was propcfed that the poffeffions of every proprietor
of land in the kingdom fhould be valued and entered in-
to regifters ; and that a proportional payment fhould be
made by each. The application of this fund was to
maintain a regular and ftanding body of ioldiers. This
guard or army, it was urged, being at all times in readi-
nefs to march againft an enemy, would protect effeilu-
ally the frontiers ; and there would no longer be any
neceffity for the nobles to be continually in motion on
5t8
8 ] SCO
every rumour of hoftility or incurfion from Englifii in- Scotlan
vaders. No art, however, or argnment, could recom- ^
mend thefe meafures. A perpetual tax and a ftanding
army were conceived to be the genuine charafleriftics
of defpotifm. All ranks of men confidered thenrifelves
infulted and abufed ; and 300 tenants of the crown
alTembling at Edinburgh, and giving way to their in-
dignation, fent their remonftrances to the queen- regent
in fuch ftrong and expreffive language, as induced her
to abandon the fcheme. Yet ftill the attempt which fhe
had made left an impreffion in the minds of the people.
They fufpefled her to be a fecret enemy to their go-
vernment and liberties ; and they were convinced that
Henry II. was engaging her in refinements and arti-
fices, that he might reduce Scotland to be a province
of France.
While an alarm about their civil rights was fpread-Joh'n Ki
ing itlelf among the people, the Proteltants were rifing^ncoura
daily in their fpirit and in their hopes. John Knox (p),^*^^ ^^^^
whofe courage had been confirmed by misfortunes, and
whofe talents had improved by exeixife, was at this time
making a progrefs through Scotland. The charaiterif- !
tic pecidiarities of Popery were the favourite topics of
his declamation and cenfure. He treated the mafs, in
particular, with the moft fovereign contempt, reprefent-
ing it as a remmant of idolatry. Many of the nobility
and gentry afforded him countenance and proteftion.
'I'hey invited him to preach at their houfes, and they
partook with him in the ordinances of religion after the
reformed method. Religious focieties and affemblies
were held publicly, in defiance of the Papifts ; and ce-
lebrated preachers were courted with affiduity and bribes
to refide and officiate in particular diftrifts and towns.
The clergy cited him to appear before them at Edin-
bui-gh, in the church of the Black-friars. On the ap-
pointed day be prefented himfelf, with a numerous at-
tendance of gentlemen, who were determined to exert
themfelves in his behalf. The priefthood did not choofe
to proceed in his profecution ; and Knox, encoura-
ged by this fymptom of their fear, took the refolution
to explain and inculcate his doftrines repeatedly and
openly in the capital city of Scotland. In 1556, the
earl of Glencairn allured the earl Marifchal to hear the ^ j
exhortations of this celebrated preacher; and they werewri;esi
fo much afFefted with his reafonings and rhetoric, thatoffenfin
they requelted him to addrefs the queen-regent up-'^ft^'"
on the fubjeft of the reformation of religion. In com-j.^^J^'J-
pliance with this requeft, he wrote a letter in very difa-*^^^^*^
greeable terms ; and the earl of Glencairn defiveied it
with his. own hand, in the expeftation that fome advan-
tage might in this manner be obtained for the reformed.
But the queen-regent was no lefs offended with the
freedom of the nobleman than the preacher ; and, after
perufing the paper, fhe gave it to James Beaton arch-
bifhop of Glafgow, with an expreffion of difdain, " Here,
my lord, is a pafquil."
Amidft thefe occupations, John Knox received, an in-Goes?<il
vitation to take the charge of the Englifh congi-egation Gene\
at Geneva ; which he accepted. The clergy called up- and h h\
on him, in his abfence, to appear before them, condemn-"^ ^^'S?
ed
(p) When he was fent to France (fays Dr Stuart), with the confpirators againft Cardinal Beaton, he was
confined to the galleys ; but had obtained his liberty in the latter end of the year 15421.
SCO
ed him to death as a heretic, and
burned in effisjy.
The injurious treatment of John Knox did not in the
leaft obdruft the progrefs of the reformation. Defer-
tions were made from Popery in every town and village;
and even many members of the church, both fecular
and regvilar, were forward to embrace the new princi-
ples, and to atone for their paft miftakes by the bitter-
ell railleries agalnft the corruptioi\s and the folly of the
Romlfh faith. The priefts were treated in all places
with ridicule and contempt. The images, crucifixes,
and relics, which ferved to roufe the decaying fervours
of fuperftition, were ftolen from the churches, and tram-
pled under foot. The bifhops implored the affiftance of
the queen-regent. Citations were given to the preach-
ers to appear in their defence. They obeyed ; but
with fuch a formidable retinue, that it was with diffi-
culty fhe was permitted to apologife for her conduft.
James Chalmers of Gaitgirth, prefling forward from the
crowd, addreffed himfelf to her : " We vow to God,
that the devices of the prelates ftiall not be carried into
execution. We are opprefled to maintain them in their
idlenefs. They feek to undo and murder our preachers
and us ; and we are determined to fubmit no longer to
this wickednefs." The multitude^applauding his fpeech,
put their hands to their daggers.
A trufty meffenger was difpatched to Geneva, invi-
ting John Knox to return to his own country. But in
the infancy of their connexion, the Proteilants being
apprehenfive of one another, uncertain in their countels,
or being deferted by perfons upon whom they had re-
lied, it appeared to them that they had adopted this
meafure without a due preparation ; and, by oppofite
difpatches, Knox was requefted to delay his journey for
fome time.
To this zealous reformer their unfteadinefs was a mat-
ter of ferious affliftion ; and in the anfwer he tranfmit-
ted to their letters, he rebuked them with feverity: but
amidft this correftion, he intreated them not to faint
under their purpofes, from apprehenfions of danger,
which, he faid, was to feparate themfelves from the fa-
vour of God, and to provoke his vengeance. To par-
ticular perfons he wrote other addreffes ; and to all of
TheXft them the grcateft attention was paid. In 1557, a for-
covcnant. mal bond of agreement, which obtained the appellation
of the firjl covenant^ was entered into, and all the more
eminent perfons who favoured the reformation were in-
vited to fubfcribe it. The carls of Argyle, Glencairn,
and Morton, with the lord Lorn, and John Erllcine of
Dun, led the way, by giving it the fanftion of their
names. All the fubfcribers to this deed, renouncing
the fupcrftitions and idolatry of the church of Rome,
promifed to apply coutinually their whole power and
wealth, and even to give up their lives, to forward and
eftabliih the word of God. They diftingulftied the re-
formed, by calling them the Congregation of Chr'iji ; and
by the opprobrious title the Congregation of Satan,
^ they peculiarized the favourers of Popery,
John^Knox After the leaders of the reformation had fubfcribed
and Calvin the firft covenant, they addreffed letters to John Knox,
invited into jj-ging fn the ftrongeft terms his return to Scotland;
Scotland. ^^^^ ^-^^-^^ hopes of his afllftance might not be dif-
appointed, they fent an addrefs to John Calvin, the ce-
lebrated reformer, begging him to join his commands to
their iatreaties. The archbifhop of St Aadrew's, who
[ 29 1 SCO
ordered him to be perceived the rifing ftorm, was in a difficult fituatlon. Scotland.
A powerful combination threatened ruin to the church; — — y~*
and he had feparated himfelf from the politics of the
queen-regent. The zeal of the Romafl Catholics point-
ed out ftrong meafures to him ; and his difpofitions
were pacific. The clergy were offended with his re-
miffncfs and ncgleft of duty. The reformers detefted
his loofenefs of principles, and were ftiocked with the
diifolute depravity of his lire and converfatlon. He re-
folved to try the force of addrefs, and did not fucceed.
He then refolvcd to be fevere, and was ftiU more unfuc-
cefsful.
The earl of Argyle was the moft powerful of the re- The arch-
formed leaders. To allure him from his party, the^^'^^opof
archbifhop of St Andrew's employed the agency of Sir^^^'^"^
David Hamilton. But the kindnefs he affefted, and j-^jj^p.^
the advices he beftowed, were no compliment to theun- vain to fe-
derftanding of this nobleman ; and his threats were re-<^"cethe
garded with fcorn. The reformers, inftead of loiing^^^^ °^
their courage, felt a fentiment of exultation and tvi-*
umph ; and the earl of Argyle happening to die about
this time, he not only maintained the new doftrines in
his laft moments, but intreated his fon to feek for ho-
nour in promoting the public preaching of the gofpel
and Jefus Chrift, and in the utter ruin of fuperftition
and idolatry.
It was determined by the archbifhop and the prelates,
that this difappointment ihould be fucceeded by furious
perfecution of the reformed. Walter Mill, a prieft, had Walter
.neglefted to officiate at the altar ; and having been long'^'''^^^^~
under the fufpicion of herefy, was carried to St An-*^" jl"„r:
, , ^. , „ ■" , r , 1 r 1 account oi
drew s, committed to prilon, and acculed before the religion.
archbifhop and his fuffragans. He was in an extreme
old age ; and he had ftruggled all 'his life with poverty.
He funk not, however, under the hardnefs of his fate.
To the articles of his accufation he replied with fignal
recoUeillon and fortitude. The firmnefs of his mind,
in the emaciated ftate of his body, excited admiration*
The infults" of his enemies, and their contempt, ferved
to difcover his fuperiority over them. When the cler-
gy declared him a heretic, no temporal judge could be
found to condemn him to the fire. He was rcfpited to
another day ; and fo great fympathy prevailed for his
misfortunes, that it was neceffary to allure one of the
archblfhop's domeftics to fupply the place of the civil
power, and to pronounce the lentence of condemnation.
When brought to the ftake, the refolution of this fuf-
ferer did not forfakc him. He praifed God, that he
had been called to feal up the truth with his life ; and
he conjured the people, as they would efcape eternal
death, not to be overcome by the errors and the arti-
fices of monks and priefts, abbots and biftiops.- 525
The barbarity of this execution affefted the refor-The Pro-
raers with inexpreffible horror. Subfcriptions for mu-*^!*^''^'^
tual defence were taken. The leaders of the '^^fornia-^g^^'^j^gj^''
tion, difperfing their emiflarles to every quarter, encou- lights,
raged the vehemence of the multitude. The cove-
nant to eftablifti a new form of religion extended far
and wide. The fharp point of the fword, not the calm
exertions of inquiry, was to decide the difputes of theo-
logy.
When the leaders of the- reformation were apprifed
of the ardent zeal of the people, and confidcred the
great number of fubfcrlptions which had been colleftcd
in the diiFerent counties of the kingdom, they affembled
to •
Scotlnn4.
548
Articles of
the refor-
mation.
SCO [50
to deliberate concerning the ftepd to be ptsrfued. It
was refolved, accordingly, that a public and common
fupplication of the whole body of the Proteftants Ihould
be prefented to the queen- regent ; which, after com-
plaining of the injuries they had faffered> fliould require
her to beftow upon them her fupport and affiltance, and
urge her to proceed in the work a reformation. To
explain their full meaning, a fchcdule, containing parti-
cular demands, was at the fame time to be prefented
to her fcrutiny. To Sir James Sandilanda of Calder
they committed the important charge of their manifefto
and articles of reformation ; and in appointing him to
this commiflion, they confulted the refpeft which was
due both to the government and to themfelves. His
charailer was in the higheft eflimation. His fervices to
his country were numerous ; his integrity and honour
were fuperlor to all fufpicion ; and his age and experi-
ence gave him authority and reverence.
The petition or fupplication of the Proteftants was
expreffed in ftrong but refpeftful terms. They told
the queen-regent, that though they had been provoked
by great injuries, they had yet, during a long period,
abftained from aflembling themfelves, and from making
known to her their complaints. Banifliment, confifca-
tion of goods, and death in its moil cruel ftiape, were
evils with which the reformed had been alBidled ; and
they were ttill expofed to thcfe dreadful calamities.
Compelled by their fufterings, they prcfuraed to aflc a
remedy againft the tyranny of the prelates and the eltate
ecclefiaftical. They had ufurped an unlimited domina-
tion over the minds of men. Whatever they command-
ed, though without any fanAion from the word of God,
muft be obeyed. Whatever they prohibited, tho' from
their own authority only, it was neceffary to avoid. All
arguments and remonitrances were equally fruitlefs and
vain. The fire, the faggot, and the fvvord, were the
weapons with which the church enforced and vindica-
ted her mandates. By thefe, of late years, many of
their brethren had fallen ; and upon this account they
were troubled and wounded in their confciences. For
conceiving themfelves to be a part of that power which
God had eftabhfhed in this kingdom, it was their duty
to have defended them, or to have concurred with them
in an open avowal of their common religion. 1 hey
now take the opportunity to make this avowal. They
break a fileuce which may be mifintcrpreted into a juf-
tification of the cruelties of their enemies. And dif-
daining all farther difiimulation in matters which con-
cern the glory of God, th&tr prefent happinefs, and
their future falvation, they demand, that the original
purity of the Chriftian religion fhall be reftored, and
that the government lhall be fo improved, as to afford
to them a fecurity in their perfons, their Qpinions, and
their property.
With this petition or fupplication of the Proteftants,
Sir James Sandilands prclsnted their fchedule of de-
Kiandg, or the preliminary articles of the reformation.
They were in the fpirit of their fupplication, and of the
following tenor.
I. It fliall be lawful to the reformed to perufe the
Scriptures in the vulgar tongue ; and to employ alfo
their native language in prayer publicly and in private.
II. It (hall be permitted to any perfon qualified by
knowledge, to interpret and explain the difficult paf-
i^^e3 in the Scriptures.
1 SCO
III. Tho cle^lion ofminifters ihall take places scQQPd'> S«o(lafl«S,'
ing to the rules of the primitive church ; and thofe who
eh<£t fhall inquire diligently into the lives ai\d doctrines
of the perfons whom they admit to the clerical office.
IV. The holy facrament of baptifra fhall be celebra-
ted in the vulgar tongue, that its inftitution and nature
may be the more generally underftood.
V. The holy facrament of the Lord's flapper {hall
Ukewife be adminiftered in the vulgar tongue ; and in
this communion, as well as in the ceremonial of bap-
tifm, a becoming refpeft fhall be paid to the plain in-
ftitution of Chriil Jefus.
VI. The wicked and licentious lives of the bifhops
and ellate ecclefiaftical fliall be reformed ; and if they
difcharge not the duties of true and faithful palters,
they fhall be compelled to defift from their miniltry and
functions.
529
The queen-regent now found it neceffary to flatter The prottf
the Proteftants. She allured them by Sir James San-*^"*^ flat-
dilands, their orator or commiffioner, that every thing ^"^^ '^^^
they could legally defire fhould be granted to them } regent,
and that, in the mean time, they might, without mo-
leilation, employ the vulgar tongue in their prayers and
religious exercifes. But, upon the pretence that no
encouragement might be given to tumults and riot, fhe
requefted that they would hold no public afferablies in
Edinburgh or Leith. The Congregation, for this name
was now affumed by the Proteftants, were tranfported
with thefe tender proofs of her regard ; and while they
fought to advance ftill higher in her efteem by the in-
offenlive quietnefs of their carriage, they were encou-
raged in the undertaking they had begun, and anxious
to accomplifh the work of the reformation.
Nor to the clergy, who at this time were holding a
provincial couiicil at Edinburgh, did the Congjegation
fcruple to communicate the articles of the intended re-
formation. The clergy received their demands with a
ftorm of rage, which died away in an innocent debility.
Upon recovering from tl*eir paffions, they offered toThey o/n-f
fubmit the controverfy between them and the reformed ^.^*^'P"^'
to a public difputation. The Congregation did »ot^',^,^^-jj^'^
rcfufe this mode of trial ; and delii-ed, as their only con- clergy „
ditions, that the Scriptures might be confidered as the
ftandards of orthodoxy and trutli, and that thofe of
their brethren who were in exile and under perfecutioa
might be permitted to affiil them. Thefe requefts,
though reafonable in a high degree, were not complied
with ; and the church would allow no rule of right but
the canon law and its own councils. Terms of recon-
ciliation were then offei-ed on the part of the eftate ec-
clefiaftical. It held out to the Proteftants the liberty
of praying and adminiftering the facraments in the vul-
gar tongue, if they would pay reverence to the mafs,
acknowledge purgatory, invoke the faints, and admit
of petitions for the dead. To conditions fo ineffectual
and abfurd the Congregation did net deign to return
any anfwer.
The meeting of the .parliament approached, The
parties in contention were agitated with anxieties, ap-
prehenfions, and hopes. An expectation of a firm and
open affiftance from the queen-regent gave courage to
the reformed ; and, IVom the parhamentary influence of
their friends in the greater and the lefTer baronage, they
expected the moft important fervices. They drew up
with eagernefs the articles which they wifhed to be
I paffed
SCO
[ 3
leotUnc?, pafTed Into a law ; and as the fpirit and fenfe of their
tranfaclions are to be gathered in the completed m?.n-
d"ent- '^'^^ f^"'^ papers which were framed by themfelves,
eir arti- it is proper to attend to them wth a punftilious exaft-
;s to the jjefs. Their petitions were few and explicit,
cen-rc- j_ Xhey could not, in confequence of principles which
they had embraced from a conviftion of their truth, par-
ticipate in the Romifh religion. It was therefore their
defire, that all the afts of parliament, giving authority
to the church to proceed a^ainlt them as heretics, fhould
be abrogated ; or, at leaft, that their power fhould be
fufpended till the difputes. which liad arifen were deter-
mined and brought to a conclufion.
II. They did not mean that all men Ihould be at li-
berty to profefs what religion they pleafed, without
the controul of authority. They consented that all tranf-
grelTors in matters of faith fhould be carried before the
temporal judge. ' But it was their wifh that the clergy
fhould have only the power to accufe ; and they thought
it conformable to juftice, that a copy of the criminal
charge fliould be lodged with the party upon trial, and
that a competent time fhould be allowed him to defend
himfelf.
III. They infifled, that every defence confillent with
law fhould be permitted to the partv accufed ; and that
objeaions to witnefTes, founded in truth and reafon,
(hould operate to his favour.
IV. They defu-ed that the party accufed fhould have
permifTion to interpret and explain his own opinions ;
and that his declaration fhould carry a greater evidence
than the depolition of any witnefs : as no perfon ought
to be punifhed for religion, who is not obftinate in a
wicked or damnable tenet.
V. In fine, they urged, that no Proteflant fhould be
condemned for herefy, without being convitled, by the
word of God, of the want of that faith which is necef-
fary to falvation.
The Congregation prefented thefe articles to the
queen-regent, expefting that fhc would not only pro-
pofe them to the three eflates affembled in parliament,
but employ all her influence to recommend them.
But finding themfelves disappointed, they began to fuf-
peA her fincerity ; and they were fenfible that their pe-
titions, though they fhould be carried in parliament,
could not pafs into a law without her confent. They
therefore abflained from prelenting them ; but as their
complaints and defires were fully known in parliament,
they ordered a folemn declaration to be read there in
their behalf, and demanded that it fhould be ijiferted in
•D Hft , the records of the nation. In this declaration, after ex-
gainft her prefling their regret for having been dilappointed m
proceed- their fcheme of reformation, they protefted, that no
blame fhould be imputed to them for continuing in their
religion, which they believed to be founded in the word
of God ; that no danger of life, and ns political pains,
fhould be incurred by them, for difregarding ftatutes
which fupport idolatry, and for violating rites which
are of human invention ; and that, if infurreftions and
tumults fhould difturb the realm, from the diverfity of re-
ligious opinions, and if abufes fhould be correfted by
\iolence, all the guilt, diforder, and inconvenience thence
arifing, inftead of being applied to them, fhould be afcri-
bed to thofe folely who had refufed a timely redrefs of
wrongs, and who had defpifed petitions prefented with
the humility of faithful fubjeds, and for the purpofes of
I ] SCO
eftablifliing the commrindmcnts of God, and a mofl juft Scotlarcf.
and falutary reformation. _
The three eff ates received this formidable protefl with
attention and refpeft ; but the intention of inferting it iu
the national records was abandoned by the Congrega-
tion, upon a formal promlfe from the queen-regent, that
all the matters in controverfy fhould fpeedily be brought
by her to a fortunate ifTue.
While the Protettants were thus making the mod vi-
gorous exertions in behalf of their fpiritual liberties, the
queen-regent, in order to eftablifh herfelf the more cf-
feftually, ufed every effort to promote the marriage of
her daughter with the dauphin of France. In iSSJr
commiffionets were appointed to negociate this marri-
age ; but while thefe negociations were going on, the 533
court of France afted in the moft perfidious manner. f^'J^^^V
At the age of i after folemnly ratifying the- indepen- ^j^e court o£
dency of Scotland, and the fucceffion of the crown in trance,
the houfe of Hamilton, queen Mary was influenced by
the king and her uncles the princes of Lorraine to figu
privately three extraordinary deeds or inflrumients. By
the firfl fhe conveyed the kingdom of Scotland to the
king of France and his heirs, in the default of children
of her own body. By the fecond fhe alTigned him, if
fhe fhould die ^^^thout children^ the polTeffion of Scot-
land, till he fhould receive a million of pieces of gold,
or be amply recompenfed for the fums expended by
him in the education of the queen of Scotland ia
France. By the third fhe confirmed both thefe grants
in an exprefs declaration, that they contained the pure
and genuine fentiments of her mind ; and that any pa-
pers which might be obtained, either before or atter
her marriage, by means of the Scottifh parliament, j^^,
fliould be invalid, and of no force nor efficacy. On the Marriage
24th of April, the nuptials were celebrated ; and the of the
dauphin, Francis, was allowed to affume the title of l^i"g^"ots"^u&
of Scotland. The French court demanded for him thej^g dau-
crown and other enli^ns of royalty belonging to Scot- phin of
land ; but the commifHoners had no power to comply France*
with their requeft. It was then defired, that when
they returned home, they fhould ufe all their influence
to procure the crown- matrimonial of Scotland for the
dauphin. This alfo was refufed ; the court of France
was difgufted ; and four of the commiffioners died, it
was fuppofed of poifon, given them by the princes of
Lorraine. This fubjeft, however, was prefTed, on the
return of the furviving commiffioners, by the king of
France himfelf, the queen of Scotland, and the queen-
regent. The Proteflants alfo joined their intereft, ho^
ping by that means to gain over the queen and queen-
regent to their party y fo that an aft of parliament was 53^
at" length paffed, by which the crown -matrimonial
given to the dauphin during the time of his marriage ^j.' ^.
with queen Mary ; but without any prejudice to the li- land, but
berties of the kingdom, to the heirs of her body, or to ^rider cer-
the order of fucceffion. With fo many rcftraints, itt»n«ii"«'
is difficult to fee the advantages which could accrue
from this gift fo earncftly fought after ; and it is very
probable, that the ufurpations of France in confequence
of it, would have been produ£tiveof m^ny diflurbances;
but thefe were prevented by the death of Francis in
December 1 560.
But before this event took place, Scotland was, by
the intrigues of France, involved in confufion on ano- ^
ther account. After the death of Mary queen of Eng^
lanc^
Scotland,
556
S C O [ 3
land, and daughter to Henry VIII. the princes of
Guife infilled on the claim of Mary queen of Scots to
The^queen crown of England, in preference to that of Eliza-
of Sco:s beth, whom they looked upon as illegitimate. This
claims the claim was fupported by the king of France, w^ho pre-
Eirknd^ vailed with the queen of Scots herfelf to affume the
title of queen of England, and to ilamp money under
that charadler. The arms of England were quartered
with thofe of France and Scotland ; and employed as
537 ornaments for the plate and furniture of Mary and
Which lays the dauphin. Thus was laid the foundation of an ir-
tio^n of a ^' '"^concileable quarrel between Elizabeth and Mary ;
quarrel ^0 this, in fome meafure, are we to afcribe the in-
with Eliza- veteracy with which the former perfccuted the unhap-
heth. py queen of Scotland, at every time fhe had it in her
power.
But while they imprudently excited a quarrel with
Ilngland, tkey yet more imprudently quarrelled alfa
with the majority of the people of Scotland. As Eli-
zabeth profelTed the Proteftant religion, it was eafily
forefeen, that the Congregation, or body of the reform-
jgg ed in Scotland, would never confent to a£t againlt her
Scheme to in favour of a Poplfh power ; and as they could not
the lead^" l^e gained, it was refolved to deftroy them at once,
of^he Pro- putting to death all their leaders. The queen-re-
teftant par- g^iit gave intimation of her defis^n to re-eftablilh Pope-
ty in Scot- ry, by proclaiming a folemn obfervance of Eafter, re-
lan,d. ceiving the facrament according to the Romilh commu-
nion, herfelf, and commanding all her houfehold to re-
ceive it in the fame manner. She next exprelTed her-
felf m a contemptuous manner againft the reformed, af-
firmed that they had infulted the royal dignity, and de-
clared her intention of relloring it to its ancient luftre.
The preachers of the Conj^regation were next cited to
appear at Stirling, to anfwer the charges which might
be brought againft them. Alexander earl of Glen-
cairn, and Sir Hugh Campbell of Loudon, were depu-
ted to admonifh her not to perfecute the preachers, unlefs
they had been obnoxious by circulating erroneous doc-
trines, or difturbing the peace of government. The
queen-regent in a paffion told them, that the preachers
Ihould all be banllhed Scotland, though their doftrlnes
were as found as thofe of St Paul. The deputies ur-
ged her former kind behaviour and promifes ; but the .
queen-regent anfwered, that " the promifes of princes
ought not to be exacted with rlgeur, and that they
were binding only when fubfervient to their convenien-
cy and ploafure." To this they replied, that in fuch a
cafe they could not look upon her as their fovereign, and
mull renounce their allegiance as fubjefts.
Soon after tliis tranfaftion, the queen-regent recei-
Jj-f'p S^^J"^*^ ved the news that the reformation was eftablllhed in
CantJ. Perth. I^ord Ruthven the provoft of the city was
fummoned to anfwer for this innovation ; but his reply
was, that he had no dominion over the minds and con-
fclences of men. The provoft of Dundee, being or-
dered to apprehend an eminent preacher, named Pau/
JlMiveny fent him intelligence of the order, that he
might provide for his fafety. The proclamation for
obferving Eafter was everywhere defpifed and negleft-
ed, and people exclaimed againft the mafs as an idol.
-..-^ ^^'^ citatloBS, in the mean time, had been given to
come for- the preachers to appear at Stirling. They obeyed the
aiiidable by fummons ; but attended by fuch multitudes, that the
*heir num- queen-rSgent, dreading their power, though they ware
539
Treacher-
ous beha-
viour of
the queen
S40
54r
They be
2 1 SCO
without arms, lutreated Mr Erfliine of Dun> whom Scotland
they had lent before as a deputy, to ftop their march ; "-"V
affuring him that all proceedings againft the preachers
Ihould be ftopped. In confequence of this, the multi-
tude difmlffed ; yet, when the day came on which the
preachers fbould have appeared, the queen-regent, with
unparalleled folly as well as treachery, caufed them to
be declared traitors, and proclaimed it criminal to afford
them any fubfiftence.
Mr Erfclne, exafperated by this fhameful conduft,
haftened to the Congregation, apologlfed for his con-
duft, and urged them to proceed to the laft extrcmi-
ties. At this critical period alfo John Knox returned John Knoj
from Geneva, and joined the Congregation at Perth, returns ta
The great provocations which the Proteftants had al-^*^'"^'^"***
ready received, joined to the impetuous paflions of the
multitude, were now produftive of the greateft difor-
ders. Images were deftroyed, monafteries pulkd down,
and their wealth either feized by the mob or given to
the poor. The example of Perth was followed by
Cupar in Fife ; and fimilar infurreftions being appre-
hended in other places, the queen-regeat determined to
punifh the inhabitants of Perth in the moft exemplary
manner. With this view ft>e collefted an army : but
being oppofed with a formidable power by the Prote-
ftants, ftie thought proper to conclude an agreement. ^^.^
The Proteftants, however, dreaded her infmcerity ; and Second
therefore entered into a new covenant to ftand by and venant„
defend one another. Their fears were not vain. 'I^he J^'^^^^'^'"
queen-regent violated the treaty almoft as foon as made, queen-re
and began to treat the Proteftants with feverity. The gent,
earl of Argyle, and the prior of St Andrew's, who
about this time began to take the title of lord Jamei
Stuart, now openly headed the Proteftant party, and
prepai-ed to colled their whole ftrength. The queen^
regent oppofesl them with what forces (he had, and
which indeed chiefly confiiled of her French auxiliaries ;
but, being again afraid of coming to an engagement, '
fhe confented to a truce until commlffioners Ihould be
fent to treat with the lords of an effedlual peace. No
commlffioners, however, were fent on her part ; and
the nobles, provoked at fuch complicated and uncea-
fing treachery, refolved to pufh matters to the utmoft
. extremity. The firft exploit of the reformed was the Per h t?
taking of the town of Perth, where the queen-regent "^e" h>- 1
had placed a French garrifon. The multitude, elated
with this atchlevement, deftroyed the palace and abbey
of Scone, In fplte of all the endeavours of their leaders,
even of John Knox himfelf, to fave them. The queen-
regent, apprehenfive that the Congregation would com-
mit farther ravages to the fouthward, refolved to throw
a garrifon into Stirhng ; but the earl of Argyle and
lord James Stuart were too quick for her, and arri-
ved there the very day after the demolition of the ab-
bey and palace of Scone. The people, incapable of
reftraint, and provoked beyond meafure by the perfidi-
ous behaviour of the Catholic party, demolifhed all
the monafteries in the neighbourhood, together with
the fine abbey of Cambuflienneth, fituated on the north
bank of the Forth. From Stirhng they went to Lin- ™ ^''-^
llthgow, where they committed their ufual ravages ; af- l eae-TibT'
.ter which, they advanced to Edinburgh. The queen- toVunbar,
regent, alarmed at their approach, fled to Dunbar ; and "id the
the Proteftants took up their refidence in Edinburgh. I^f'teftatits
Having thus got poffeffion of the capital, the Con-|^^^gj.^ ^■^
gregation Edinburgh.
:46 ^
!y lofe
into
;refs.
treaty,
iciuded,
SCO [33
negation affumed to themfelvea the ruling power of
the kingdom, appointed preachers in all the churches,
and feized the mint, wth all the inftrnments of coin-
ing. The queen-refrent, unable to difpute the matter
in the field, publifhed a manifefto, in which fhe fet
forth their feditious behaviour, commanding them to
leave Edinburgh within fix hours, and enjoining her
fubjefts to avoid their fociety under the pain of trea-
fon. The Congrerration having already loft fomewhat
r popia- of their popularity by their violent proceedings, were
y, and fjo^v^ incapable of coping with government. As they
had not eftabliflied themfelvcs in any regular body, or
provided a fund for their fupport, they felt their
ftrcngth decay,, and multitudes of them returned to
their habitations. Thofe who remained found them-
felves obliged to vindicate their conduft ; and, in an
addrefs to the regent, to difclaim all" treafonable inten-
tions. Negociations again took place, which ended as
ufual ; the queen-regent, who had taken this opportu-
nity of collecting her forces, marched agalnft the Con-
gregation on the 23d of July 1559. The Proteftants
now found themfelves incapable of making head againft
their enemies ; and therefore entered into a negociation,
by which all differences were for the prefent accommo-
dated. The terms of this treaty were, that the town
of Edinburgh fiiould be open to the queen-dowager
and her attendants ; that the palace of Holyroodhoufe
and the mint fhould be delivered up to her ; that the
Proteftants fhould be fubjedl to the laws, and abftain
from molefting the Roman Catholics in the exercife of
their religion. On the queen's part, it was agreed, that
the Proteftants fhould have the free exercife of their
religion, and that no foreign troops fhould enter the ci-
ty of Edinburgh.
Notwithftanding this treaty, however, the reformed
had no confidence in the queen's fincerity. Having
heard of the death of Henry 1 1. of France, and the
acceflion of Francis II. and Mary to that kingdom,
they feem to have apprehended more danger than ever.
They now entered into a third covenant ; in which they
engaged themfelves to refufe attendance to the queen-
dowager, in cafe of any mefTage or letter ; and that im-
mediately on the receipt of any notice from her to any of
their number, it fhould be. communicated without re-
ferve, and be made a common fubjeft of fcrutiny and
deliberation. It was not long before they had occafion
entreaty for all their conftancy and ftrength. The queen-regent
ken by repented of the favourable terms fhe had granted the
reformed ; and being denied the favour which fhe re-
quefted of faying mafs in the high-church of Edinburgh,
(he ordered them to be everywhere difturbed in the ex-
ercife of their religion.
In this imprudent meafure, the queen-regent was
confirmed by letters which now came from Francis and
Mary, promifing a powerful army to fupport her inte-
refts. The envoy who brought thefe difpatches alfo
carried letters to the lord James Stuart, now the prin-
cipal leader of the Proteftants, and natural brother to the
queen. The letters were filled with reproaches and me-
naces, mixed with intreaties ; and along with them the
envoy delivered a verbal meffage, that the king his ma-
tter was refolved rather to expend all the treafures of
France than net to be revenged on the rebellious nobles
who had difturbed the peace of Scotland. The lord
James Stuart was not to be frightened by thefe mena-
VoL. XVn. Part I.
54«
ird co-
t«nt.
149
queen
ent.
550
nee fup
ts the
holic
] SCO
CCS, He returned a cool and deliberate anfwer, apolo- Scotland,
gizinw for the Proteftants, and vindicating them from » '
the charge of rebellion ; but at the fame time intima-
ting his full refolution of continuing to head the reform-
ed as he had already done. 551
The letters of Francis and Mary were foon followed Prcnch au-
by 1000 French foldiers, with money and ^^^^^H^^'l^'l^^jj^
ftores ; and the commander was immediately difpatched^]^^, ^j^^
a;i ain to France, to folicit the affiftance- of as many nation,
more foldiers, with four fhips of war, and 100 men^
at-arms. But before he could fet out. La Broffe, ano-
ther French commander, arrived with 2000 infantry •
and that the Con,';regation might be defeated not only
by arms but in difputation, the fame ftiip brought three
doftors of the Sorbonne, to ftiow the pernicious ten-
dency of the new doftrines. Thus matters were pufh-
ed on beyond all hopes of reconciliation. The nation
was univerfally alarmed on account of the introduftiort
of French troops, to which they faw no end. The
queen-regent attempted to quiet the minds of the pub-
lic by a proclamation ; but their fears increafed the
more. The Congregation afTembled at Stirling, where
they were joined by the earl of Arran, and foon alter
by his father the duke of Chatelherault. They next
deliberated on the meafures to be followed with the
queen-regent ; and the refult of their confultations was,
that an expoftulatory letter fhould be addreffed to her.
This was accordingly done ; but as the queen behaved
with her ufual duplicity, the nobles called the people
to arms. Mutual manifeftos were now publifhed ; and
both parties prepared to decide the conteft by the
fword. The Congregation having feized Broughty
caftle, marched from thence to Edinburgh. The 55*
queen-regent retired to Leith, which fhe had fortified The noble*
and filled with French troops. Thither the nobles fentf'^iJ'^
their laft meffage to her, charging her with a defign
to overthrow the civil liberties of the kingdom. 1'heyqueen-
requefted her to command her Frenchmen and merce- regent,
naries to depart from Leith, and to make that place
open and patent, not only to the inhabitants who had
been difpofTeffed of their houfes, but to all the inhabi-
tants of Scotland. They declared, that her denial of
this requeft fhould be confidered by them as a proof of
her intention to reduce the kingdom to flavery ; in
which cafe, they were determined to employ their ut-
moft power to preferve its independency. Two days j^^^^-^g
after this meffage, the queen-regent fent to them the unfa vour-
lord Lyon, whom fhe enjoined to tell them, that fheablean-
confidercd their demand not only as prefumptuous, but^*^*^*
as an encroachment on the royal authority ; that it
was an indignity to her to be di6tated to by fubjefts ;
that Frenchmen were not to be treated as foreigners,
being entitled to the fame privileges with Scotfmen ;
and that fhe would neither difband her troops, nor
command the town of Leith to be made open and pa-
tent. The lord Lyon then, in the name of the queens-
regent, commanded the lords of the Congregation to
depart from Edinburgh, and difperfe themfelves, under
the pain of high treafon. The Proteftants, irritated pjjgy^g_,
by this anfwer, after fome deliberation degraded thegrade her
queen-regent ; and to this purpofe the nobility, barons, f""**"! her
and burgeffes, all agreed in fubfcribing an edift, which j^®*^^^^"**
was fent to the principal cities in Scotland, and publifli-Lgith^*'*
ed in them.
The next ftep taken by the Congregation was to
£ fum«
SCO
C 34 1
SCO
S55
Divifions
take place
aniongft
them.
556
They fall
with queen
Elizabeth.
fummon Leith to furrender ; but meeting with defiance
inftead of fubmiflion, it was refolved to take tlie town
by fcalade. For this fervice ladders were framed in
the church of St Giles ; a bufinefs which, interrupting
the preachers in the exercife of public worfhip, made
them prognofticate misfortune and mifcarriage to the
Congregation. In the difpleafure of the preachers, the
common people found a fource of complaint ; and the
emiflaries of the queen-dowager afting with indefatigable
induftry to divide her adverfaries, and to fpread chagrin
and diliatisfadtion among them, difcontent, animofity,
and terror, came to prevail to a great degree. The
duke of Chatelherault difcouraged many by his example.
Defeftion from the Proteftants added ftrength to the
queen-dowager. The moft fecret deliberations of the
confederated lords were revealed to her. The foldiery
were clamorous for pay ; and it was very difficult, to
procure money to fatlsfy their claims. Attempts
to foothe and appeafe them, difcovering their confe-
quence, engendered mutinies. They put to death a
domeftic of the earl of Argyle, who endeavoured to
compofe them to order : they infulted feveral perfons
of rank who difcovered a follcitude to pacify them ; and
they even ventured to declare, that, for a proper re-
ward, they were ready to fupprefs the reformation, and
to re-eftablifh the mafs.
It was abfolutely neceflarv to give fatisfaftion to
*J)J5j;^^f*the Proteftant foldiers. The lords and gentlemen of
the Congregation coUefted a conliderable fum among
them ; but it was not equal to the prefent exigency.
T'he avarice of many taught them to withhold what
they could afford, and the poverty of others did not
permit them to indulge their generofity. It was re-
folved, that each nobleman (hould furrender his filver-
plate to be ftruck into money. By the addrefs, how-
ever, of the queen-dowager, the officers of the mint
were bribcdf to conceal, or to convey to a diflance, the
ftamps and inftruments of coinage. A gloomy defpair
gave difquiet to the Congregation, and threatened their
ruin. Queen Elizabeth, with whofe minifters the con-
federated lords maintained a eorrefpondence at this
time, had frequently promifed them her affiftance ; but
they could not now wait the event of a deputation to
the court of England. In an extremity fo preffing,
they therefore applied for a fum of money to Sir
Ralph Sadler and Sir James Croft, the governors of
Berwick ; and Coc"kburn of Oimifton, who was en-
trufted with this commiffion, obtained from them an aid
of 4000 crowns. Traitors, however, in the councils
of the Congregation, having informed the queen-dow-
ager of his eirand and expedition, the earl of Bathwel,
by her order, intercepted him upon his return, dif-
comfited his retinue, and made a prize of the Englifli
fubfidy.
To roufe the fpirit of the party, an attack was, pro>
jedted upon Leith, and lome pieces of artillery were
planted againil it. Put before any charge could be
made, the French foldiers fallied out to give battle to
the troops of the Congregation, poffeffed themfelves of
their cannon, and drove them back to Edinburgh. A
report that the viftors had entered this city with the
fugitives, filled it with diforder and difmay. The earl
of Argyle and his Highlanders haftened to recover the
honour of the day, and harafTed the French in^ their
retreat. This petty conili<5i, whik it elated the queen-
557
i;nglifh
fi;Hlidy
taken by
the queen-
Xegent.
538
The Pro-
teftants
defeated.
dowager, fcrvcd to augment the defpondence of the Seotlun
Proteilants. — — v-^
Vain of their prowefs, the French made B .new fally
from Leith, with a view to intercept a fupply of pro-
vifions and ftores for the Conp;regation. The earl of
Arran and the lord James Stuart advanced to attack
them, and oWiged them to retire. But purfuiug them
with too much heat, a frefh body of French troops
made its appearance. It was prudent to retreat, but the Pr<
difficult. An obftinate refiftance was made. It wasteflanrs
the objeft of the French to cut off the foldiery of the ^S^i"
Congregation from Edinburgh,, and by thefe means to
divide the ftrength of that ftatisn. The earl of Ar-
ran and the lord James Stuart had occafion for all their
addrefs and courage. Though they were able^ how-
ever, to effedl their efcape, their lofs was confiderable,
and the viftory was manifcftly on the lide of their ad-
verfaries.
About this time William Maitland of Lethington, Haitian
fecretary to the queen-dowager, withdrew fecretly from the queJ
Leith, and joined himfelf to the confederated nobles, dowugeri
He had been difgufted with the jealoufies of the French
counfellors, and was expofed to dang*.;: from having ^j^g pj.^
embraced the doArines of the reformed. His reception ftant*.
was cordial, and correfponded to the opinion enter-
tained of his wifdom. and experience. He was ficilled
in bufinefs, adorned with literature, and accullomed
to reflcdlion. But as yet it was not known, that his
want of integrity was in proportion to the greatnefs of
his talents.'
Th'C acceflion of this ftatefman to their paity could
not confole the lords of the Congregation for the un-
promifing afpedl of their affairs. The two difcomli-
tures they had received funk deeply into the minds of
their followers. Thofe who affedled prudence, retired
privately from a caufe which they accounted to be de-
fperate ; and the timorous fled with precipitation. The
waillngs and diftruft of the' brethren were melancholy
and infeftious ; and by exciting the ridicule and fcorn;
of the partifans of the queen-dowager, were augment-
ed the more. A diftrefs not to be comforted leem- ^
ed to have invaded the Proteftants ; and the affociated They rei
nobles confented to abandon the capital. A little after from EdJ
midnight, they retired from Edinburgh ; and fo great^"/^.^
was the panic which prevailed,, that tliey marched to ^^^^
Stirling without any flop or intermiffiian.
John Knox, who had accompanied the Congregation j ,hn Kr
to Stirling, anxious to recover their unanimity andeneouraj
courage, addreffed them from the pulpit. He repre-'^^'"'
fented their misfortunes as the confequences of their
fins ; and intreating them to remember the goodnefs
of their caufe, affured them in the end of joy, honomv
and vidlory. His popular eloquence correiponding to.
all their warmeft wifties, diffufed fatisfadlion and cheer-
fulnefs. Tliey paffed from defpair to hope. A coun-
cil was held, in which the confederated nobles deter-
mined to folicit, by a formal embaffy, the aid of queen
Elizabeth. Maitland of Lethington, and Robert Mel-
vil, were chofcn to negociate this important tranfac-
tlon ; and they received the fulleft inftruftions concern-
ing the ftate and difficulties of the Congregation, the
tyrannical defigns of the queens-dowager, and the danger
which threatened England from the union of Scotland
with France.
The queen of England having maturely confidered
the
SCO C 35 1 SCO
StUna. thecafe, detemmed to aflift the teformers ; whofe A formal treaty was now concluded between the Scotland.^
leaders now difpetfed themfelves, and went to different lords of the Congregation and queen Elizabeth ; and
J63 - . . . r . . . ...... - - -
lermincs there for the comtnon caufe. The queen-dowager,
aflift the imagining that the lords were fled, conceived great
'ormers. hopes of being aWe to tru'fh the reformed at once. Her
fanguine hopes, however, were foon checked, on re-
ceiving certain intelligence that queen Elizabeth was
refolved to give them afliftance. She now took the
beft meafures poflible, as circumftances ftood ; and de-
- - , _ _ _ . r/CO
parts of the kingdom, in order to employ their aftivity in the mean tinne the queen-dowager was difappointed y^eaty
' in her expedlations from France. The violent admi- between
niftratiou of the houfc of Guife had involved that na- Elizabeth
in troubles and diftrefs. Its credit was greatly ^'^^ ^'^^
tion
Scots Pro-
funk, and its treafury was nearly exhaufted. P^''^'^- tg^^nts.
cutions, and the fpirit of Calvinlfm, produced com-
motions and confpiracies ; and amidft domeftic and-phequeen-
dangerous intrigues and ftruggles, Scotland failed to regent dif-
termined to crufh her enemies before they could receive engage that particular diftinftion which had been pro- ?PP"»'Jted
,5^4 any afliftance from England. Her French troops took
the road to Stirling, and wafted in their march all the
afte the grounds which belonged to the favourers of the refor-
tatcs of mation. After renewing their depredations at Stir-
ic reform- ijjjg.^ they pafled the bridge there; and proceeding
along the fide of the river, exercifed their cruelties and
opprefilons in a diftrift which had diftinguiflied itfelf
by an ardent zeal againft popery. While the terror
of their anns was thus difftifing itfelf, they refolved to
feize the town and caftle of St Andrew's, which they
mifed to its affairs. It was not, however, negledled ^tj^^^
altogether. The count De Martigues had arrived at from
Leith with 1000 foot and a few horfe. The marquis France.
D'Elbeuf had embarked for it with another body of
foldiers ; but, after lofmg feveral fhips in a furious
tempeft, was obliged to return to the haven from which
he had failed.
In this fad reverfe of fortune many forfook the queen- she is de-
dowager. It was now underftood that the EngKfhferted by
army was upon its march to Scotland. The Scot-
confidered as an important military ftation, and as a tifh lords who had affedled a neutrality, meditated an^^^j^jg^g^
liey are
^pofed
|th fuc
uart.
convenient place of reception for the auxiliaries they
expefted from France.
But the lord James Stuart employed himfelf to in-
terrupt their progrefs and retard their attempts ; and
if b 1 d^^ objeft at the fame time, to keep the force of
the Congregation entire, to hazard no aftion of import-
ance, and to wait the approach of the Englifti army.
A fmall advantage was obtained by the French at Pet-
ticur ; and they poffeffed themfelves of Kinghorn. The
lord James Stuart, with 500 horfe and 100 foot, enter-
ed Dyfart. With this inconfiderable ftrength he pro-
pofcd to aft againft an army of 4000 men. His ad-
mirable fliill in military affairs, and his heroic courage,
were eminently difplayed. During 20 days he prevent-
ed the march of the French to St Andrew's, intercept-
ing their provifions, harafling them with flciimifhes,
and intimidating them by the addrefs and the boldnefs
of his ftratagems.
Monfieur d'Oyfel, enraged and afhamed to be dif-
concerted and oppofed by a body of men fo difpropor-
tioned to his army, exerted himfelf with vigour. The
lord James Stuart was obliged to retire. Dyfart and
Wemyfs were given to the French troops to be pilla-
ged ; and when d'Oyfel was in full march to St An-
drew's, he difcovered a powerful fleet bearing up the
frith. It was concluded, that the fupplies expefted
from France were arrived. Guns were fired by his
foldiers, and their -joy was indulged in aU its extrava-
gance. But this fleet having taken the veflels which
contained their provifions, and the ordnance with
which they intended to improve the fortifications of
the caftle at St Andrew's, a period was put to their
rejoicings. Certain news was brought, that the fleet
they obferved was the navy of England, which had
come to fupport the Congregation. A confternation,
heightenedby the giddinefs of their preceding tranfports,
invaded them. Mcnfieur d'Oyfel perceived now the
he French value and merit of the fervice which had been perfbrm-
ncrai ed by the lord James Stuart ; and thinking/ no more of
St Andrew's and conqueft, fled, to Stirling, in his way
to Leith, from which he dreaded to be intercepted ;
but he reached that important ftation after a march of
three days.
trival of
Englilh
let.
union with the Proteftants. The earl of Huntley gave
a folemn affurance that he would join them. Procla-
mations were iffued throughout the kingdom, calling
upon the fubjefts of Scotland to affemble in arms at
Linlithgow, to re-eftablifli their ancient freedom, and
to affift in the utter expulfion of the French foldieiy.
The Englifli fleet, meanwhile, under Winter the
vice-admiral, had taken and deftroyed feveral fliips, had
landed fome troops upon Inchkeith, and difcomfited a
body of French mercenaries. Upon the foundation of rhc princes
thefe a£ts of hoflility, the princes of Lorraine difpatch- of Lorraine
ed the chevalier de Seure to queen Elizabeth, to make attempt
reprefentations againft this breach of the peace, and to
urge the recal of her fhips. This ambaflador affeAed £Hzal^th^"
likewife to negociate concerning the evacuation of Scot- in vain,
land by the French troops, and to propofe methods by
which the king of France might quarter the arms of
England without doing a prejudice to queen Elizabeth,
But to prevent the execution of vigorous refolutions
againft the queen-dowager, and to gain time, were the
only objefts he had in view. With limiliar intentions,
John Monluc bifhop of Valence, a man of greater
addrefs and ability, and equally devoted to the houfe of
Guife, was alfo fent at this time to the court of Eng-
land. Qiieen Elizabeth, however, and her minifters,
were too wife to be amufed by artifice and dexterity.
The lord Grey entered Scotland with an army of 1 200 An En^-
horfe and 6000 foot ; and the lord Scroop, Sir James '•'^ *'''"y
CreFt, Sir Henry Percy, and Sir Francis Lake com- ^^1^*^*
manded under him. By an inclement policy, the queen-
dowager had already wafted all the country around
the capital. But the defolation fhe had made, while
it was ruinous to the Scottifh peafants, affedted not
the army of England. The leaders of the Congrega-
tion did not want penetration and forefight, and had
provided themfelves againft this difficulty. The duke
of Chatelherault, the earls of Argylc, Glencairn, and
Menteith, the lord James Stuart, and the lords Ruth-
ven, Boyd, and Ochiltree, with a numerous and formi-
dable force, joined the Englifh commander at Prefton.
Struck with the fad condition of her affairs, defpair-
ing of a timely and proper fuccour from France, and
reminded by ficknefs of her niortality, the queen-dowager
£ 2 retired
SCO
Scotland.
573
The queen
dowager
retires to
Edinburgh
<ailk.
[ 3^ ]
SCO
574
The Pro-
tcftants in-
vite her to
an accom-
modation.
retired from Leith to the caftle of Edinburgh, and put
herfelf under the protedlion of the lord Erlklne. At
.the period when'fhe was appointed to the regency,
the lord Erlkinc had received from the three eftates the
charge of this important fortrefs, with the injunftlon to
hold it till he fhould know their farther orders ; and
giving way to the follcitations of neither faftion, he
had kept it with fidelity. By admitting the queen-
dowager, he yielded to fentiments of honour and hu-
manity, and did not mean to depart from his duty. A
few only of her domeftics accompanied her, with the
archbifliop of St, Andrew's, thebifliop of Dunkeld, and
the earl Mai ifchal.
The confederated nobles now affembled at Dalkeith
to hold a council ; and comforming to thofe maxims
of prudence and equity which, upon the eve of hoflili-
ties, had been formerly exercifed by them, they invited
the queen- dowager to an amicable conclufion of the
prefent troubles. In a letter which they wrote to her,
they called to her remembrance the frequent manifeftc^s
and meffages in which they had preffed her to difmifs
the French foldiery, who had fo long oppreffed the
lower ranks of the people, and who threatened to re-
duce the kingdom itfelf to fervitude. The averfion,
however, with which (he had conftantly received their
fuit and prayers, was fo great, that they had given way
fponded with the fpirit of intrigue which had uniformly Scotlan
diftinguiflied the queen-dowager ; and it is probable, ' ^
that her engagements with France did not permit her
to be open and explicit.
The combined armies marched towards LeIth. A The Bret
body of the French, pofted upon a riling ground call- '^^^^ated
ed Hanok-hlll, difputed their progrefs. During five
hours the conflift was maintained with obftinate valour, allies.
At length the Scottifh horfemen charged the French
with a fury which they were unable to refill. They
fled to Leith with precipitation ; and might have been
cut off from it altogether, if the EngliOi cavalry had ex.
erted themfelves.- Three hundred of the French fol-
diers perifhed in this aftion, and a few combatants ojily
fell on the fide of the Congregation.
Leith was invefted. The pavilions and tents of the Who]
Englifh and Scottifh nobility were planted at Reftal- i'le^^e t
rig, and around it. Trenches were cait ; and the ord- ^^^"h.
nance from the town annoying the combined armies, a
mount was raifed, upon which eight cannons were ereft-
ed. A continued fire from thefe, againft St Anthony^s
tower in South Leith, being kept up and managed with
flfill, the walls of this fabric were fhaken, and the
French found it necelTary to difmount their artillery.—-
Negligent from fecurity, and apprehenfive of no attack,
the Englifh and Scottifl^ officers occupied themfelves in
to a ftrong neceflity, and had intreated the affiftance of amufements, and permitted a relaxation of military dif-
SIS ,
She ftill be
haves with
infincerity.
the queen of England to expel thefe ftrangers by the
force of arms. But though they had obtained the
powerful proteftion of this princefs, they were yet ani-
mated with a becoming refpeft for the mother of their
fovereign ; and, abhorring to ftain the ground with
Chriflian blood, were difpofed once more to folicit the
difmiffion of thefe mercenaries, with their officers and
captains. And that no juil objeftion might remain
againft the grant of this their laft requeft, they affured
her, that a fafe pafiage by land, to the ports of Eng-
land, fhould be allowed to the French ; or that, if they
judged it more agreeable, the navy of queen Elizabeth
fhould tranfport them to their own country. If thefe
propofals fhould be rejefted, they appealed and pro-
tefted to God and to mankind, that it fhould be under-
ftood and believed, that no motive of malice, or ha-
tred, or wickednefs of any kind, had induced them to
employ the fatal expedient of arms and battles ; but
that they had been compelled to this difagreeable and
dillrefsful remedy, for the prefervatlon of their com-
monwealth, their religion, their perfons, their eftates,
and their poftcrity. They begged her to weigh the
equity of their petition, to confider the inconveniences
of war, and to think of the reft and quiet which were
necelTary to relieve the affliftions of her daughter's
kingdom ; and they befought her to embalm her own
memory, by an immortal deed of wifdom, humanity,
and juflicc.
To give authority and weight to the letter of the
affociated lords, the lord Grey directed Sir George
Howard and Sir James Croft to wait upon the queen-
dowager, and to ftipulate the peaceable departure of the
Englifh troops, upon the condition that the French
mercenaries were immediately difmiffed from her fervice,
and prohibited from refiding in Scotland. Returning
no direft anfwer to the applications made to her, fhe de-
fircd time to dehberate upon the refolution which it be-
came her to adopt. This e^uivoc^l behaviour corre-
cipline. The French, informed of this fiipinenefs and 57?*
levity, made a fally from Leith, While fome of the ^ P^'''^.
captains were diverting themfelves at Edinburgh, ando^"*
the foldiery were engaged at dice and cards, they en-
tered the trenches unobferved, and, pufhing their advan-
tage, put 6oo men to the fword. After this flaughter,
the Proteftants were more attentive to their affairs. —
Mounts were built at proper diftances, which, being
fortified with ordnance, ferved as places of retreat and
defence in the event of fudden incurfions ; and thus,
they continued the blockade in a more e{feftual man-
ner.
The army under the marquis D'Elbeuf, promifed
fo often to the queen-regent, was in vain expedltd by
her ; but fhe received, at this time, fupplics in money
and military ftores ; and Monluc bifhop of Valence,
though defeated in dexterity by Elizabeth and her mi-
nifters, had arrived in Scotland to try anew the arts of
delay and negociation. Conferences were held by him 57c
with the queen-dowager, with the Englifh commanders,
and with the confederated nobles ; but no contraft or
agreement could be concluded. His credentials neither ^nd, "
extended to the demolition of Leith, nor to the recal
of the French mercenaries : and though he obtained
powers from his court to confent to the former of thefe
meafurcs, they were yet burdened with conditioHs which
were difgraceful to the Congregation ; who, in the
prefent profperous ftate of their fortunes, were not dif-
pofed to give up any of the objects for which they had
llruggled fo long, and to the attainment of which they
now looked forward with a fettled hope and expedla«
tion.
Though the grave and meafured orations of Monlue
could not overpower the plain and ftubborn fenfe of
the Congregation, yet as lie affeded to give them ad-
monitions .and warnings, and even ventured to infult
flxem with menaces, they appear to have conceived 9
high indignation againft him. Under this impulfc, andi
that
SCO
[ 37 ]
SCO
itliind. that In fo advanced a ftage of their affairs, they might
exhibit the determined firmnefs of their refolutions, and
bind to them by an indiffoluble tie the earl of Huntley
and the other perfons who had joined them in confe-
. 80 quence of the Englifli alliance, they thought of the af-
e fourth furance and {lability of a ntiv league and covenant., more
renant. {QX^^axx, expreflive, and refohite, than any which they
had yet entered into and fubfcribed.
The nobles, barons, and inferior perfons, who were
parties to this bond and aflbciauon, bound themfelves
in the prefence of Almighty God, as a fociety, and
as Individuals, to advance and fet forward the reforma-
tion of religion, and to procure, by every poflible
means, the true preaching of the gofpel, with the pro-
per adminlftration of the facraments, and the other or-
dinances In connexion with it. Deeply affefted, at the
fame time, with the mifconduft of the French ftatef-
men, who had been promoted to high offices ; with the
oppreffions of the French mercenaries, whom the queen-
dowager kept up and maintained under the colour of
authority ; with the tyranny of their captains ; and
with the manifeft danger of conquell to which the
country was expofed, by different fortifications upon
the fea-coaft, and by other dangerous innovations ; they
piomifed and engaged, generally and individually, to
join with the queen of England's army, and to" concur
in an honeft, plain, and unreferved refolution to expel
all foreigners from the realm, as oppreffors of public li-
berty ; that, by recovering the ancient rights, privi-
leges, and freedom of their nation, they might live for
the future under the due obedience of their king and
queen, be ruled by the laws and cuftoms of tlie coun-
try, and by officers and ftatefmen born and educated
among them. It was Hkewife contrafted and agreed by
the fubfcribcrs to this bond and covenant, that no pri-
vate intelligence by writing or melTage, or communica-
tion of any kind, (hould be kept up with their adverfa-
ries ; and that all perfons who rdifted the godly enter-
prifc in which they were united, Ihould be regarded as
their enemies, and reduced to fubjedlion and obedi-
ence.
When the ftrong and fervid fentiment and expref-
fion of this new affociation were communicated to the
581
Phe queen
iowager
pair
ivesherfclf qypen-dowager, {he refigned herfelf to forrow. Her
^ ^" mind, inclined to defpondence by the increafe of her
malady, felt the more intenfely the cruel diftraAions and
difquiets into which the kingdom had been driven by
the ambition of France, her own doating affedlion for
the princes of Lorrame, and the vain prognofticationa
of flattercrs-and courtiers. In the agony ©f paffion,
(he befought the maledidllon and curfe of God to alight
upon all thofe who had counfelled her to perfecute the
preacherf, and to refufe the petitions of the moll ho-
Bourable portion of her fubjefts.
In the mean time the iiege of Leith was profecuted.
But the ftrength of the garrifon amounting to more
than 4000 foldiers, the operations of the befiegers were
flow and languid. An accidental fire in the town,
which deftroyed many noufes and a great part of the
public granary,, afforded them an opportunity of play-
ing their artillery with fome advantage; and a few
days after they made a general affault. But the fcaling-
cefsful which were applied to the walls being too fliort,
^ and Sir James Croft, who had been gained to the queen-
iicith. dowager, having afted a treacherous part, the attempt
582
rhe Pro
eflants
nake an
mine
,ttack on
583
reiii-
failed of fuccefs, and 1000 men were deftroyed. The Scoti'and*
combined armies, however, did not lofe their refolu- * '
tion or their hopes. The Enghlh and Scots animated
the conftancy of one another ; and in the ratification of
the treaty of Berwick, which was now made, a new
fource of cordiality opened itfelf. Letters alfo had
come from the duke of Norfolk, promifing a powerful
reinforcement, giving the expeftation of his taking up-
on him the command of the troops in perfon, and or-
dering his pavilion to be erefted in the camp. Leith
began to feel the mifery of famine, and the French to
give themfelves to defpair. The befiegers abounded in a
every thing ; and the arrival of 2000 men, the expeft-forcement
ed reinforcement from England, gave them the moft ^^'^'"j^En
cifive fuperiority over their adverfaries. Frequent fallieSj^^j^
were made by the garrifon, and they were always un-
fuccefsful. Difcouraged by defeats, depreffed with the
want of provifions, and languifhing under the negli-
gence of France, they were ready to fubmit themfelves
to the mercy of the Congregation.
Amldft this diftrefs the queen-dowager, wafted with Death of
a lingering diftemper and with grief, expired in the 'he queeB*t<-
callle of Edinburgh. A few days before her death, fhc'^^*^^"^*
invited to her the duke of Chatelherault, the lord James
Stuart, and the earls of Argyle, Glencairn, and Mari-
fchal, to bid them a laft adieu. She expreffed to them
her forrow for the troubles of Scotland, and made it
her carneft fuit, that they would conlult fheir conftitii-
tional liberties, by difmiffing the French and Englifii
from their country ; and that they would preferve a du-
tiful obedience to the queen their fovcrelgn. She pro-
feffed an unlimited forgivenefs of all the injuries which
had been done to her ; and entreated their pardon for
the offences fhe had committed againft them. In to-
ken of her kindnefs and charity, (he then embraced
them by turns ; and, while the tear ftarted in her eye,
prefented to them a cheerful and fmihng afpe<£l. After
this interview, the fhort portion of life which remained
to her was dedicated to religion ; and that fhe might al»
lure the Congregation to be compaffionate to her Po-
pifh fubjeils and her French adherents, ftie flattered-
them, by calling John Willocks, one of the moft popu-
lar of their preachers, to affift and comfort her by hi».
exhortations and prayers. He made long difcourfes to
her about the abominations ©f the mafs ; but fhe appeara
to have died in the communion of the Romifh church j,
and her body being tranfported to France, was depofit-
ed in the monaftery of St Peter, at Rheiras, in Cham^
pagne, where her filler Renee was an abbefs.
The death of the queen-dowager, at a period foThe FrencBfe
critical, broke altogether the fpirit- of the French 'troops fuli-^
troops. They were blocked up fo completely, that"^^'*
it was almoft irapoffible for any fupplles to reach them.
either by fea or land ; and France had delayed fo long
to fulfil its magnificent promlfes, that it was no longer
in a capacity to take any fteps towards their accompllfh.
ment. Its internal diftrefs and difquiets were multiply-
ing. The nobility, impoverifhed by wars, were court-
ing the rewards of fervice, and ftrugghng in hoftility.,
The clergy were avaricious, ignorant, and vindidlive..
The populace, knowing no trade but arms, offered^
their fwords to the fa<Elious. Francis II. the hufband'
of Mary, was, without dignity or underftanding. Ca-
tharine de Medicis his mother was full of artifice and;
faUehood, Infurrediona were dreaded in every pro-
vincei-
586
SCO I 38
rince. The houfe of Guife was encompafTed with dif-
ficulties, and trembling with apprehenfione, fo that
they could not think of pcrfifting in their views of dif-
tant conquefts. It was neceffary that they fhould aban-
don for a time all tlie proud projeds they had formed
for the extenfion of the French monarchy. It was
chiefly in the exemption from foreign wars that they
could hope to fupport their own greatnefs, and apply a
remedy to the domeftic difturbances of France.
Francis and It appeared to Fraocis and Mary, that they could
Mary enter not treat in a direft method with the Congregation,
^da^tion '^l^""^ ^^^y afFefted to confider as rebellious fubjeas,
with Eliza- ^i^^o'^t derogating from their royal dignity. In nego-
Ibeth, ciating a peace, they therefore addreffed themfelves to
queen Ehzabeth. It was by her offices and interfe-
rence that they projcded a reconciliation with the con-
federated lords, and that they meant to extinguifh the
animofities which, with fo much violence, had agitated
the Scottifh nation. They granted their commifCon to
John Monluc bifhop of Valence, Nicholas Pelleve bi-
fhop of Amiens, Jacques de la Broffe, Henry Clentin
fieur d'Oyfel, and Charles de la Rochefaucault lieur de
Randan ; authorifing them in a body, or by two of
their number, to enter into accords and agreements
with the queen of England. The Englifh commiffion-
ers were Sir William Cecil principal fecretary of ftate,
Nicolas Wotton dean of Canterbury and York, Sir
Ralph Sadler, Sir Henry Percy, and Sir Peter Crew ;
and the powers of treaty were to be exetcifed by thera
587 ^" conjundlion, or by four, three, or two of them.
Promife an The plenipotentiaries of France, though empowered
indemnity only to treat with England, were yet, by a feparate
Sunts. f "t™fted to aflure the Congregation, that,
notwithftanding the heinous guilt incurred by them,
Francis and Mary were inclined to receive them into fa-
vour, upon their repentance and return to obedience ;
and to abftain for ever from all inquiry into their con-
6u£t. They had full authority, at the fame tiftie, by
this new deed, to hear, in conjunftion vnth the cam-
miffioners of Elizabeth, the complaints of the Congre-
^ gation, and to grant, with their confent, the relief
which appeared to them to be the mofl: proper and fa-
lutary.
The nobility and people of Scotland, choofing for
their reprefentatives the lord James Stuart, the lord
Ruthven, and Maitland of Lethington, expreffed their
willingnefs to concur in reafonable meafures for the re-
cftabhfliment of the public union and tranquillity. By
the mode of a formal petition, they enumcs^ted their
grievances, laid claim to a redrefs of them, and befoiight
5S8 an uniform protection to tlieir conftitution and laws. To
And at laft this petition the interceflion of queen EHzabeth effedl-
letiw"'^ ed the friendly attention of Francis and Mary ; and
* * upon foundation concerted with fb much propriety,
Monhic and Randan, Cecil and Wotton, the afting
plenipotentiaries of England and France, drew up and
authenticated the celebrated deed of relief and concef-
fion which does' fo much honour to the fpirit, perfc-
verancc, and magnanimity of the Scottifh nation.
Nature of . ^^"^ accord and agreement, Francis and Mary
their treaty ftipulatcd and confented, that no French foldiers and no
with tlie foreign troops fliould ever be introduced into Scotland
rroteftantt.virithout the counfel and advice of the three eftates.
They concurred in the opinion, that the French mer-
cenaries ftiould be fent back into France, and that the
] SCO
fortification? of Lcith fhould be demolUhed. They
agreed that commiffioners ftiould be appointed to vifit
Dunbar, and to point out the works there which ought
to be deftroyed ; and they bound and engaged them-
felves to build no new fortrefs or place of ftrength
within the kingdom, and to repair no old one, without
a parliamentary^ authority and fandion. They con-
fented to extinguifli all debts which had been contrad-
€d for the maintenance of the French and Scotch fol-
diery in their fervice. They appointed the eftates of
the realm to hold a parliament for t^e difcuflion of af-
fairs of ftate ; and they obliged themfelves to confider
the ads of this affembly as valid and effedual in every
refped. 'i'hey confirmed the ancient law of the
countiy, which prohibited the princes of Scotland from
making peace and war without the advice of the three
eftates. It was accorded and agreed by them, that the
three eftates, in concurrence with the queen, {hould
eled a council for the adminiftration of affairs during
her majefty's abfence. They became beund to employ
the natives of Scotland in the management of juftice
both civil and criminal, in the offices of chancellor,
keeper of the feals, treafurer, comptroller, and in other
ftations of a fimilar nature ; and to abftain from the
promotion of all foreigners to places of truft and honour,
and from inverting any clergyman in the charge of'^^f-
fairs of the revenue. They determined to eftabhlh an
ad of oblivion, and to forget and bury for ever the
memory of all the late tranfadions of war and oflfence.
It was concluded by them, that a general peace and
reconciliation fhould take place among all parties.
They expreffed their determination, that no pretence
fhould be afliimed by them, from the late contentions,
to deprive any of their fubjeds of their eftates or offices.
And they referred the reparation which might be pro-
per to compenfate the injuries that had been fuftained
by bifhops and ecclefiaftics, to the judgment of the
three eftates in parliament.
Upen the fubjed of the reformation, the plenipo-
tentiaries of England and France did not choofe to de-
liberate and decide, although articles with regard to it
had been prcfented to them by the nobles and the peo-
ple. ^ They referred this delicate topic to the enfuing
meeting of the parliament ; and the leaders of the Con-
gregation engaged, that deputies from the three eftates
fhould repair to the king and queen, to know their in-
tention concerning matters of fuch high importance.
After having granted thefe coHceffions to the nobi-
lity and the people of Scotland, upon the part of their
refpedive courts, Monluc and Randan, Cecil and Wot-
ton, concluded another deed of treaty and agreement.
By this convention it was determined, that the Englifh 59©
and French troops fhould depart out of Scotland ; that J^r'^'^^'es
all warlike preparations fhould ceafe ; that the fort of .ie'"Fr^nc
Ey mouth fhould be razed to the ground, in terms of troops,
the treaty of Cambray ; that Francis and Mary fhould
abftain from bearing the title and arms of England or
Ireland ; that it fhould be confidered, whether^ far-
ther compenfation ftiould be made to Elizabeth for the
injuries committed againtt her ; and that the king and
queen of Scots fhould be fully and fincerely reconciled
to the nobility and the people of their kingdom. The
interefts of England and France were the particular ob-
jeds of this agreement. But though the conceffions to
the Proteftaats were not infertcd in it at full length, an
4 cxpreffive
V
S9»
'cacp pro-
SCO Is
wthnd. ^xpfeffive reference wsus made to them } and they re-
ceived a confirmation in terms which could not be mlf-
underftood or controverted. This deed recorded the
€lenriency of Francis and Mary to their fubjefts of Scot-
land, the extreme willingnel's of the nobihty artd the
people to return to their duty and allegiance, the repre-
fentation they had offered of their grievances, and the
requeft of queen Elizabeth that redrefs flrould be af-
forded to them ; and it appealed to the confequent con-
ccffions which had been llipulated to their advanta;.re.
By thefe important negociations, the Proteftants,
while they humbled France, flattered queen EHzabeth ;
and while they acquired a power to ad in the efta-
blifliment of the reformation, reftored its civil conftitu-
tion to Scotland. The exclufion of foreigners from
offices of ftate, the limitation of the Scottilh princes
with regard to peace and war, the advancement of the
three ellates to their ancient confequence, and the aft
of oblivion of all offences, were acquifitions raoft ex-
tenfively great and ufeful ; and, while they gave the full-
eft fecurity to the reformed, gratified their moft faa-
gulne expectations.
The peace» fo fortunately concluded, was immedi-
ately proclaimed. The French mercenaries embarked
for their own country, and the Englifh army took the
road to Berwick. Amidft events fo joyful, the preachers
exhorted the confederated nobles to command the fo-
lemnity of a thankfgiving. It was ordered according-
ly ; and after its celebratiork, the commiffioners of the
boroughs, with feveral of the nobility, and the tenants
in capitCy, were appointed to choofe and depute minifters
to preach the gofpel in the principal towns throughout
the kingdom. John Knox was called to difcharge the
paftoral funftiotis at Edinburgh, Chriftopher Goodman
►reachersin at St Andrew's, Adam Heriot at Aberdeen, John
iffereirt j^^^^ 'Ptxthy Paul Methven at Jedburgh, WiUiam
[ Chriftifon at Dundee, David Fergufon at Dunfermline,
I and David Lindfey at Lekh. That the bufinefs of the
f church, at the fame time, might be managed with pro-
priety, fupeiintendants were eledted to prefide over the
ecclefiaftical affairs of particidar provinces and diftrids.
Mr John Spotfwood was named the fuperintendant for
the divifion of Lothian, Mr John Willocks for that
of Glafgow, Mr John Winram for that of Fife, Mr
John Erflclneof Dun for that of Angus and Merns, and
Mr John Carfewell for that of Argyle and the Ifles.
This inconfiderable number of minifters and fuperinten-
dants gave a beginning to the reformed church of Scotr
land.
Amidft the triumph and exultation of the Protef-
bentmeet^»tan^.g^ ^j^e meeting of the parliament approached. All
perfons who had a title from law, or from ancient cuf-
tom, to attend the great council of the nation, were
called to affemble there. While there was a full con-
vention of the greater barons and the prelates, the in-
ferior tenants in capites or the, leffer barons, upon an
pccafion fo great, inftead of appearing by reprefenta-
tion^ came In crowds to give perfonally their affxftance
and votes ; and all the commiffioners for the boroughs,
without exception, prefented themfelves.
! 59*
Appoint-
jient of
_ 593
'he parlia
9 ] SCO
It was objcfted to this parliainent when it was af- Scotland*^
fembled, that it could not be valid, fince Francis and " »
Mary were not prefent, and had not empowered any
perfon to represent them. But by the terms of the
late conceflions to the nobility and the people, they
had in effeft difpenfed with this formality ; and the ob-
jection, after having been airitated with heat for fome
days, was rejefted by a majority of voices. The lords
of the articles were then chofen ; and as the Proteftant
party were fuperior to the Popifh fadtion, they were
careful, in elefting the members of this committee, to
favour all thofe who were difpofed to forward the work
of the reformation. The firft objeft which, the lords Supplies^
of 'the articles held out to the parliament was the fup- tion of the
plication of the nobility, gentry, and all the other per- Proteftantsi'
fons who profeffed the new doftrlnes. It required, that
the Romifh church ftiould be condemned and aboliihed.
It reprobated the tenet of tranfubftantiation, the merit
of works, papiftical indulgences, purgatory, pilgrim-
ages, and prayers to departed faints ^ and cenftdering
them as peftilent errors, and as firtal to f?.lvation, it de*
manded; that all thofe who fliould teach and maintain
them fhould be expofed to correftlon and puniftiment.
It demanded, that a remedy fhould be applied agalnft
the profanation of the holy facraments by the Romaa
Catholics, and that the ancient difcipline of the church
fhould be reftored. In fine, it infiftcd, that the fupre-
macy and authority of the pope fhould be abolifhed
and that the patrimony of the church Ihould be em-
ployed in fupporting the reformed mmiftry. In tlie pro-
vlfion of fchools, and In the maintenance of thf poor.
This fupplication of the Proteftants was received la
parliament with marks of the g^reateft deference and
refpedt. The popifti doftrines it cenfuied, and thn
ftrqng languai^e it employed, excited no difpute or al-
tercation. The nobility, however, and the lay mem-
bers,- did not think It expedient that the patrimony
of the church, in all its extent, ftrould be allotted to
the reformed minlftry, and the fupport of fchools and
the poor. Avoiding, therefore, any explicit fcrutiny
into this point, the parliament gave it in charge to the
minifters and the leading men of the reformation, to
draw up, under diftinft heads, the fuhftance and fenfe 59^
of thofe dodlrines which ought to be eftabliHled over A. Confef^
the kingdom. Within four days this important tii^- y^"'*'
finefs was accompliftied. The writing or inftrument. ^^'^^^^'^
to which the reformed committed their opinions v/as
termed, " The Confeffion of Faith, profeffed- and be-
lieved, by the Proteftants withirr the realm of Scot-
land (q.J-" Itwas read firfl: to the lords of the articles.
It was then read to the parliament ; and the prelates
of the Romlfli church were commanded, in the name
of God, to make publicly their objeftions to the doc-
trines it propofed. They preferved a profound filence.
A new diet was appointed for concluding the tranf-
adlion. The articles of the Confefllon were again read
over in their order, and the votes of the parliament
were called. Of the temporal nobility, three only re-
fufed to beftow upon it their authority. The earl of
Athol, and the lords Somerville and Bothvvell, proteft-
ed,
(q^) It is given at full length in Knox, in the coUeaion of confeflions of faith, vol. 2. aad in the ftatute boolts
yarl. 1567.
SCO
ed, that ** tliey would believe as their fathers had done
before them." The bHhops and the eftate ecclefiafti-
cal, from a confcioufnefs of the weaknefs of popery,
feemed to have loft all power of fpeech. No diflent,
no vote, was given by them. *' It is long (faid the
earl Marifchal), fince I entertained a jealoufy of the
Romiih faith, and an affeftion to the refomied doc-
trines. But this day has afforded me the completed;
conviftion. of the falfehood of the one, and the truth
of the other. The bifhops, who do not conceive them-
felves to be deficient in learning, and wbgic zeal for
the maintenance of the hierarchy cannpf he doubted,
have abandoned their religion, and thd'r intereft in it,
as objefts which admit of no defence or juftification."
All the other conflituent members of this great coua-
cil were zealous for the eftablifhrnent of the reforma-
tion, and affirmed the propriety of its doftrines. Thus
the high court of parliament, with great deliberation
and folemnlty, examined, voted, and ratified the con-
feflion of the reformed faith.
^ A few days after the eftabllfhment of the Confeffion
c» theniafs.of jr^i^^^ parliament pafTed an aft againft the mafs
and the exercife of the Romlfh worfiiip. And it fcru-
pled not to ordain, that all perfons faying or hearing
mafs (hould, for the firft offence, be expofed to the
confifcation of their eftates, and to a corporal chaftife-
raent, at the difcretlon of the magiftrate ; that for the
fecond offence, they fhould be banifhed out of the king-
dom ; and that for the third offence they fhould incur
.flPerfecudng and fuifer the pains of death. This fiercenefs, it is to
fpirit of the be acknowledged, did not fuit the generofity of viftory;
I'roceAants.and while an excufe is fought for it in the perfidiouf-
nefs of the Romlfh priefthood, it efcapes not the obfer-
vation of the mofl fuperficial hlftorians, that thefe fe-
verlties were exaftlythofe of which the Proteflants had
complained fo loudly, and .with fo much juftice. By
another ordination, the parliament, after having de-
clared, that the pope, or bifhop of Rome, had inflifted
a deep wound and a humihating injury upon the fove-
rclgnty and government of Scotland, by his frequent
interferences and claims of power, commanded and de-
creed, that, for the future, his jurifdiftion and authori-
ty fhould be dead and extinft ; and that all perfons
maintaining the fmalleft connexion with him, or with
his feft, fhould be liable to the lofs of honour and offi-
ces, profcription, and banifhment.
Thefe memorable and decifive ftatutes produced the
overthrow of the Romiih religion. To obtain to thefe
proceedings, and to its other ordinances, the appro-
Francis andbation of Francis and Mary was an objeft of the great-
Maryrcfufeeft anxiety, and of infinite moment to the three eftates.
the^adfs'"^" J^™^^ Sandilands lord St John was therefore ap-
this parli^- pointed to go to France, and to exprefs to the king
aaeot. and queen the affeftion and allegiance of their fub-
jefts, to explain what had been done in confequence of
the late concefTions and treaty, and to folicit their royal
ratification of the tranfaftions of the parliament. Tlie
fpirited behaviour of the Congregation had, however,
exceeded all the expeftations of the princes of Lorraine;
and the bufinefs of the embaffy, and the ambaffador
himfelf, though a man of charafter and probity, were
treated not only with ridicule, but with iiifult and con-
tiunely. He returned accordingly without any anfwer
to his commifTion. Inflead of fubmitting the heads
I 40 1
SCO
and topics of a reformation to Francis and Mary, by 9 ScotUn
petition or a narrative, the parliament had voted them
into laws ; and from this informality the validity of its
proceedings has been fufpefted. But it is obfervable
of the Proreftants, that they had not concealed their
views with regard to religion and the abolition of Po-
pery ; that in the grant of redrefs and conceffion, and
in the deed of treaty, no aftual prohibition was made
to bar the eftablifhment of the reformation ; that a ge-
neral authority was given to the parliament to decide
in affairs of ftate ; and that Francis and Mary were fo-
lemnly bound to authenticate its tranfaftions. Though
a formality was invaded, the fpirit of the treaties was
yet refpefted and maintained. The nation, of confe-
quence, Imputed the conduft of Francis and Mary to
political 1-eafons fuggefled by the princes of Lorraine,
and to the artifices of the Popifh clergy ; and as Eli-
zabeth did not refufe, upon her part, the ratification
of the agreements, and foliclted and prefTcd the French
court la vain to adopt the fame meafure, a flrength and
force were thence communicated to this conclufion.
When the three eftates difpatched Sir James Sandi-
lands to France, they Inftrufted the earls of Morton
and Glencairn, with Maitland of Lethington, to re-
pair to the court of England. By thefe ambaffadors
they prefented to Elizabeth their fincere and refpeftful
thanks, for the attention fhown by her to Scotland,
in her late mofl important fervices. And while they
folicited the continuance of her favour and proteftion,
intreated, in an earneft manner, that her majefly, for
the eflablifhment of a perpetual peace- and amity,
would be pleafed to take in marriage the earl of Ar-
ran, the next heir after his father to the Scottifh mo-
narchy. The queen made new and fervent protefta-
tions of her regard and attachment ; and gave the pro-
mlfe of her warmeft aid when it fhould be neceffary,
in their jufl: defence, upon any future occafion. She
fpoke in obHglng terms of the earl of Arran ; but as
fhe found in herMf no prefent difpofition to marriage,
fhe defired that he might confult his happinefs in ano-
ther alliance. She expreffed a favourable opinion of .
the Scottifh nobility ; and as a demonftration of her
affeftion and efleem, flie took the liberty to remind
them of the praftices which had been employed to o-
verturn their independency, and begged them to confi-
der the unanimity and concord of their order as a ne-
ceffary guard againfl the ambition and the artifice of
the enemies of their nation.
The fuccefs of the Congregation, though great and
illuftrious, was not yet completely decifive. The re-
fufal of Francis and Mary to ratify their proceedings
opened a fource of bitternefs and inquietude. The
Popifh party, though humbled, was not annihilated.
Under the royal proteftion it would foon be formi-
dable. Political confiderations might arife, not only
to cool the amity of England, but even to provoke its
refentment. And France, though It could now tranf-
port no army againft Scotland, might foon be able to
adopt that expedient. Cruel diftradions and fevere ca-
lamities were ftlU to be dreaded. In the narrownefs
of their own refources they could find no fohd and
permanent fecurity againft the rage and weight of
domeftic fadflon, and the ftrenuous exertions of an ex-
tenfive kingdom. All their fair atchievements might
3 be
th of
s a o C 4
%e fekfted ftr}4 QveFihppwn, Ppperf m>f?ht spin b^ild
up her towcfs, and a fangfulnajy dqmlnatioii deftroy
ftllka their religious and civil liberties,
While the &ngui(h of melancholy apprehenfions re^
preffed the triumph of the Congregation, the event
which could operate moft to their intereils was an-
nounced to them. This event was the death of Fran-
cis IT, The tie which knit Scotland to France was
thus broken. A new fcene of politics difplaya it-
felf. Catharine de Medicis, the queen.mother, ruled
Charles IX. and was the perfonal enemy of the queen
of Scots. The power and the credit which Mary had
lent to her uncles, and the frequent and humiliating
difappointments which the queen-mother had fufFered
from her influence over Francis, were now repaid with
». ftudied indifference and negled. In the full perfec-
tion of her charms, with two crowns upon her head,
and looking towards a third, Ihe felt herfelf to be with-
out grandeur and without confequence. Leaving a
court where (he had experienced all the enjoyments of
which humanity is fufceptible, (he retired to Rheims, to
indulge her forrow.
In the humiliation of their queen, and in the change
produced in the councils of France, the Proteftants of
Scotland found every poflible encouragement to pro-
ceed with vigour in the full eltabli(hment of the re-
formed doArines, After the diirolving of the piailia-
ment, they turned their thoughts and attention to the
f)lan of policy which might fuit bed the tenets and re-
igion for which they had contended. The three e-
ftates, amidft their other tranfaftions, had granted a
tclefmfti- commiflion to Mr John Winram, Mr John Spottif-
* govern- wood, John Willocks, Mr John Douglas, Mr John
Row, and John Knox, to frame and model a fcheme
or platform of ecclefiaftical government. They were
not long in complying with an order fo agreeable to
them,4 and compofed what is termed the Firjl Book of
Difcipline / in which they explained the uniformity and
method which ought to be prefervcd concerning doc-
trine, the adminiftratjon of. the facramenta, the elec-
tion and provifion of rninifters, and the policy of the
church,
A convention of the eftates gave its fandlion to the
Pre/byterian fcheme of government. But while the
Book of Dxfcipline (ketched out a policy beautiful for
its fimplicity, yet it required that the patrimony and
Its of the the rich poffefllons of the ancient church (hould be
u'^-h're eftabliihment. The reformers,
fed to the ■however, fo fuccefsful in the doftrines and the policy
iforracd they had propofed, were here very unfortunate. This
re»ehcr*. convention of the eftates did not pay a more refpeftful
regard to this propofal than the celebrated parliament
had done, which demoliihed the inafs and the jurif-
^ didion of the fee of Rome. They affected to con-
fider it as no better than a dream. The exprefiion " a
devout imagination" was applied to it in mockery j
and it was not till after long and painful ftruggles,
that the new eftabliftiment was able to procure to it-
fclf a becoming and neccffary provifion and fupport.
The Roroifh clergy were ftrenuous to continue in their
poflelfions, and t© profit by thera } and the nobles and
the laity having feized upon great proportions of the
property of the church, were no lefs anxious to retain
the acquifitions they had made.
The averfion entertained from beftowing riches upon
Vol. XVII. Part I.
6©o
ent of
Iw-mo-
ilkd.
6oI
he rcve
I 1 S G O
th? Prefbyt^rian gftablffhment, encouraged the ardour Ucorianl*
which prevailed for advancing all the other vjsws and ^ ^ *
Interefts of the reformed, And this end was alfo pro«
moted in no inconfiderable degree by the infidious po.
licy of Catharine de Mediqis. She was willing to in-
creafe and to foftcr all the difficulties and dangers in
the fituation of the queen of Scots and her fubjedg.
Upon this account (he had engaged Charles IX. to dif-
patch Monfieur Noailles tp the Scotch parliament, to
urge it in ftrong terms to renew the ancient league be-
tween the two kingdoms, to diffolve the alliance with
England, and to re-eftabli(h over Scotland the Popi(h
doftrines and the PopKh clergy, A new meeting of the
eftates was alfembled, which conlidered thefe ftrange
requifitions, and treated them with the indignation
they merited. ^ Monfieur Noailles was inftrudled to in.
form his fovereign, that France having afted with cruel-
ty and perfidioufnefs towards the Scots, by attacking
their independency and liberties under the cover and
pretence of amity and marriage, did not deferve to
know them any longer as an ally ; that principles of
juftlce, a love of probity, and a high fenfe of grati-
tude, did not permit the Scottilh parliament to break
the confederacy with England, which had generoully
proteded their country againft the tyrannical views of
the French court, and the treacherous machinations of
the houfe of Guife ; and that they were never to ac-
knowledge the PopKh clergy to be a dijtina order of
men, or the legal poireffors of the patrimony of the
church ; fmce, having aboliihed the power of the pope,
and renounced his dodtn'nes, they could beftow no fa-
vour or countenance upon his vaiTals and fervants.
To this council of the eftates a new fupplication was
prefented by the Proteftants. They departed from the
high claim which they had made for the riches and
patrimony of the Popiih church ; and it was only re-
quefted by them, that a reafonable or decent provifion
ftiould be allotted to the true preachers of the gofpel.
This application, however, no lefs than their former
exorbitant demand, was treated with negleft and in-
difiPerence. But amidft the anxiety manifefted by the
nobles and the tenants of the crown to hold the Pref-
byterian clergy in fubjeftion and in poverty, they dif-
covered the warmeft zeal for the extenfion and conti-
nuance of the reformed opinions. For in this fuppli-
cation of the Proteftants, an ardent defire being inti-
mated and urged, that all the monuments of idolatry
which remained (houid be utterly deftroyed, the fulleft
and moft unbounded approbation was given to it. An
aft accordingly was paffed, which commanded that foa
every abbey-church, every cloifter, and every memo- P'nal de-
rial whatfoevcr of Popery, ihould be finally overthrown '^'^"'^'o" ^
and demoliihed : and the care of this cruel, but ooou-"'""^^!'
lar employment, was commuted to thofe perfons who every mark
were moft remarkable for their keennefs and ardour in of the Po-
the work of the reformation. Ita execution in the?!** ''5''°
wcftern counties was given in charge to the earls offiij^d
Arran, Argyle, and Glencairn ; the lord James Stuart
attended to it in the m.ore northern diftrids ; and in tlie
inland divifions of the country, ir was intrufted to the
barons in whom the Congregation had the greateft con-
fidence. A dreadful devaftation enfucd. The popu-
lace, armed with authority, fpread their ravages over
the kingdom,^ It was deemed an execrable lenity to
fpare any fabric or place where idolatry had been exer-
^ cifed.
SCO [ 42 ] SCO
Scotland, cifed. The churches and religious houfes were every- jealoufies which already prevailed between her and E- Scotlani
" » where defaced, or pulled to the ground ; and their fur-
603
Mary fo-
licited to
return to
her own
country.
604
Her dif-
putes with
Elizabeth.
* See Ho-
bertfon of
Mijiory of
Idory
^ueen of
Stotland,
niture, utcnfils, and decorations, became the prizes and
the property of the invader. Even the fepulchres of
the dead were ranfacked and violated. The libraries of
the ecclefiaftics, and the regifters kept by them of their
own tranfaftions and of civil affairs, were gathered into
heaps, and committed to the flames. Religious anti-
pathy, the fanftion of law, the exhortation of the cler-
gy, the hope of fpoil, and, above all, the ardour to put
the laft hand to the reformation, concurred to drive the
rage of the people to its wildeft fury ; and, in the midft
of havock and calamity, the new eilablifhment furveyed
its importance and its power.
The death of Francis II. having left his queen, Ma-
ry, in a very difagreeable fituation while Hie remained
in France, it now became neceffary for her to think on
returning to her own country. To this ftie was foli-
cited both by the Proteftants and Fapifts ; the former,
that they might gain her over to their party ; and the
latter, hoping that, as Mary was of their own perfua-
fion, Popery might once more be eftablifhed in Scot-
land. For this deputation, the Proteftants chofe lord
James Stuart, natural brother to the queen ; and the
Papifts, John Lefly, official and vicar-general of the
diocefe of Aberdeen. The latter got the ftart of the
Proteftant ambaflador, and thus had the opportunity
of fii-ft delivering his meflage. He advifed her ftrong-
ly to beware of the lord James Stuart, whom he re-
prefented as a man of unbounded ambition, who had
efpoufed the Proteftant caufe for no other reafon than
that he might advance himfelf to the higheft employ-
ments in the ftate ; nay, that he had already fixed his
mind on the crown itfelf. For thefe reafons he advi-
fed that the lord James Stiiart ftiould be confined in
France till the government of Scotland could be com-
pletely eftablifhed. But if the queen was averfe to
this meafure, he advifed her to land in fome of the
northern diftrifts of Scotland, where her friends were
moft numerous ; in which cafe an army of 20,000 men
would accompany her to Edinburgh, to reftore the
Popiih religion, and to overawe her enemies. The
next day the lord James Stuart waited upon her, and
gave an advice very different from that of Lefly. The
fureft method of preventing infurreftions, he faid, was
the eftablifliment of the Proteftant religion ; that a
flanding army and foreign troops would certainly lofe
the affeftions of her fubjcfts ; for which reafon he ad-
vifed her to vifit Scotland without guards and without
foldiers, and he became folemnly bound to fecure their
obedience to her. To this advice Mary, though fhe
diftrufted its author, liftened with attention ; and lord
James, imagining that ftie was prejudiced in his favour,
took care to improve the favourable opportunity ; by
which means he obtained a promife of the earldom of
Matre.
Before Mary fet out from France, fhe received an
cmbafTy from queen EHzabeth, preffing her to ratify
the treaty of Edinburgh, in which ftie had taken care
to get a claufe inferted, that Francis and Mary ftiould
for ever abftain from afluming the title and arms of
England and Ireland. But this was declined by the
queen of Scotland, who, in her conference with the
Engllfti ambaffador, gave an eminent proof of her poli-
tical abilities *. Her refufal greatly augmented the
in Scot»
land.
lizabeth, infomuch that the latter refufed her a fafe paf-
fage through her dominions into Scotland. This was
confidered by Mary as a high indignity ; ftie returned
a very fpirited anfwer, informing her rival, that fhe
could return to her own dominions without any affift-
ance from her, or indeed whether fhe would or not.
In the month of Auguft 1561, Mary fet fail from Ca-
lais for Scotland. She left France with mueh regret ;
and at night ordered her couch to be brought upon
deck, defiring the pilot to awaken her in the morning
if the coaft of France fhould be in view. The night
proved calm, fo that the queen had an opportunity
once more of indulging herfelf with a light of that be-
loved country. A favourable wind now fprung up,
and a thick fog coming on, fhe efcaped a fquadron of
men of war which Elizabeth had fet out to intercept 605
her ; and on the 20th of the month fhe landed fafely at Mary li
Leith.
But though the Scots received their queen with the
greateft demonftrations of joy, it was not long before
an irreconclleable quarrel began to take place. The
Proteftant religion was now eftablifhed all over the
kingdom ; and its profelTors had fo far deviated from
their own principles, or what ought to have been their
principles, that they would grant no toleration to the
oppofite party, not even to the fovereign herfelf. In
confequence of this, when the queen attempted to cele- g^g
brate mafs in her own chapel of Holyroodhoufe, a vio- (s iiiful
lent mob affembled, and it was with the utmoft dlffi-'^Y
culty that the lord James Stuart and fome other per-'"^^*"'*'
fons of high diftinftion could appeafe the tumult. Ma-
ry attempted to allay thefe ferments by a proclama-
tion, in which fhe promifed to take the advice of the
ftates in religious matters ; and, in the mean time, de-
clared it to be death for any perfon to attempt an in-
novation or alteration of the religion which fhe^found
generally eftabliflied upon her arrival in. Scotland,^ A-
galnft this proclamation the earl of Arran protefted,
and formally told the herald, the queen's proclamation
fhould not proteft her attendants and fervants if they
prefumed to commit idolatry and to fay mafs. John
Knox declared from the pvilpit, that one mafs was
more terrible to him than if 10,000 armed enemies
had landed in any part of the kingdom to re-eftablilh
Popery. The preachers everywhere declaimed againfl
idolatry and the mafs ; keeping up, by their miftaken
zeal, a fpirit of difcontent and fedition throughout the
whole kingdom. John Knox was called before the
queen to anfwer for the freedom of his fpeeches ; but
his unbounded boldnefs when there gave Mary much
difquiet, as not knowing in what manner to deal w ith
him. The freedoms, however, which were taken with
the queen, could not induce her to depart from that
plan of government which fhe had laid down in France.
To the Proteftants (he refolved to pay the greateft at-
tention ; from among them fhe chofe her privy-coiincil,
and heaped favours upon the lord James Stuart, who
for his adlivity in promoting the reformation was the
moft popular man in the kingdom ; while to her cour^-
tiers of the Roman Catholic perfuafion ftie behaved with
a diftant formality.
In the mean time, the difference between the two
rival queens became every day greater. The queea
of Scotland preifed Elizabeth to declare her the neareft
heir
bland.
SCO [43 3; SCO
heir to the crown of England, and EHzabeth prefled able fituation, being fufpefled and diftrufted by both Scotland.
Mary to confirm the treaty of Edinburgh. With this parties. From the conceffions (he had made to the Pro-
the latter could not comply, as it would in fad have tettants, the Papifts fuppofed that flie had a defign of Mary°(i;f,
been renouncing for ever the title to that crown for renouncing their religion altogether ; while, on the trufted by
Mry 01
fciagi-
tes of
nburgh
Ordered
e of the
109
pre fled
ord
es
rt.
which fhe was fo earneftly contending. Endlefs nego-
ciations were the confequence, and the hatred of Eli-
zabeth to Mary continually increafed. This year the
queen of Scotland amufed herfelf by making a circuit
through part of her dominions. From Edinburgh flie
proceeded to Stirling; from thence to Perth, Dun-
dee, and St Andrew's. Though received everywhere
with the greatell acclamations and marks of affeftion,
(he could not but remark the rooted averfion which
had univerfally taken place againft Popery ; and upon
her return to Edinburgh, her attention was called to
an exertion of this zeal, which may be confidered as
highly charadteriftic of the J:imes. The magiftrates of
this city, after their eleftion, enadled rules, according
to cuftom, for the government of their borough. By
one of thefe afts, which they publifhed by proclama-
tion, they commanded all monks, friars, and priefts, to-
gether with all adulterers and fornicators, to depart
from the town and its limits within 24 hours, under
the pains of correAion and punifhment. Mary, juftly
interpreting this exertion' of power to be an ufurpation
of the royal authority, and a violation of order, dif-
placed the magiftrates, commanded the citizens to elect
others in their room, and granted by proclamation a
plenary indulgence to all her fubjefts not convifted of
any crime, to repair to and remain in her capital at
their plealure.
Befides thefe diilurbances on account of religion, the
kingdom was now, in confufion on another account.
The long continuance of civil wars had left a pronenefs
to tumults and infurreftions everywhere ; and thefts,
rapine, and llcentloufnefs of every kind, threatened to
fubvert the foundations of civil fociety. Mary made
confiderable preparations for the fuppreifion of thefe
diforders, and appointed the lord James Stuart her chief
jutticiar and lieutenant. He was to hold two criminal
courts, the one at Jedburgh, and the other at Dum-
fries. To afiift his operations againft the banditti, who
who were aimed, and often aflbclated into bodies, a
military force was neceifary ; but as there were at pre-
fcnt neither ftanding army nor regular troops in the
kingdom, the county of Edinburgh, and ten others,
were commanded to have their ftrength in readinefs to
afiift him. The feudal tenants, and the allodial or free
proprietors of thefe diftridls, in complete armour, and
with provifions for 20 days, were appointed to be fub-
fervlent to the purpofes of his commiflion, and to obey
his orders in eftabUfhing the public tranquillity. In
this expedition he was attended with his ufual fuccefs.
He deftroyed many of the ftrong-holds of the banditti;
han'^ed 20 of the moft notorious offenders ; and order-
ed 50 more to be carried to Edinburgh, there to fuffer
the penalties of law on account of their rebellious beha-
viour. He entered into terms with the lord Grey and
Sir John Fofter, the wardens of the Engllih borders,
for the mutual benefit of the two nations ; and he com-
manded the chiefs of the diforderly clans to fubmit to
the. queen, and to obey her orders with regard to the
fecuring of the peace, and preventing infurredlions and
depredation-s for the future.
iu the mean time the queen was in a very dlfagree-
other hand, the Proteftants could fcarcely allow them- both par-
felves to believe that they owed any allegiance to an
idolater, Difquiets of another kind alfo now took 6rr
place. The duke of Chatelherault, having left the Ca- Chara(5ler§
thoHcs to join the oppofite party, was neglefted by ^^s^^^^^^^^J^^
fovereign. Being afraid of fome danger to himfelf, he J^^s.
fortified the caftle of Dumbarton, which he refolved to
defend ; and in cafe of neceffity to put himfelf under
the proteftion of the queen of England. — The earl of
Arran was a man of very flender abilities, but of bound-
lefs ambition. The queen's beauty had made an im-
preflion on his heart, and his ambition made him fancy
himfelf the fitteft perfon in the kingdom for her huf-
band. But his fanaticifm, and the violence with which
he had oppofed the mafs, difgufted her. He bore her
diffike with an uneafmefs that preyed upon his intelledls
and difordered them. It was even fuppofed that he had
concerted a fcheme to poffefs himfelf of her perfon by
armed retainers ; and the lords of her court were com-
manded to be in readinefs to defeat any proje6l of this
fort. The earl of Bothwel was diftlnguiihed chiefly
by his prodigahties and the licentioulTiefs of his man-
ners. The earl of Marifchal had every thing that was
honourable in his intentions, but was overwary and flow.
The earl of Morton poffeffed penetration and ability,
but was attached to no patty or meafures from any
principles of reftitude : His own advantage and inte-
refls were the motives which governed him. The earl
of Huntley the lord chancellor, was unquiet, variable,
and vindidlive : His paflions, now fermenting with vio-
lence, were foon to break forth in the moft dangerous
praftices. The earis of Glencairn and Mentelth were
deeply tindlured with fanaticifm ; and their inordinate
zeal for the new opinions, not lefs than their poverty,
recommended them to queen EHzabeth. Her ambaf-
fador Randolph, advifed her to fecure theh fervice, by
addrelfing herfelf to their neceffities. Among courtiers
of this defcription, it was diflicult for Mary to make a
feleftion of minifters in whom to confide. The confe-
quence and popularity of thejord James Stuart, and
of Maitland of Lethington, had early pointed them out
to this diftinftion ; and hitherto they had adled to her
fatisfaftion. They wei;e each of eminent capacity :
but the former was fufpefted of aiming at the fove-
rcignty ; the latter was prone to refinement and dupli-
city ; and both were more conncdled with Elizabeth
than became them as the minifters and fubjedts of an-
other fovereign.
Belide the policy of employing and trufting ftatef-
men who were Proteftants, and the precaution of main-
taining a firm peace with England, Mary had it alfo at
heart to enrich the crown with the revenues of the an-
cient church. A convention of eftates was affembled She obtain*
to deliberate upon this meafure. The biftiops were^ part of
alarmed with their perilous fituation. It was made
known to them, that the charge of the queen^s houfe- y^jj^^s
hold required an augmentation ; and that as the rents
of the church had flowed chiefly from the crowri, it was '
expedient that a proper proportion of them fliould now
be refumed to uphold its fplendour. After long con-
fultations, the prelates and eftate cccleiiaftical, confider-
F 2 ingf
SCO [44
Scotland, {n^ that they exifted merely by the favour of the queen, turers.
^•"-—sr^ confented to rcfigu to her the third part of their bene-
fices, to be managed at her pleafure ; with the referva-
t ion that they (hould be fecared during their lives agalnll
all farther payments, and relieved from the burden of
contributing to the maintenance of the reformed clergy.
With this offer the queen and the convention of eftates
were fatisfied. Rentals, accordingly, of all their bene-
fices throughout the kingdom, were ordered to be pro-
duced by the ancient eccleliaftics ; the reformed minl-
fters, fuperintendants, elders, and deacons, were enjoin-
ed to make out regifters of the grants or provifions ne_-
celTary to fupport their eftabliftiment ; and a fuperemi-
nent power of judging in thefe matters was committed
to the queen and the privy-council.
While the prelates and eftate ecclefiaftlcal fubmitted
to this offer from the necelTity of their affairs, it was by-
no means acceptable to the reformed clergy, who at this
time '^'oere holding an affembly. It was their earnefl
wilh to effeft the entire deftrudlon of the ancient efta-
blifliment, to fucceed to a large proportion of their emo-
luments, and to be altogether independent of the crown.
But while the Proteftant preachers were naturally and
unanimoufly of thefe fentiments, the nobles and gentle-
men who had promoted the reformation were difpofed
to think very differently. To give too much of the
wealth of the church to the reformed clergy, was to in-
yeft them with a dangerous power. To give too great
^ proportion of it to the crown, was a Hep flill more
dangerous. At the fame time it was equitable, that
the ancient clergy fhould be maintained during their
lives } and it confifted with the private interefls of the
noblemen and gentlemen, who had figured during the
reformation, not to confent to any fcheme that would
deprive them of the fpoils of which they had already
polfefTed themfelves out of the ruins of the church, or
which they might ftill be enabled to acquire.
Thus public as well as private confiderations contri-
buted to feparate and divide the lay Pioteftants and the
preachers. The general affembly, therefore, of the
church, was not by any means fuccefsful in the views
which had called them together at this time, and which
they fubmitted to the convention of eflates. Doubts
were entertained whether the church had any title to
aflemble itfelf. The petition preferred for the complete
abolition of idolatry, or for the utter prohibition of the
inafs, was rejefted, notwithftan^ing all the zeal mani-
fefted by the brethren. The lequell that Mary fhould
give authority to the book of difcipllne, was not only
refufed, but even treated with ridicule. The only poiiit
prefied by the church, which attrafted any notice, was
its requifitlon of a provifion or a maintenance ; but the
meafure Invented for this end was in oppofition to all
its warmefl defires.
This meafure, however, fo unpromifing to the preach-
ers in expeftation, was found to be ftill more unfatis-
factory upon trial. The wealth of the Romifh church
had been immenfe, but great invafions had been made
upon it. The fears of the ecclefiaftics, upon the over-
throw of popery, induced them to engage in fraudulent
tranfaftions with their kinfmen and relations ; in con-
fequence of which many poffeffions were conveyed from
the church into private hands. For valuable confider-
ations, leafes of church-lands, to endure for many years,
or in perpetuity, were granted to ftrangers and advea-
613
Bad fuccefs
of the de-
mands of
the Prote-
Provilirt
J SCO
Sales alfo of ecclefiaflical property, to a great Scotlw
extent, had been made by the ancient incumbents ; and '
a validity was fuppofed to be given to thefe tranfadions
by confirmations from the pope, who was zealous to af-
fift his votaries. Even the crown itfelf had contribu-
ted to make Improper difpofitions of the ecclefiailical
revenues. Laymen had been prefented to biflioprics
and church-livings, with the power of difpofing of the
territory' in connedion with them. In this diffufion of
the property of the church, many fair acquifitions, and
much extenfive domain, came to be invefted in the no-
bles and the gentry.
From thefe caufes, the grant of the third of their be
nefices, made by the ancient ecclefiaftics to the queen,
with the burden of maintaining the refermed clergy,
was not near fo confiderable as might have been ex-
pcded. But the dircftion of the fcheme being lodged
in the queen and the privy-council, the advantage'to \he
crown was ftill greater than that beftowed upon the
preachers. Yet the carrying the projeft into execu-
tion was not without its inconveniences. There were
ftill many opportunities for artifice and corruption ; and
the full third of the ecclefiaftlcal benefices, even after
all the previous abftradions of them vvhich had been
made, could not be levied by any diligence. For the.
ecclefiaftics often produced falfe rentals of their bene-
fices ; and the colleAors for the crown were not always
faithful to the truft repofed in them. The complete
produce of the thirds did not amount to a great fum j
and it was to operate to the expences of the queen, as
well as to the fupport of the preachers. A fcanty pro-
portion went to the latter ; and yet the perfons who ^-^
were chofentofix and afcertain their particular ftipendsSe Proi
or provifions were the faft friends of the reformation, ftant
For this bufinefs was committed in charge to the earls Pfc*<^^*'
of Argyle and Morton, the lord James Stuart, and
Maltland of Lethington, with James Mackgill the clerk-
reglfter, and Sir John Ballenden the juftice-clerk. One
hundred Scottifli merks were deemed fufficicnt for a
common minifter. To the clergymen of greater inte-
reft or confideration, or who exercifed their functions in
more extenfive parifhes, 300 merks were allotted ; and,
excepting to fuperintendants, this fum was fcldom ex-
ceeded. To the earl of Argyle, to the lord James
Stuart, to Lord Erficine, who had large ecclefiaftlcal
revenues, their thirds were ufually remitted by the
queen ; and upon the eftablilhment of this fund or re-
venue, fhe alfo granted many penfions to perfons about
her court and of her houfehold.
The complaints of the preachers were made with little ^ '
decency, and did not contribute to better their condl-^Jj^ ^^'j,
■tion. The coldnefs of the Proteftant laity, and the hu-L^dsLd
manity ftiown to the ancient clergy, were deep wounds
both to their pride and to their interefts. To a mean
fplrit of flattery to the reigning power, they imputed
the defedlion of their friends ; and againtt the queen
they were animated with the bittereft animofity. The
poverty in which they were fuft"ered to remain inflamed
all their paflions. They induftrioufly fought to Indulge
their rancour and turbulence ; and inveterate habits of
infult fortified them into a contempt of authority.
To the queen, whofe temper was warm, the rudenefs
of the preachei-s was a painful and endlels inquietude,
which, while it foftered her religious prejudices, had
the good eifcd to confirm her conitancy to her iriends,
and
[ 45 1
^i6
nours
ferrcd
»ii 1 .rd
(nee
tart.
s c o
(tland. and to keep alive her gratitude for tfeeir aftivity. The
lord James Stuart, who was intitled to her refpeft and
efteem from his abilities, and his proximity to her in
blood, had merited rewards and honours by his public
fervices and the vigour of his counfels. After his fuc-
cefsful difcharge of her commiflion as chief jufViciar and
lord lieutenant, Ihe could not think of allowing him to
defcend from thefe offices, without bcftowing upon him
a folid and permanent mark oi her favour. She advan-
ced him into the rank of her nobility, by conferring up-
on him the earldom of Marte. At the fame time {he
contributed to augment his confequence, by facilitating
his marriage with A^nes the daughter of the earl of
Marifchal ; and the ceremonial of this alliance was cele-
brated with a macrnificence and oilentation fo extrava-
gant in that age, as to excite the fears of the preachers
left fome avenging judgment or calamity fhould afflid
the land. They exclaimed with virulence againft his
riotous feafting and banquets; and the mafquerades
which were exhibited upon this occafion, attracting in
% ftill greater degree their attention, as being a fpecies
of ewtertainment hitherto unknown in Scotland, and
which was favoCirable to the profanenefs of gallantly,
they pointed againft them the keenneft ftrokes of their
cenfnre and indignation.
The abilities of the earl of Marre, the afcendency he
maintained in the councils of his fovereign, and the di-
ftindlions which he had acquired, did not fail to ex-
hniity of pofe him to uncommon envy. The moft defperate of
i!„^.1!L°^ his enemies, and the moft formidable, was the earl of
Huntley. In their rivalftiip for power, many caufes of
difguft had arifen. The one was at the head of the
Proteftants, the other was the leader of the Paplfts.
Upon the death of Francis II. Huntley and the Popifh
faftion had fent a deputation to Mary, inviting her to
return to Scotland, and offering to fupport her witli an
army of 20,000 men. His advances were treated with
attention and civility, but his offer was rejefted. The
invitation af the Proteftants, prefented by the earl of
Marre, was more acceptable to her. Huntley had ad-
vifed her to detain his rival in confinement in France
till the Roman Catholic religion fhould be re-eftabUfhcd
in Scatland. This advice Ihe not only difregarded, but
careffed his- enemy with particular civilities. Upon her
arrival in her own country, Huntky renewed his ad-
vances, offering to her to fet up the mafs in all the
^'ifh'*^* northern counties. He even converfed in a prefllng
re- ^^jjj^gj. ^^po^^ j^^jg fubjeft with her uncles and the French
courtiers who attended her. Still no real attention was
paid to him. He came to her palace, and was recci-
ved only with refpeiSt. He was lord high chancellor
without influence, and a privy counfellor without truft.
The earl of Marre had the confidence of his fovereign,
and was drawing to him the authority of government.
Thefe were cruel movtifications to a man of high "rank,
inordinate ambition, immenfe wealth, and who com-
manded numeraus and warlike retainers. But he was
yet to feel a ftroke ftill more feverely excruciating, and
far more deftruAive of his confequence. The opulent
eftate of Marre, which Mary had erefted. into an earl-
dom, and conferred upon his rival, had been lodged in
his family for fome time. He conhdered it as- his pro-
perty, and that it was never to be torn from his houie.
This blow was at once to iilfult moft fenfibly his pride,
and- to cut moft fatally the finewa of his greatnefs.
SCO
After employing againft the earl of Marre thofc arts ScGtlmd*
of detraftion and calumny which are fo common in
CQurts, he drew up and fubfcribed a formal memorial,
617
tuntley
(wards
Ini.
618
Iiiutley
kreffes the
Jtieen to
P
igion
accufei
Stuart of
treiiiont
62a
his And at=
in which he accufed him of aiming at the fovereignty the lord
of Scotland. This paper he prefented to the queen ; James
but the arguments with which he fupported his charge
being weak and inconclufive, Ihe was the more confirm- '
ed in her attachment to her minitter. Huntley then
addreffing himfelf to the earl of Bothwel, a man difpofed
to defperate courfes, engaged him to attempt to involve
the earl of Marre and the houfe of Hamilton in open
and violent contention. Bothwel reprefented to Marte
the enmity which had long fubfifted between him and
the houfe of Hamilton. It was an obftacle
greatnefs ; and while its deftruftion might raife him to ^^3^^^
ithe higheft pinnacle of power, it would be moft ac-
ccptable to the queen, who, befide the hatred which
princes naturally entertain to their fucceffors, was ani--
mated by particular caufes of offence againft the duke
of Chatelherauit and the carl of Arran. He concluded
his exhortation with making an unlimited offer of his
moft ftrenuous fervices in the execution of this flagi-
tious enterprife. The earl of Marre, however, abhor-
ring the bafenefs of the projeft, fufpicious of the fin«
oerity of the propofer, or fatisfied that his eminence
did not require the aid of fuch arts, rejedled all his ad-
vances. Bothwel, difappointed upon one fide, turn-
ed himfelf to the other. He praftifed with the hovtfc
of Hamilton to affaffinate the earl of Marre, whom
they confidered as their greateft enemy. The bufi-
nefs, he faid, might Be performed with eafe and ex-
pedition. The queen was in ufe to hunt the deer ia
the park of Falkland ; and there the earl of Marre^
unfufpeCling any danger, and flcnderly attended, might
be overpowered and put to death. The perfon of the
queen, at the fame time, might be feized ; and by de-
taining her in cuftody, a fanftion and fecurity might
be given to their crime. The integrity of the earl of
Arran revolting againft this confpiracy, defeated its
purpofes. Dreading the perpetration of fo cruel an
aftion, and yet fenfible of the refolute determination
of his friends, he wrote privately to the earl of Marre,
informing him of his danger, But the return of Marre
to his letter, thanking him for his intelligence, being
intercepted by the conlpirators, Arran was confined
by them under a guard in Kenneil-houfe. He effected
notwithftanding his efeape, and made a full difcovery of gjj
the plot to thie queen. Yet in a matter fo dark he But faih
could produce no witnefTes and no written vouchers to'nh's"*
confirm his accufations. He therefore, according to^^'^^i"*
the faftiion of the times, offered to prove his inibrma-
tion, by engaging Bothwel in fingle combat. And
though, in his examinations before the privy council,
his love to the queen, his attachment to the earl of
Marre, the atrocity of the fcheme he revealed, and,
above all, his duty and concern for his father the duke '
of Chatelherauit, threw him into a perturbation of mind
which expreffed itfelf violently in his fpeech, his coun-
tenance, and his aftions ; yet his declarations, in gene-
ral, were fo confiftent and. firm, that it was -thought
advifable to take the command of the caftle of Dum-
barton from "the duke of Chatelherauit, to confine the
other confpirators to different prifons, and to wait the *
farther difcoveiies which might be made by accident j
and time.
SCO
6l4
Sir John
Gordon
wounds
lord O^il-
vy, and is
apprehend
Eut efcape;
from pri-
fov,
The earl of Huntley, inflamed by thefe difappoint
ments, invented other devices. He excited a tumult
while the queen and the earl of Marre were at St An-
drew's with only a few attendants ; imagining that the
latter would fally forth to quell the infurgents, and
that a convenient opportunity would thus be afforded
for putting him to the fword without deteftion. The
caution, however, of the earl of Marre, defeating this
purpofe, he ordered fome of his retainers to attack him
in the evening when he fhould leave the queen ; but
thefe alTaflins being furprifed in their ftation, Huntley
afFefted to excufe their being in arms in a fufpicious
place and at a late hour, by frivolous apologies, which,
though admitted, could not be approved.
Abput this period, too, letters were received by'
Mary from the pope and the cardinal of Lorrain, in
confequence of the intrigues of the earl of Huntley
and the Roman Catholic faftion. They preffed her
to ^confider, that while this nobleman was the moft
powerful of her fubjefts, he was by far the moft zeal-
lous in the interefts of the church of Rome. They
in treated her to flatter him with the hope of her mar-
riage with Sir John Gordon his fecond fon ; held out
to her magnificent promifes of money and military fup-
plies, if (he jA'ould fet herfelf ferioufly to recover to
power and fplendour the ancient religion of her coun-
tiy; and recommended it to her to take meafures
to deftroy the more ftrenuous Proteftants about her
court, of whom a roll was tranfmitted to her, which
included the name of her confident and miniiler the
earl of Marre' Thefe letters could not have reached
her at a junfture more unfavourable for their, fuccefs.
The earl of Marre, to whom fhe communicated them,
was encouraged to proceed with the greateft vigour
in undermining the defigns and the importance of his
enemies.
New incidents exafperated the animofities of the ene-
mies of the earl of Marre and his own. Sir John Gor-
don and the lord Ogilvie having a private difpute, hap-
pened to meet each other in the high ftreet of Edin-
• burgh. They immediately drew their fwords ; and
the lord Ogilvie receiving a very dangerous wound,
Sir John Gordon was committed to prifon by the ma-
giftrates. The queen, at this time in Stirling, was
informed by them of the riot ; and while they expref-
fed a fear left the friends of the prifoner fhould rife up
in arms to give him his liberty, they mentioned a fuf-
picion which prevailed, that the partizans of the lord
Ogilvie were to aflemble themfelves to vindicate his
quarrel. The queen, in her reply, after commending
their diligence, inftrufted them to continue to have a
•watch over their priloner ; made known her defire that
the law ftiould take its courfe ; and counfelled them to
have no apprehenfions of the kindred of the parties at
variance, but to rely upon the earl of Marre for pro-
viding a fulEcient force for their protection. Sir John
Gordon, however, found the means to break from his
confinement ; and flying into Aberdeenftiire, filled the
retainers of his family with his complaints, and added
to the difquiets of his father the earl of Huntley.
The queen, upon returning to Edinburgh, held a
eonfultation upon afi^airs of ftate with her privy coun-
cil ; and foon after fet out upon a progrefs to the
corthern parts of her kingdom. At Aberdeen fhe-
v/as met by the lady Huntley, a woman of deep difli-
[ 46 1
SCO
mulation and of refined addrefa ; who endeavoured to Scot!»n<
conciliate her affeftions, was prodigal of flattery, ex- — v— "
preffed her zeal for the Popiih religion, and let fall in-
fmuations of the great power of her hufband. She
then interceded with the queen for forgivenefs to her
fon : and begged with a keen importunity, that he
might be permitted to have the honour to kifs her hand.
But Mary having told her, that the favour fhe had fo-
licited could not poffibly be granted till her fon flxould
return to the prifon from which he had efcaped, and
fubmit to the juftice of his country, the lady Huntley
engaged that he fhould enter again into cuftody, and
only intreated, that, inftead of being confined at Edin-
burgh, he fliould be conduced to the caflle of Stirhng.
I'his requeft was complied with ; and in the profecution
of the bufinefs, a court of jufticiary being called. Sir
John -Gordon made his appearance, and acknowledged
himfelf to be the queen's prifoner. The lord Glamis
was appointed to conduA him to the caftle of Stirling,
But upoH the road to this fortrefs, he deceived the vi-And at-
gilance of his guards, haftened back, and gathering t<^rnp's
1000 horfemen among his retainers, entrufted his fe-f*'/w*'""
curity to the fwerd.
In the mean time, the queen continued her progrefs.
The earl of Huntley joined himfelf to her train., . His
anxiety to induce her to allow him to attend her to his
houfe of Strathbogy was uncommon j his intreaties
were even preffed beyond the bounds of propriety. The
intelligence arrived of the efcape and rebeUion of Sir
John Gordon. The behaviour of the father and thg
fon awakened in her the moft alarming fufpicions. Af-
fembling her privy-council, who, according to the fafhion
of thofe times, conftituted her court, and attended her
perfon in her progreffes though her dominions ; fhe,
with their' advice, commanded her heralds to charge
Sir John Gordon and his adherents to return to their
allegiance, and to furrender up to her their houfes of
ftrength and, caftles, under the pains of high treafon and
forfeiture. Difdaining now to go to the houfe of the
earl of Huntley, where, as it afterwards appeared, that
nobleman had made fecret preparations to hoW her in
captivity, fhe advanced to Invernefs by a different rout.
In the caftle of Invernefs fhe propofed to take up her
refidence ; but Alexander Gordon the deputy governor,
a dependent of the family of Huntley, refufed to admit
her. She was terrified with the profpetl of a certain
and imminent danger. Her attendants were few in
number, the town was without walls, and the inhabi-
tants were Xufpedted. In this extremity, forae ftiips in
the river were kept in readinefs as a laft refuge; and
fhe iffued a proclamation, commanding all her loyal fub-
jedts in thofe parts immediately to repair to her for her
protedien. The Frafers and Monroes came in crowds
to make her the ofler of their fwords. The Clan Chat-
tan, though called to arms by the earl of Huntley, for-
fook his ftandard for that of their fovereign, when they
difcovered that his intentions were hoftile to.her. She
employed this ftrength in laying fiege to the caftle,
which furrendered itfelf upon the firfl affault. The
lives of the common foldiers were fparcd, but the deputy-
governor was inftantly executed. The queen, full of
apprehenfions, returned to Aberdeen.
To intimidate the earl of Huntley, to punlfh the
troubles which his family had created to the queen,
and to convince him that his utter ruin was at hand,
amea-
SCO
[ 47 1
SCO
tland. a meafure infinitely humiliating was now concerted and
'v~~' put in praftice. The earl of Marre refigned the rich
eftate of that name to the lord Erflcine, who laid claim
to- it as his right ; and received in recompenfe, after
its ereftion into an earldom, the territory of Murray,
which made an extenfive portion of the pofTeflions ©f the
carl of Huntley.
The lady Huntley haftened to Aberdeen to throw
herfelf at the feet of her fovereign, to make the offer
of the moft humble fubmiffions on the part of her huf-
band, and to avert by every poffible means the downfal
cfhis greatnefs. But all accefs to the queen was re-
fufed to her ; and the earl of Huntley was fummoned
to appear in perfon before the privy council, to anfwer
for his conduct, and to make a full refignation of all
his caftles and fortreffes. He did not prefent himfelf,
and was declared to be in open rebellion. A new pro-
clamatien was circulated by the queen to coUeft together
6»5 a fufhcient ftrtngth to fubdue the infurgents. The
command of her troops was given to the earl of Mur-
feated by ^"^7' ^'^^ put them inftantly into motion. Huntley
I eail of advancing towards Aberdeen to give them battle, was
jirray. informed of their approach. He halted at Corrichie,
folacing himfelf with the hope of a decifive viftory.
The army of the queen was the moft numerous ; but
L there were feveral companies in it in whom little con-
P fidence could be placed. Thefc the earl of Murray
polled in the front of the battle, and commanded them
to begin the attack. They recoiled upon him in dif-
order, according to his expeftation ; but a refolute
band in whom he trufted, holding out their fpears,
obliged them to take a different courfe. Their con-
fufion and flight made Huntley conceive that the day
was his own. He therefore ordered his foldiers to
throw afide their lances, and to rufh upon the enemy
fword in hand. His command was obeyed, but with no
precaution or difcipline. When his men came to the
place where the earl of Murray had flationed himfelf,
the points of the extended fpears of his firm battalion
put a termination to their progrefs. The panic com-
municated by this unexpeftcd refiflance was improved
by the vigour with which he preffed the affailants. In
their turn they took to flight. The companies of the
queen's army which had given way in the beginning of
the conflifi were now difpofed to atone for their mif-
conduft ; and taking a fliare in the battle, committed
a fignal flaughter upon the retainers of the earl of
Huntley. This nobleman himfelf expired in the throng
of the purfuit. His fons Sir John Gordon and Adam
Gordon were made prifoners, with the principal gentle-
men who had affifted him.
Mary, upon receiving the tidings of this fuceefs, dif-
covered neither joy nor forrow. The paflions, how-
ever, of the earl of Murray and his party were not yet
completely gratified. Sir John Grordon was brought
immediately to trial, confeffed his guilt, and was con-
demned to fuffer as a traitor. The fentence according-
ly was executed, amidft a 'multitude of fpe6lators,
whofe feelings were deeply affefted, while they con-
fidered his imniature death, the manlinefs of his fpirit,
and the vigour of his form. Adam Gordon, upon ac-
count of his tender age, was pardoned ; and fines were
levied from the other captives of condition according to
theit wealth. The lord Gordon, after the battle of
Corrichie, fled to his father-in-law the duke of ChateU
herault, and put himfelf under his proteftion ; but was Scortantt
delivered up by that nobleman, all whofe endeavours — — v^**'
in his favour were IneffeAual. He was convifted of
treafon, and condemned ; but the queen was fatisfied
with confining him in prifon. The dead body of the
earl of Huntley was carried to Edinburgh, and kept
without burial, till a charge of high treafon was pre-
ferred againft him before the three eflates. An oflen-
tatious difplay was made of his criminal enterprifes, and
a verdift of parliament pronounced his guilt. Hfs
eflates, hereditary and moveable, were forfeited ; his
dignity, name, and memory,^ were pronounced to be
extinft ; his enfrgns armorial were torn from the book
of arms ; and his pofterity were rendered unable to en-
joy any offices, honour, or rank, within the realm. 6i6
While thefe fcenes were tranfafling, Mary, who was inter-
fmcerely folicitous to eflablifh a fecure amity between ^^'j.^P^""
the two kingdoms, opened a negociation to effeftuate f^een Ma-
an interview with Elizabeth. Secretary Maitland, ry and E-
whom fhc employed in this bufmefs, met with a mofl lizabeth,
gracious reception at the court of London. The city^""-
of York was appointed as the place where the two
queens fhould ,exprefs their mutual love and affe(Shion,
and bind therafelves to each other in an indiffoluble
union ; the day of their meeting was fixed ; the fafhion
and articles of their interview were adjufled ; and a
fafe-condu6l into England was granted to the queen of
Scots by Elizabeth. But in this advanced flate of the
treaty it was unexpeAedly interrupted. The diflur-
bances in France, the perfecution of the Proteflants
there, and the dangerous confequence which threatened
the reformed countries, feemed to requii-e Elizabeth to
be particularly upon her guard, and to watch with
eagernefs againfl the machinations of the adverfaries of
her religion. Upon thefe pretences fhe declined for a
feafon the projeAed interview ; fending to Mary with
this apology Sir Henry Sidney, a minifler of ability,
whom fhe inflrudled to dive into the fecret views of the
Scottifh queen. This was a fevere difappointment to
Mary ; but it is reafonable to believe, that Elizabeth
afted in the negociation without fincerity, and upon
principles of polic)'-. It was not her interefl to admit
into her kingdom a queen who had' pretenfions to her
crown, and who miijht flrengthen them ; who might
raife the expeftations of her Roman Catholic jj^^jefis,
and advance herfelf in their efteem ; and who- far fur-
paffed her in beauty, and in the bewitching allurement
of converfation and behaviour.
Amidfl affairs of great moment, a matter of fmaller Charelard
confequence, but which is interefling in its circum-^l'y^'''^'s
fiances, defer ves to be recorded* Chatelard, a erentle-^"
man of family in Diiuphiny,' and a relation of ithe che-
vaher de Bayard, had been introduced to queen Mary
by the fieur Damville, the heir of the houfe of Mont-
morency. Polifhed- manners, vivacity, attention' to
pleafe, the talent of making verfes, and an agreeable
figure, v;ere recommendations to this man. In the
court they drew attention to him. He made himfelf
neceflary in all parties of pleafure at the palace. Hia
afliduities drew to him the notice of the queen ; and,
at different times, fhe did him the honour to dance with
him. His complaifance became gradually more fami-
liar. He entertained her with his wit and good-hu-
mour ; he made verfes upon her beauty and accomplifhv
ments ; and her politenefs and condefeenfion inlinuatedl
4 iat&
6a8
Is put to
519
Mary in«
clines to a
fecond
marriage,
and is ad-
dreffed by
« number
of fuitors.
#30
€he make*
choice of
lord Dam-
ley. .
SCO.
into lii'm other fentimenti tluw grafitwde mi r^verfflce.
He could not behold her ch^irma without fetlin;^ th^it"
power i and inftead of ftifling in its birth thq rnoft
dangerous of all the paflions, he encourasied its growtU.
In an unhappy moment, he entered her apartment 5
and, conceahng himfelF under her bed, waited the ap-
proach of night. While tlie queen wau undrefling, her
maids .dilcGvered his fituation, and gave her the alarm.
Chatelard was difmifled with difgrace ; but foon after
received her pardon. The frenay, however, of his love
compelling him to repeat his crime, it was no longer
proper to iliow -any compafiion to him. The delicate
Situation of Mary, the noife of thefe adventures, which
had gone abroad, and the rude fufpiclons of her fubjefts,
required that he fhould be tried for his offences and
puniflicd. This imprudent man was accordingly con-
demned to lofe his head ; and the fentence was put in
execution.
The difagreeable circuraftances in which Mary found
'Jierfelf involved by reafon of her quarrel with Eliza-
beth, the exceflive bigotry and overbearing fpirit of her
Protcftant fubjefts, together with the adventure of
Chatelard, and the calumnies propagated in confequencc
of it, determined her to think of a fecond marriage.
Her beauty and expeftations of the crown of England,
joined to the kingdom which ftie already poifefTed,
brought her many fuitors. She was addreffed by the
king of Sweden, the king of Navarre, the prince of
Conde, the duke of Ferrara, Don Carlos of Spain, the
arch-duke Charles of Auftria, and the duke of Anjou.
Her own inclination was to give the preference, among
thefe illuflrious lovers, to the prince of Spain ; but her
determination, from the iirft moment, was to make her
wifhes bend to other confiderations, and to render her
decifion upon this important point as agreeable as pof-
fible to queen Elizabeth, to the Englilh nation, and to
the Proteftanta in both kngdoms. Her fucceflion to
the crown ©f England was the objeft ncareft her heart;
and Elizabeth, who wifhed to prevent her from mar-
rying altogether, contrived to imprefs upon her mind
an opinion that any foreign alliance would greatly ob-
llruA that much defired event. She therefore pitched
upon two of her own fubjedls, whom (he fucceflively re-
commended as fit matches for the queen of Scots ; and
fhe promifed, that upon her acceptance of cither of
them, her right ©f inheritance fhould be inquired into
and declared. Lord Robert Dudley, afterwards earl of
Leicefter, was the firfl perfon propofed ; and except a
manly face and fine figure he had not one quality that
could recommend him to the Scottllh princefs. Whilil
Mary received this fuitor with fome degree of compo-^
fure, fhe did not altogether rcprefs her fcern. *' She
had heard good accounts ((he owned) of the gentle-
man ; but as queen Elizabeth had faid, that in propofing
a hufband to her, fhe would confult her honour, (he aflc-
ed what honour there could be in marrying a fubjeA
The Englifh queen then brought under the eye of Mary
another fuitor, left her thoughts (hould return to a
foreign alliance. This was lord Darnley, of the houfe of
Stuart itfelf, whofe birth was almofl equal to her own, and
whom the Scottifh princefs was induced to accept as a
hufband by motives which we have detailed elfewhere.
(fee Marv.) Elizabeth however was not more fincere
in this propofal than in the former ; for after permitting
Darnley and his father the earl of Lenox to vifit
{ 48 ] SCO
Sefitjand mm^ly wiUi the vl^w d^vwttuf t|i« Hc^^fefil,
of the Qlieen from th? epntineRt, fliig threv/ eY§ry-^>h.,
ftaele in the way the marriage which art and yiolenea
could contrive. When (he found Mary fo much cq,
tangled, that (he could hardly draw back, or make any
other choice than that of Darnley, Eliaabeth attempted
to prevent her from going farther on ; and now intima=!
ted her difappmbation of that marriage, which flie her-?
felf had not only originally planned, but, in thefe lattey
ftages, had forwarded by every means in hev power.
The whole council of Elizabeth declared againft the
tnarriage. Even from her own fubjetts Mary met with
confiderable oppofition. An inveterate enmity had
taken place between the duke of Chatelherault and the
earl of Lenox, in confequence of which the former
deferted the court, and very few of the Hamiltons re-=
paired to it. The lord James Stuart, now earl of Mur-
ray, fought to promote the match with lord Dudley,
In confequence of this he was treated openly with dif-
refpeft by the earl of Lenox ; he lofl: the favour of his
fovereign, and Darnley threatened him with hia ven^ |
geance when he fliould be married to the queen. John .{
Knox in the mean time behaved in the moft fw^ious ^•^^^r'^of'*^!
manner, forgetting not only the meek and peaceable John Kno^
behaviour of a Chriftian, but the allegiance of a fubjeft.
This preacher even interfered with the marriage of hia
fovereign. He warned the nobility, that if they allow-
ed a Papift or an infidel to obtain, her perfon and the
government of Scotland, they would be guilty, to the
full extent of their power, of banifliing Jefus Chrill from
the kingdom, of bringing down upon it the vengennce
of God, of being a curfe to themfelvea, and of depri-
ving their queen of all comfort and confolation. As
Darnley was a Papifl, he was of confequence execrated
by the whole body of Proteftants, laity as well as clergy }
while, on the other hand, he was fupported by the earls
of Athol and Caithnefs, the lords Ruthven and Hume,
and the whole Popifh fadion.
It was exceedingly unfortunate for the queen, that
neither lord Darnley himfclf, nor his father the earl of
Lenox, had any talents for bufmefs j and as they na-
turally had the direAion of the queen's aflpairs, it is no
wonder that they were very ill managed. But a fource
of oppofition, more violent than any imperfcilions of
their own, rofe up to them in the attachment which
they difcovered to a perfon upon whom the queen had of
late beftowed her favour with an imprudent pro^g*^'ty« Account ol
David Rizzio from a mean origin ralfed himfelf to a dif- David Ri»
tinguifhed eminence. He was born at Turin, where his zio,
father earned a fubfiftence as a mufician. Varieties of
fituation and adventure, poverty, and misfortunes, had
taught him experience. , In the train of the count de
Morette, the ambafTador from the duke of Savoy, he
had arrived in Scotland. The queen, defirous to com-
plete her band of mufic, admitted him into her fervice.
In this humble ftatisn he had the dexterity to attract
her attention ; and her French fecretary falling into dif-
grace, from negligence and incapacity, he was promoted
to difcharge the duties of his office. A necefTary and
frequent admiffion to her company afforded him now the
fuUeft opportunity to recommend himfelf to her } and
while fhe approved his manners, fhe was fenfible of hii
fidelity and his talents. His mind, however, was not
fufficiently vigorous to bear with fuccefs and profpe-
rity. Ambition grew upon him with preferment. He
j; intierfered
s c o
33 ^
earl cf
'land, {ftterffpe4 in afFalrs of moment, Intruded hJmfelf into
the conventions of the nobles at the palace, and was
candidate for greatnefs. The queen confulted with
him upon the mod difficult and important bufmefs, and
intruded him with real power. The fupplenefs, fervi-
lity, and unbounded complaifance which had charadler-
ifed his former condition, were cxchaHged for infolence,
oftentation, and pride. He exceeded the moft potent
barons in the ftatelinefs of his demeanour, the fumptu-
oufnefs of his apparel, and the fplendour of his retinue.
The nobles, while they defpifed the lownefs of his birth,
and detefted him as a foreigner, and a favourite, were
mortified with his grandeur, and infulted with his arro-
gance. Their anger and abhorrence were driven into
fury ; and while this undeferving minion, to uphold his
power, courted Darnley, and with officious afllduities
advanced his fuit with the queen, he hallened not only
his own ruin, but laid the foundation of crqel outrages
and of public calamity.
To the earl of Murray ihe exaltation of Rizzio, fo
dfe offenfive in general to the nation, was humiliating in a
ii's fa- more particular degree. His interference for the earl
of Leicefter, the partiality he entertained for Eliza-
beth, his connexions with fecretary Cecil, and the fa-
vqjir he had ftiown to Knox, had all contributed to
create in Maiy a fufpicion of his integrity. The prac-
tices of Darnley and Rizzio were thence the more ef-
fectual ; and the fulleft weight of their influence was
employed to undermine his power. His paffions and
difguUs were violent ; and in his mind he meditated re-
venge. Mary, aware of her critical lituation, was foii-
citous to add to her ftrength. Bothwel, who had
been imprifoned for confpiring againft the life of the
earl of Murray, and who had efcaped from confinement,
was recalled from France ;. the earl of Sutherland, an
exile in Flanders, was invited home to receive his par-
don ; and George Gordon, the fon of the earl cif Hunt-
ley, was admitted to favour, and was foon to be rein-
ftated in the wealth and honours of his family.
As foon as Bothvvel arrived, the earl of Murray in-
filled that he Ihould be brought to a trial for having
plotted againft his life, and for having broke from the
place of his confinement. This was agreed to ; and on
the day of trial Murray made his appearance with 800
of his adherents. Bothwel did not chufe to contend
with fuch a formidable enemy ; he therefore fled to
France, and a proteftation was made, importing that
bis fear of violence had been tlie caufe of his flight.
The queen commanded the judge not to pronounce
fentence. Murray complained loudly of her partiality,
and engaged deeper and deeper in cabals with queen
Elizabeth. Darnley, in the mean time, prefTed his
fuit with cagernefs. The queen ufed her utmott en-
deavours to caufe Murray fubfcribe a paper expreffing
a. confent to her marriage ; but all was to no purpofe.
However, many of the nobility did fubfcribe this pa-
per ; and fhe ventured to fummon a convention of the
tftates at Stirling, to whom flie opened the bufmefs of
the marriage ; and who approved of her choice, pro-
vided the Proteftant religion flvould continue to be the
■eftabhfhment.
In the mec^n time ambafladors arrived from England,
■with a meflage importing Elizabeth's entire difappro-
bation and difallowance of the queen's marriage with
•lypd E)arnl(^, But to thefe aanbafiadors Mary only
' Vol. XVII. Parti.
I 49 1
SCO
replied, that matters were gone too far to be recalled-; ikothM,
and that Elizabeth had no folid caufe of difpleafute, — ^
flnce, by her advice, fhe had fixed her affeftions not
upon a Foreigner, but upon an Englidiman ; and Tince
the perfon fhe favoured was defcc-ndcd of a diftinauifhed
lineage, and could boaft of having in his veins the royal
blood of both kingdoms. Immediately afcer this audi-
ence (lie created lord Darnley a lord and a knight. The
o-ith of knighthood was adminiftered to him. ' He was
made a baron and a banneret, and called lord Armana^h.
He was belted earl of Rofs. He then promoted 14
gentlemen to the honour of knighthood, and did ho-
mage to the queen, without any refervatlon of duty to
the crown of England, where his family had for a long
time refided. His advancement to be duke of Albany
was delayed for a little time ; and tlus was fo much
refented by him, that, when informed of it by the lord
Ruthven, he threatened to ftab that nobleman with his
dagger.
In the mean time the day appointed for the affemblv
of parliament, which was finally to determine the fub-
je£t of the marriage, was now approaching. The earl
of Murray, encouraged by the apparent firmnefs of E,
lizabeth, goaded on by ambition, and alarmed with the
approbation beftowed by the convention of the eftates
on the queen's choice of lord Darnfey, perceived that
the moment was at hand when a decifive blow fhould
be ftruck. To infpirit the refentments of his friends,
and to juftify In fome meafure the violence of his pro-
jeds, he affeded to be under apprehenfions pf being af- '
faiUnated by the lord Darnley. His fears were founds
ed abroad ; and he avoided to go to Perth, where he
affirmed that the plot againft him was to be carried in-,
to execution. He courted the enemies of Darnley
with unceafmg affiduity ; and he .united to him in a g,-
confederacy the duke of Chatelherault, and the earls An a/rJcia-
of Argyle, R othes, and Glencairn. It was not the fole'i^^^ againft
objea of their affociatlon to oppofe the marriage. They '^'^ ^''^^'^
engaged in more criminal cnterprifes. They meditated fe"*
the death of the earl of Lenox and the lord Darnley ;
and while the queen was upon the road to Calander
place to vifit the lord Livingfton, they propofed to in-
tercept her and to hold her in captivity. In this ftate
of her humiliation, Murray was to advance himfelf into
the government of the kingdom, under the charadcr of
its regent. But Mary having received intelligence of
their confpiracy, the earl of Athol and the lord Ruth-
ven raifed fuddenly 300 men to proteft her in her jour-
ney. Defeated in this fcheme, the earl of Murray and
his aflbciates did not relinquiih their cabals. They
thought of new atchievements ; and the nation was fill-
ed with alaiTOs, fufpicions, and terror.
Amidft the arts employed by the Scottifh raalcon- r^./'"'^
tents to inflame the animolities of the nation, they for- ceV raifed *
got not to inlift upon the dangers which threatened the t'y the I'to'
Proteftant religion from the advancement of lord Darn- teflants.
ley, and from the rupture that muft enfue with England.
Letters were everywhere difperfed among the faithfuU
reminding them of what the eternal God had wrought
for them in the abolition of idolatry, and admonlfliing
them to oppofe the reftoration of the mafs. A fuppli-
cation was prefented to the queen, complaining of ido-
laters, and infifting upon their punifhment. In the
pref^JtJ unsure of affairs it was received with unufuai
refpea ; and M^y iaftruaed the Poplfli ecclefiaftics to
G abftain
SCO
t 50 ]
SCO
636
Their de
xnands.
Scotland, abilitln from giving^ offence of any kind to tlie Protef-
^""'^'""^ tants. A prieft, however, having celebrated the mafs,
was taken by the brethren, and expofed to the uifults
and fury of the populace at the market-place of Edui-
burgh, in the garments of his profelTion, and vvlth the
chalice in his hand ; and the queen having given a check
to this tumukuous proceeding, the Protefl:ants, riling in
their wratli, were the more confirmed in the beUef that
flic meant to overthrow their religion. The nioft learned
and able of the clergy held frequent confultations to-
gether ; and while the nation was difturbed with dan-
(rerous fennenrs, the genet al alTembly was called to de-
liberate upon the affairs of the church. Their hope of
fuccefs being proportioned to the difficulties in the fi-
tuation of the queen, they were the lefs fcrupulous m
forming their refolutions ; and the commiffioners, whom
they deputed to her, were ordered to demand a parha-
mentary i-atification of their defires.
They infilled, that the mafs, with every remain what-
foever of popery, fhould be univerfally fupprefied through-
out the kinodom ; that in this reformation, the queen's
perfon and houfehold Ihould be Inchided ; and that all
Papifts and idolaters (hould be punilhed upon convic-
tion according to the laws. They contended, that per-
fons of every defcription and degree fhould refort to
the churches upon Sunday, to join in prayers, and to
attend to exhortations and fermons ; that an indepen-
dent provifion fhould be aflfigned for the fupport of the
prefent clergy, and for their fucceflbrs ; that all vacant
benefices fhould be conferred upon perfons found to_ be
qualified for the miniftry, upon the trial and examina-
tion of the fuperintendants ; that no- bifliopric, abbey,
priory, deanery, or other living, having many churches,
Ihould be bellowed upon a fingle ptrfon ; but that, the
plurality of the foundation being diflfolved, each church
Ihould be provided with a minifter ; that the glebes and
manfes fliould be allotted for the refidence of the mini-
jlers, and for the reparation of churches; that no charg^
in fchools or univerfities, and no care of education, ei-
ther public or private, fhonld be intrufted to any per-
{on who was not found and ablfe in doftrine, and who
was not approved by the fuperintendants ; that all lands
which of old had been devoted to hofpitality, fliould
apain be made fubfervient to It ; that the lands and
rents which formerly belonged to the monks of every
order, with the annuities, alterages, obits, and the other
emoluments which had appertained to priefls, fliould be
employed in the maintenance of the poor and the up-
holding of fchools ; that all horrible crimes, fuch as
idolatiy, blafphemy, breaking of the fabbath, witch-
craft, forcery, inchantment, adultery, manifeft whore-
dom, the keeping of brothels, murder, and opprefTion,
fhould be puniflied with feverity ; that judges fliould be
appointed in every diftrift, with powers to pronounce
fentences and to execute them ; and, in fine, that for
the eafe of the labouring hufljandmen, fome order fliould
be devifed concerning a reafonable payment of the
5,- tythes. r r 11
Moderati n To thefe requlfitions, the queen made an anfwer full
of the of moderation and humanity. She was ready to agree
queen. ^J^_|-^ ^i^e three eftates in eftablifliing the reformed reli-
gion over the fubjefts of Scotland ; and flie was fl:eadily
refolved not to throw into hazard the life, the peace, or
the fortune, of any perfon whatfoever upon account of
bis opinioQSv As, to herfelf and her houfehold, (he was
perfuadcd that her people would not urge her to adopt Scctls
tenets in contradiftion to herown confcience, and thereby
involve her in rcmorfe and nneafinefs. She had been
nouriflied and brought up in the Romifli faith ; flie con-
ceived it to be founded on the word of God ; and flie
was defirous to continue in it. But, fetting afide her
belief and religious duty, flie ventured to affure them,
that fhe was convinced from political reafons, that it
was her intereft to maintain herfelf firm in the Roman
Catholic perfuafion. By departing from it, flie would
forfeit the amity of the king of France, and that of
other princes who were now ftrongly attached to her;
and their difaffeftion could not be repaired or compen-
fated by any new alliance. To her fubjcfts fhe leffthe
fuUell liberty of confcience ; and they could not furely
refufe to their fovereign the fame right and indulgence.
With regard to the patronage of benefices, it was a pre-
rogative and property which it would 111 become her to
violate. Iler neceffities, and the charge of her royal
dignity, required her to retain in her hands the patri-
mony of the crown. After the purpofes, however, of
her ftation, and the exigences of government, were fa-
tisfied, Ihe could not obje6l to a fpecial affignment of
revenue for the maintenance of the miniftry ; and, on
the fubjeft of the other articles which had been fufe-
mitted to her, fhe was willing to be diredled by the
three eftates of the kingdom, and to concur in the re-
folutions which fliould appear to them the moll reafon-
able and expedient.
The clergy, in a new affembly or convention, expref. pj^^^^^.
fed a high difpleafure with this return to their addrefs. ft^n^g
They took the liberty to inform the queen, that the dlfpleafec
doftrines of the reformation which flie refufed to adopt, with hev
were the religion which had been revealed by Jefus^'^^'"*
Chrift, and taught by the apoftles. Popery was of all
perfuafions the leaft alluring, and had the feweft recom-
mendatioiis. In antiquity, confent of people, authority
of princes, and number of profelytes, it was plainly in-
ferior to Judaifm. Tt did not even reft up©n a founda-
tion fo folld as the doftrines of the alcoran. They re-
quired her, therefore, in the name of the eternal God,
to embrace the means of attaining the truth, which
were offered to her in the preaching of the word, or
by the appointment of public difputations between them
and their adverfaries. The terrors of the mafs were
placed before her in all their deformity. The fayer of
it, the a£lion Itfclf, and the opinions expreffed in it,
were all pronounced to be equally abominable. To
hear the mafs, or to gaze upon it, was to commit the
complicated crimes of facrilege, blafphemy, and Idolatry.
Her delicacy in not renouncing her opinions from the
apprehenfion of offending the king of France and her
other allies, they ridiculed as impertinent in the higheft
degree. They told her, that the true religion of Chiiil
was the only means by which any confederacy could en-
dure ; and that it was far more precious than the al-
liance of any potentate whatfoever, as it would bring to
her the friendfliip of the King of kings. As to patro-
nages, being a portion of her patrimony, they intend-
ed not to defraud her of her rights : but it was their
judgment, that the fuperintendants ought to make a
trial of the qualifications of candidates for the miniftry;
and as it was the duty of the patron to prefent a perfon
to the benefice, it was the bufinefs of the church to.
manage his inftitiitlon or collation. For without this
reftraiatj
SCO [5
• reftraint, there would be no fecurlty for the fitnefs of
the incumbent and if no trials or examinations of mi-
nillers took place, the church would be filled with mlf-
rule and ignorance. Nor was it right or juft that her
majelly fhould retain to herfelf any part of the revenue
of benefices ; as it ought to be all employed to the
- ufes of the clergy, for the purpofes of education, and
for the fupport of the poor. And as to her opinion,
that a fuitable affignment fhould be made for them,
they could not but thank her with reverence : but they
begged to folicit and importune her to condefcend upon
the particulars of a proper fcheme for this end, and to
carry it into execution ; and that, taking into a due
confideratlon the other articles of their demands, ftie
would ftudy to comply with them, and to do juftice to
the religious eftablifhment of her people,
re From the fears of the people about their religion,
, difturbances and infurreftions were unavoidable ; and
before Mary had given her anfwer to the petitions or
addrefs of the clergy, the Proteftants, to a formidable
number, had marched to St Leonard's Craig ; and, di-
viding themfclves into companies, had chofen captains
to command'them. But the leaders of this tumult be-
ing apprehended and committed to clofe cuftody, it
fubfided by degrees ; and the queen, upon the intercef-
fion of the magiftrates of Edinburgh, inftead of bring-
ing them to trial, gave them a free pardon, 'io quiet,
at the fame time, the apprehenfions which had gone
abroad, and to controvert the infidious reports which
had been induftrioudy fpread of her inclination to over-
turn the reformed doArines, fiie repeatedly iCH-itd pro-
clamations, affuring her fubjefts, that it w^s her tixed
determination not to moleft or difturb any ^erfon what-
foever upon account of his religion or confcl'ence ; and
that (he had never prefumed even to think of any inno-
vation that might endanger the tranquillity or do a
prejudice to the happintfs of the commonwealth.^
,5 of While Mary was conducting iier affairs witb difcern-
1- ment and ability, the earl of Murray and his confcde-
ble- rates continued their coiifultations and their intrigues.
After their difappointment in the confpiracy againft the
queen and the lord Darnley, they perceived that their
only hope of fuccefs or fecurity depended upon Ehza-
beth ; and as Randolph had promifed them her protec-
tion and affiftance, they fcrupled not to addrefs a letter
■ to her, explaining their views and fituation. The pre-
tences of their hollility to their fovereign upon which
they affefted to iniift, were her fettled defign to over-
turn the Proteftant religion, and her rooted defire to
break all correfpondence and amity with England. To
prevent the accomplifhment of thtfe purpofes, they faid,
was the objedt of their confederacy ; and with her fup
port and aid they did not doubt of being able to ad-
vance effeftually the emolument and advantage ot the
tv/o kingdoms. In the prefent ftate of their affairs,
they applied not, however, for any fupply of her troops.
An aid from her treafury was now only necefiary to
them ; and they engaged to beftow her bounty in the
manner the moft agreeable to her inclinations and her
intereits. The pkafure with which Elizabeth received
their application was equal to the averfion fhe had con.
ceived againft the queen of Scots. She not only grant-
ed to them the relief they requefted, but aflured them
by Randolph of her elleem and favour while they
ihould continue to uphold the reformed i-eligion and the
I ] SCO
connexion of the two nations Flattered by her aflu- Scotland,
rancesrand generofity, they were ftrenuous to gain par- '
tizans, and to difanite the friends of their fovereign ;
and while they were fecretly preparing for rebellion,
and for trying their ftrength in the field, they diffemi-
nated among the people the tenets, That a Papift could
not legally be their king ; that the queen was not at li-
berty of herfelf to make the choice of a hufband ; and
that, in a matter fo weighty, (he ought to be entirely
direded. by the determination of the three eftates aflem-
bled in parliament. _
Elizabeth, at the fame time, carrying her difilmula- Treachery
tion to the moft criminal extremity, commanded Ran of Ehza-
dolph to aflc an audience ot Mary ; and to counfel herbeth.
to nourifli no fufpicions of the earl of Murray and his
friends ; to open her eyes to their fincerity and honour;
and to call to mind, that as their levvices had hitherto
preferved her kingdom in repoie, her jealoufies ot them
might kindle it into combuftion, make the blood of her
nobles to flow, and caft into hazard her perfon and her
crown. Full of aftonifhment at a mcffage fo rude and
fo improper, the queen of Scots defired him to inform
his miftrefs, that fhe required not her inftru6tions to di-
ftinguifh between patriotifm arid treachery ; that (he
was fully fenfible when her will or purpofe was refifted
or obeyed ; and that ihe poflefled a power which was
more than fufficient to reprcfs and to punifh the enor-
mities and the crimes of her fubjefts. The Engliih re-
fident went now to the earl of Lenox and the lord
Darnley, and charged them to return to England. The
former exprefled an apprehenfion of the feverity ot his
queen, and fought an aifurance of her favour before he
could venture to vifit her dominions. The latter, ex-
erting greater fortitude^ told him, that he acknowledged
no duty or obedience but to the queen of Scots. The
refident treating this anfwer as difrefpeilful to Eliza-
beth, turned his back upon the lord Darnley, and re-
tired without making any reverence, or bidding him an
adieu.
The behaviour of Elizabeth, fo fierce and fo perfi-
dious, was well calculated to confirm aU the intentions
of Mary ; and this, doubtlefs, was one of the motives
with which flie was actuated. But while the queen of
Scots was eager to accompHfh her marriage, fhe was
not inattentive to the rifing troubles of her countiy.
The parliament which flie had appointed could not now
be held : it was therefore prorogued to a more diftant
day ; and the violence of the times did not then per-
mit it to afiemble. By letters fhe invited to her, with
all their retainers, the moft powerful and the moft emi-
nent of her fuhjeds. Bothwel was recalled anew from
France ; and by general proclamations fhe fummoned
to her ftandard the united force of her kingdom. The
caftle of Edinburgh was likewife provided amply with
ftores and ammunition, that, in the event of misfortunes,
it might aftbrd her a retreat and defence. The ala-
crity with which her fubjeds flocked to her from every
quarter, informed her of her power and popularity ;
and while it ftruck Murray and his adherents with the
danger to which they were expofed, it de'clared to them
the opinion entertained by the nation'^ of the iniquity
and the felfiftinefs of their proceedings.
On the 29th of July 1565, the ceremony of mar- Marriage
riage between the queen and lord Darnley was perform*"' Mary
ed. The latter had been previoufly created duke of ^^^^^J"^**
G 2 Albany.
S(«tland.
643
He is pro-
claimeil
kinp of
Scotlaod.
SCO I 5
Albany. The day before tl^emarmgc, a proclamation
was publifhed, commanding him to be fty led i/n^ of the
reahy and that all letters after their marriage fhould be
direaed in the names of her hufband and herfelf. The
day after it, a new proclamation was iffued confirminjr
this aft: he was pronounced king by the found of
trumpets, and affociated with the queen in . her govern-
ment. This meafure feems to have been the effeft of
the extreme love the queen had for her hufband, which
did not permit her to fee that it was an infringement of
the conftitution of the kingdom ; though perhaps fhe
might alfo be urged to it by the prelfing eagernefs of
lord Darnley himfelf, and the. partial counfels of David
Rizzio. The earl of Murray made loud complaints, re-
monftrated, that a king was impofed upon the nation
without the confent of the three eftates, and called up-
on the nation to arm againft the beginnings of tyranny.
The malcontents accordingly were immediately in arms;
but their fuccefs was not anfwerable to their wifhes.
The bulk of the nation were fatislied with the good in-
tentions of their fovereign, and Ihe herfelf took the ear-
liell opportunity of crufhing the rebelhon in its infan-
cy. The earl of Murray was declared a traitor ; and
^ fimilar fteps were taken with others of the chiefs of the
The rebel- rebels. She then took the field againft them at the
lious noble shead of a confiderable army ; and having driven them
EnSd"^" ^^^"^ ^^^^^ P^^'^^' obliged them at lall to take refuge
* * in England. Queen Elizabeth received them with that
duplicity for which her conduft was fo remarkable.
Though fhe herfelf had countenanced, and even excited
them to revolt, fhe refufed to give an audience to their
deputies. Nay, {he even caufed them to emit a pubhc
declaration, that neither {he, nor any perfon in her
iname, had ever excited them to their rebellious prac-
tices. Yet, while the pubhc behaviour of Elizabeth
was fo acrimonious, {lie afforded them a fecure retreat
in her kingdom, treated the earl of Murray in private
V'ith relpeft and kindnefs, and commanded the earl of
Bedford to fupply him with money. Mary, however,
refolved to proceed againft the rebels with an excm-
plary rigour. The fubmiflions of the duke of Chatel-
herault alone, who had been lefs criminal than the reft,
were attended to.- Eut even the favour which he ob-
tained was pr ecarious and uncertain ; for he was com-
manded to ufe the pr etence of frcknefs, and to pafs for
iome time into foreign countries. A parliament was
called ; and a fummons of treafon being executed againft
the earls of Argyle, Glencairn, and Rothes, with others
644
2 1 SCO
of the pfmci'pal rebels, they were commanded to ftppear Sfoi'
before the three eftates ; in default of which their lives — "^'^
and eftates were declared to be forfeited.
In the mean time Throgmorton the Englifh ambaf-
fador folicited the pardorr of the rebels ; which Mary g
was at l^rft inclined to grant. However, by the per- Mar/
fuafion of the court of Fr-ance, fhe was not only iridu-«des si
ced to proceed againft them with rigour, but acceded ^'"^^'>'
to the tr-eaty of Bayonne, by which the deftruftion of^^^^""*'
the Proteftants was determined. This meafure filled
the whole court with teiTor and difmay. The rebels
were acquainted with the danger of their fituation ; and
being- now driven defperate, they were ready to engage
in the molt atrocious defigns. Unhappily, the fitua-
tton of affairs in Scotland rendered the accompfifh merit
of their purpofes but too eafy. Violent difgufts had 5
taken place between the queen and her hufband. Her Oua.tels
fondnefs had been exceffive ; but {he foon perceived 'between cl
that the qualities of his mind were not proportioned to'l"^'^"
his perfonal accomphfhments. He was proud, difdain- J^J^^''^"'
ful, and fufpicious. No perfuafions could correft his
wilfulnefs ; and he was at the fame time giddy and db-
ftinate, infolent and mean. The queen in confequencc
began to {how an indifference towards him; which he
took care to augment, by Ihowing the like indifference
towards her, and engaging in low intrigues and amours,
indulging himfelf in diffipation andt riot, &c. How-
ever, the defire of dominion was his ruhng paffisn ; and
■the queen, finding his total incapacity for exercifing
his power to any good purpofe, had excluded him fiorn
it altogether. He was therefore at prefent a proper
objeft for the machinations of the rebels, and readily
entered into an agreement with them to depofe the
queen ; vainly thinking by that means that he ftiould
fecure the crown to himfelf. However, as the parlia-
ment was foon to affemble, in which the rebels had
every reafon to believe that they would be condemned
for high treafon, it was neceffary that the kingdom
ftiould be thrown into diforder before that time came,
otherwife their fate was inevitable. Praftifing on the
imbecillity of Darnley, they perfuaded him that a cri- ^47
minal correfpondence fubfifted between the 'queen and^^^ '^'"^
David Rizzro (r). For this reafon the king refolvedthe dell 'ui
upon his dcftrudion ; and the confpirators hoped ther e, tion of Da
by not only to get an indemnity to themfelves, but to ^'d
effedf a total revolution at court, and the entire humi-'*^''!'
liation of Bothwel, Huntley, and Athol, who were thelJobk";
aflbciates of Rizzio. H&wcvei-, in order to fave them.
felves.
I
(r) That there fubfifted a crimmal intercourfe between Mary and Rizzio is a fcandal which is now given up
by her enemies. It ieems to reft on the authority of Buchanan and Knox ; and their evidence in this cafe is
cJVf ^ T ^'f g^' °"^y ^'•o'" t^'^'^ be^"g the ftrenuous partizans of her adverfaries, but from the multitude
of falfehoods which they anxioufly detad to calumniate her. The love flie felt for Darnley was extreme and
therr acquamtance commenced a month or two after the appointment of Rizzio to be her fecretary for French
affairs. She became pregnant foor. after; her marriage; and it was during her pregnancy that krzzio was af-
falTinated. I hdt are ftnking prefumptions m her lavour. And what feems to put her innocence out of all
*iueftion, is the filence of the fpics and refidents of Elizabeth with regard to this amour; for, if there had beeiv
any thing real m it, they could not have made their court to their queen more effeaually than by declarinc to
her its pecuhanties; and their want of dehcacy, fo obfervablc in other circumftances, would have induced them
upon this occaCon to give the greateft foulnefs and deformity to their information.
It appears that Rizzio was ill-favoured, and of a difagreeable form. Buchanan fays of him, « N«n faciem
cultr^is horeftabat, fed facies cuhum deftruebat. Hift. Scot. lib. xvii. This expreflion is very ftrong ; but h
YTOvildhave Uttle we.ght if other authors had not concurred in giving a fimilar defcription of Rizzio. In a book
intitkd
643
elly
urderec?!
SCO r 53 ]
Hlurd. ftilvcB, they engaged the king to fuhfcriHe a bond, af-
farmiag that the projcft of affaffinating Rizzio was al-
together of his own deviling ; acknowledging that he
had folicited them to take a part in it, from the appre-
heutlons that reiiflance might be made to him ; and
agreemg, upon the word and honour of a prince, to
protect and fecure them a^rainft every hazard and injury
to which they might be expofed from the atchievement
of his entei prife. Having procured this fecurity, and
having allured the earl of Lenox the king's father to
approve their meafures, they adjufted the method of
tlie projedletl murdtr ; and difpatched a mefienger to
the Englifh frontier, advertlfing the earl of Murray and
the rebels of their intentions, and inviting them tore-
turn to the court.
Upon the 9th day of March, about 7 o'clock in the
evening, armed men, to the number of 500, furrounded
the palace of Holyroodhoufe. The earl of Morton
^ and the Lord Lindfay entered the court of the palace,
with 160 perform. The queen was in her chamber at
fupper, having in her prefence her natural fitter the
countefs of Argyle, her natural brother Robert com-
mendator of Holyroodhoufe, Beton of Creich mafter of
the houfehold, Arthur Erfeine, and David Rizzio.
The king entering the apartment, feated himfelf by her
fide. He was followed by the Lord Ruthven, who be-
ing wafted with ficknefs, and cafed in armour, exhibi-
ted an appearance that was hideous and terrible. Four
ruffians attended him. In a hollow voice he com-
manded Rizzio to leave a place which did not become
him. The queen, in aftonifhment and confternation,
applied to the king to unfold to her this myfterious en-
terprife. He aficftcd ignorance. She ordered Ruth-
ven from her prefence, under the pain of treafon ; de-
claring to him at the fame time, that if Rizzio had
committed any crime, (he would produce him before the
parliament, and punifh him according to the fciws.
Ruthven drawing his dagger, advanced towrds Rizzio.
The queen rofe to make an exertion of her authority.
The unfortunate ftrangcr laid hold of her garments,
crying out for juftice and mercy. Other confpirators
rulhing into the chamber, overturned the table, and in-
creafed the difmay and confulior. Loaded piftols were
prefented to the bofom of the queen. The king held
her in his arms. George Douglas, fnatching the dag-
ger of his fovereign, plunged it into the bedy of Riz-
xio. llie wounded and fcreaming viftim was dragged
iBto the antichamber ; and fo eager were the aflafTms
s c o
to eomplete their work, that he was torn and mangled Szothni,.
with 56 wounds. _ _ * ' "''
While the queen was preffing the king to gratify
her inquiries into the meaning of a deed io execrable,
Ruthven returned into their prefence. She gave a full
vent to indignation and reproach. Ruthven, with an
intolerable cold nefs and deliberation, informed her, that
Rizzio had been piit to death by the counfel of herhuf-
band, whom he had dilhonoured ; and that by the per-
fuafion of this minion fhe had refufed the crown-matri.
monial to the king, had engaged to re-eflabh(h the an-
cient religion, had refolved to punifli the earl of Murray
and his friends, and had entrufted her confidence to
Bothwel and Huntley, who were traitors. The king,
taking the part of Ruthven, remonftrated againll her
proceedings, and complained that from the time of her
familiarity with Rizzio, (lie had neither regarded, nor
entertained, nor truft.ed him. His fufpicions and in-
gratitude fliocked and tortured her. His connedliou
with the confpirators gave her an ominous anxiety. Ap-
prehenfions of outrages Ifill more atrocious invaded her.
In thefe agitated and miferable moments fhe did not
lofe herfelf in the helpleffnefs of forrow. The loftinefs
of her fpirit communicated relief to her ; and wiping
away her tears, (he exclaimed, that it was not now a
feafon for lamentation, but for revenge.
The earls of Huntley, Bothwel, and Athol, the
lords Fleming and Levingfton, and Sir James Balfour,
who were obnoxious to the confpirators, and at this
time in the palace, found all refiftance to be vain.
Some of them eluding the vigilance of Morton, made
their efcape ; and others were allowed to retire. The
provoft and magillrates of Edinburgh getting intelli-
gence of the tumult, ordered the alarm bell to be rmig.
i he citizens, apprehcnfive and anxious, approached in phe queea
crowds to inquire into the welfare of their fovereign ;confined.
but flie was not permitted to addrefs herielf to them, ^n'^^'^^'^*''
The confpirators told her, tliat if (he prefumed to make*"*^ '
any harangue, they would " cut her in pieces, and caft
her over the walls." I he king called to the people that
ftie was well, and commanded them to difperfe. 'i he
queen was ftiut up in her chamber, uncertain of her
fate, and without the confolation or attendance of her
women.
In the morning a proclamation was iffued by the
king, without the knowledge of his queen, prohibiting
the meeting of the parliament, and ordering the mem-
bers to retire Irom the city. The rebellious lords now
returned
intttled, " Le Livre de la Morte de la Rcyne d'Ecoffe," and printed in the year 1587, he h faid to be " difgra-
cic de corps." Cauffin, ap. Jebb, p. 3 7. This work, too, while it records the unkindnefs of nature to his per-
ion, has obferved, that he' was in his old age when he made a figure in the court of Mary. *♦ Elle traittoit or-
dinairement avec David Riccio fon fecretaire, homme aage et prudent, qui pofFedoit fon oreille." Ibid. And
other authors give their teftimonies to the fame purpofe.
It is probable that the panegyrifts of Mary exaggerate fomewhat the imperfeftions as well as the good quali-
ties of Rizzio. But there feems in general to be no reafon to doubt his fidehty and talents, any more than his
ugUnefs and fenility. He had therefoi-e a better title to be her fecretary than her lover. It is an abfurdity to
think that a queen fo young and beautiful would yield herfelf to deformity and old age. A common proltitutc
muft be brought to endure this misfortune. The capacity of the man was a recommendation to him ; and as he
«wed every thing to her bounty, and was a ftranger, fhe had the greateft reafon to^ rely upon his faithfulnels.
The perfidioufnefs and duplicity of her courtiers drew clofer the tie of their connexion ; and as Rizzio was ftu-r-
^ious to make himfelf agreeable, and was flcilful in games of hazard, he was always ready to be a party with her
it) thofe innocent amufetncnts which fill up the lifUefs istavals of life. Keith. Append, p. 124*
SCO
631
But pre-
the con-
fpiratois.
•ftcotlatid. retutTled from England, and arrived at Edinburgh
within 24 hours after the aflafiination of Rizzio, The
She endea- queen, knowing: of how much confcquence it was For
voursin her to gain the earl of Murray, invited him to wait
thl" l°rf " her. Notwithftandinor the extreme provocation
MunaVr ^^'^^^^ ^^'^ "^"^^ ^^'■y ^° commanded her
paffions, that fhe ^ave him a favourable reception.
After informing him of the rndenefs and feverity of
the treatment fhe had met with, the queen obfcrved,
-that if he had remained in friendihip with her at home,
he would have protefted her againft fuch exceffes of
hardfhip and infult. Murray, with" an hypocritical
companion, fhed abundance of tears; while the queen
feemed to entertain no doubt of his lincerity, but gave
him room to hope for a full pardon of all his offences.
In the mean time, however, the confpirators held fre-
quent confultations together, in which it was debated,
whether they fhould hold the queen in perpetual capti-
vity, or put her to death ; or whether they fliould con-
tent themfelves with committing her to clofe cultody in
Stirling caflle till they fhould obtain a parliamentary
fanftion to their proceedings, eiUblifh the Proteftant
religion by the total overthrow of the mafs, and invefl
the king with the crown-matrimonial and the govern •
mcnt of the kingdom.
Mai-y now began to perceive the full extent of Irer
vails on the wretchednefs ; and therefore, as her laft refource, ap-
^h^r 1, P^*^'^ whom fhe treated with all thofe blan-
caufe of difhments ufually employed by the fair fex when they
want td gain the afcendency over the other. i"he king,
who, with all his faults, had a natural facihty of temper,
was eafily gained over. The confpirators were alarmed
at his Goldnefs, and endeavoured to fill his mind with
fears concerning the duphcity of his wife ; but, ^;nding
they could not gain their point, they at lall began to
treat of an accommodation. The king brought them
a meffage, importing, that Mary was difpofed to bury
in oblivion all memory of their tranfgrefTions ; and he
offered to conduit them into her prefence. The earls
of Murray and Morton, with the lord Ruthven, attend-
ed him into her prefence; and,' falling on their knees
before the queen, made their apologies and fubmifTions,
■She commanded them to rife ; and having defired them
to recolleft her abhorrence of cruelty and rapacioufnefs,
fhe alfuied them with a gracious aii', that inilead of de-
figning to forfeit their lives, and poffefs herfelf of their
eflates, fhe was inclined to receive them into favour, and
to give a full pai-don, not only to the nobles who had
come from England, but to thofe who had affaffmated
David Rizzio. They w^ere accoidingly ordered to pre-
pare the bonds for their fecui-ity and forgivenefs, which
the queen promifed to take the carlieft opportunity of
fubfcribing ; but in the mean time the king obferved,
that the confpirators ought to remove the guards which
they had placed around the queen, that all fufpicion of
Andefcapef.J'^ftraint might be taken away. This mealure could
from them, not with any propriety be oppofed, and the guards
were therefore difmiffed ; upon which the queen, that
very night, left her palace at midnight, and took the
road to Dunbar, accompanied by the king and a few
attendants.
The news of the^ queen's efcape threw the confpira-
tors into the utmoft confternation ; as fhe immediately
iffued proclamations for her fubjeds to attend her in
c&rms, and was powerfully fupported. They fent there-
C 54 ]
SCO
65a
fore the lord Senlpic, requefling, with the utmofl; hu- Sc.
mihty, her fubfcription to their deeds of pardon and — '
fecunty ; but to this meffage fhe returned an unfavour-
able anfwer, and advanced towards Edinburgh with an
army of 8©oo men. The confpii-ators now fled with
the utinoft precipitation. Even John Knox retired to
Kyle till the ftorm fhould blow over. On the queen's ^j,
aiTival at Edinburgh, a privy council was inftantly caU-HouVno
ed, in which the confpirators were charged to appear are decU
as guilty of murder and treafon ; their pi aces of flrensfth ^'i^Ois.
were ordered to be rendered up to the officers of the
crown ; and their eflates and poffefTions were made li-
able to confifcation and forfeiture.
But while the queen was thus eager to punifh the
confpirators, fhe was fenfible that foVany of the nobi-
hty, ' by uniting in a common caufe, might raife a
powerful party in oppofztion to her ; for which reafori
fhe endeavoured to detach, the earl of Murray from the
refl, by making him offers of pardon. Sir James Mel-
vil accordingly pledged liimfelf to produce his pai'don
and that of his adherents, if he would feparate from
Morton and the confpirators. He accordingly became
cold and diitant to them, and exclaimed againft the
murder as a molt execrable adion ; but notwithflanding
his aftefted anger, when the confpirators fled to Eng-
land, he furnifhed them with letters of recommendation
to the earl of Bedford. After the flight of the confpi-
rators, the king thought it neceffary for him to deny ^"^J;,^
his having any fhare in the aaion. He therefore em- t,on of tj
braced an opportunity of declaring to the privy council l«-'"g-
his total ignorance of the confpiracy againft Rizzio ;
and not fatisfied with this, he, by public proclamations
at the market-place of his capital, and over the whole
kingdom, protefted to the people at large that he had
never beltowed upon it, in any degree, the fandion-of
his command, confent, afhftance, or approbation.
In the mean time the queen granted a full and am- Murray
pic pardon to the earls ot Murray, Argyle, Glencairn, and f mq
and Rothes, and their adherents ; but towards the con-^"^'' ^"^
fpirators fhe remained inexorable. This lenity, to Mur- "^,'^0
ray efpecially, proved a fource of the greateft inquietude cd!
to the queen ; for this nobleman, blind to every motive
of aftion diflind from his own ambition, began to con-
trive new plots, which, though dilappointed'for a time,
foon operated to the deftruftion of the queen, and al-
moft to the ruin of the nation.
In 1566, the queen was dehvered of a prince, who^-.l^^
received the name of James. This happy event, how- James''
ever, did not_ extinguifh the quarrel betwixt her and
the king. His defire to intrude himfclf into her autho-
rity, and to fix a ftain upon her honour, his fhare in
the murder of Rizzio, and his extreme meannels in
publicly denying it afterwards, could not fail to imprefs
her with the ftrongeft fentiments of deteftation and con-
tempt. Unable, however, totally to diveft herfelf of
regard for him, her behaviour, though cold and diitant,
was yet decent and refptaful. Caftelnau, at this time
ambaffador extraordinary nom France, conceived that nciiu
a reconcihation might be eflfcfted, and employed himletf'^ion be-'
fome time in this friendly office. Nor wei-e his endea- f <h
vours altogether ineffedual. The king and queen fpent''^ ' ''^
two niglits together ; and proceedcdrin company witir^""'^'
each other, to Meggatland in Tweeddale, in order to en-
joy the diverfien of the chace, attended by the carls of
Huntley, Bothwel, Murray, and other nobles. From
^ thence
637
. partial
SCO [ i
•land, thence th«y pafled to Edinburgh, and then took, the
road to Stirling. Had the kin^ been endowed with
any prudence, he would have made the beft ufe of this
off opportunity to have regained the affcAions of his
queen ; btit, inftead of this, finding that he was not
immediately intrufted with power, his peevifhnefs fug-
gefted to him a defign of going abroad. To Monfieur
du Croc, the French refident, who had attended Mary
at Stirling, he ventured to communicate his chimerical
projcft. This ftatefman reprefented to him its wildnefs
and iuefficacy ; and could hardly believe that he was
ferious. To his father the earl of Lenox, who paid
him a vifit at this place immediately upon Mary's de-
parture from it, he likewife communicated his inten-
tion ; and all the intreaties, arguments, and remonftran-
ces of this nobleman to make him drop his defign, were
without fuccefs. He provided a veffel, and kept it in
readinefs to carry him from his dominions. The earl
of Lenox, after returning to Glafgow, where he ufual-
ly refided, gave way to his paternal anxieties, and foli-
cited the queen by letter to interfere with her authority
and perfuafions ; and upon the evening of the day in
which fhe received this difpatch, the king alighted at
Holyroodhoufe. But the names of the nobles who
were with the queen being announced to him, he cb-
jeded to three of them, and infilled that they fhould
be ordered to depart, before he would enter within the
gates of the palace. The queen, alarmed with a de-
meanour fo rude and fo unwarrantable, condefcended to
leave her company and her palace to meet him ; and it
was with great difficulty that (he was able to entice him
into her own apartment. There he remained with her
during the night. She communicated to him his fa-
ther's letter, and employed every art and blandifhment
to engage him to explain his perverfe defign. But he
gave her no return or fatisfaftion. He was unmoved
with her kindnefs ; and his filence, dejeftion, and pee-
viflinefs, augmented her diftrefs. In the morning, fhe
called her privy council to aflemble in the palace, and
invited to her Monfieur du Croc the French envoy. By
the bilhop of Rofs (he explained the intention of the
king, and made known the difpatch of the earl of Le-
nox. The privy council were urgent to know the rea-
fons of a voyage that appeared to them fo inexplicable ;
and earneftly preffed the king to unbofom himfelf. If
his refolution proceeded from difcontent, and if there
were perfons in the kingdom who had given him caufes
of offence, they affur ed him, that they were ready, upon
his information, to take the neceffary fteps to make
him eafy and happy. No quahty or rank fhould exempt
thofe from inquiry and punifhment who had committed
raifdemeanors againfl him. This, they faid, confifled
with his honour, with the honour of the queen, and
with their own. If, however, he had received no fuffi-
cient provocation to juftify his behaviour, and if he
had no title to complain of aftual injuries, they admo-
nifhed him to remember, that his flight from a queen
fo beautiful, and from a kingdom fo ancient and noble,
would cxpofe him to the greatefl: ridicule and difgracc.
They pointed out the happinefs of his fortune, and
counfelled him not to part lightly with all its flattering
advantages. The queen herfelf, taking his hand into
her's, and prefling it with affeftion, befought him to
fay by what aft or deed fhe had unfortunately induced
liim to conceive fo fatal a purpofct Her memory did
5 ] SCO
not repror^ch hei'.wlth any crime or indifcretlon which Scotland,
affefted tiiHioJiJw' or her integrity : yet if, without any » '
defign upon her part, flie had incurred his difpleafure,
file was difpofed to atone for it ; and fhe begged him
to fpeak with entire freedom, and not in any degree to
fpare her. Monfieur du Croc then addrefTed him, and
employed his iaterefl and perfualTons to make him re-
veal his inquietudes. But all this refpeftful attention
and ceremonious duty were ineffeftual. Obftinately
froward, he refufed to confefs that he intended any voy.
aa;e, and made no mention of any reafons of difcontent.
He yet acknowledged with rdadinefs, that he could not
with juftice accufe the queen of any injury or offence.
Oppreifed with uneafinefs and perturbation, he prepared
to retire ^ and, turning to her, faid, " Adieu, Madam I
you fhall not fee me for a long time." He then bowed
to the French envoy, and to the lords of the pri\^y
council.
He haflened back to Stirling, leaving the queen and
her coupcil in furprife and aftonifhment. They refolved
to watch his motions with anxiety, and could not con*
jedure what ftep he would take. Mary, to prevent
the effeft of rumours to her difadvantage, difpatched a
courier to advertife the king of France and the queen-
mother of his conduft. It was not pofTible that a
prince fo meanly endowed with abihty could make any
impreffion upon her aUies. Nor did it appear to be in
his power to excite any domeftic infurreftion or dlfturb-
ance. He was univerfally odious ; and, at this time,
the queen was in the higheft eftimation with the great
body of her fubjefts. After pafling fome days at Stir-
ling, he addrefTed a letter to the queen, in which, after
hinting at his defign of going abroad, he infinuated his
reafons of complaint. He was not trufted by her with
authority, and ftie w-as no longer ftudious to advance
him to honour. He was without attendants ; arid the
nobihty had deferted him. Her anfwer was fenfible and"
temperate. She called to his remembrance the diftinc-
tions fhe had conferred upon him, the ules to which he
had put the credit and reputation accruing from them,
and the heinous offences he had encouraged in her fub-
jefts. Though the plotters againfl Rizzio had repre-
fented him as the leader of their enterprize, fhe had
yet abftained from any accufatlon of him, and had even *
behaved as if fhe beheved not his participation in the.
guilt of that projeft. As to the defe£ls of his retinue,
fhe had uniformly offered him the attendance rf her
own fervants. As to the nobility, they were the fup-
ports of the throne, and independent of it. Their
countenance was not to be commanded, but won. He
Irad difcovered too much flatelinefs to them ; and they
were the proper judges of the deportment that became
them. If he wifiied for confequence, it was his duty
to pay them court and attention; and whenever he
fhould procure and conciliate their regard and com-
mendation, fire would be happy to give him all thc^
importance that belonged to him.
In the mean time, the earls ef Murray and Both- -
■wel were induflrioufly flriving to widen the breach be-
tween the king and queen, and at the fame time to fo- -
ment the divifion between the king and his nobles^
I'he carl of Morton excited difturbances on the bor-
ders ; and as no fettled peace had taken place there
fince Mary's marriage, there was the greatefl reafon to ^
believe that he would fucceed in his attempts. Pro- <
SCO
SCO
^^59
ink, but
rci-overs.
IBcotlfin^, clanifiUQns w€fe therefore IfTqed by the cjueen to call hf r
■ ' '" fubjeAfi to arms; und flie proceeded to Jcdbnnrh, to
hold jullicc-courts, and to puuilli traitors and dtlbrder-
ly perfona. In the courfe ot this journey Ihe was ta-
ken danocroufly ill; infomuch that, believing her death
to be at hand, flie called for the bi(hop of Rofs, telling
him to bear witnefs, that fhe had perftvered in th-at re-
ligion in which fliehadlieen noiirll'lied and brought up;
takin :^ the promife of her nobles, that after her death
they would open her laft will and teftament, and pay
the refpedl to it that confiiled with the laws ; recom-
mending to thera the rights of her infant fon, and the
charge of educating him in fuch a manner as might en-
able him to rule the kingdom of his anceftors with ho-
nour ; and intreating them to abllain from all cruelty
and perfecution of her Roman Catholic fubjefts. Not-
\\ ithilanding her apprehenfions, however, and the ex-
treme violence of her diftemper, the queen at laft reco-
vered perfeft health. As foon as flie was able to tra-
vel, ihe vifited Kelfo, Werk caille, Hume, Langton,
and Wedderburn. The licentious borderers, on the
firll news of her recovery, iaid down their arms. Be-
ing defirous to take a view of Berwick, the queen ad-
vanced to it with an attendance of looo horfe. Sir
John Forller, the deputy warden of the Englifh marches,
came forth with a numerous retinue, and conduced her
to. the moil proper ftation for furveying it, and paid her
•all the honours in his power, by a full dilcharge of the
artillery, and other demonflratlons of joy. Continu-
ing her jouraey, file pafle-d to Eymouth, Dunbar, and
Tantailon ; proceeding thence to Craigmillar caftle,
where fhe propofed to remain till the time of the bap-
•tifm of the prince, which was foon to be celebrated at
<56o Stirling.
CTnkindners Durmg the fevere ficknefs of the queen, her huf-
•of the king, band kept himfelf at a dlftance : but when flie was fo
far recovered as to be out of dang;:er, he made his ap-
peai'ance ; and being received with fome coldnefs and
formality, he retired fuddenly to Stirling. This cruel
negleft was a moft fenfible mortification to her ; and
while Ihe fuffered from his ingratitude and haughtinefs,
fhe was not without fufpicions that he was attempting
to difturb the tranquillity of her government. She
was feiied with a fettled melancholy ; and, in lier an-
■guifh, often wifted for death to put a period to her ex-
iftence. Her nobles, who were caballing againft her,
remarked her condition, and took advantage of it.
Botbwel, who had already recqmrnended himfelf by
his fervices, redoubled his efforts to heighten the fa-
vour which thefe fervices had induced her to conceive
for him. At this time, it is probable, he fought to
661 g^'" afFeClion of the queen, with a view to marry
A (^-ivorce her himfelf, providing a divorce from her hufband
5s propo- could be obtained, which was now become the fubjecl
of confultation by Murray and his affociates. After
much deliberation, the queen herfelf was acquainted
with this projeft ; and it was told her, that provided
fhe would pardon the earl of Morton and his affociates,
the means fhould be found of efFeftuatlng the divorce.
This was urged as a nmtter of flate by the earls of
Murray, Lethington, Argyle, and Huntley ; and the
queen was invited to coijfider it as an affair which
might be managed without any interference on her
part. The queen replied, that fhe would lilten to
theni, upon condition thai the divorce could be ab-
tained acQordiugr t-o the laws, and that it fhpuW not be- Scut'.an.
any way prejudicial to her fon : but if they meant to v
operate their purpofe by a difregard to thefe points,
they muft not think any more of it ; for rather than
confent to their views, file would endure all the tor-
ments, and abide by all the perils, to which her fitu^-
tion expofed her.
Lethington upon this, in the name of the reil, en-
gaged to make her quit of her hufband, without preju-
dice to her fon ; words which could not be underilood
otherwife than as pointing at mm-der. Lord Murray
(added he), who is here prefent, fcrupulous as he is,
will connive ; and behold our procccdin without
opening his lips. The queen immediately made anfwer,
" 1 defire that you will do nothing from which any
flain may be fixed upon my honour or confcience ; and
I therefore require the matter to reil as 'it is, till God
of his goodnefs fend relief: What you think to be
of fcrvlce to me may turn out to my difpkafure and
harm. "
It appears, however, that from this moment a plot was
formed by MiuTay, Bothwel, and Lethington, againft
the life of Parnley, and by fome of them probably a-
galnft the queen herfelf ; and that Morton, who with
the other confpirators againft Rizzio had received a
pardon, was clofely aflbciated with them in their nefari-
ous defigns. That pi-ofllgaie peer was, in his way to
Scotland, met at Whittlngham by Bothwel and the fe-
cretary. They propofed to him the murder of the
king, and required his affiftance, alleging that the .queen
herfelf confented to the deed ; to which Morton by his
own account replied, that he v/as difpofed to concur^
provided he were fure of aAin;if under any authority
from her ; but Bothwel and Lethington having return-
ed to Edinburgh, on purpofe to obtain fuch an autho-
rity, fent him back a mefiage, That the queen would
not permit any converfation upon that matter.
In the mean time, preparations were made f'or the
baptifm of the young prince ; to affift at which the
queen left Craigmillar and went to Stirling. i he ce-
remony was performed on the i 7th of December i ^66.
After the baptifmal rites were performed, the name
and titles of the prince were three times proclaimed
by the heralds to the found of trumpets. He was
called and defigned, Cliarles James, James Charles,
prince and Steward of Scotland, duke of Rothefay,
earl of Carrick, lord of the Iflea, and baron of Ren-
frew. Amidft the fcenes of joy difplayed on this oc-
cafion, the king fhowed his folly more than he had (,61
done before. As Elizabeth did not mean to acknow-Abfurdb
ledge him in his fovereign capacity, it was neither con-^^*'°"'"'''
fiftent with the dignity of the queen, nor his own, that
he fhould be prefent at the baptifm. He did not in-
deed prefent himfelf either at the ceremony or the en» ^
tertainments and raafquerades with which it was ac- ^
companied. At this junfture, however, though he had
often kept at a greater diftance before, he took up his
refidencc at Stirling, as if he had meant to offend the
queen, and to expofe their cjuarrtls to the world. Du
Croc, who was inclined to be favourable to him, was fo
ftruck with the impropriety of his behaviour, that he
afftfted to have iaftruftlons from France to avoid all
intercourfe with him : and when the king propofed to
pay him a vlfit, he took the Hberty to inform him, that
there were two paffagea in hi^ chamber ; and that if his
7 majefty
SCO
C 5
«3
"alU
6(?4
Id is
jrdeied.
Us
:empf s
is (cover
mur.
crs.
majeily O^oaU enter by the one, he fliould be conftrain-
ed to go out by the other.
While he reGdcd at Stirling, the king chiefly con-
fieed himfelf to his chamber. His ftranije behaviour
to the queen did not give the pulilic any favourable Idea
of him ; and as the eurl of Murray and his faction took
care to augment the general odium, no court was paid
to him by foreign ambaffadors. His fituatlon, there-
fore, was eKceediagly unconrifortable ; but though he
rnuft have been confclous of his imprudence and folly,
he did not alter his conduft. In a fullen humour he
left Stirling, and proceeded to Glafgow. Here he ^ell
fick, with fuch fymptoms as feemed to Indicate poifon.
He was tormented with violent pains, and his body
was all covered over with puftvdes of a blulfli colour ; fo
that his death was daily expefted. Mary did not re-
pay his coldnefs to her by negh'gence. She fet out
immediately for Glafgow, and waited on him with all
the affiduity of an affe6tionate wife, until he recovered:
after which fhe returned with him to Edinburgh ; and
as the low fituation of the palace of Holyroodhoufe
■was thought to render it unhealthy, the king was
lodged in a houfe which had been appointed for the
fu.perior of the church, called St Mary's in the Fields,
This houfe ftood upon an high ground, and In a falu-
brious air ; and here flie ftaid with him fome days. —
Here the confplrators thought proper to finilh their
plot In the moll execrable manner. On the loth of
February 1567, about two o'clock in the morning,
the houfe where the king refided was blown up by
gunpowdvT. The explofion alarming the Inhabitants,
excited a general curiofity, and brought multitudes to
the place from whence it proceeded. The king was
found dead and nakei ij) an adjoining field, witli a fer-
vant who ufed to fleep in the fame apartment witli him.
On neither was there any mark of fire or other exter-
nal injui-y.
The queen was in the palace of Holyroodhoufe, ta-
king the diverfton of a naalked ball, which was given to
honour the marriage of a favourite domeftic, when the
pews of the king's death was brought to her. She
fliowed the utmoft grief, and appeared exafperated to
the laft degree againft the perpetrators of a deed at
once fo (hocking and barbarous. The moil exprefs
and peremptory orders were given to Inquire after the
perpetrators by every poflible method. A proclama-
tion was iffued by the privy-council, alluring the people,
that the queen and nobility would leave nothing un-
done to difcover the murderers of the king. It offer-
ed the fum of 2000 I. and an annuity for life, to any
perfon who, fhould give information of the devifers,
counfellors, and perpetrators of the murder ; and it held
out this reward, and the promlfe of a full pardon, to
the confpirator who fhould make a free confeffion of
his own guilt, and that of the confederates. On the
fourth day after this proclamation was publifhed, a
placard was affixed to the gate of the city-prifon, af-
liriTiIng, that the earl of Bothwel, James Balfour, Da-
vid Chalmers, and black John Spence, were the mur-
derers. No name, however, was fubfcribed to this in-
telligence, nor was any demand made for the proffered
reward ; fo that It was difficult to know whether this
adveriifemeiit had been dI<Slated by a fpirit of calumny
or the love of juftice.
In the menu time, the earl of Murray conducted
Vol. XVIL Part. 1.
7 1 SCO
himfelf with hia ufual circumfpeaion and artifice. Up- Scotland..^
on a pretence that his wife was dangeroufly fick at
his caille in Fife, he, the day before the murder, ob- strong pre-
taiued the queen's permiffion to pay a vifit to her. J3yfumpti>a
this means he propofed to prevent all fufpicion what- "f^ thermit
^ , . .,, fr (- r 11 1 c ^x. ' of the earl
ever of his guilt. He was fo full, however, oi the i"- j^/iurray.
tended projeil, that while he was proceeding on his
journey, he obferyed to the perfon who accompanied
him, " This night, before morning, the lord Darnley
fhall lofe his lIFe." V/heu the blow was flruck, he re-
turned to Edinburgh to carry on his pradices. A-
mong foreign nations, the domeftic difputes of the
queen and her hufband being fully known, it was with
the greater eafe that reports could be propagated to 667
her difadvantage. To France letters were difpatched, ''"le accufea
exprefling, in fervent terms, her participation in thc^'^'^
murder. In England, the miniilers and courtiers of
Elizabeth could not flatter that princefs more agree-
ably, than by Indudrioufly detracting from the honour
and the virtue of the Scottifli queen. Within her own
dominions a fimllar fpirit of outrage exerted itfelf, and
not without fuccefs. As her reconciliation with her
hufband could not be unknown to her own fubjetts. It
was interpreted to be dilfimulation and treachery. The
Proteflant clergy, who were her mofl determined ene-
mies, pofTefTed a leading dircdion among the pop\ilace;
and they wei^e the friends and the partizans of the earl
of Murray. Open declamations from the pulpit were
made againfl Bothvvcl, and ftrong infiiiuations and bit-
ing furnilfes were thrown out againfl the queen. Pa-
pei-s were difperfed, making her a party with Bathwel
in the murder. Every art v»^as employed to provoke
the frenzy of the people. Voices, iiiterrupting the
fjlence of the night, proclaimed the iafamy of Both-
wel ; and portraits of the regicides were cii'culated over
the kingdom. _ _
The queen's determination, however-, to fcrutlnize-pj^g ^^^^j^
into the matter was unabated ; and to the earl of Len-rietermiiies
nox, the king's father, fhe paid an attention which he t<J "it
could only have expefted from her upon an eirsergency ^^"^^
of this kind. Having pi-effed her by letter to the mofl dej^f
diligent inquiry after the regicides, fhe returned an an-
fwer fo conrpletely to his wifhes, tfiat he was fully con-
vinced of the fincerity and rigour with which fhe in-
tended to proceed againil them ; and he urged her to
affemble the three eftates, that their advice might di-
rect the order and manner of their trial. She wrote
to him, that an afTernbly of the eUates was already
proclaimed ; and that it was her eaioeft and determi-
ned will and pur-pofe, that no Hep fliould be negle£led.
that could conduce to the advancement and execution
of juftice. Yielding to his anxieties, he addrefTed her
anew, intreating that the trial might not be delayed 5
obrerving, that It was not a matter of parliamentary In^
quiry ; advifing, that it would be more proper to pro-
ceed to it with the greatefl expedition ; and urging her
to commit to prifon all the perfons who had been na-
med and defcribed In the papers and placards which
had been fet up in the public places of the city. The
queen Informed him, that although fhe had thought it
expedient to call a meeting of the parliament at this
jundlure, It was not her meaning that the proceedings
againfl the regicides fhould be delayed till It was a£lu-
ally aflerabled. As to the placards and papers to which
he alluded, they wei-e fo numerous and contraditlory,
li that
Scotland.
669
Lenox ac-
cufes feve-
panic
SCO r 58 ]
that fhe could not well determine upon which to aSt : queen
but if he would condefcend to mention the names which,
in his opinion, were moll fufpicious, {he would inftantly
command that thofe fteps fhould be taken which the
laws direfted and authorifed. He in return named the
earl of Bothwel, James Balfour, David Chalmers, black
xal pcrfons, JqJjjj Spence, Francis Sebaftian, John de Burdeaux,
and Jofeph the brother of David Rizzio ; and affured
her majcfty, that his- fufpicions of thefe perfons were
weighty and ftrong. In reply to his information^ Ma-
ry gave him her folemn promife, that the perfons he
had pointed out fbould abide and undergo their trial
in conformity to the laws, and that they fhould be pu-
niflied according to the meafure of their guilt : and
fhe invited him to leave immediately his retirement,
and to meet her at her court, that he might witnefs the
proceedings againft them, and the zeal with which fhe
was animated to perform the part that became her.
While the queen carried on this correfpondence with
the earl of Lenox, (he refided partly at the palace of
the lord Seton, at the diftance of a few miles from
her capital, and partly at Holyroodhoufe. By the time
that flie fent her invitation to him, fhe was refiding in
her capital. She delayed not to confer with her coun-
fellors, and to lay before them the letters of the earl of
Lenox. Bothwel was earned in his proteftations of
innocence ; and he even exprefled his wifh for a trial,
that he might cftabllfh his integrity. No fafts point-
ed to his guilt ; there had appeared no accufer but the
earl of Lenox ; and no witnefles had been found who
could eflablifh his criminality. Her privy-council feem-
ed to her to be firmly perfuaded that he was fuffering
under the malice of defamation. Murray, Morton,
and Lethington, whatever might be their private ma-
chinations, were publicly his moft ftrenuous defenders ;
and they explained the behaviour of the earl of Le-
nox to be the effeft of hatred and jealoufy againft a
nobleman who had outrun him fo far in the career of
ambition. But though all the arts of Murray and
Bothwel, Morton and Lethington, were exerted to
their utmoil extent to miflead the queen, they were not
able to withhold her from adopting the ftrain of con-
eluA which was the moft proper and the moft honour-
able to her. It was her own ardent defire that the re-
gicides fhould be punifhed ; fhe had given her folemn
promife to the eai'l of Lenox, that the perfons whom
fxe fufpefted fhould be profecuted ; and amidft all the
appearances in favour of Bothwel, and all the influence
employed to ferve him, it is to be regarded as a ftr iking
proof of her honour, vigour, and ability, that fhe could
accomplifh this meafure. An order, acairdingly, of
the privy-council was made, which direfled, that the
earl of Bothwel, and all the perfons named by Le-
nox, fhould be brought to trial for the murder of
the king, and that the laws of the land fhould be car-
ried into full execution The 12 th of April was ap-
pointed for the trial. A general invitation was given
to all perfons whatfoever to prefer their accufations.
The earl of Lenox was formally cited to do himfelf
juftice, by appearing in the high court of jufticiary,
and by coming forward to make knewn the guilt of
the culprits.
In the mean time, it was proper to reprefs that fpi-
rit of outrage that had raanlfefted itfelf agalaft the
SCO
No dlfcovcries, however, were made, except
againft James Murray, brother to Sir William Murray
of TuUibardin, who at different times had publifhed
placards injurious to her. He was charged to appear
before the privy-council : but refufing to obey its ci-
tation, it was made a capital offence for any com-
mander of a veffel to convey him out of the kingdom ;
and the refolution was taken to punifh him with an ex-
emplary feverity. EfFefting, however, his efcape, he
avoided the punifhment due to his repeated and deteft-
able afts of calumny and treafon.
The day for the trial of Bothwel approached. The
confpirators, notwithftanding their power, were not
without apprehenfions. Their preparations, however,
for their fafety had been anxious ; and, among other
praftices, they neglefted n®t to attempt to throw a
Scot Ian
671
67* i
And wil
670
And is ir-
^jted to
ITove- his
»ccuiktions. ,
into the earl of Lenox. They were favoured He
by his confcioufnefs of his unpopularity, and his vvant "i''^^'^'^''
of ftrength, by his timidity and his fpirit of jealoufy,
Sufpicions of the queen's guilt were infniuated into
him ; and the dangers to which he might be expofed
by infifting on the trial were fet before him in the
ftrongeft colours. He was fenfible of her averfion to
him ; and his weaknefs and the fovereign authority
were contrafled. His friends concurred with his ene-
mies to intimidate him, from the fpirit of flattery, or
from a real belief that his fituation was critical. By
the time he had reached Stirling, in his way to Edin-
burgh, his fears predominated. He made a full ftop»
He was no longer in hafte to proceed againft the re-
gicides. He addreffed a letter to the queen, in which to def
he faid he had fallen into fuch ficknefs, that he could ^'i^'
not travel ; and he affirmed, th^t he had not time to
prepare for the trial and to affemble his friends. He
complained, too, that Bothwel and his accomplices
had not been committed to cuftody ; he infifted, that
this ftep fhould be taken ; and he requefted, that a day
at a greater diftance might be appointed for the trial.
After the lengths to which matters had gone, this cou-
du£l was moft improper ; and it is only to be account-
ed for from terror or capricioufnefs. His indifpofition
was affected ; he had been invited by Mary to wait
upon her at Edinburgh at an early period, to concert
his meafures ; and the delay he aflced was in ftrong
contradiftlon to his former intreaties. After the invi-
tation fent to him, he might have relied with fafety
upon the proteftion of the queen, without any gather-
ing of his friends ; from the tinrve of her private intima-
tion to him, and of the legal citations of her officers,
there had pafTed a period more than fufficient for the
purpofe of calling them together; and indeed to- fup-
pofe that there was any neceflity for their affiflanccj
was an infult to government, and a matter of high in-
decency. There was more juftice in the complaint,
that the earl of Bothwel and his accomplices had not
been taken into cuftody ; and yet even in this peculi-
arity, he was himfelf to blame in a great degree. For
he had not obferved the precaution of that previous
difplay of evidence, known in the Scottlfh law under
the term of a precognition, which is common in aH
the grofTer offences, and which the weighty clrcurre-
ftances of the prefent cafe rendered fo neceffary as a
foundation for the confinement aiid coQvidlion of the
criminals^
SCO
[
An application for the delay of a trial fo impertarit,
upon the night immediately preceding the day ftated
for it, and reciting reafons of no conclufive force, could
not with propriety be attended to. The privy-council
refufed the demand of the earl of Lenox. The court
of jufticiary was alTembled. The earl of Argyle aded
in his charafter of lord high jufticiar ; and was aided
by four aflelTors, Robert Pitcairn, commendator of
Dunfermline, and the lord Lindfay, with Mr James
Macgill and Mr Henry Balnaves, two lords of the
feflion. The indiftment was read, and the earls of
Bothwel and Lennox were called upon ; the one as the
defender, the other as the accufer. Bothwel, who had
tome to the court with an attendance of his vaffals, and
a band of mercenary foldiers, did not fail to prelent
himfelf : but Lenox appeared only by his fervant Ro-
bert Cunnyngham ; who, after apologizing for his ab-
fence, from the fhortnefs of the time, and the want of
the prefence of his friends, defired that a new day fhould
be appointed for the trial ; and protefted, that if the
jury fliould now enter upon the bufmefs, they Ihould
incur the guilt of a wilful error, and their verdift be of
no force or authority.
This remonftrance and proteftation appeared not to
the court of fufficient importance to interrupt the trial.
They paid a greater refpeft to the letters of the earl of
Lenox to the queen infilling upon an immediate pro-
fecution, and to the order of the privy-council cohfe-
quent upon them. The jury, who confifted of men of
rank and condition, after confidering and reafoning up-
on the indidment for a confidcrable time, were unani.
mous in acquitting Bothwel of all fhare and knowledge
of the king's murder. The machinations however of
Morton, which we have mentioned in the life of Ma-
ry, were fo apparent, that the earl of Caithnefs, the
chancellor of the aflize, made a declaration in their
name and his own, that no wilful error ought to be
imputed to them for their verdidl ; no proof, vouchers,
or evidence, to confirm or fupport the criminal charge
having been fubmitted to them. At the fame time,
he offered a proteftation for himfelf, that there was a
miftake in the indiftment, the 9th day-of February in-
ftead of the loth being expreffed in it as the date of
the murder. It is not to be doubted, but that this
flaw in the indi6:ment was a matter of defign, and with
a view to the advantage of Bothwel, if the earl of
Lenox had made his appearance againft him. And
it has been remarked as moft indecent and fufpicious,
that foldiers in arms fhould have accompanied him to
the court of juftice ; that during the trial, the eail of
Morton ftood by his fide to give him countenance and
to aflifl him ; and that the four afl'efibrs to the chief
jufticiar were warm and ftrenuous friends to the earl of
Murray.
Immediately after his trial, Bothwel fet up in a con-
fpicuous place a writing, fubfcflbed by him, challen-
ging to fingle combat, any perfon of equal rank with
himfelf, who fliould dare to affirm that he was guilty
of the kind's mui-der. To this challenfre an anfwer
was publifhed, in which the defiance was accepted, up-
on the condition that fecurity (hould be given for a
fair and equal conflift^ but no name being lubfcribed
to this paper, it was not underftood to correfpond
with the law of arms ; and of confequcr.ee no ilep was
59 ] SCO
taken for the fighting of the duel. Two days after Scotlaind.
the parliament met, and there the party of Bothwel ^""^ ^
appeared equally formidable. The verdift in his favour
was allowed to be true and juft. He was continued in
his high offices ; and obtained a parliamentary ratifica-
tion of the place of keeper of Dunbar caftle, with the
eftates in connexion with it ; and other favours were
conferred upon Murray, with the reft of the nobles fuf-
pefted as accomplices in the murder.
A very fhort time after the final acquitment of Both- He afpire»
wel, he began to give a greater loofe to his ambition, * "^^r-
and conceived hopes of gaining the queen in marriage. ^^^'^
It has been already remarked, that he had infidioufly ^
endeavoured to gain her affeftion during the lifetime of
her huft)and ; but though he might have fucceeded in
this, the recent death of the king in fuch a fhocking
manner, and the ftrong fufpicions which muft neccffari.
ly ftill reft upon him, notwithftanding the trial he had
undergone, neceffarily prevented him from making his
addreffes openly to hei. He therefore endeavoured to Is recom-
gain the npbility over to his fide ; which having done mended hy
one by one, by means of great promifes, he Invited nobihty
them to an entertainment, where they agreed to ratify luiflTardfor
a deed pointing him out to the queen as a perfon wor- her.
thy of her hand, and exprefling their refolute determi-
nation to fupport him In his pretenfions. This extra-
ordinary bond was accordingly executed ; and Murray's Schemes of
name was the firft in the lift of fubfcribers, in order to earl of
decoy others to fign after him ; but that he might ^P' j^rtthV*-
pear innocent of what he knew was to follow, he had, queen,
before any ufe was made of the bond, adctd and ob-
tained the queen's permiffion to go to France, In his
way thither he vifited the court of Elizabeth, where he
did not fail to confirm all the reports which had arifen
to the difadvantage of Mary ; and he now circulated
the intelligence that (he was foon to be married to
Bothwel. Her partizans In England were exceeding-
ly alarmed ; and even queen Elizabeth herfelf addreffed
a letter to her, in which fhe cautioned her not to afford
fuch a mifchievous handle to the malice of her enemies. ^
Maiy, upon the dlffolution of the parliament, had Bc^thwel
gone to Stirling to vifit the young prince. Bothwel, can ies her
armed with the bond of the nobles, affembled iooo°^J^°^^*
horfe, under the pretence of prote<fting the borders, of
which he was the warden ; and meeting her upon her
return to her capital, difmifi'ed her attendants, and car-
ried her to his caflle of Dunbar. The arts which he
ufed there to cffeA the accomplifhment of his wiflies
we have mentioned under another article, (fee Mary).
But having been married only fix months before to
Lady Jane Gordon, fifter to the earl of Huntley, it
was neceftary to procure a divorce before he could marry
the queen. This was eafily obtained. The parties were
coufins within the prohibited degrees, and had not ob-
tained a difpenfation from Rome. Their marriage,
therefore, in the opinion of the queen and her Roman
Catholic fubjefls, was illicit, and a profane mockery of-
the facrament of the ciiurch. The hufband had alfo
been unfaithful ; fo that two aftions of divorce were in-
ftituted. The lady commenced a fuit againft him in Is divorced
the court of the commifiaries, ctiarging him as guilty
of adultery with one of her maids. 'I'he earl himlelf^^'^'
brought a fuit againft his wife before the court of the
aixhbifhop of St Andrew% upon the plea of confan-
H z guiuity.
Scotland.
SCO [60
^nnlty. By both courts their marrlag* was decided to
be void ; and thus two fentences oF divorce were pro-
nounced.
Bothwel now conduced the queen from Dunbar to
her capital. But inftead of attending her to her pa-
kce of Holyrood houfe, his jealoufy and apprehenfions
induced him to lodj^e her in the caftle of Edinburgh,
where he could hold her in fecurity againft any at-
tempt of his enemies. To give fatisfafiion, however,
to her people, and to convince them that file was no
longer a prifoner, a public deckrr.tion upon her part
appeared to be a meafure of expediency. She pre-
fented herfelf, therefore, 'n the court of fcflion ; the
lords chancellf)r and preiulent, the judges, and other
perfons of diflinftion, being prefent. After obferving
that fome flop had been put to the adminiftration of
juftice upon account of her being detained at Dunbar
Againft her will by the lord Bothwel, {he declared, that
though fhe had been highly o{{ended with the outrage
offered to her, flie was yet inclined to forget it. His
Gourteoufnefs, the fenfe fhe entertained of his pafl fer-
vices to the ftate, and the hope with which (he was im-
prefied of his zeal and aAivity for the future, compelled
her to gWe him and his accomplices in her imprifon-
ir.ent a full and complete pardon. She at the fame
time defired them to take notice, that (he Was now at
her freedom and liberty ; and that fhe propofed, in
confideration of his merits, to take an early opportnnii-
ty of promoting him to hew and diftinguifhed honours.
It was underftood that the queen was immediately
to advance him to be her huftand. The order was
dafn ed"" S'^*^" proclamation of the banns ; and Mr John
Craig, one of the minifters of Edinburgh, was defired
to perform this bufinefs. But thou!J:h the order was
fnbfcribed by the queen, he refufed abfolutely his com-
pliance without the authority of the church. The
brethren, after long reafoning», granted him permiffion
to difcharge this duty. His fcruples, notwithtiaiiding,
and delicacy, were sot yet removed. He proteftedj
that, in obeying their deiire, he fhould be allowed to
fpeak his own fentiments concerning the marriage, and
that his pnblifhing the banns ftiould in^er no obi gation
in him bj officiate in the folemnity. In his coRjjreg^-
tion, accordingly, before a crowded audience, and in
the prefence of feveral noblemen and privy counfellors,
he declared that the marriage of the queen and the earl
of Bothwel' wan unlawftil, and that he was prepared to
pive his reafons for this opinion to the parties them-
felVes Ht added, that if leav€ to do this was denied
him, he would cither abftain altogether from proclaim-
ing the banns, or taltc the liberty, after proclaiming
them, to inform his people of the caufes of his difap-
probation of the marriage. He was earned before the
6^1 lords of the privy coimcil ; and the car! of Bothwel
TorrituJc called upon' him to explain his behaviour. He anfwer-
^^^'^J'"^" cdj that the church had prohibited the marriage of per-
SCO
5iinns of
the m-iT-
fons feparated for adultery ; and that the divorce be Scotl
tween him and his wife mull have been owing to coUu-
fion ; lince the fcntence had been given with precipita^
tion, and fince his new contraft was fo fudden ; and he
objefted to him the abduAIon and ravifliment of the
queen, and the fufpicion of his guilt in the king's
murder. This bold language drew no reply from
Bothwel that was fatisFaStory to Mr Craig, or that
could intimidate him. He proclaimed in his church
the banns of the marriage ; but he told the congrega-
tion, that he difcharged the fnggeftions of his coiifciencc
in pronouncing it to be a deteftable and fcandalous en-
gagement. He expreffed the forrow he felt for the
conduft of the nobility, who feemed to approve it from
their flattery or fdence ; and addrefiing him.felf to the
faithful, he beiought them to pray to the Almighty
that he would turn a refolution intended againft law,
reafon, and religion, into a comfort and benefit to the
church and the kingdom. Thefe freedoms were too
great to pafs unnoticed. Mr Craig Vi^as ordered anew
to attend the privy-council ; and he was reprimanded
with feverity for exceeding the bounds of liis comraif-
fion. Ke had the courage to defend himfelf. His
commiffion, he faid, was founded in the word of God,
pofitivc law, and natui-al i-eafon ; and upon the founda-
tion of thefe topics he was about to pr«ve tliat the
maiTiage irAiil be univerfally foul and odious, when the
earl of Bothwel commanded him to be fdent. The
privy-council, ftruck witli the vigour of the mm; and
apprehenfive of the pvibhc difcontents, did not dare to
infiift any pvmifhment upon him ; and this vittory. over
Bothwel, while it heightened all the fufpicions againil
him, ferved to encourage the enemies of the queen, and
to undermine the refpeft of her iubjefts. ■ ^
Mary, before file rendered her hand to Bothwel, 'fhe
created him duke of Orkney. The ceremony was per-riage c
formed in a private manner, after the rules of the Po.*^"'^'^^^'
pifh church ; but, to gratify the people, it was like*,
wife folemnized publicly according to the Proteffant
rites by Adam Bothwel bifhop of Orkney, an ecclefiafi.
tic who had i-enounced the Epifeopal order, for the re-
formation. It was celebrated with . little pomp and Itf-
tivlty. Many of the nobles had retired to their feats
in the country ; and thofe who attended were thought-
ful and fad. Du Croc, the French ambaffador, feiihbie
that the match would he difpltaling to his court, ic:-
fufed to give his countenance to the folemn'ty. There
were no acclamations of the common people. Mary
herfelf was not incGnfcioiis of the imprudence of the
choice fhe had made, and looked back with fiuprife
and forrow to the train of cii-cumflanccs which had
conduced her to this fatal, event. Forfaken by her
nobles, and imprifoned at Dunbar, fhe was in fo peril'
ous a fituation that no remedy could fave her honour
but death. Her marriage was the immediate and ne-
ceffary confequence of that fituation (s), It was the
point
( s) The queen (fays M'elvil) couH not but marry him; feeing be hai^ ravifheo her an<^ lain with her againft
ker wiir.'' Memoirs, p. 15.9. In the following paffage, from a writer of great authority, in our hiftory, this
topic is touched with no lefs exaflnefs, but with greater delicacy. After Mary had remained a fortnight under
Ifee gGwer of a dariag proffigate f.dveiiturer, fays Lord Hailcs, few foreign princes would h«;ve foiicited her
hand.
itland-
683
hwel
Itempts t(
the
^ung
fince in.
I his
i)wer.
684
lurray ca
kmniates
SCO T 61
pomt for wliick her enmies had laboured with a wicked
and relentlefs policy.
Mary was unfortunate in her fecond marriage, but
n-.uch more (o in her third. Bothwel had neither _ta-
lents for bufinefa nor affection for his wife. Ambitious
and jealous to the kft degree, he fought only to efta-
bhfli hinifclf in power, while his fears and jealouhes
jnade him take the molt improper means. The marri-
age had already thr©wn the nation into a ferment ; and
the leatt improper exercife of power, or indeed an ap-
pearance of it, even on the part of the queen, would
he fufficient to ruin them both for ever. Perhaps the
only thing which at this junfture could have pacified
the people, would have been the total abolition of
Popery, which they had often required. But this was
not thought of. Inftead of taking any ftep to pleaCe
the people, Bothwel endeavoured to force the earl of
Marre to deliver up the young prince to his cuftody.— -
This was fufficient to make the flame, which had hi-
therto been fmothered, break out with all its violence.
It was univerfally believed that Bothwel, who had been
the murderer of the father, defigned to take away the
life of the fon alfo, and the queen was thought to
participate in all his crimes. The earl of Murray now
took advantage of the queen's unfortunate fituation to
..aggrandize himfelf and effeft her ruin. After having
vifited the Erglifh court, he proceeded to France,
where he afliduoufly diffeminated all the reports agalnft
the queen which were injurious to her reputation ; and
where, without being expofed to fufpicion, he was able
to maintain a clbfe correfpondence with his friends
Morton and Lethington, and to infpirit their machina-
tions. His aflbciates, true to his ambition and their
own, had promoted all the fchemes of Bothwel upon the
qtieen with a power and influence which had infured
their fuccefs. In confederacy with the earl of Murray
himfelf, they had confpired with him to murder the
king. Affifted with the weight of the earl of Murray,
they had managed his trial, and operated the yerdid
which acquitted him. By tJie fame arts, and with tlie
feme views, they had joined with him to procure the
bond of the nobles recommending him to the queen as
a hufoand, aflerling his integrity and innocence, re-
counting his noble' qualities, expreffing an unalterable
refolution to fupport the marriage againft every oppofel-
and adv(?rlary, and recording a wifh that a defeftion
fmm its objefts and purpofea fhould' be branded with
cverlafting ignominy, and held' out as a moll faithlefs
and perjured* tfeachery . When the end, however, was
accomplifhed for which they had been fo zealous, and
when the marriage of the queen was aftually celebrated,
they laid afidfe the pretence of friendfhip, and were in
hafte to entitle themfelves to the ignominy which they
had inAated to fall upon them. The murder of the
king, the guilt of Bothwel, his acquittal, his divorce,
and his marriage, became the topics of their complaints
and declamation. Upon the foundation of this hated..
Scotland
68<
] SCO
marriage, they even ventured privately to infer the pri-
vity of the queen to all his iniquity and tranfadions ;
and this ftep feemed doubtlels, to the mafs of her own
fubjecfts and to more diftant obfervers, a llrong confirm-
ation of all the former fufpicions to her ihame which
had been circulated with fo much artifice. Their im-
putatlons and devices excited againft her, both at home
and abroad, the moft indignant and humiliating odium.
Amidft the ruins of her fame, they thought to bury
for ever her tranquillity and peace ; and in the eonyui-
fions they had meditated, they already were anticipating
the downfal of Bothwel, and fnatching at the crown
that tottered on her head.
But while this cabal were profecuting their private 4^ cmfece-^
ends, feveral noblemen, not lefs remarkable for their racy formed
virtue than their rank, were eager to- vindicate the na- againft ^
tional integrity and honour. I'he earl of Athol, upon lii^^'We!,
the king's murder, had retired from the court, and was
waiting for a proper feafon to take revenge upon the
regicides. The earl of Man-e, uneaiy under the charge
of the young prince, was fohcitou3 to make himfelf
ftrong, thatlie might guard- him from injury-. Mo-
tives fo patriotic and honourable drew applaufe and
partizans. It was fufScient to mention them. By pri-
vate conference and debate, an- aftociation was infenfibly
formed to punifli the murderers of the king, and to pre-
teft the perfon of the prinoe. Morton and Lethington'
encouraged and promoted a combination from whicb
they might derive fo much advantage. A convention
accordingly was appointed at Stirling, for the purpofe
of confuking upon the mcafures whicii it was moft ex-
pedient ta purfue. They agreed to take an early op-
portunity to appear in the field ; and when they fepa-
j-ated, it was to coiled their retainers, and to iiilpirit
their paflions.
Of this confederacy, the leading men were the ezxia ■
of Argyll.-, Athol, Mdrton, Mai re,., and Glencairn ; the
lords Hume, Semple, and Lindfay ; the baror;s Kir-
kaldy of Grange, Murray of Tullibardin, and'Maitland
of Lethington. The earl of Bothw^el was fenfiblc,
that if he was to fit upgn a throne, he muft wade- to it
through blood. By his advice, two proclamations were
iffued'in the name of the queen, under the pretence of prepares
fupprefling infun-dSions and depi edations upon the for war 5.
borders,. By the former, fhe called together in arms,
upon an earlv day, the earls, barons, and freeholders of
the diftrifts of Forfar and Perth, Scrathern and Men-
teith, Clackmannan, Kinrofs, and Fife. By tlie latter
{he charged the greater and leffer baronage, with all
the infeiior proprietors of the ftiires of Linlithgow and ■
Edinburgh, and the oonftabulary of Haddington and
Berwick, to prepare immediately for v^ar, and to keep ■
themfelves in readinefs to march upon her order-. Thefe
military preparations admoniftitd tlie alfociation to be
firm and aCiive, and added to the- pwblie. inquietudes
and difcontents. The rumours againfi the. queen were -
moft violent and loud. It was faid, that fae meant to • '
h-n ^ Some of her fubicas rr.ight ftill have fought that honotrr ; but her comphance wouH have been humih-
ating beyond meafure. It would have lift her at the mercy of a cwricious hufband ; it would have expoftci -her-
to the difgrace of being reproached, ia fome fallen hour, for -the adventure at Dusbar. _ Mary was ^o fituated, -.
at this critical period, that fhe was reduced to this horri i alternative, either to re.™ m a fnend.efs aui lia^-
zardous ceilbacv, or to yield her hand to,,BothwcL" Remarks on the Hiftory 01 Scotland, ,p. .204,-
S G O [
^.gcotland. to overturn the conftitution and the laws ; that fhe had
~*'-**^.been carelefs of the health of her fon, and was altogether
indifferent about his prefervation ; that (he had feparated
herfelf from the councils and alTiftance of her nobles ;
and that {he wifhed to make her whim or difcretion
the only rule of her government. Agitated with the
iiazardous ftate of her affairs, fhe publifhed a new pro-
clamation, in which fhe employed herfelf to refute thefe
acccufations ; and in which fhe took the opportunity
to exprefs,' in a very forcible manner, not only her at-
tachment to her people and the laws, but tfie fond af-
feftion that fhe bore to the prince, whom fhe confidered
as the chief joy of her hfe, and without whom all her
days would be comfortlefs.
The declarations of the queen were treated with
fcorn. The nobles, abounding in vafTals, and having
the hearts of the people, were foon in a fituation to
take the field. They were advancing to the capital.
The royal army was not yet affembled ; and the queen
and Bothwel fufpeded that the caftle of Edinburgh
would fhut its gates upon them. The fidelity of Sir
James Balfour the deputy-governor had been ftagger-
cd by the piaAices of the earl of Marre and Sir James
Melvil. Mary left her palace of Holyroodhoufe, and
was conduced to Borthwick caflle. The affociated
58^ lords, informed of her flight, took the road to this for-
But ,bli trefs with 2000 horfe. The lord Hume, by a rapid
f« I) " ^> march, prefented himfelf before it with the divifion un-
£ar. command : but being unable to guard all its
■avenues, the queen and Bothwel eflfefted their efcape
to Dunbar ; where the flrength of the fortifications
gave them a full fecurity againfl a furprife.
Upon this fecond difappointment, the nobles refol-
ved to enter Edinburgh,, and to augment their ftrength
by new partizans. Tfie earl of Huntley and the lord
iBoyd were here on the fide of the queen, with the arch-
bifhop of St Andrew's, the bifhop of Rois, and the
abbot of Kilwinning. They endeavoured to animate
the inhabitants to defend their town and the caufe
of their fovereign. But the tide of popularity was fa-
vourable to the confederated lords. 1 he magiflrates
-ordered the gates of the city to be fhut ; but no farther
refiftance was intended. The lords, forcing St Mary's
port, found an eafy admittance, and took poffefrion of
the capital. The earl of Huntley and the queen's
friends fled to the caftle, to Sir James Balfour, who
had been the confident of Bothwel, and who agreed to
proteft them, although he was now concluding a treaty
j.gg with the infurgents.
Proclama- The affociated lords now formed themfelves into a
tion by the council, and circulated a proclamation. By this paper
aobIc3°'^* they declared, that the queen being detained in capti-
vity, was neither able to govern her realm, nor to com-
mand a proper trial to be taken of the king's murder.
In an emergency fo prefllng, they had not defpaired of
their country ; but were determined to deliver the queen
from bondage, to proteft the perfon of the prince, to
revenge the murder of the king, and to vindicate the
nation from the infamy it had hitherto fuffered through
the impunity of the regicides. They therefore com-
manded in general all the fubjefts of Scotland whatfo-
cver, and the burgeffes and inliabitants of Edinburgh in
particular, to take a part with them, and to join in the
advancement of purpofes fo beneficial and falutary.
The day after they had publifhed this prcchmation,
62 ] SCO
they iffued another in terms that were flron^r and Scot
more refohite. They definitively exprcfTed their per- ""^
fuafion of Bothwel's guilt in the rape and feduftion of
the queen, and in his perpetration ot the king's murder,
in order to accomplifh his marriage. They inculcated
it as their firm opinion, that Bothwel was now infliga-
ted with a defign to murder the young prince, and that
he was coUedling troops with this view. Addreffing
themfelves, therefore, to all the fubjefts of the realm,
whether they relided in counties or in boroughs, they
invited them to come forward to their ftandard ; and
defired them to remember, that all perfons who fhould
prefume to difobey them fhould be treated as enemies
and traitors.
Bothwel, in the mean time, was not inactive ; and
the proclamations of the queen had brought many of
her vaffals to her affiftance. Four thoufand comba-
tants ranged themfelves on her fide. This force might
augment as fhe approached to her capital ; and Both-
wel was impatient to put his fortunes to the iffue of a
battle, he left the ftrong caftle of Dunbar, where the
nobles were not prepared to affail him, and where he
might have remained in fafety till they difperfed them-
felves. For their proclamations were not fo fuccefsful
as they had expefted ; their provifions and ftores were
fcanty ; and the zeal of the common people, unfup-
ported by profperity, would foon have abated. Im-
prudent precipitation fei-ved them in a moft effcftual
manner. When the queen had reached Gladfmuir, fhe
ordered a manifefto to be read to her army, and to be
circulated among her fubjefts. By this paper, fhe re- M^nil!
plied to the proclamations of the confederated nobles, by the
and charged them with treachery and rebellion. Shel"^'^"'
treated their reafons of hoflility as mere pretences, and
as inventions which ceuld not bear to be examined.
As to the king's murder, fhe protefted, that fhe herfelf
was fully determined to revenge it, if fhe could be fo
fortunate as to difcover its perpetrators. With regard
to the bondage from which they were fo defirous to
relieve her, fhe obferved, that it was a falfehood fo no-
torious, that the fimplell of her fubjefts could confute
it ; for her marriage had been celebrated in a public
manner, ,and the nobles could hardly have forgotten
that they had fubfcribed a bond recommending Both-
wel to be her hufbaand. With regard to the induftri-
ous defamations of this nobleman, it was urged, that he
had difcovered the utmoft iolicitude to eftablifh his in-
nocence. He had invited a icrutiny into his guilt ;
the juftice of his country had abfolved him ; the three
eftates affembled in parhament were fatisficd with the
proceedings of his judges and jury ; and he had offered
to maintain his quarrel againfl any perfon whatfoever
who was equal to him in rank and of an honeft reputa-
tion. The nobles, fhe faid, to give a fair appearance
to their treafon, pretended, that Bothwel had fchemed
the dcftrudtion of the prince, and that they were in
arms to proteif him. The prince, however, was actual-
ly in their own cuftody ; the uie they made of him was
that of a flcreen to their periidioufnefs ; and ihe real
purpofes with which they were animated, were the
overthrow of her greatnefs, the ruin of her poflenty,
and the ufurpation of the royal authority. She there-
fore intreated the aid of her faithful fubjt6is ; and as
the prize of their valorous fervice, fhe held out to them
the eftates and pofTcfliQns of the rebels.
2 Th€
SCO
[ 63 ]
SCO
><1. The affociated nobles, pleafed at the approach of the
queen, put themfelves in motion. In the city of Edin-
burgh they had eathered an addition to their force ; and
it happened that the Scottlfli ofEcer who commanded the
companies, which, in this period, the king; of Denmark,
was permitted to enlift in Scotland, had been gained to
aflift them. He had juft completed his levies ; and
he turned them a'lainfi the queen. The nobles, after
advancing to MufTelburgh, refrefhed their troops. In-
tellisjence was brought that the queen was upon her
0 march. The two r.rmies were nearly equal in numbers ;
but the preference, in point of valour and difcipline, be-
other longed decifivcly to the foldiers of the nobles. The
queen pofted herfelf on the top of Carberry hill. The
lords, taking a circuit to humour the ground, feemed
to be retreating to Dalkeith ; but wheeling about,
they approached to give her battle. They were ran-
ged in two divifions. The one was commanded by the
earl of Morton and the lord Hume. The other was
direfted by the earls of Athol, Marre, and Glencairn,
with the lords Lindfay, Ruthven, Sempil, and San-
quhar. Bothwel was the leader of the royal forces ;
and there ferved under him the lords Seton, Yefter, and
Bortliwrck.
It was not without apprehenfions that Mary furvey-
ed the foitnidable appearance of her enemies. Du
Croc, the French ambalfador, hallened to interpofe his
good offices, and to attempt an accommodation. He
affured the nobles of the peaceful inclinations of the
queen ; and that the generofity of her nature difpofed
her not only to forgive their prefent infurreftion, but
to forget all their former tranfgreffions. The earl of
Morton informed him, that they had not armed them-
felves againft the queen, but againft the murderer of
the late king ; and that if {he would furrender him up
to them, or command him to leave her, they would
confent to return to their duty. The earl of Glencairn
defired him to obferve, that the extremity to which
they had proceeded might have inftruAed him that they
meant not to aflc pardon for any offences they had com-
mitted, but that they were refolved to take cognizance
of injuries which had provoked their difpleafure. This
afpiring language confounded Du Croc, who had been
accuftomed to the worfhipful fubmiffions that are paid
to a defpot. He conceived that all negociation was
fruitlefs, and withdrew from the field in the expefta-
tion that the fvrord would immediately give its law and
determine every difference.
Mary was full of perturbation and diftrefs. The ftate
into which (he had been brought by Bothwel did not
fail to engage her ferious rcfleAion. It was with in-
iinite regret that fhe confidered the confequences of her
fituation at Dunbar. Nor had his behaviour fince her
marriage contributed to allay her inquiettides. The
violence of his paffions, his fufpicions, and his guilt, had
induced him to furroimd her with his creatures, and to
treat her with infult and indignity. She had been al-
moft conftantly in tears. His demeanor, which- was
generally rude and indecent, was often favage and bru-
tal. At different times his provocations were fo infult-
ing, that flie had even attempted to arm her hand againft
her life, and was defirous to relieve her wrctchednefs
by fpilling her blood. Upon his account, fhe was now
encompaffed with dangers. Her crown was in hazard.
Under unhappy agitations, fhe rode through tha ranks
of her army, and found her foldiers difpirltcd. What- Seotlanc^^
ever refpeA they might entertain for her, they had none ~ '
for her hufband. His own retainers and dependents
only were willing to fight for him. He endeavoured Bothwel
to awaken the royal army to valour, by throwing down challenj^ed
the gauntlet of defiance againft any of his- adverfariest'^jgjs
who fhould dare to encounter him. His challenge was'^""*
inftantly accepted by Kirkaldy of Grange, and by
Murray of Tullibardin. He objefted that they were not
peers. The lord Lindfay difcovered the greateft im-
patience to engage him, and his offer was admitted ;
but the queen interpofing her prerogative, prohibited
the combat. All the pride and hopes of Bothwel
funk within him. His foldiers in fmall parties were
fecretly abandoning their ftandards. It was equally
perilous to the queen to fight or to fly. The moft pru-
dent expedient for her was to capitulate. She deiired
to confer with Kirkaldy of Grange, who remonftrated
to her againft the guilt and wickednefs- of Bothwelj
and counfelled her to abandon him. She expreffed her
willingnefs to difmifs him upon the condition that the
lords would acknowledge then: allegiance and continue
in it. Kirkaldy paffed to the nobles, and- received their
authority to allure her that they would honour, ferve,
and obey her as their princefs and fovereign. He
communicated this intelligence to her. She advifed He is obli'--
Bothwel to provide for his fafcty by flight ; and Kirk-g^d to fly»-
aldy admonifhed him not to negleft this opportunity
of effcfting his efcape. Overwhelmed with fiiame, dii-
appointment, terror, remorfe, and defpair, this raifer-
able viftim of ambition and guilt turned his eyes to her
for the laft time. To Kirkaldy of Grange fhe ftretch-
ed out her hand : he kiffed it ; and taking the bridle
of her horfe, conduced her towards the nobles.- They
were approaching her with becoming reverence. She 694
faid to them, " I am- come, my lords, to exprefs my Mary fur-
refpeft, and to conclude our agreement; I am ready
to be Inftruited by the wifdom of your counfela; and^j^^ ^g^gig^..
I am confident that you will treat roe as your fove-
reign." The earl of Morton^ in the name of the con-
federacy, ratified their promifes, and addreffcd her in
thefe wc r Js : " Madam, you are here among us in
your proper place ; and we will pay to you as much
honour, fervice, and obedience, as ever in any former
period was offered by the nobility to the princes your
predeceffors." ^95
This gleam of funlhine was foon overcaft^ &he ra^By whom
mained not many hours in the camp, till the common J'^^J^^'^'*^'
foldiers, inftigated by her enemies, prefumed- to infult ^
her with the moft unfeemly reproaches. They ex-
claimed indignantly againft' her as the murderer of her
hufband. They reviled her as a lewd adulterefs In
the moft open manner, and in a language the moft coarfe
and the moft opprobriousi The nobility forgot their
promifes, and feemed to have neither honour nor hu-
manity. She had changed one miferable fcene for a
diftrefs tliat was deeper and more hopelefs. They fur-
rounded her with guards, and condufted her to her ca-
pital. She was carried along its ftreets, and fliown to ■
her people in captivity and fadnefs. She cried out to
them to coraraiferate and protefk h'^r. They withheld
their pity, and afforded her no prote£tIon, Even new
infults were offered to her. The loweft of the pop'i-
lace, whom the declamations of the clergy had driven
into rage and madnels, vied with the foldiery in the Ir-
centious
SCO !
.8eflt?an4. ecntlous outrage of mveftive and exacration. She he-
"""^y-^ fought Maitland to folicit the lords ta reprefs the in-
fupportable atrccrty of her treatment. She conjured
him to let them kuow, that ftie would fubmit herfelf
implicrtly to the determination of the parliament. Her
intreaties and her fufferinp;8 made no impreffion upon
the nobles. They continued the favag;e cruelty of their
■demeanour. She implored, as the lail requell flie would
|)refer to them, that they would lead her to her palace.
'This Confolatlon, too, was refufed to her. Tliey wifh-
fcd to accuftom her fubjefts ,to behold her in di%mee, and
' to teach them to triumph over her misfortunes. In
the nvoft mortifying and afflifting hour (lie had ever
experienced, opprcfled with fatigue, and disfigured with
iduft and forrow, they (hut her up in the houfe of the
lord provoft : leaving her to revolve in her anxious and
agitated mind the indignities fhe had already endured,
and to fuffer in anticipauon the calamities they might
yet inflitl; upon her.
The malice of Morton and his adherents was ftill far
(from being gratified. In the morning, when the queen
looked from the window of the apartment to which
ihe had been confined, ihe perceived a white banner
■sdifplayed in fuch a manner as to fix her attention.
There was delineated upon it the body of the late king
ftretched at the foot of a tree, and the prince npon his
knees before it, with a label from his mouth, contain-
ing this prayer, Judge and revenge my caufe, O
Lord!" This abominable banner revived all the bit-
ternefa <vf her affliftions. The curiofity of the people
Dillon peopJedrcw them to a fcene fo new and .fo afFefting. She
take her exclaimed againft the treachery of her nobles ; and fhe
begged the fpeftators to relieve her from their tyranny.
The eventful ftory of the preceding day had thrown
her capital into a ferment. The citizens of a better
condition crowded to behold the degraded majefty of
their fovereign. Her ftate of humiliation, fo oppofite
to the grandeur from which ihe had fallen, moved them
■with compaflion and fympathy. They heard her tale,
and were filled with indignation. Her lamentatio-<s,
'her diforder, her beauty, all ftimulated their ardour for
lier deliverance. It was announced to the nobles, that
the tide of popular favoar had turned towards the
-queen. They haflened to appear before her, and to
affure her, with fmiles and courtefy, that they were im-
mediately to conduft her to her palace, and to reinftate
Sier ia her royalty. Impofing upon her credulous na-
•696
The com
64 3 SCO
> ture, apd that beautiful humanity which cbm^^gnsed
. her even in the moil melancholy fituations of her Ufe, — :
they prevailed with her to inform the people, that *^ -
(he was pacified, and that fhe wiflied them to difperfc aj vkj n
thettifelves. They fepai-ated in obediesce to her defire. the hqM
The nobles now conveyed her to Holyroodhoufe. But ^^''^ 'i'fm
nothing could be farther from their intentions than her rc- ^'^'^'^
ellablifhment in liberty and grandeur. They held a council,
in which they deliberated concerning tlie manner in which
they ought to difpofe of her. It was refolved, that fhe
fliould be confined during her life in the fortrefs of Loch-
leven ; and they fubfcribed an order for her commitment.
A refolution fo fudden, fo perfidious, and fo tyran-
nical, fiUed Mary with the utmoll allonifhment, and
drew from her the moft bitter complaints and exclama- ^ g
tions. Kirkaldy of Grange, perceiving with furprife gj^y
the lengths to which the nobles had proceeded, felt his fended \
•honour take the alarm for the part he had afted at their K^'fl'^^lf';
delire. He expoilulated with them upon their breach
of truft, and cenfured the extreme rigour of the queen's
treatment. Tiiey counfelled him to rely upon the in-,
tegrity of their motives ; fpoke of her paiiion for Both-
wel as moil vehement, and infilled on the danger of
intrufling her with power. He was not convinced by
their fpeeches ; and earnefUy recommended lenient and
moderate meafures. Difcreet admonitions, he faid,
could not fail of imprelBng her with a full fenfe of the
hazards and inconveniences of an improper paffion, and
a little time would cure her of it. They affared him,
that when it appeared that fhe deteiled Bathwel, and
had utterly abandoned his interefts, they would think of
kindnefs and moderation. But this, they urged, could But he
hardly be expe<9;ed ; for they had recently intercepted filenceH
a letter from her to this nobleman, in which fhe ex-*^.*'^'^^'^'''
prefTed, in the ftrongeft terms, the warmth of her love, j^jj^
and her fixtrd purpofe never to forfake hira (r). Kir-
kaldy was defired to perufe this letter ; and he preffed
them no longer with his remonflrances. The queen,
in the mean time, fent a meffage to this generous fol-
dier, complaining of the cruelty of her nobles, and
reminding him that they had violated their engagements.
He inftantly addreffed an anfwer to it, recounting the
reproaches he had made to them ; ftating his advice ;
defcribing the furprife with which he had read her in-
tercepted letter ; and conjuring her to renounce and
forget a moll wicked and flagitious man, and, by this
victory over herfelf, to regain the love and refpedl 01
(t) " Mr Hume is candid enough to give up the authenticity of this letter ; and indeed, fo far as I have ob-
fcrved, there is not the flighteft pretence of a reafon for conceiving it to be genuine ; ( Hiji. of England, Vol. V.
^. 120.) It was not mentioned by the earl of Morton and his adherents to Throgmorten, when Elizabeth in-
terfered in the affairs of Scotland upon the imprifonment of the queen in the caftle of Lochleven : a period of
lime when thefe ftatefmen were defirous to throw out every imputation to her prejudice, and when in particu-
lar they were abufing her with vehemence for her attachment to Bothwel ; { Keith, p. 419.) Nor was it made
tife of by Murray before the Engliih commiflioners. Mary, in the condition to which the nobles had reduced
lier, could not well think of a ftcp of this fort, although her attachment to Bothwel had been as ftrong as they
were plcafed to pronounce it. For, not to fpeak of the greatnefs of her diilrefs, fhe was guarded by them fo
ftriftly, as to make it vain for her to pretend to elude their vigilance. In regard, too, to her love of Bothwel,
it is not clear that it was ever real. While the king was aUve, there are no traces of their improper intercourfe.
The affair of Dunbar was a criminal feduAion. The arts of a profligate man overcame her. There was no
fentiment of love upon either fide. After her marriage, his rudenefs extinguifhed in her altogether any remain
(of kindnefs and refpedl ; and hence the coldnefs with which fhe parted with him.'* Siitart's HijUry oj Scotland,
yoh 1. p. 253. note. I
SCO
t ^5 ]
SCO
Joo
ry con-
led in
chleven
701
\c rebel-
lords
ithni. fier fubje^S, The device of a letter from her to Both-
■y '" ' wel completed the amazement'jif the queen. So un-
principled a contempt of eveiy thing that is raoft fa-
ct ed, fo barbarous a perfeverance in perfidioufnefs and
injAaftice, extinguifhed every fentiment of hope in her
bofom. She conceived that ihe was doomed to inevi-
table deftru£lion, and funk under a pang of unutterable
anguifti.
The Lords Ruthven and Lindfay arrived in this pa-
roxyfm of her dillrefs, to inform her, that they were
commanded to put in execution the order for her com-
mitment. They charged her women to take from her
all her ornaments and her royal attire. A mean drefs
was put upon her ; and in this difguife they conveyed
her with precipitation to the prifon appointed for her.
The Lords Seton, Ycfter, and Borthwick, endeavour-
ed to refcue her, but failed in the attempt. She was
delivered over to William Douglas the governor of the
caftle of Lochleven, who had married the mother of
the earl of Murray, and Vvas himfelf nearly related to
the earl of Morton. See Mary.
Upon the fame day on which the nobles fubfcribed
the order for the imprifonment of the queen, they en-
ter into atered into a boiid of concurrence or confederacy. By
nd ot af- j^^jg deed they bound and cemented themfelves into a
body for the ftrenuous profecution of their quarrel ;
and it detailed the purpofes which they were to for-
ward and purfue. They propofed to punifli the mur^
derers of the king, to examine into the queen's rape,
to diffolve her marriage, to preferve her from the bond-
age of Bothwel, to proteft the perfon of the prince,
and to reftore juftice to the realm. The fanilion of a
tnoft folemn oath confirmed their reliance upon one an-
other ; and in advancing their meafurcs, they engaged
to expofe and employ their lives, kindred, and for-
tunes.
It is eafy to fee, notwithftanding all the pretended
patriotifm of the rebels,, that nothing was farther from
their intentions than to profecutc Bothwel and reftore
the queen to her dignity. They had already treated
her in the vileft manner, and allowed Bothwel to efcape
when they might eafily have apprehended and brought
him to any trial they thought proper. To exalt them-
felves was their only aim. Eleven days after the capi-
tulation at Carberry hill, they held a convention, in
which they very properly aflumed the name of lords of
the fecret council^ and ilTued a proclamation for appre-
hending Bothwel as the murderer of the king ; offer-
ing a reward of loco crowns to any perfon who fhould
bring him to Edinburgh. A fcarch had been made for
the murderers of the king that veiy night in which the
queen was confined in Lochleven caftle. One Scbaftian
tiie a Frenchman, and captain Blackader, were then appre-
ng'smur-hended ; and foon after James Edmondftone, John
Blackader, and Mynart Frafer, weve taken up and im-
(prifoned. The people expefted full and fatisfaftory
proofs of the guilt of Bothwel, but were difappointed.
The affirmation of the nobles, that they were poffefTed
of evidence which could condemji him, appeared to be po
better than a pretence or artifice. Sebaftian foimd mCfins
to efcape ; the other perfohs were put to the torture,
and fuitained it ivithout making any confeffion that the
nobles could publifll. They were condemned, how-
ever, and executed, as being concerned in the murder.
In thc-'r dying moments they f rotefted their innocence.
Vol. XVII, Part 1>
veral
rfons
ken up
I account
A fangiilne hope was entertained that captain Blacka- $cot!an<l,
der would reveal the whole fecret at the place of exc-
cution^ and a vaft multitude of fpeftators were prefent.
No information, however, could be derived from what 703
he fald with regard to the regicides ; but while he fo- ^^^^
1 1 (1 11 1 • 1-r • rti 1 make no
lemnly protelted that his lire was unjultly taken away, (.Qrifelfion.
he averred it as his belief that the earls of Murray and
Morton were the contrivers of the king's murder.
The lords of the fecret council now proceeded to the .
greateil enormities. They robbed the palace of Holy- Robberies
roodhoufe of its furniture and decorations; converted a^idout-
the queen's plate Into coin ; and pofTeffed themfelves of '^'^fg^^^j.^'^^
her jewels, which were of great value ; and while the^^^j^p^j/
faction at large committed thefe a6ls of robbery, the
earl of Glencairn with folemn hypocrify demolifhed the
altar in the queen's chapel, and defaced and deilroyed
all its piftures and ornaments. Thefe excefhve outra-
ges, however, loft them the favour of the people, and
an affociation was formed in favour of the queen. The
court of France, as foon as the news of Mary's impri-
fonment arrived, difpatched M. de Villeroy to condole
with her upon her misfortunes : but the lords of the
fecret council would not admit him to fee her, upon
which he Immediately returned to his own country.
The earl of Murray, however, was at this time Iif
France ; and to the promlfes of this ambitious and
treacherous wretch the kiag trufted, imagining him to
be a ftcady friend to the unfortunate queen. Elizabeth
alfo pretended friendlhip, and threatened the affociated
lords ; but as they had every reafon to doubt her fince-
rity, they paid- no regard to her threats, and even refu-
fed to admit her ambaffador to Mary's prefence.
From all thefe appearances of frlendftiip Mary nei- Mary com=f
ther did nor could derive any real affiftance. On thcpelled to
24th of July 1567, the lord Lindfay, v.hofe Imperious 'jK" ^Z^"
behaviour, fays Dr Stuart, approached to infanity, was^i^^^" '"
ordered by the lords to wait upon the queen at Loch-cio^n.
leven. He carried with him three deeds or Inilruments,
and was inftrufted not to be fparing In rudenefs and
menaces in order to compel her to fubfcribe them. By
the firft, fhe was to refign her crown to her Infant-fon ;
by the fecond, fhe appointed the earl of Murray regent
of Scotland ; and by the third, fhe cenftituted a coun-
cil to direct the prince till this nobleman fhould arrive
In Scotland, or in the event of his death or refufal of
the office. On the part of the queen all refiftance was
vain. Sir Robert Melvil afTured her, that her befl
friends were of opinion, that what fhe did by compul-
fion, and in a prifoh, could have no power to bind her ;
and of this fhe was alfo affured by Throgmorton, the
Engllfh ambaffador, in a letter which Sir Robert Mel-
vil brought In the fcabbard of his fword. Maiy there-
fore, forlorn and helplefs, could not refill the barbarous
rudenefs with which Lindfay preffed the fubfcription
of the papers, though fhe would not read them. Five . 706
days after, the lords of the fecret council met at Stir-^°'°"^^*°'*
ling, for the coronation of the young prince, and con-yj^^™**
fidered themfelves as reprefenting the three eltates of
the kingdom. A proteftation was made In the name
of the duke of Chatelherault, that this folemnity fhould
neither prejudge his rights of fucceiTion nor thofe of
the other princes of the blood. The young prince be-
ing prefente,d"to them, the lords Lindfay and Ruthven
appeared, and in the name of the queen renounced la ;
hi« favour her right and title to the crown, gave up the
^ papers
SCO
[ 65 ]
SCO
707
Difappro-
vcd by
Elizabeth.
Se<itUn'', papers flic Lad fubfcribedj and fiirrcadered the fword,
^""""y^' fceptre, and royal crown. After the papers were read,'
the earls, of Morton, Athol, Glencairn, Marve, and
Menteith, viith the mafter of Graham, the lord Hume,
and Bothwel bifhop of Orkney, received the queen's
refitrijation in favour of her fon in the name of the
three eftates. After this formahty, the earl of Morton,
-i)t-ndin<T his body, and laying his hand upon th.e Scrip-
-turos, took tiie coronation -oath for the prince, enga-
-ginc; that he fhould rule according to the laws, and root
9.ut all heretics and eneniies to the.word of God. Adam
Bothwel then anointed the prince king of Scotland ; a
ceremony with \yhich John Knox was difpleafed, as be-
lieving it to be of Jewifli invention. This prelate next
delivered to him the fword and the fceptre, and finally
put the crown upon his head. In the proceffion to the
caftle from the cluirch, where the inauguration was per-
formed, and wliere John Knox preached the inaugura-
tion fermon, the earl of Athol carried the crown, Mor-
ton the fceptre, Glencairn the fword, and the earl of
Marre carried the prince in his arms. Thcfe folemiuties
received no countenance from Elizabeth ; and Throg-
morton, by her exprefs command, was not preftut at
70S tliem.
Murray re- Soon atter this ceremony, the earl of Murray return-
ti.rns from ed from FrarK:e ; and his prefence gave fiich a llrength
Fiance. g^j^j firmnefs to his faction, that very little oppofition
could be given by the partifans of Mary, who were un-
Ke'pavs a fi^ttled and dcfponding for want of a leader-. A little
vilit to the time a*"ter his arrival, this monftrous hypocrite and trai-
q'jeen at tor waited uppa his diilreffed and infnlted fovereign at
l->och4ever, Lcchleven. His defign was to get her to defire him to
accept of the regency, which he otherwiie pretended to
dechne. The queen, unfufpicious of the deepnefs of
his ai-ts, confcious of the gratitude he owed to her, and
trading to his natural aftVftion, and their tie of a com-
mon father, received him with a tender welcome. She
was in halte to pour forth her foul to him ; and with
tears and lamentations related her condition and her fuf-
ferings. He heard her with attention : and turned oc-
cafipnallyhis difcourfe to the topics which might lead her
to open to him her mind without difguife in thofe fitua-
tions in which he was moft anxious to obferve it. His
eye and his penetration were fully employed ; but her
dilb-efs awakened not his tenderqefs. He feemed to be
in fiifpenfe ; and from the guai'dednefs of his coiiverfa-
tion fhe could gather i^either hope nor fear. She beg-
tjed him to be free with her, as he was her only friend.
He yielded to her intreaties as if with pain and rclue-
tfince ; and taking a comprehenfive lurvey of her con-
d\i£t, defcribed it with all the feverity that could affect
her moft. He could difcover no apology for her niif-
^vernmervt and diforders ; andj with a mortifying
plainnefs, he prefTed upon her confpience and her ho-
Hour. At times fhe wept bitterly. Some errors ffte
confeffed ; and againft, calumaies fhe warmly vi-ndicated
herfelf. . Bat all fhe could urge in her behalf made no
impreffion upon him ; and he fpoke to her of the mer-
Oy of God as her chief refuge. She was toin with ap
prehenfions, and nearly diftrafted with defpair. He
propped fpme words of Goafplatior. ; and after expref-
fmg an, attachment to her interefts, gave lier his pro-
mife to employ all his confeqiience to ftcuie her life.
As to her liberty, he told her, that to atchieve it was-
tfyood all his, efforts j a^.tUat it was not good for her
7it_
to defire It. Starting from her feat, (he took, him la ScQtUij
her arms, and killing him as her dehverer from, the
fcaffold, folicited his immediate acceptance of the re-
gency. He declared he had many reafons to refufe And'fn-
the regency. She implored and conjured him not to duces hca
abandon her in the extremity of her wretchednefs. ^'^ P^'ef*
There was no other method, fhe faid, by which fhe^^^JJJJj
herfelf could be favtd, her fon protected, asd her realm regency,,
rightly governed. He gave way to her anxiety and fo-
licitations. She befought him to make the moft un-
bounded ufe of her name and authority, defu-ed liim to.
keep tor her the jewels that yet remained with her, and,
recomm.ended it to him to get an early poffeffiou of all
the forts of her kiiigdom. He now took las leave of
her, and embi'acing anew this pious traitor^, fhe fent he?
bleffing with him to the pi'ince her fon.
In the mean time the wretched carl of Bothwel was.Miitrahh
ft:rnggling with the greatefl difficulties. Sir Wilh'am.fate of
Murray and Kirkaldy of Grange had put to fea in.'^-Jthwel
feaich of him. He had been obliged to exercife pir
racy in order to fubfdl himfelf and his followers. His.
pui-fuers came upon him uoexpeciediy at the Orkney
idands, and took three of his fhips ; but he himfelf
made his efcape. Soon after, Iiaving feized a Tirrkilk»
trader on the coaft of Norway, two fhips of war be-,
longing to the king of Denmark gave chace to him as-
a pirate. An engagement enfued, i-a which Bothwel
was taken. His officers an-d mariners were hanged in.
Denmark ; but Bothwel himfelf, being known by foniQ
Scottifh merchants, had his life fpared. He was thrown^
however, into a dungeon, where he i emained ten year's ^
and at lafl died melancholy and diftraAed. 7"he re,
gent fent commifftoners to the ki ng of Denmark to de-
mand him as a prifoner ; but that prince, confidering;^
him as a traitor and ufurper, totally dlfregarded his re«
queft.
The dreadful fate of Bothwel did not make aay al-j
teration iri the fituation of the queen.. Her eneraies,,f irge !
bent on calumniating her, produced letters, which they.''- 'ween
faid wer-e written and fent by her to that licentious ho-
bleman during the life of the king. Thefe letters are
now univerfally admitted to have been forged, by the
rebels themfelves, who praAifcd Ukewife upon fome fer-
vaats of Bothwel to accufe the queen pf tJie murder of
her hufband. The letters for fome time gained credit ;.Servanti
but the conreffions of the fervants were all in her fa-.13othwe:
vDur. When on the fcaffold, they addreffed themieLves.^^««^"'«
to the people y and after having folemnly declared the^^°^^^
innocence of the queen, they protefted before God andcence of
his. angels, that the earl of Bothwel.had informed ther:%;qaccB.,
that the earls of Murray and, Morton were the contri-
ver's of the king's murder.
It was impoffible that fuch. tranfaA'ions as. thefe could
advance the popularity of the regent. His unbounded
ambitien an4;. cruelty to his fovereign began at laft to-
open tlije eyes of the nation ; and a. party was forming
itifelf ia favour of the q^aeen. She- hei-felf had beeiv
often meditating her efcape. from her pnfon ^ and fhe .it'
laft effefted it by means of a young gentleman Georgji.pj^^^*
Douglas, brother to her keeper, who had . fallen in loi/eefcapes!
with li£x. On. the. 2d day of May 1568, about feyenfroan»rl
o'clock ia the evening, when her keeper was at. fu.pper.f®"«
with lus family, George Douglas, poffeffing himfejf of.
the keys of, the caftle, haftened to her apartnierit, and.
conducted her out. of prii'ojj. Having locked the gat^;*
3 of
713^
-ette,'-?
SCO
[ 67 J
SCO
t6 azi
ly de
ed at
i^fide
Itlshi. of the caflle, they immediately entered a boat which
waited for them ; and being rowed acrofs the lake, the
lord Seton received the queen with a chofen band of
horfemen in complete armour. That night he con-
veyed her to his houfe of Niddrie in Weft Lothian ;
where having reftcd a few hours, fhe fet out for Ha-
irs ilton.
'I'he efcape of the queen threw her enemies into thfe
je;rcateft conllemation. Many forfook the regent open-
ly ; and ftill more made their fubmiflions privately, or
[regent concealed themfelves. He did not, however, defpond ;
but refolved to defend himfelf by force of arms. The
queen foon found hcrftif at the head of 6000 men, and
the regent oppofed her with 40©o. Mary, however,
did not think it proper to rifl< a battle ; knowing the
capacity of the regent as a general, and that his offi-
cers were all men of approved valour and experience.
But in this prudent refolution fhe was over-ruled by the
impetuofity of her troops. A battle was fought on
the 13th of May 1568, at Langfide near Glafgow ;
in which Mary's army was defeated, and her laft hopes
blafted. The unfortunate queen fled towards Kirkcud-
*Glaf- bright ; where finding a place of fafety, fhe deliberated
r, on the plan fhe fhould afterwards follow. The refult
of her deliberations, as frequently happens in cafes of
I ■ perplexity, led her to take the worft Ilep poffible. Not-
f withftanding all the jxirfidy which fhe had found in E-
lizabeth, Mary could not think that fhe would now rc-
fufe to aflbrd her a refuge in her dominions ; and there-
fore determined to retire into England. To this fhe had
cfolvesjjpgj^ folicited by Elizabeth herfelf durin?herconfinement
in Lochleven caftle ; and fhe now refolved, in oppoli-
tion to the advice of her moft faithful counfellors, to
make the fatal experiment.
In obedience to her order, the lord Herries addref-
Eic'f";;n ^ letter to Mr Lauder, the deputy-commander at
tecu- Carlifl€ ; and after detailing her defeat at Langfide,
defired to know if fhe might truft heifclf upon Eng-
lifh ground. This officer wrote iiiftantly an anfwer, ill
which he faid, that the lord Scroop the Warden of the
froatiers being abfent, he could not of his private au-
thority give a formal affiirance in a matter which con-
cerned the ftate of a queen : but that he would fend by
poll to his court to know the pleafure of his fovereign ;
ar'.d that if in the mean time any neceflity fhoidd forctf
Mai-y to Carlifle, he would receive her with joy, and
proteft her againil her enemies. Maiy, however, be-
fore the mefTenger could return, had embarked in a fjfh-
ing boat with fixteen attendants. In a few hours fhe
landed atWirkington in Cumberland; and from thence
fhe proceeded to Cockermouth, where flie continued
. till Mr Lauder, having afl'embled the gentlemen of the
C9unti-v, conduced her with the greateft refpedt to the
caftle of Caihfle.
To Elizabeth fhe announced her arrival in a dif-
^nival patch, which defcribed her late misfortunes in general
and pathetic terms, aftd in which fhe expreffed an earriefi
folicuude to pay her a vifit at her court, and the deep
fenfe flie entertained of her frieiidfbip and generoiity.
The queen of England, by obliging and polite letters,
condoled with her upon her fituatiofi, and gave her
afiurances of all the favour and proteftion that were
diie to the jtiftice of her caufe. But as they were not
accompanied with an invitation to London, Maiy took
the alarm. She thought ft expedient to inftruft lord
18
I puts
9
lunces
Fleming ^0 repair to France ; and fhe intrufte'dlllorfi Scotlani,
Herries with a moft prefiing remonftrance to tliza- "
beth. Her anxiety for an interview in order to via- ^,,^^^^.^2-^^
dicate her condudt, her ability to do fo in the moft fa- her for an
tisfa«S^oi-y manner, and her power to explain the ingra- iutcrvicw.
titude, the crimes, and the perfidy of her enemies, were
urged to this princefs. A delay in the ftate of her af-
fairs was reprefented as nearly equivalent to abfoliit^
deftruftion. An immediate proof was therefore re=
quefted from Ehzabeth of the fincerity of her profef-
fions. If fhe was unwilling to admit into her prefencfe
a queen, a relation, and a friend, flie was reminded,
that as Mary's entrance into her dominiorts had been
voluntary, her departure ought to be equally free and
unreftrained. She valued the prote<ition of the queen
of England above that of every other potentate upon
earth ; but if it could not be granted, flie vvolild folicit
the amity, and implore the aid, of powers wh6 would
Commiferate her afflliftions, and be forward to relieve
them. Amidft remohllrances, however, which were
lo juft and fo natural, Mary failed not to giv^e tbanks
to Elizabeth for the courtefy with which fhe had hi-
therto been treated in the caflle of Carlifle. She took
the opportunity alfo to beg o^ this princefs to avert
the cruelty of the regent from her adherents, and to
engage him not to wafte her kingdom with hoftihty and
ravages ; and llie had the prudfcnce to pay her compli-
ments in an affcftiohate letter to fecretary Cecil, and to
court his kind offices in extricating her from her diffi-
culties and troubles.
liut the queen of England was not to be moved by
rcmonflrances. The voluntary offer of Mary to plead
her caufe in the prefence of Elizabeth, and to fatisfy Delibera-
all her fcruplcs, was rejefted. Her difafters were ra-tionsof
ther 'a matter of exultation than of pity. The deli-
berations of the Englifh queen, and thofe of her ft^tef- ^^^^''^^^^^^
men, v/ere not direded by maxims of equity, of com- concerning
paflion, or of generofity. They confidered the flight Mary,
of Mary into England as an incident that was fortu-
nate and favourable to them ; and they were folicitous
to adopt thofe meafures whicli wotild enable them tcS
draw frorti it the greatefl pro'fit and advantage. If the
queew of Scots were allf)wcd to return to her own do-
minions, it was probable that fhe would foon be in i
condition to deftroy the cdrl of Murray and his fac-
tion, who were the friends of England. The houfe o't
Hamilton, who were now zealous in the interefts of
France, would rife into confideration and power, Eng-
land would be kept in perpetual turmoils upon the fron-
tiers ; Ireland wOuld receive moleflatign from the Scots,
and its diflurbances grow important and dangerous.
Mary would renew with redoubled ardour her defigns
againft the Proteftant religion ; and a French army
would again be introduced into Scotland. For thefe
reafons, Elizabeth and her miriifters determining not
to reftore the queen of Scots to her throne, confidered
what would be the probable confequences of permit-
ting her to remain at liberty in England. In this fitu-
ation, flic vvould augment the number of her partizans,
fend to every quarter her emiffaries, and inculcate her
title to the crown. Foreign ambaffadors would afford
her aid, and take a fliaie in her intrigues ; and Scot-
land, where there was fo high an objeft to be gained,
would enter with cordiality into her views. This plan
beirig aifo~ ha:^ardoiis, it \vas deliberated whether the
I 2 queen
SCO I 6i
$cQt\a&d. qneen of Scots might not be altowed to take a voyage
""y-^' iii»;o France. But all the pretenfions which had hither-
to threatened the crown of Ehzabeth would in this cafe
be revived. A ftrong refentment to her would even
urge Mary and Charles IX. to the boldeft and moll
defperate enterprifes. 'i'he party of the queen of
Scots in England, ftrong from motives of religion and
affcftiun, and from difcontents and tlie love of cl^an^e,
■ would itimulate their anger and ambition. England
had now no territories in France. A war with that
country and with Scotland would involve the greatefl;
dangers. Upon revolving thefe meafures and topics,
Elizabeth and her counfcllore were induced to con-
clude, that it was by far the wiieft expedient to keep
the queen of Scots in confinement, to invent methods
to augment her diftrefs, to give countenance to the re-
gent, and to hold her kingdom in dependence and fub-
jeftion.
In confequence of this cruel and unjult relblutlon,.
Mary was acquainted, that flic could not be admitted
into Elizabeth's prelence till flie had cleared herfelf of
the crimes imputed to her {he was warned not to
think of introducing French troops into Scotland ^ and
it was hinted, that for the more fecurity fhe ought to
be removed farther from the frontier. This meflage
at once Ihowed Mary the imprudence of her conduct
in trufting herfelf to Elizabeth. But the error could:
not now be remedied. She was watched to prevent
her efcape, and all her remonftrances were vain. The
carl of Murray had offered to accufe her ; and it was
at laft concluded that Elizabeth could not, confiftently
•with her own honour and the tranquillity of her gor
vernment, fuffer the queen of Scots to- come into hep
prefence, to depart out of England, or to be reftored
to her dignity, till her caufe fhould be tried, and decid-
ed. An order was given to remove her from Carlifle
caftle to a place of ftrength at a greater diftance from
from Car- tjie borders, to confine her more clofely, and to guard
]
s c o
714
They re-
fo!ve. fo
coiifine her
for life.
723
Elizabeth
refufes to
admit the
queen into
her pre-
fence.
714
Mary Is
removed
liile, and
clofely
guarded
againft all poflibility of an efcape.
In confequence of thefe extraordinary tranfaftions,
a trial took place, perhaps the moft remarkable for
its injuftice and partiality of any recorded in hiftory.
Mary, confined and apprehenfive, fubmitted <-o be tried
as they thought proper. The regent, who was to be
the accufer, was lummoned, into England, and commif-
fij^ners were appointed on both fides. On the 4th of
OAober, the commiflioners met at York ; and four
-days, after, the deputies of the queen of Scots were
called to make known their complaints. They related
the moft. material circumftances of the cruel ufage fhe
had receivedi Their accufations were an alarming in,-
troduftion to the bufinefs in which the regent, had emr
barked ; and notwithftanding the encouragement fhown
to him by Elizabeth, he was alTaulted by apprehenfions.
The artifices of Maitland added to his alarms. lur
ftead of proceeding inftantly to defend himfelf, or to
accufe the queen, he fought permiflion to relate his
e>rMurra'y ^o^bts and fcruplea to the Engliih commiflioners. In
his own name, and with the concurrence of his afibci-
ates, he demanded to know whether they had fuflicient
authority from Elizabeth to pronounce, in the cafe of
the murder, Guilty or not guilty, according to the evir
dence that fhould be laid before them ;, whether they
would aftuaUy exercife this power ; whether, in thd
event of her criminality, their fovereign (hould be. deli-
715
Coirmif.
fioners for
her trial
meet at
York.
726
Infamous
behaviour
vered to him and his friends, or detained In England in SMtf»
fuch a way as that no danger fliould enfue from her
aftivity ; and whether, upon her conviftion, the queen
of England would allow his proceedings, and thofe of
his party,, to be proper, maintam the government of
the young king, and fupport him in the regency iij
the terms of the aft of parliament which had confirmed
hnn in that office; To thefe requifitions, it was an-
fwered, upon the part of the Englifti deputies, that
their commifljon was fo ample, that they could enter
into and proceed with the controverfy ; and that they
had liberty to declare, that their fovereign would not
reftore the queen of Scots to her crown, if fatisfaflory
proofs of her crime fhould be produced ;. but that they
knew not, and were not inftrufted to fay, in what manr
ner flie would finally conduft. herfelf as to her perfon
and punifimient. With regard to the fovereignty of
the prince, and the regency of the earl of Murray, they
were points, they obferved, wiiich might be canvaflcd
in a futurer period. Thefe replies did not pleafe the
regent and his aflbciaties ; and they requefted the Eng-
lifh commiflioners to tranfmit their doubts and fcruples
to be examined and anfwered by Elizabeth.
But while the regent difcovered in this manner hla^
apprehenfions, he yet affirmed that he was able to an-
fwer the charges irpputed to him and his faftion ; and
this being in a great meafure a dilUnfL matter from the
controverfy of the murder, he was defircd to proceed y^,
in it. It was contended, that Bothwel, who had the His a(
chief concern in the mm-der of lord Darnley, poflefled f^"" a
fuch credit with, the queen, that within three months ^^""^
after that horrible event, he feized her perfon and led
her captive to Dunbar, obtained a divorce from his
wife, and married her : that the nobility, being moved
with his crimes, did confederate to punifh him ; to re-
heve her from the tyranny of a, man who had ravifhed
heri and who could not be lier hufband ; and to pre*
ferve the fife ot the prince : that having taken arma-
for thefe purpofes, the earl marched againft them ; but
that, propofing to decide the quarrel by fingle combat^
his challenge was accepted :. that he declined, notwith-
ftanding, to enter the hfts, and fled : that the queen,
preferring his impunity to her own. honour, favouredL
his efcape by going over to the nobility : that they,
conducted her to Edinburgh, where they informed,
her of tlie motives of their proceedings, requefted her
to take the proper fteps againft him and the other re-
gicides, and intreated her to diflblve her pretended mar.*,
riage, to take care of her fon, and to confult the tran..
quiUity of her realm : that this treatment being offen-
five to her, fhe menaced them with vengeance, and of-
fered to furrender her crown if they would permit
her to poffefs the murderer of her hufband : that her
inflexible mind, and the neceflities of the ftate, comr
pelled. them to keep her at a diftance from him, and
out of the way of a communication with his adhe-
rents : that during her confinement, finding herfelf
fatigued with the troubles of royalty, and unfit for
them from vexation of fpirit and the weaknefs of her
body and intelleft, fhe freely and of her. own will re-
figncd her crown to her fon, and conftituted the earl of
Murray to the regency ; that the king accordingly had:
been crowned, and Murray admitted to the regency
that the fanftion of the three eftates affembled in par-
liament having confirmed thefe appointments, an uni-
■verfal.
SCO r 69 1 SCO
yerfal obedience of the people had enfuec!, and a fteady fecretaiy Maitland to fpecify their complaints, and be- ^cctlan«i,^
adminiftration of juftice had taken place : that certain
perfons, however^ envious of the pubUc order and peace,
had brought her out of prifon, and had engaged to
fubvert the government j that they had been difappoint-
led in their wicked attempts ; and that it was moft juft
and equitable, that the king and the regent fliould be
fupported in power, in oppofition to a rebellious and
turbulent faftion.
This apology, fo imperfeft, fo impudent, and fo ir-
reconcileable with hiftory, received a complete confuta-
tion from the deputies of the queen of Scots. To
take arms againft her becaufe Boihwel had her favour,
was, they faid, a lame juftification of the earl of Mur-
ray and his friends ; fince it had never been properly
manifefted to her that he was the murderer of her hul-
band. He had indeed been fufpetled of this crime ;
but had been tried by his peers, and acquitted. His
acquittal had been ratified in parliament, and had ob-
tained the exprefs approbation of the party who were
now fo loud in accufing him, and who had confpired
againft her authority. Thefe rebels had even urged
her to accomphfli her marriage with him, had recom-
mended him as the fitteft perfon to govern the realm,
and had fubfctibed a bond aflerting his innocence, and
binding themfelves to challenge and punilh all his ad-
\erfaries and opponents. 'I hey had never, either before
or after the marriage, like true fubjeds, advertifed
the queen of his guilt, till, having experience of their
ftrength, they fecretly took arms, and invefted her in
Borthwick caitle. The firft mark of their difpleafure
was the found of a trumpet- in hoftility, and the.dif-
play of warlike banners. She made her efcape to Dun-
bar ; and they returning to Ediaburgh, levied troops,
iffued proclamations, took the field againft her, under
the pretence of delivering her from his tyranny, and
got poffeffion of her perfon. She was willing to pre-
vent the effufion of blood, and was very far fi'om pre-
ferring his impunity to her honour. Kirkaldy of
Grange, in obedience to inftruftions from them, de-
fircd her to caufe him to retire, and invited her to pafs
to them under the promife of being ferved and obeyed
as their fovereign. She confented, ann Kirkaldy ta-
king Bothwel by the hand, recommended it to him to
depart, and affured him that no man would purfue
him. It was by their own contrivance that he fled ;
and it was in their power to have taken him ; but they
fliowed not the fmalleft defire to make him their pri-
foner. He remained, too, for fome time in the king-
dom, and was mimolefted by them ; and it was not till
he was upon the feas that they affedted to go in fearch
©f him. When fhe furrendered herfelf in the fight of
their army, the earl of Morton ratified the ftipulation^
of Kirkaldy, made obeifanee to her in their names,
and promifed her all the fervice and honour which had
ever been paid to any of her predeceflbrs. They were
not flaves, however, to their engagements. They car-
ried her to Edinburgh, but did not lodge her in her
palace. She was committed to the houfe of a burgefs,
and treated with the vileft indignities. She mdeed
broke out into menaces, and threatened them ; nor was.
this a matter either of blame or of wonder. But it was
utterly falfe that fhe had ever made any offer to give
away her crown, if (he might poffefs Bothwel. In the
laidil of her iufFerings, ftiie had even required them by
fought them to allow her to appear in parliament, and
to join and aflift in feeking a remedy to them from the
wifdom of the three eftates This overture, however,
fo falutary and fubmiflive. they abfolutely rejected. — '
They were animated by purpofes of ambition, and had
not in view a relief from p,rievances. They forced her
from her capital in the night, and imprifoned her in
Lochleven ; and there, they affirm, being exhaufted.
with the toils of government and the languors of fick»-
nefs, fhe, without conftraint or felicitation, refigned her
crown to her fon, and appointed the earl of Murray to
be regent during his minority. This indeed was to
affume an uialimited power over fadls ; but the truth-
could neither be concealed, nor overturned, nor palha-
ted. She was in the vigour of youth, unaffailed by ma-
ladies, and without any infirmity that could induce her
to furrender the govei nment of her kingd: m. Nor was-
it unknown to them that the carl of Athol and the ba-
rons TuUibardin and Lethington, principal men of their
council, difpatched Sir Robert Melvil to her with
ring and prefents^ with a recommendation to fubfcribe
whatever papers fhould be laid before her, as the only
means in her power to fave her life, and- with an affurance
that what (he did under captivity could not operate any
injury to her. Melvil, too, commimicated to her aa
intimation in writing from Sir Nicholas Throgmofton^
which gave her the fame advice and the fame affurance..
To Sir Nicholas Throgmorton (he fent aa aiifwer, in-
forming him that fke would follow his counfel ; and en-
joining him to declare to his miftrefs her haplefs ftate^
and that her refi^nation of her crown was conftrained.
Nor did this ambaflador negleft her co^Kmifiion ; and it
was a popular perfuafion that Elizabeth would have
marched an army to her relief, if flie had not been inti-
midated by the threat of the rebels, that the blood of
the que^en of Scots would be the wages of her fold iers.
It - was alfo not to be contradided, that when the lord
Lindfay prefented to his foveieign the inftruments of
refignation, he menaced her with a clofer prifon and a
fpeedy death if fhe flxould refufe to fubfci ibe them. It
was under an extreme tenor, and with many tears, that
fhe put her name to them. She did not coiifider them;
as her deeds ; did not read them ; and protefted, that
when {he was at liberty, Pae would difavow fubfcriptions
which had been extorted from her.. Even Douglas, the
keeper of Lochleven, could not endure to be a witnefa.
of the violence employed agaiiift her. He departed out.
of her pretence, that he might not fee her furrender hef
rights againft her will ; and he fought and obtained
from her a certificate,, that he was not acceffory to this,
compulfion and outrage. Nor did it confift with the
fliohteft probability or reafun, that flie would, of her-
own will and accord, execute a refi ;nation of her royal
eftate, and retain no provifion for her future mainte-
nance. Yet by thefe extraordinary deeds, the condi-
tion to which fhe was reduced was moft miferable and
wretched. For no portion whatever of her revenue
was referved to her^ and no fecurity of any kind was
granted either for her liberty or her life. As to the
coronation of the prince, It could have no validity, as
being founded in a pretended and forced refignation.
It was alfo defedive in its form ; for there were in Scot-
land more than an hundred earls, bifhops, and lords
and of thefe the whole, or at leaft the major part, ought
4 to
SCO
[
The rsgcnt
unable to
ircply.
to concur m matters of importance. Now there did
not aflifl in it more than four carls, fix lords, one bi-
fhop, and two or three abbots. Proteftations, too,
were openly made, that nothing tranfadled at that pe-
riod fhould be any prejudice to the queen, her eftate,
and the blood-royal of Scotland. Neither could it be
tiglitly conceived, that if the q^een had willingly fur-
rendered her dignities, (he would have named the earl of
Murray to the regency in preference to the duke of Cha-
telherault, who had a natural and proper claim to it, and
who had deferved well of her country by difcharging
that high office during her minority. As to the ratifi-
cation of the inveftiture of the young prince, and the
regency ©f the earl of Murray by the eltates, it was
■obfervable,^ that this was done in an illegal parhament.
It was an invalid confirmation of deeds which in thera-
felves had no inherent power or efficacy. The princi-
pal nobility, too, objeded in this parliament to this ra-
tification. Proteftations were made before the lords of
the articles, as well as before the three ettatcs, to inter-
rupt and defeat tranfaftions which were in a wild hofti-
lity to the conftitution and the laws. Neither was it
true that the government of the king and the regent
was univerfally obeyed, and adminiftered with equity
and approbation : for a great divifion of the nobility
never acknowledged any authority hut that of the
^ueen, and never held any courts but in her name ; and
it was notorious, that the adminiltration of the ufurpers
had been marked and diftinguiflied by enormous cruel-
ties and opprcffions. Many honourable families and
loyal fubjefts had been perfecuted to ruin, and plunder-
ed of their wealth, to gratify the retainers and foldierg
vho upheld this infolent domination ; and murder and
bloodlhed, theft and rapine, were prevalent to a degree
unheard of for many ages. Upon all thefe accounts, it
was inferr/:d, that Elizabeth ought to fupport the
iqueen of Scots, to rcftore her to her crown, and to
overthrow the power of a moil unnatural and rebellious
faction.
To thefe fa<fts the regent did not pretend to make
any objedtion ; and though required by the Englifh
conmiiffioiiers to produce founder and better reafons for
his treatment of the queen, he did not advance any
thing in his own behalf. He even allowed the char-
ges of treafon and ufurpation to be preffed againfl him,
without prtfumiiig to anfwer. This furprifuig beha-
viour, which might readily have been conltrued into an
m-knowledgmeiit oF his iruilt, it feem?, proceeded from
fome conferences whicli he had witli the duke of Nor-
folk. This nobleman was a zealous partizan for the
fuccefTion of Mary to the Englifh crown. He was
ilro!i;rly pofTcffcd with the opinion, that his millrefs,
while ftie was difpofed to gratify her animofity and jea-
loufies againll the queen of Scots, was fecretly refolved,
by fixing a ftuin upon her, to exclude her altogether
from the fucceffion, and to involve her fon in her dif-
grace. He was eager to defeat a purpofe, which he
•conceived to be not only unjufl in itfelf, but highly
detrimental to his comitry. It was in his power to
aft with this view ; and he obfei ved with pleafure, that
Maitland of Lethington was favourable to Mary. To
this ftatefman, accordingly, he ventured to exprefs his
furp4-ife, that the regent could be allured to think of
an attempt fo blameable as that of criminating his fove-
■rtign. If Mary had really given offence by mifcar.
70 ] SCO
riage and miflak^s, it yet was not the bufincfs of a good Scotia
fubjed induftrioufly to hold her out to fcorn. Anxious
and repeated conferences were held by them ; and at
length it was formally agreed, that the regent fhould
not accufe the queen of Scots ; and that the duke in
return Ihould proteft him in the faveur of Elizabeth,
and fecure him in the pwlTeffion of his regency. 7
But while the regent engaged himfelf in this in- His ex-
trigue with the duke of Norfolk, he was defirous not- "jeme i
withftanding of gratifying the refentments of Eliza- '^'°['['"
beth, and of advancing his own interetts by undermi- c",fy.'^
ning fecretly the fame and reputation of his fovereign.
He inftruAed Maitland, George Buchanan, James Mac-
gill, and John Wood, to go to the duke of Norfolk,
the earl of Suffex, and Sir Ralph Sadler, and to com-
municate to them as private perfons, and not in their
charafter of commiffioners, the letters to Bethwel, and
the other proofs upon which he affirmed the guilt of
the queen of Scots. It was his defire that they would
examine thefe papers, give their opinion of them to E-
lizabeth, and inform him whether fhe judged them fuf-
ficient evidences of Maiy's concern in the murder of her
hufljand. ^ If this fhould be her opinion, heteftified hia
own readinefs, and that of his aiTociates, to fwear that
the papers were genuine, and of the hand-writing of
the queen. By this operation, he was felicitous to ef-
tablifli his vouchers as inconteftable, and as tettimonies
of record. The commiffioners examined his papers, and
heard the comments of Buchanan and his other affift-
ants ; but they do net feem to have bellowed the ful-
lelt credit upon them. They defcribed them, however,
to Elizabeth ; pointed out the places of them which
were ftrongeft againft Mary ; and allowed that their
force and meaning were very great, if their genuinenefa
could be demonitrated. But of their genuinenefs they
acknowledged that they had no other evidence than
ftout aflertions, and the offer of oaths. The earl of
Suffex, in a private difpatch to fccretary Cecil, does
more than infinuate*, that he thought Mary would be * J?ol,r
able to prove the letters palpable forgeries ; and with ?/ ^^''J-
refpea to the murder of the king, he declares in plain '^'"^'V
terms, that from all he could learn, Murray and his fac-%cok 4
tion would, upon a judicial trial, be found by " proofs
hardly to be denied," m.ore criminal in that charge than
the queen herfelf. Elizabeth and her miHifters, upon
the receipt of fuch difp^tches, did not think it expe-
dient to empower them to adopt a method of proof fo
palpably fufpicious, and in which fhe could not openly
concur, without grofsiy violating even the appearance
of probity. The regent had before attempted to en-
gage her in a direct affurance of the validity of his pa-
pers, when he fubmittcd copies of them to her infpec-
tion by his lecretaiy Mr V/ood. His attempt at this
junfture was of a iimilar kind ; and it could not recom-
mend him to the Englifli commiffioners.
Nor were thefe tha only tranfactionn which took
place during the continuance of the commiffioners at
York. The inventive iv.id refining genius of Lethino--
ton had fuggcfted to him a projed, which he commu-
nicated in coniidence to the bifhop of Rafs. It recei-
ved the warm approbation of this ecclefiaftic 5 and they
determined to put it to a trial. While they attended
the duke of Norfolk to the diverflon of hawking, thcy
inlinuated into him the notion of his allying himfelf
with the nueen of Scots. Her beauty, her accomplifh*
ments,
i
SCO [
merits, and her kingdom, were high allurements to this
Tiobleman ; and as he was the greateft fubjeft of Eng-
land, and perhaps of Europe, he feemed not to be un-
worthy of them. The propofal was very flattering to
the admiration he entertained of Mary, to his ambition,
and to his patrlotifm. The more he thought of it, he
was the more convinced of its propriety. His accefs
to be informed of the practices of the regent, deflroyed
in him the operation of thefc flauders by which her ene-
mies were fo aftive to traduce her. In this Hate of his
mind, the lady Scroop, his filler, who refided at Bol-
ton Caftle with Mary, completely confirmed his refolu-
tion. For from her he learned the orderly carriage and
t}ie amiable diipofitions of the queen of Scots. He was
row impatient to have a fit feafon to make her formally
the offer of his hand.
Elizabeth in the mean time was thrown into confu-
fion by the refnfal of the regent to accufe the queen
ot Scots. To give a pofitive anfwer to his doubts and
fcrupLs was not confident with her honour; and yet,
without this condefcenfion, fiie was afTured that the
Scottifh deputies would not exhibit their charge or cri-
mination. Having deceived Mary therefore with fair
promiles, fhe was aftive in gaining over the regent to
her views ; which having done, he coniented at laft to
■ prefer his accufation againlt Mary before the commif-
fioners, who now met at Weftminller by the command
•les of of Elizabeth.. The charge was exprefTed in general and
iieen's prefumpfive terms. It afhrmed, that as James earl of
ation, Bothwel was the chief executor of the murder of king
Henry, fo the queen was his perfuader and counfel in
the devic-€ ; that (he was a maintainer and fortiner of
this unnatural deed, by ftopping the inquifition into it
and its pnnifinnent, and by taking in marriage the prin-
cipal regicide ; th?.t they had begini to exercife a cruel
tyranny in tlie commonwealth, and had formed a refo-
lution of delboying the innocent prince, and of tranf-
ferring the crown from the true line of its kings to a
bloody murderer and a gedlefs tyrant ; and that the
eftates of the realm, finding her unworthy to reign, had
ordered her to refign the crown, her fon to be crowned,
and. the earl of Murray to be ellablifhed in the regen-
cy. Before this accufation was preferred, the earl of
i.enox prefented himfelf before the En;;lifli commif-
fioners ; made a lamentable declaration of his griefs,
and produced to them the letters which had pafTed be-
tween him and Mary concerning the mui'der, with
a writing which contained a direct affirmation of her
^ guilt.
in- 'i'he deputies of Mary, were aflonifiied at this acetifa-
of tJ^Uj being a violent infringement of a proteflation which
they had lormerly given in, and which had been aecept-
I ' td> namely, that the crown, eltate, perfoa, and honour
of the queen of Scots, fliould be guarded agalnft every
aflault and. injury ; yet. in all thefe particulars- fhe was
touched and affedtcd. It was underflood that no judi-
cial,proceedings fhould take place againfl her ; yet fhe
was aftually arraigned as a criminal, and her deputies
were called upon to defend her. I'hey difcovered not,,
hawever, any apprehenfion of the validity of the charge;
and while they fully explaine<l the motiv.es which aftu.
ated the earl of Murray and- his faction in their pro-
ceedings, they imputed to.pcrfons among themfelves
the guilt of the king's murder. They affii-med, that
Uic <ia«ea'8 admfanes were tlie accomplices of Both,
71 ] s c o
wel ; that they had fubfcribed a bond confjplring the Scotiaadt
death of the king ; and that their guilt had been at- » '
tcfted in the fight of 10,000 fpeftators by thofe of
their confederates who had already been executed.
They exclaimed atiainil the enormous ingratitud?, and
the tmparalleled audacity of men, who could forget fd
completely all the obligations which they owed to their
fovereign ; and who, not fatisfied with ufurping her
power, could even charge her with a murder wlilch they
themfelves had committed. They reprefented the ftrong;
necefhty which had arifen for the fuUeft vindication of
their miftrefs ; and they fald, tliat in fo weighty an ex-
tremity, they could not poffibly fuppofe that fhe would!
be reflrained from appearing in her own defence. Thejr
had her inflrudtions, if her honour was touched,, to make:
this requiiition ; and till it was granted, they infifted,.
that all proceedings In the conference fhould be at ani
end. A refufai of this liberty, in the fituation to which:
fhe was driven, would be an infallible proof thc^t no
good was intended to her. It was their wUh to deal
with fincerity and uprightnefs ; and they were perfua-
ded, that vvitliout a proper freedom of defence, their
queen would neceffarily fall a viftlm to partiality and
injufllce. They therefore earneflly prefled the Eng.*
lifh commifTioners, that fhe might be permitted to pre«
fent hcrfelf before I'ZIizabeth, the nobles of England^
and the ambafl'adors of foreign nations, in order to ma-
niletl to the world the injuries fee had fuffertd, and her
innocence.
After having made thefe fpirited reprefentations to
the Englifli commllfioners, the deputies of Mary de-
fired to h-ive accefs to the queen of England. They Thiy are
were admitted accordingly to an audience ; a-nd in a.adniitted t(*
formal addrefs or petition they detailed what had hap- '-^'^ audienc*
pened, infifted that the libei-ty of perfonal defence fhould ^ah^'^**
be allowed to their miftrefs, and demanded that the earl. ^ *
of Mun-ay and his afTociates fliould be taken into cufto-
dy, till they fhonld anfwer to fuch charges as fhould*
be preferred againit them. She defired to have fome'
time to turn her thoughts to matters of fuch high im-
portance ; and told them, that they might fooa^ expedl,
to hear from her.
The bifhop of Rofs^ and the other deputies of Mary, And mak«
In the mean time, ftruck with the perfidiousmaRaige- P''''P*'f^^'
ment of the conference, convinced of the jealoufies and ^'^^^
pafTions of Elii'.abeth, fentible that her power over her
commiflLoners was unhmited, and anxious^ for the de-
liverance of their miftrefs, made an overture for an ac-
commodation to the earl of Leicefter and Sir William-
Cecil. 'J hey propofed, that the original meaning of
the Gonferenee fhould flill be adhered to, notwithfta^id.
ing the accufation which had been prefented by the'
earl of Murray ; and that Ehzabeth, difregarding it a»;
an effort of fadlon, fhould proceed ta a good agreement',
between Mary and her fubjefts; For this fcheme,.
which is fo exprtffive of their fufpicions of Ehzabeth«-
and of her eommiflioners, they had no authority from,
their miftrefs. They acknowledged- accordingly, that;
it vwas made without her inftru^ions, and intimated-
that they were moved> to it by their anxiety for peace-
and the re-eftaUirnment of .,<he affairs of the Scottifrt
nation. 'J hey were IwtrodHced at Hampton-court^to.
Elizabeth ;- who liftened to their motion, and Was^
averfe from it. They then repeated the defires of the*
getitioa. they had prdentcd* to- hear^. but M did not
thiuk
I
SCO
ScotlancI,
735
Shameful
condu(5l of
Elizabeth.
t n 3
SCO
735 _
Alercation
between
the com-
thlnlt It right that the queen of Scots fhould yet have
the liberty to defend he^-felf in perfon. She confeffed,
indeed, that it was reafonable that Mary fliould be heard
in her own caufe ; but fhe affirmed, that (lie was at a
iofs at what time fhe fhould appear, in what place, and
to whom fhe fhould addrefs herfelf. While fhe let
fall, however, the hope that Mary might obtain the
permifTion fo repeatedly and fo earneflly requeiled, flie
exprefTed her refolution that the earl of Murray fliould
firft be heard in fupport of his charge, and that fhe
fliould attend to the proofs which he affirmed himfelf
HI readinefs to produce. After this bufinefs fhould be
tranfafted, fhe told the deputies of Mary that flie wo^ild
again canfer with them. It was to no puipofe uiat
they objefted to a procedure fo ftrange and fo im-
proper. An accnfation, faid they, is given ; the per-
fon accufed is anxious to defend herfelf; this privilege
is denied to her ; and yet a demand is to be made for
the vouchers of her guilt. What is this but an open
violation of juilice? It did not become them to difpute
her pleafure In her own dominions : but they would
not, they informed her, confent to a meafure which
■was fo alarming to the interefts of their queen ; and
if it was adopted, flie might expeft that a proteft
agalnft its validity would be lodged with her commif-
fioners.
The Englifh commifPioners refumcd the conference,
and were about to demand from the earl of Murray
the proofs with which he could fupport his accufatlon.
The bifhop of Rofs and his afTociates being admitted
to them, exprefTed themfelves in conformity to the con-
verfatlon they had held with Elizabeth. They decla-
red, that it was unnatural and prepofterous in their fo-
vereign to think of receiving proofs of the guilt of the
queen of Scots before flie was heard in her- own de-
fence ; and they protefled, that in the event of this
proceeding, the negociation fhould be diflblved, and
Elizabeth be difarmed of all power to do any prejudice
to her honour, perfon, crown, and eflate. The com-
miffioners of the Englifh queen were afFefted with this
proteftation, and felt more for the honour of their ml-
ftrefs than for their own. They rcfufed to receive it)
becaufe there were engroffed in it the words of the rc-
fufal which Ehzabeth had given to the petition for
Mary. They did not choofe to authenticate theleims
of this refufal by their fubfcrlptions ; and were folicltous
to fupprefs fo palpable a memorial of her iniquity.
They alleged, that the language of her refufal had not
been taken down vvlth accuracy ; and they preffed
Mary's deputies to prcfent a fimpler form of protefta-
tion. The bifhop of Rofs and his colleagues yielded
not, however, immediately to their Infidious Importuni-
ty ; but, repeating anew their proteftation as they had
at firft planned it, included the exprefs words of Eliza-
beth ; and, when compelled by the power of the com-
miflioners to expunge the language of the Englifh
queen, they ftill inlifted upon their proteftation. An
interruption was thus given to the validity of any
future proceedings which might affedl the reputation
of the queen of Scots. The earls of Murray and
Morton, with their friends, were very much difap-
painted. For they had folaced . themfelves with the
hope of a triumph before there was a vidory ; and
thought of obtaining a decree from Ehzabeth, which,
while it Ihould pronounce the queen of Scots to be an
adulterefs and a murderer, would exalt tliem Into the S^***''
ftation and charafter of virtuous men and honourable '
fubjefts. -
'I'hough the conference ought naturally to have ter- Elizab
minated upon this proteftation of the deputies pf Mary 'tertian
agalnft the injuftice of Elizabeth, yet it did not Satisfy ^""^"^'.^
the latter princefs that the accufation only had been j^id'to
delivered to her commllTioneis : fhe was ferloufly dif-ry's ch
pofed to operate a judicial prodiidion of its vouchers.
The charge would thus have a more regular afpe£t,
and be a founder foundation upon which to build, not
only the infamy of the Scottifli queen, hut her own
juftification for the part fhe had atted. Her commif-
fioners accordingly, after the bifhop of Rofs and his
colleagues had retired, difregatding their proteftation,
called upon the earl of Murray and his aifociates to
make their appearance, Tlie pretence, however, cm-
ployed for drawing from him his papers was fufiicient-
ly artful, and bears the marks of that fyftematic dupli-
city which fo fhamefully charafterlzes all the tranfac-
tions of Elizabeth at this period. Sir Nicholas Bacon
the lord keeper addreffed himfelf to the earl of Mur-
ray. He faid, that, in the opinion, of the queen of
England, it was a matter furprifing and ftrange, that he
fhould accufe his fovereign of a crime inoft horrible,
odious to God and man, agalnft law and nature ; and
which, If proved to be true, would render her infamous
in all the kingdoms of the world. But though he had
fo widely forgot his duty, yet had not Elizabeth re-
uounced her love of a good fifter, a good neighbour,
and a good friend ; and it was her will, that he and his
company fhguld produce the papers by which they ima-
gined they were able to mauitain their accufation.
The earl of Murray, in his turn, was not wanting in
diirimulation. He exprefTed himfelf to be very forry
for the high difpleafure he had given to Elizabeth by
his charge againfl Mary, and for the obftinacy of the
Scottifh queen and her deputies, which made it necef-
fary for him to vindicate himfelf by difcovering her
diflionour. Under the load of this double and affiefted
forrow, he made an aftual and ftn-mal exhibition of the
vouchers by which he pretended to fix and eftabllfh her
criminality. A particular account and examination of
thefe vouchers, the reader will find In our life of Mary,
and in t^e works to which we have there referred.
To enumerate all the fhifts to which Ehzabeth and
the adverfarles of Mary were pst, in order to make the
flrange evidence that was produced wear fome degree ^
of plaufibUity, would far exceed our bounds. It is fuf- Con
ficient to fay, that after having wearied themfelves with of
prevarication and falfehood ; after having preffed Mary"^^^*
to abdicate her crown, a requifitlon with which fhe never
would comply ; and after having finally refufed to hear
her in her own defence; Elizabeth, on the loth of
January 1569, gave leave to the earl of Murray and
his accomplices to depart her dominions ; telhng them,
that fmce they came into England, nothing had been
objefled to them which could hurt their honour as
men, or affedl their allegiance as fubjefts. At the fame
time fhe told them, that they had produced no infor-
mation or evidence by which flie was ■ entitled to con-
ceive any bad opinion of the queen of Scots, It was
therefoie her pleafure to allow the affairs of Scotland
to continue precifely in the condition in which they
were fituated at the beginning of the conference. Three
dayi
lend.
39
of
fray,
<har-
With
king's
ier,
chal-
cd to
^ com-
|0
y com.
6d to
r cou-
aeiit.
regent
elt in
;r.
SCO [
days after this, they formally took their leave of the
queen of England. The deputies of Mary remonftra-
ted, protefted, and argued, to no purpofe ; the Eng-
lifh privy-council, with the moft provoking indifference,
told them, that " the earl of Murray had promifed to
their fovereign, for himfelf and his company, to return
to England at any time fhe ftiould call upon him. But,
in the mean time, the queen of Scots could not, for
many ftrong reaforjs, be fuffered to take her departure
out of England. As to her deputies, they would move
Ehzabeth to allow them to return to Scotland ; and
they beheved that (he would not detain them."
Mary was exceedingly difappointed and chagrined
by this Angular ilTue of her caufe. Her friends during
this period had increafed, and the cruel and injurious
treatment fhe had met with was fo flagrant, that the
earl of Murray and his faftion were apprehenfive of a
fudden reverfe of fortune. The earls of Argyle and
Huntley protefted againft the injuilice of their pro-
ceedings, at the fame time that they openly accufed
the earl of Murray and Maitland of Lethington as the
affociates of Bothwel in the murder of the king. This
charge, according to the cuftom of the times, they
offered to prove as true and certain by the law of
arms ; and they protefted, that if their adverfaries
fhould delay to anfwer their challen<«^e, they fhould be
held as confefhng themfelves guilty ©f the murder. E-
lizabeth, however, forefeeing fomething of this kind,
had difmiffed Murray and his adherents with precipi-
tation, fo that there could now be no formal produc-
tion of it before the Englifh commiflioners. However,
it was known and publifhed in the court of Elizabeth.
Murray made an evafive I'eply, and Lethington made
none at alL
This, however, afforded no relief to the unhappy
queen of Scotland. Her Inveterate and treacherous
enemy held her faft, and endeavoured by every method
in her power to render her life miferable. Mary, on
the other hand, never loft either her fpirit or her dig-
nity. She attempted- to roufe in the minds of her
nobles that paiTion forhberty which had once fo much
diftmguifhed the Scottifli nation, but which now feem-
ed to be exchanged for a fervile fubjedlion to the queen
of England. But fome difpatches which preffed thefe
topics being intercepted, Maiy was removed from Bol-
ton to Tutbury cattle, where fhe was intrufted to the
earl of Shrewfbury, and committed to clofer confine-
ment than fire had yet experienced ; while Elizabeth
difperfed manifeftoes all over the northern counties of
England, complaining of reports injurious to her ho-
nour, and difclaiming all hoftile intentions towards the
liberties of Scotland.
In the mean time Murray returned to Scotland,
where he took every method to eftablifli himfelf in
his ill-acquired power. Mary had commanded the
duke of Chatelherault to return to Scotland, in order
to raife forces for her behoof ; but this nobleman had
■been long detained in England by the artifices of Eli-
zabeth, fo that Murray had arrived there before him.
The duke, hov/ever, began to raife forces, and might
have proved a troublefome antagonift, had not Murray
deceived him by a pretended negociation, and got him
into his power ; immediately after which he imprifoned
him, and forced moft of the other lords who were on
that fide to fubmit.
Vol. XVII. Part I.
73 ] SCO
When the news of this important event reached the Scfltland.
queen of Scots, fhe inftrufted the bifhop of Rofs to ^
repair to Elizabeth, and to make remonftrances in their Negocia-
behalf. By the agency of this ecclefiaftic, whom fhe tions in
had conftituted her ambaffador, fhe meant to condu<9: England,
her tranfaftions with the queen of England ; and from
the conclufion of the conferences, fhe had been medita-
ting a proper plan upon which to accomplifh her liberty
and relloration. The bifhop of Rofs, after complain-
ing loudly of the rigorous proceedings of the regent,
and intimating the general belief which prevailed that
he was fupported by the Englifh court, preffed the pro-
priety of a final fettlement of the affairs of his miftrefs.
With this view, he was admitted by Elizabeth and her
prlvy-counfellors to frequent conferences ; and they
even defired him to prefent to them in writing the
articles which he was commanded to propofe as the
foundation of a treaty. He failed not to comply with
this injunftlon ; and it was the import of his fchedule
of agreement, that Mary fhould engage never to molefl
Elizabeth, and the lawful heirs of her body, refpefting
the fuccelfion to the crown of England and Ireland, if
fhe could obtain fufficient fecurlty that upon their de-
mlfc her rights would be refpedied ; that a new trea-
ty of alliance and friendfhip fhould be concluded be-
tween the two queens, by the advice of the eftates
of both kingdoms ; that this league fhould be rati-
fied by their oaths and feals, and confirmed by par-
liamentary afts ; and, if any farther aflurance fhould be
deemed neceffary on the part of Mary, that fhe would
pi'ocure the kings of France and Spain to be the gua-
rantees of her punftuality and concord ; that in com,-
pliance with the pleafure of Elizabeth, fhe would extend
her clemency to all her fubjefts who had offended her,
under the provifion that they would fubmit to her fo-
verelgnty, deliver up the prince her fon, reftore her
caftles, give back her jewels, and furrender to her
friends and fervants the eftates and poffeffions of which
they had been deprived ; that the murder of the king
fhould be punifhed againft all the aftors in it without
delay, and according to the laws ; that, to prevent Both-
wel from returning to Scotland, and to pleafe thofe
who imagined that it was in his power to excite fer-
ments and trouble, fhe would be bound to inilltute a
procefs of divorce againft him ; and that thefe articles
being adjufted, the queen of England fhould allow her
to proceed to Scotland, under a fafe and honourable
convoy, to be re-eftabhfhed by the three eftates in her
realm and government, arid to be gratified with the dif-
folution of all the afts and ftatutes which had been palled
to her prejudice.
Thefe heads of alliance were received with a refpe£l Advances
and cordiahty which were not ufually paid to the t'"^"f',"'^{he^')^o
aftions of Mary in the court of Elizabeth; and the j |^ar-
bifhop of Rofs was elated with expectation. Their riage of
juftlce, however, was not the fole, or even the chief, Mary with
caufe of this attention and complaifance. A comblna- '^^^f "j^^
tion of the Englifh nobles had taken place againft Ce-
cil, whofe power and credit were objefts of indignation
and jealoufy ; and the duke of Norfolk had been aftlve
and fucceistul In promoting the fcheme of his marriage
with the queen of Scots. Taking advantage of the
condition of parties, he had pra6lifed with the principal
nobility to encourage his pretenfions to Mary ; and
he fecretly communicated to them the promifes of
K fupport
Skotland.
?44
The Enp;-
lilh nobiei
propolc ar-
ticles to
Mary.
SCO L
fupport he had received from the earl of Murray,
the advice and influence of Sir Nicholas Thregmorton,
he engaged ia his behalf the earl of Leicefter ; and
this nobleman imparted the matter to the earls of Fem-
brok_e_ and Arundel. The duke himfelf was able to
conciliate the favour of the earls of Derby, Bedford,
Shrewfbury, Southampton, Northampton, Northum-
berland, Weftmoreland, and Suffex. In the mean
time, he was eagerly prcfling Mary herfelf with his fuit
and importunities ; and had mutually exchanged the
tokens of a conftant and fmcere love. It was in this
forward ftate of the match, that the bifhop of Rofs
drew up the fchedule of articles for the accommodation
of the i-ival queens.
At the defire of Elizabeth, her privy-council con-
ferred with the bifhop upon thefe articles at different
times ; and they expreffed themfelves to be highly pleafed
with their general import and meaning. Little doubt
was entertained of their fuccefs ; and the earl of Lei-
cefter, in order to complete the buliuefs, and to ferve
the duke of Norfolk, undertook to give them a more
fpecial force, and to improve them by the introdudion
of a flipulation about the marriage of the queen of
3.qots. According to his fcheme of argeement,, it was
required of Mary, that fhc fliould be a party to no at-
tempt againfl the rights and titles of the queen of Eng-
land, or her heirs ; that fhe fhould content to a per-
p.etual league, offenfive and deFenfive, between the two
kingdoms ; that fhe fhould finally eftablifh the Pro-
teftant religion in Scotland ; that fhe fhould admit to
her favour thofe of her fubjefts who had appeared
agamll her ; that if fhe had made any aflignment of
her kingdom to the duke of Anjou, in the expectation
of a marriage to be contrafted between, them, it fhould
b.e diflblved ; and that inftead of looking to a foreign
prince, whole alliance would be dangei'ous, not only to
the religion but to the liberty of the two realms, f^e
would agree to marry the duke of Norfolk, the firfl
peer of England. Thefe articles being communicated
to the bifhsp of Rofs, he was defired to tranfmit them
to. Mary ; but, as they touched upon fome points con-
cerning which he had no inflrudlions, he declined this
office, and recommended the propriety of their employ-
i,ng a fpecial meffenger of their own in a commiflion
qf fuch high importance. They accordingly appoint-
ed Mr Gandifh to go with them to the queen of Scots,
and> in a formal dilpatch, they extoUed the merits of
the duke of Norfolk ; afTured her of the general favour
and fupport of the Enghfh nobihty, if fhe fhould ap-
prove of his love : and intimated their belief that
Elizabeth would not be averfe from a marriage which
gave the certain promife of tranquillity and happinefs
to the two kingdoms. This difpatch was in the hand-
writing of Leicefler ; and it was fubfcribed by this
nobleman, and the earls of Arundel asd Pembroke^ and
the lord Lumley.
Mary, in the folitude of her prifon, received this
grecs to the application with pleafure. By the lord Boyd fhe re-
treaty pro- jm-pefi a very favourable anfwer to it ; but took the li.
berty to admomfli them of the neceliity of their fecu-
ring the good-will of Elizabeth, lefl her diflike of the
treaty of the marriage ftiould excite new difaflers and
misfortunes, and involve the duke of Norfolk in incon-
veniency and danger. This advice, the fuggeftion of
her delicacy and^ prudence, [did not draw f ufficicntly
745
Mary a<
pofed to
her
74 1 SCO
By their attention. The duke of Norfolk was now imps- Scatla
ticnt to conclude this great tranfadion, in which he """vj!
had engaged himfelf j and admitted into his councils '
many nobles whom he had hitherto neglefted to courts
and many gentlemen who were confuferable from their
diftinftion and fortunes. The countenance and confent
of the kings af France and Spain were thought necef-
fary te the meafures in agitation, and were foUcited and
obtained. In the univerfality of the applaufe with
which they were honoured, it was fuppoied that Eli-
zabeth would be allured into a cordial acknowledgment
of their propriety, or be compelled to afford them a re-
luctant approbation ; and fo ardent a belief prevailed of
their fortunate termination, that the marriaije-contra(St
was aftually intrufled to the keeping of M. Fenelonthe
French ambaffador.
The aftivity of the duke of Norfolk with the Eng-
lifh nobles did not fo much eng'rofs his attention as to
make him forget the regent. He kept up with him a
elofe correfpondence in confequence of the concert into
which they had entered, and received the moll ample
affurances of his fidelity and fervice. The moft faa-
guine and feducing hopes elated him. The regent,
while he ftipulated for terms of favour and fecurity to
himfelf and his fadlion, appeared to be full of the mar-
riage, as a meafure from which the greateft advantages
would arife to the two kingdoms, to the two queens,
and to the true religion. The match, in the mean-
while, was anxioufly concealed from Ehzabeth ; but
fhe was zealoufly prefTed to conclude an accommoda- |
tlon with Mary, on the foundation of the fchedule of !
agreement prefented by the bifhop of Rofs. After
having had many conferences with her privy-councii,
fhe feemed inclined to treat definitively for the reflo-
ration of tlie queen of Scots, and affcually agreed to
open the tranfaftion to the regent. The lord Boyd
was fent into Scotland upon this bufinefs ; and while
he carried her letters, he was intrufted with difpatchcs
from Mary, the duke of Norfolk, and Sir- Nicholas i
Throgmorton. y^A
As the regent was returning from his northern ex- The pi
pedition, he was faluted at Elgin by the lord Boyd,P''^'''H
who immediately laid before him the difpatches and*^
inftru6lions with which he had been charged. The
q-ueen of England, in her letters, made three propofi-
tions in behalf of Mary, and intimated a defire that
one of them fhould be accepted. The queen of Scots,
fhe faid, might ^be reftored fully and abfolutely to
her royal cftate : flie might be afTociiaed in the govern-
ment with her fon, have the title of gueen, and, till the
prince fhould attain the age of 1 7 years, the admini-
ftration might continue in the regent ; or fhe might be
permitted to return to Scotland in a. private Ration,
and have an honourable appointment to maintain her ^
in a fafe and happy obfcurity. The difpatches fromThe ri
Mary to the regent defired, that judges mig^ht imme-que*t*i
diately be allowed to inquire into the legality of her *''*'"yi
marriage with Bothwel : and that, if it was found to j
have been concluded in oppofition to the laws, it fhould i
be declared void, and that the liberty be granted to I
her of entering anew into a matrimonial engagement.
The duke of Norfolk expreffed tt^ the regent the gra-lmi or
titiide he felt for his friendfhip ; promifed him the"'"^'^^
command of the fulleft exertions of his confequence^"*^"
and power ; intreated him to proceed expeditioufly in
5 promoting '
SCO [75
*jid. jvroTOOtmg tlve bufmefs of the mama«:e, and refored
him to the Inilruftions of lord Boyd for a fatisfadory
anfwer to any doubts which might give him difguft or
uneafinefs. By the letters of Throgmorton, the regent
\vas advertifed that the marriage of the queen of Scots
with the duke of Norfolk was a certain and decided
point ; and he was counfelled to concur heartily and
expeditioufly in this tranfadiion, that his cor.fent might
not feem to have been extorted. Maitland ot Lething-
ton was recommended to him by this ftatefman, as
the perfon whom he (hould choofe to reprefent him in
the Englifti court, as he could negociate beft the terms
and mode of his fecurity and of that of his party. In
fine, Throgmorton intveated him not to be troubled
with any precife fcruples or objeftions, lor that his
overthrow, if he refifted, would be inevitable ; and, in
the view of his fervices and cordiaUty, he alTured him,
that no man's friendfhip would be accepted with great-
er affeftion, and no man's eftimation be higher or
more fortunate. The zeal of Throgmorton induced
him alfo, upon this occalion, to addrefs to Maitland a
difpatch, in which he was infinitely importunate to ha-
ften his expedition to England, in the charader to
which he recommended him. He complimented him
as the fitteft perfon to open the match to the Englifli
queen, on the part of the regent and the Scottilh no-
bility ; and he reprefented the fuccefs of the fcheme to
be infallible, as EUzabcth would never be fo unwife as
to put her own fafety, the peace of her kingdom, and
the prefervation of her people, in competition with the
partial devices that might proceed from the vanity and
the pafiions of any perfon whatfoevcr. He enumera-
ted the names of the Englifh nobility who had confe-
derated to promote the marriage. He enlarged upon
it as an expedient full of wifdom, and as advantageous
in the highell degree to rehgion and the ftate. He
pointed out the Tailing and infeparable connexion of
England and Scotland, as its happy and undoubted
confequence. For, if James VI. ftiould die, the fceptres
of the two kingdoms might devolve to an EngUfh prince;
and if he (hould attain to manhood, he might many the
daughter of the duke of Norfolk, and unite, in his per-
fon, the two crowns.
Thefe weighty difpatches employed fully the thoughts
of the of the regent. The calls of juftice and humanity were
"flo'ra ^^^^ ^" behalf of Mary ; his engagements to Nor-
&c. of folk were precife and definitive ; and the commiffion of
[ueen. EHzabeth afforded him the command of the moil im-
portant fervices. But, on the other hand, the refto-
ration of Mary, and her marriage, would put an end
for ever to his greatnefs ; and, amidft all the ftipula-
tions which could be made for his proteftion, the enor-
mity of his guilt was Itill haunting him with fufplcions
and terror. His ambition and his felfifti fenfibiUties
were an overmatch for his virtue. He pradtifed with
his partifans to throw obflacles in the way of the trea-
ty and the marriage ; and, on the pretence of dehbera-
ting concer ning the reftoration of Mary, and 00 her
divorce from Bothwel, a convention of the eftates was
fummoned by him to affemble at Perth. To this af-
fembly the letters of Elizabeth were recited ; and her
propofitions were confidered in their order. The full re-
ftoration of Mary to her dignity was accounted injuri-
ous to the authority of the king, and her affociation
with hex* foa in the government was judged improper
1
SCO
H9
bera
and dangerous ; but it was thought that her deliverance SceiSai»J4
from prifon, and her redu£lion ta a private ftation, -— v~~^
were reafonable expedients. No definitive decree, how.
ever, was pronounced. The letters of Mary were then
communicated to this council, and gave rife to vehe-
ment debates. She had written and fubfcribed them
in her charafler of queen of Scotland. This carriage
was termed in/blent and imptriom by the friends ol the
regent. They alfo held it unfafe to examine her re-
quefts, till they Ihould be communicated to Elizabeth ;
and they infinuated, that fome inclement and partial
device was concealed ilnder the purpofe of her divorce
from the earl of Bothwel. The favourers of Mary
endeavoured to apologize for the form of the letters,
by throwing the blame upon her fecretaries ; and en-
gaged, that while the commilfaries, or judges, were
proceeding in the bufinefs of the divorce, new dif-
patches in the proper method (hould be applied for and
procured. They were heard with evident fymptoma
of difpleafure ; and exclaimed, " that it was wonder-
ful to them, that thofe very perfons who lately had
been fo violent for the feparation of the queen and
Bothwel Ihould now be fo averfe from it." The
partifans of the regent repUcd, " that if the queen was
fo eagerly felicitous to procure the divorce, (he might
apply to the king of Denmark to execute Bothwel
as the murderer of her hufband ; and that then (he
might marry the perfon who was moll agreeable to
her." The pafiions of the two faftions were infla*
med to a moft indecent extremity, and the convention
broke up with ftrong and unequivocal marks of hofiili-
ty and anger. 730
Notwithfl;anding the caution with which Maiy and Elizabeth
Norfolk carried on their intrigues, intimations of them ^^g^ jgfl"n*
had come to Elizabeth. Norfolk himfelf, by the ad- of Mary-
vice of the earl of Pembroke, had ventured to difclofe and Nor-
his fecret to Sir William Cecil, who afFefted to bef'^'ll'*
friendly to him. The regent, in anfwer to her letters,
tranfmitted to her the proceedings of the convention
at Perth. The application of Mary for a divorce was
a key to the ambitious hopes of the duke of Norfolk.
She commanded Sir WiUiam Cecil to apply himfelf
to difcover the confpiracy. This ftatefman betrayed
the confidence with which he had been entrufted ; and
Elizabeth, while the duke was attending her at Farn-
ham, difcovering a mixture of pleafantry and paffion,
admoniflied him to be careful on what pillow he repo-
fed his head. The carl of Leiceft;er, alarmed by his
fears,- revealed to her at Titchfield the whole proceed-
ings of the duke of Norfolk and his friends. Her
fury vras ungovernable ; and at different times (he load-
ed Norfolk with the fevereft reproaches and contume-
ly, for prefuming to think of a marriage with the
queen of Scots without the fanftion of her concurrence.
Infulted with her difcourfe and her looks, abandoned
by Leicefter, and avoided by other nobles in whom
he had confided, he felt his courage to forfake him.
He left the court at Southampton without taking his
leave, and went to London to the earl of Pembroke.
New intimations of her difplealure were announced to
him, and he retii-ed to his feat at KInninghall in Nor-
folk. His friends prefled him to take the field, and to
commit his fafety to the fword ; but having no incli-
nation to involve his country in the miferies of war, he
rejected their advice i and addrefiing an apology to E-
K 2 lizabeth,
IS
Scotland.
SCO r y6 ] SCO
J'^aWth, protefted that he^ never meant^ t© depart from the earls of Northumberland and Weftmoreknd. Mo-
^J-'-* ^ -^ 1- J .1 - 1 . . , . ^.^^^ reh'glon were the chief foundation of this con.
fpiracy ; and the more zealous Catholics over England
Mary ex-
pofed to
rew indig
nities.
Korfolk
betrayed
hy the re-
gent.
753
Infurrec-
tion in
' the fidelity which he owed to her ; and that it was his
fixed^ refolution to have applied for her confent to his
marriage with the queen of Scots. In return, {he or-
dered him to repair to her court at Windfor ; and, as
he appeared to be irrefolute, a ineflTenger was difpatch-
ed to take him into cuftody. He was tirft confined to
the houfe of Paul Wentworth, at Burnham, in the
neighbourhood of Windfor, and then committed to the
Tower. The earls of Pembroke and Arundel, the lord
Lumley, Sir Nicholas Throgmorton, and the bifhop of
Rofs, were alfo apprehended and confined.
Elizabeth, amidft the ferment of her inquietudes,
. forgot not to gratify her revenge by infulting the queen
of Scots. The name of Mary was fufficient to con-
vulfe her with anger. The earl of Huntingdon, who
affefted to have pretenfions to the crown of England
that were preferable to thofe of the Scotti(h princefs,
was joined with the earl of Shrewfbury in the office of
guarding her. His inftruftions were rigorous, and he
was difpofed to exceed them. The earl of Shrewf-
bury confidered it as an indignity to have an affociate
who was a declared enemy to his charge, who had an
intereft in her death, and who was remarkable for a
natural ferocity of difpohtion. Mary exclaimed againft
the indelicacy and rudenefs of Elizabeth, and proteft-
ed that all her intentions were commendable and inno-
cent. Huntingdon took a delight in her fufferings.
He ranfacked her coffers with a view of making dif-
Goveries ; but her prudence had induced her to dellroy
all the evidences of her tranfaftions with the duke of
Norfolk ; and the officious affiduity of this jailor was
only rewarded with two cyphers which he could not
comprehend. The domeftics whom fhe favoured were
fufpefted and difmifled. Her train of attendants was
diminiflied. An unrelenting watch was kept upon
her. No couriers were allowed to carry her dif-
patches. No meffengers were admitted to her pre-
fence ; and all the letters from her friends were ordered
to be intercepted, and to be conveyed to the queen of
England.
The proceedings of the convention at Perth were af-
fliding to Ehzabeth, to Mary, and to the duke of
Norfolk. In the former they created fufpicions of the
regent ; and they were a certain annunciation to the
latter, that he was refolved to fupport himfelf in the
government of Scotland. Uncertain rumours had reach-
ed Elizabeth of the interviews he had held with Nor.
folk in the bufmefs of the marriage. Her furprife
and indignation were infinite. Mr Wood, who brought
from the regent his anfwer to her letter, was treated
with difrefpeft. Secretary Cecil difpatched inftruftions
to the lord Hunfdon, the governor of Berwick, to
watch his operations with a jealous eye. Elizabeth,
by a fpecial envoy, required from him an explanation
of his ambiguous carriage. The regent, true to his
interefts, apologized to her for his conneftions with
the duke of Norfolk, by laying open the defign of
that nobleman to cut him off, in his way to Scotland,
by a full communication of whatever had paffed be-
tween them in relation to Mary, and by offers of an
unlimited fubmlffion and obedience.
While the duke of Norfolk was carrying on his in-
trigues with Mary, the fcheme of an infurreftion for
her deliverance was advancing under the diredion of
were concerned in it. Mary, however, by the advice
of the duke of Norfolk, who was atraid of her match-
ing with a foreign prince, did not enter into it with
cordiality. It advanced notwithftanding ; and the a-
gents of the pope were lavifh of exhortations and do-
natives. The duke of Alva, by the order of his ma-
fler the king of Spain, encouraged the confpirators
with the offer of 20,000 men from the Netherlands ;
and, under the pretence of adjufting commercial dif-
putes, he fent into England Chiapini Vitelli marquis
of Celona, an officer of ability, that he might be at
hand, and prepare to take the command of them. — -
The report of an infurred^ion was univerfah Eliza,
beth kept an army of 15,000 men near her perfon.
The queen of Scots was removed to Coventry, a place
of great ftrength ; and if a fuperior and commanding
force fhould appear before it, her ferocious keeper, it
is faid, had orders to affaffinate her. Repeated com-
mands were fent to the earls of Northumberland and
Wellmoreland, to repair to court. But the imprifon-
ment of the duke of Norfolk and his friends had ftruck
a panic into them. They conceived that their confpi-
racy was difcovered ; and putting themfelves at the
head of their followers, they iffued their manifcfto*
The reftoration of Popery, the eftablilhment of the
titles of Mary to the Engliih crown, and the reforma-
tion of abufes in the commonwealth, were the avowed
objedls of their enterprife. But they had embarked
in a bufinefs for which they were altogether unequal.
Their efforts were feeble and defujtory. The duke of
Alva forgot his promifes. Wherever the peace was
difturbed by infurgents, there were troops to oppofe
them. The vigilance of Elizabeth difconcerted witb
eafe the operations of men whom no refources or po-
pularity could have conducted to greatnefs, and who
could neither conquer nor die. The earl of Wcftmore-
land, after conceahng himfelf for fome time in Scot-
land, effe6led an efcape into Flanders, where he paffed
a miferable and ufelefs exiilence ;. and the earl of Nor-
thumberland being taken by the regent, was imprifoned
in the caftle of Lochlevenv
As the fury of Elizabeth abated, her refentment to Elizfbet
the duke of Norfolk loft its power ; and fhe failed not liberates
to diftinguifh between the intrigues of an honourable Norfolk
ambition, aad the pradices of an obftinate fuperftition. * "j^^^'^
It was the refult of the examination of this nobleman,
and of the confeffions of the other prifoners, that Le-
thingion had fchemed the bufinefs of the marriage, and:
that the earl of Murray had encouraged it ; that her
confent was underltood to be neceffary to its comple-
tion ; and that Mary herfelf had warmly recommended
the expedient of confulting her pleafurc. Upon re-
ceiving proper admonitions, the earls of Pembroke, A-
rundel, the lord Lumley, Sir Nicholas Throgmorton,
and the bifhop of Rofs, were releafed from confine-
ment ; and, after a more tedious imprifonment, the
duke of Norfolk himfelf was admitted to his liberty.
This favour, however, was not extended to him till he
had not only fubmiffively acknowledged his prefump-
tion in the bufinefs of the marriage ; but had fully re-
vealed whatever had paffed between Mary and him, and
folcranly engaged himfelf never more to think of this al-
liance.
SCO
I 77 J
SCO
Ilance, and never more to take any ebnecrn whatfoever
' — m her affairs.
land regent, in the meanwhile, was very anxious to
pjhing. recover the good opinion of Elizabeth. Her treat-
ccufed rnent of Mr Wood, and her difcovery of his prafticcs,
^t""- had excited his apprehenfions. He therefore affembled
at Stirling a convention of the eftates ; and taking her
letters a fecond time into confideration, returned her a
reply to them by Robert Pitcairn abbot of Dunfcrm-
Jine, in a ftyle fuited to her temper and jealoufies, and
from which (he could decifively infer, that no favour
of any kind would be (hown to the queen of Scots.
But this bafe condefcenfion, though aflilled by his trea-
chery to the duke of Norfolk, not being fufficient, , in
his opinion, to draw completely to him the cordiality
of the queen of England, he was preparing to gratify
her with another facrifice. The partiality of Maitland
to Mary, and his intrigues with Norfolk and the Eng-
lifh malcontents, had rendered hifn uncommonly ob-
noxious to Elizabeth and her miniftry. The late com-
motions had been chiefly afcribed to his arts ; and it
was natural to dread new calamities and tumults from
the fruitful fpring of his invention. Under the pre-
tence of employing . his fervice in difpatches to Eng-
land, the regent invited him to Stirling. He was then
with the earl of Athol at Perth ; and fufpeding fomc
improper device, he obeyed the fummons with reluc-
tance. When he took his place in the privy-council,
Captain Crawford, the minion of the earl of Lenox,
who had diftinguilhed himfelf in the trial of Mary,
accufed him, in dired terms, of being a party in the
murder of the late king. The regent afFefted afto-
nifhment, but permitted him to be taken into cuftody.
He was foon after fent to Edinburgh under a guard,
and admonifhed to prepare for his trial. Upon fimi-
lar charges, the lord Seton and Sir James Balfour
were feized upon and impiifoncd.
d^bv' Kirkaldy of Grange, the governor of the caftle of
aidy of Edinburgh, who was warmly attached to Maitland, af-
ige. ter having remonftrated in vain with the regent on
the violence of his conduft, employed addrefs and ftra-
tagem in the fervice of his friend. Under the cover
of night, he went with a guard of foldiers to the lodge-
ing where Maitland was confined ; and fliowing a for-
ged warrant for taking his perfon into keeping, got
pofTofTion of him. Kirkaldy had now in his cattle
the duke of Chatelherault, the lord Herries, and Mait-
land. The regent fent for him to a conference ; but
he refufed to obey his meifage. He put himfelf and
his fortrefs under the direftion of his prifoners. The
regent, condefcending to pay him a vifit, was more
kvifh than ufual of his pramifes and kindnefs. His
arts, however, only excited the difdain of this gene-
rous foldier. Since he could not lead out Maitland to
the block, he inftituted a procefs of treafon againft.
him, in order to forfeit his effates. Kirkaldy, by the
CQOUth of a trumpeter, defired him to commence fimi-
lar aftions againft the earl of Morton and Mr Archi-
bald Douglas, as it was notorious that they were par-
ties to the king's murder. This meffenger was hke-
wife charged with delivering a challenge from him to
Mr Archibald Douglas,^ and another from the lord
Herries to the earl of Morton. This difappointment,
and thefe indignities, made a deep impreflion upon the
regent ; and, in a thoughtful- diffatisfied. humour, a-
bout this time, he m^ie a Ihort progrefs towards the Seotlsm !.
Englifh border, courting popularity, and deferving it, »
by an attention to order and juftlce. 75;
Elizabeth, flattered by his fubmiflive advances, and^^izabe h
pleafed with his ambition, was now difpofed to- gratify ^^[1^^^'/*^
his fuUeft wiflies ; and (he perceived, that by delivering \illy\o^
to him the queen of Scots, fhe would efFe^lually relieve the regent,
herfelf of a prifoner whofe vigour and intrigues were a
conllant interruption to her repofe. A treaty for this
purpofe was entered into and concluded. The regent
was to march an army to the Englifh frontiers, and to-
receive from her his fovereign into her own dominionsr
the vlftim of his power, and the fport of his pafRons.
No hoftages and no lecurity were ftipulated for her en-
tertainment and good ufage. His authority over her
was to be without any limits. Upon his part, he was
to deliver to Elizabeth the young prince, to put her
in pofTeflion of the principal forts of Scotland, and to
aflift her with troops in the event of a war with France.
This treaty, fo fatal to Mary, and fo ruinous to the in-
dependence of Scotland, efcaped not the vigilance of
the bifhop of Rofs. He complained of it in the ftrong-
eft terms to Elizabeth ; and declared it to be equiva-
lent to a fentence of death againft his miftrefs. The
ambaffadors of France and Spain were alfo ftrenuous in
their remonftrances to her upon this fubjeft. All re-
fiftance, however, was unavailing ; and the execution of
the treaty feemed inevitable. Yet how vain are the
loFtieft fchemes of human pride ! The career of the re-
gent was haftening to its termination ; and the hand of
an aflafiin put a period to his dream of royalty. Scot-
land did not lofe its liberties ; but Mary continued to
be unfortunate. ^cg
James Hamilton of Bothwelhaugh, who had been Bea'h of
taken a prifoner at the battle of Langfide, obtained regent,
his liberty and life ; but his eftates were forfeited. —
His wife, the helrefs of Woodhouilie, retired upon,
this emergency to her paternal inheritance, in. the hope
that it might efcape the rapacity of the regent. He
had, however^ given it away in a gift to one of his-
favourites, Sir James Ballenden ; and the inilruments
of his power having the inhumanity to ftrip her of her
garments, and to tura her naked out of her houfe, in
a cold and dark night, flie became diftradked before
the morning. Hamilton vowed revenge; and the re-
gent made a mockery of his threats. This contempt
infpirited his paffions ; and the humiliation of the houfe
of Hamilton, to which he was nearly allied, foftered the
eagernefs of his difcontents. The madnefs of party
fermented ia him with the atrocioufnefs of rage. His
mind reconciled itfelf to afl'afSnation. After watch-
ing for fome time a proper opportunity to commit his-
horrible purpofe, he found it at Linlithgow. The re-
gent was to pafs through this town in his way from
Stirling to Edinburgh. Intimations reached him that^
Hamilton was now to perpetrate his defign : and he
unaccountably neglefted them. The affaflin, in a.
houfe that belonged to the archbifliop of St Andrew's,,
waited deliberately his approach 1 and firing his mulket
from a window, ftiot him through the body. The
wound, when examine*, was not judged to be mortal ;
but the regent finding its pain to increafe, prepared
himfelf for death.; and in a few hours after he ex-
pired. A fleet horfe of the abbot of Arbroath's
carried the affaflin to the palace ©f Hamilton ; and
6 from.
759
Lennx
■chofen to
lucceed
S CO [
from tli«nce he foon after effeiSled lua efcape
Frarree.
The death of the earl of Murray made no favourable
alteration in the affairs of Mary. GonFiifion and dlfor-
der prevailed throughout the kingdom ; and though
the friends of the queen were promifed affiftance from
France, npthing effeiftual was done for them. At lall
the regency was conferred upon the earl of Lenox ;
an enemy to his queen, and -who treated her h'ifnda
•with the utmoft rigour. At the fame time Elizabeth
continued to amufe with negociations her unliappy ri-
vaL She gianted hberty to the bifhop of Rofs to re-
pair to the queen of Scots, who had been removed to
Chatfworth, and to confer with her on the fubjedl of
the intended accord and treaty. Mary, conforming to
the advances of Eh'zabeth, authorifed the lord Le-
vingfton to pafs to her doinialons, and to defire her
friends to appoint a deputation of their number to give
their affiftance in promoting the fahuary purpofe of
eflabUfhing the tranquilhty of their country : and af-
ter meeting with fome interruptions upon the Enghfh
borders from the earl of Suflex, this nobleman execu-
ted fuccefsfuUy his commiifion. The queen's lords
gave powers to ten nobles to atl in a body, or by two
ef their number, in the intended negociation : and a
fafe-condLidt fj^n Elizabeth allowed them to enter the
Englifh realm, and to remain in it during the fpace of
760 fix months.
-Articles of While the lord Levingflon was confulting the in-
propo^d"to tereits of Mary with her friends in Scotland, the bifhop
Mary by of Rofs was making earneft fuit with Elizabeth to pro-
JElizabeth, ceed in the projefted negociation. His folicitations
were not ineffectual ; and Sir William Cecil and Sir
"Walter Mildmay received the inftruAions of their mi-
ftrels to wait upon the queen of Scots at Chatfworth.
The heads of accommodation which they propofed
•were explicit and particular ; and the rigour they dif-
covered towards the Scottifh princefs feemed to vouch
their fincerity. It was propofed, that a perfeft amity
fhould take place between the two queens ; that all the
treaties whicii had formerly been concluded by the two
nations fhould receive an ample confirmation ; that the
queen of Scots fliould ratify the treaty of Edinburgh,
and forbear from advancing any title or claim to the
crown of England during the life of Elizabeth, or to
the prejudice of the heirs ef her body ; that in cafe of
foreign invafions, the two realms fhould mutually aflift
each other ; that all foreign foldiers fhould be ordered
to depart out of Scotland ; that in the future, flrangers
of the profeiTion of arms fhould be prohibited from re-
pairing to it, and from taking up their refidence in any
-of its caflles or houfes of flrength ; that Mary fhould
hold no correfpondence, direftly or indirectly, with any
fubjeft of England, without the permiflion of the
Enghfh queen ; that the earl of Northumberland, and
the Englifh rebels in Scotland, fhould be delivered up
to Elizabeth ; that redrefs fhould be given to the fub-
jedls of England for the fpoils committed upon them by
the Scottifh borderers ; that the murderers of the lord
Darnley and the earl of Murray fhould be duly and ef-
feftually punifhed ; that before the queen of Scots
fhould be fet at liberty, the young prince her fon fhould
■be brought into England, and that he fhould continue
in the keeping of Eliaabeth till the death of his mo-
.ither, or till iier refiguation to him of her crown on at-
78 ] s c o
into tainiag his majority ; that the queen of Scote fliould ScatU
not enter into a negociation for her marriage without '"—"^
the knowledge of the queen of England, nor conclude
it without her approbation, or that of the greateft part
of the Scottifli nobility ; that none of the fubje£ts of
Scotland fliould be fuffered to go to Ireland without
the fafe-conduft of Ehzabeth ; and that Mary fhould
deliver to her fifler all the teftimonies and writings
which had been fent from France, renouncing and dif.
avowing the pretended marriage between hev and the
duke of Anjou. Befides thefe articles of agreement, it
was propofed by another treaty to adjufl the differences
of the queen of Scots and her fubjefts ; and Sir William
Cecil and Sir Walter Mildmay embraced the prcfent op-
portunity of conferring with her upon this bufmefs, un-
der the pretence of facilitating its management in the
future itages of its progrefs. .5^
During their ftay at Chatfworth, thefe ftatefmen were Mary is
completely fatisfied with the behaviour of the queen of '^'■o"" 5'
Scots. The candour, fincerity, and moderation, which '^'"^^"'^'^
fhe difplayed, were full affurances to them that upon
her part there was no occafion to apprehend any im-
proper policy or art ; and the calamities of her con-
dition were a ftill fecurer pledge of her comphance.
Elizabeth, upon hearing their report, affefted to be
highly pleafed with her filler, and fent a meffage tc
the earl of Lenox, inftrufting him in the conditions
which had been fubmitted to Mary ; and defiring him
to difpatch commiffioners into England to deliberate in
the treaty, and to confult his interell and that of his
faftion. Nor did Mar)' negledt to trani'mit to her
friends in Scotland the propofed terms of agreement ;
and the bifliop of Rofs, who had aflifted her in the
conferences with Sir William Cecil and Sir Walter
Mildmay, conveyed intimations of them to the pope,
the king of France, and the duke of Alva ; befought
their advice, and informed thefe princes, that unlefs an
cffedf ual rehef could be expefted from their favour, the
neceffities of her condition would compel her to fnb-
fcribe to the hard and humiliating diftates of the queen
of England. _ ^ _
But while Mary and her friends were Indulging the The infi
hope of a termination to her troubles, Elizabeth was<^e';jty oi
fecretly giving comfort to her adverfaries, and encou- ^''^abet
raging them to throw obftacles in the way of the trea-
ty. Sir William Cecil wrote to the regent, exprefs-
ing his difapprobation of the negociations at Chatf-
worth ; defiring him not to be apprehenfive of the
boaftings of the adherents of the queen of Scots ; and
advifing him to make choice of commiffioners, in the
name of the king, in whofe conflancy and fortitude he
could rely, and whom no addrefs could allure from liJs
intereft, or from the common caiife in which he and
his friends were embarked. The earl of Suffex alfo fent
him difpatches, in which he admonifhed him 10 turn his
anxious attention to the approaching negociation, and
to infifl on fecure ftipulations for the prefervation of
the prince, for his own fafety, and for a general indem-
nity to the nobles and their adherents, whofe party he
had efpoufed. In every event, he reprelented it as pro-
per for him to pay the greateft refpedl to Elizabeth ;
and, if no treaty fhould be concluded, he advifed him
to be prepared for reducing the friends of Mary to o-
bedience, and for detendtug himielf agaiuft invafions
from abroad. By thefe artifices, the recent and his
fa6lioa
•land.
SCO [ 75 J S
feftton Twere incHned to intimate to Elizabeth their in plotting' thw omthrow
Scotland.
hi
.ry's
lershave,
warm difratiafaftioa with the terms of agreement whieh
fhe had propofed to M iry ; and PitcairB abbot of
Dunfermline, who had been appointed fecretary of
ftate in the room of Maitland of Lethington, was de-
puted to her wpon this bufinefs. He excbiraed againil
the treaty as wild md impolitic ; and contended, that
no ftipulau'ons could bind Marj-, whofe religion taught
her to keep no faith with heretics ; that her claims td
the Englifh crown, and her refentment againft the
queen of England, as well as her own fubjeds, would
itrvmediately upon her reftoration, involve the two king-
doms in blood ; and that no pence or c^uict could be
expexSted or enjoyed, but -by adhering to the falutary
maxim of detaining her in a fure and clofe captivity,
E-Iizabeth did not difcourage thcfe inclement fenti-
ments ; and Pitcairn was affured by her, that from her
i^tural love to the king, and her regard to the nobles
who upheld his authority, fl-ie would faithfully provide
for their fecurity ; and that if juftice fhould appear de-
6^iiivc;y upon tlieir iide, fhe would c-'cn ftrenuoufly
maintain thtir quarrel and their confequence.
Mary had been carried to Sheffield, and was reco-
vering from a feverifh indifpofition. To this place the
audience bifbop oF Galloway and the lord Levinglt'on, who had
Eliza- been ftlefted by her friends to be her a£llag deputies
in- England, repaired in order to impart to her the-
ft-ate of affairs in Scotland, and to receive her com-
m'an<}3. After repeated conferences on the fubjed^ of
fhe approaching treaty, fhe gave them her commiflion
and in(lru(Stions, and joining them to the bifliop of Rofs,
font them to Elizabeth. They claimed an audience of
tills princefs, and were admitted to it at Hampton^
court. Having prefented their credential's, they inform-
ed her, that they were ready to conclude a treaty of
concord and agreement, upon principles the moft exten-
five and liberal' ; and, reprefenting to her the impove-
rifhed and tumultuous ftate of their country, they beg-
ged her to proceed in the bufmefs with expedition.
The orders, they faid, which they had received, and
fheir own inclinations, difpofed them to follow her ad-
vice and counfel in all points which were honourable
and confiftent with reafon ; and as her proteftion was
the only refuge of the advcrfaries of their queen, they
took the liberty to obferve, that it was completely in
her power to put a period to all difturbances and ani-
molity, and to aceompliih an accord, which would not
only confer upon her the highell reputation, but be of
the moft. fional utility to the two kingdoms. Eliza-
beth declared, that it would pleate and flatter her in
no common degree to advance in the negociation ; and
that it was a pain to her that the regent, by his delay
in fending commiiTioners, fhould difcover any averfiou
from it. This anfwer was deemed veiy favourable by
the bilhop of Rofs and his affociatcs ; and they obtained!
her authority to difpatch a meffenger to the regent to
haften his operations.
In the mean time, Mary received difpatches from the
I . pope, the king of France, and the duke of Alva ; and
'advife*^ they concurred in rfcommending it to her to accept of
the articles ot acconmiodation which were offered by
Elizabeth. The Turk was giving employment to the
pope and the king of Spain ; Charles IX. already en-
feebled by the- obitinate \-alour of the Huguenots, was
bufy in deceiving tlien; vvith appearances of peace, and
64
e R'l-
iry to
lept of
accom-
c o
and the duke of Alva felt
himfelf inTecure in his government of the Netherlands.
But while they fbrongly advifed Mary to conclud-e
an agreenient with the queen of England, they were
yet iavifh to her of their expreflions of a conftant ami-
ty } and if the treaty fhould miicarry, they promifed
to make the moft ftrenuous exertions in her behalf,
and to affiil her adherents with money, ammunition,
and troops.
The earl cf Morton^ tiie abbot of Dunfermline, and The recent
Mr James Macgill, had been appointed by the regent "."d his fa«-
and his faction to be their coramiffioners in the name of 1'^"^^^'^^
the king; and at length their arrival was announced jyjjjfy (he
to Elizabeth. Conforming to the fpirit of their party, depofition
the earl of Morton and his colleagues took an early op- of Mary,
portunity to jullify to her the depofition of the queeil
of Scots, and by this means to interrupt the progrefs of
the treaty. In an elab©rate memorial, they affetted to
Gonfider Mary as unworthy to reign, and afferted the
conflitutional power of the people to curb her ambi-
tion, and to throw her down from royalty. They en-
deavoured to intrench themfelves within the authority
of laws, civil, canon, a«d municipal ; and they recited
opinions to her prejudice by many pious divines. But
though the general pofition, that the people have a
title to refift the dominatbn of the fovereign is cleaf
and undnbitable ; yet thei'r application of it to the
queen of Scots was wildly precarious and improper. To
fpeak of her tyranny, and her violation of the rights of
her people, was even a wanton mockery of truth and
juftice ; for inftead of having affumed an illegal exorbi-
tancy of power, fhe had fuffered in her own perfon and
rights, and had been treated by her fubjed^s with thtf
rnofl. cruel and tyrannical infolence. Elizabeth, who was
unwilling and afraid to enter anew into the conduft of
Mury, who was fully fenfible of the infolence of her
adverfaries, and who did not approve of any maxims
that preffed againft the majefty of princes, received theif
memorial with furprife and indignation. She perceived
not, flie told them, any reafon that could vindicate thd
feverity which had been (hown to the queen of Scot*-
by her enemies ; and advifed them to confider, that
m the prefent negociation if was their proper bufi-
nefs to confult the fecurity of the king and of theii?
faftion. i^f^
Upon the part of Elizabeth, the commlffioners were Elizabeth**
the lord keeper Bacon, the earls of Suflfcx and Leicef-^*'"''^'"^"
ter, the loi-d Clynton, the lord chamberlain. Sir Wil- '^"^'^
Ham Cecil, who about this time was created lord Bur- with thole
leigh. Sir Francis KnoUyS, Sir James Croft, Sir Waiter of the
Mildmay, and Sir Thomas Smith. The deputies of 1 ""^
Mary were invited to meet with the Englifh commif-^''"'^*
lioriers in the houfe of the lord keeper ; and after he
had dated the general purpofes of the treaty, he inti-
mated to them, that there were two points which rc-
quired a particular difcuflion. A proper fecurity, he
faid, ought to be given by the queen of Scots" for her due'
performance of the ftipulations of the agreement with
Elizabeth ; and it was expedient to concert the mode
of the pardon and indemnity which flie was to extend
to the lubjedls of Scotland who had offended her. Aa
an alTurance of the accommodation vfith his miflrefs, he
demanded, that the duke of Chatelherault, the earls of
Huntley and Argyle, the lords Hume and Herries, with
another perfon of high rank, fliould be fuifrendered to
heF,
SCO
-Sc<»tlanv!.
[ 80 ]
SCO
And with
the king's
deputies.
768
Elizabeth
the treaty.
her, and remain In England for three years ; that the
caftles of Dumbarton and Hume Aiould be in her pof-
felTion during the fame period ; and as to the article
-concerning the -delivery of the prince into her cuftody,
he obferved, that it would be required from the regent,
the queen of Scots not having the power of its perform-
ance. The deputies of Mary, furprifed with this Ian.
.guage, intreated the Englifli delegates to refleft, that
their queen, if deprived of the moll faithful of her no-
hhs, and of her ftrongeft forts, could have little dcfire or
ambition to return to her own kingdom ; for fhe would
thus "be unable to protect herfelf againft the turbulence
of her fubje£ts, and be a fovereign without friends, and
■without ftrcngth. They were inclined, they faid, to
put their commiffion and powers to the fulleft ftretch,
in order to gratify Elizabeth 5 and they would agree,
that two earls and two barons fhould be furrendered
for two years, as hoftages of the fidehty of their fove-
reign ; under the reftriftion, that they might be ex-
changed every fix months for perfons of an equal con-
dition, if they (hould be defirous of returning to their
own country. As to the giving up of any forts or caftles,
they would not agree to it, becaufe among the other
inconveniences of this meafure, fimilar claims would be
competent to the king of France, by the fpirit of the
treaty of Edinburgh, which ftipulated, that no French
or Engliih troops fliould be admitted into Scotland.
The lord keeper Bacon, refuming his difcourfe, told
tliem, that the whole realm of Scotland, its prince, no-
fcles, and catties, were an inadequate pledge to the queen
•of England ; and that, if his advice would be followed,
the queen of Scots (hould not obtain her liberty upon
any kind of fecurity which could be granted by the
Scottifli nation. In all public treaties, faid the dele-
gates of Mary, no further affurance can be required
from a fovereign than what confifts with his fafety ;
and when exactions are prelfed from a contrafting par-
ty in a league which are ruinous and impoffible, it is
landerftood that a foundation is fought to break off the
negociation. The Englifh commiflioners, now interfe-
ring in a body, declared upon their honour, that it
was the meaning of Elizabeth to agree to the rellora-
tioB of the queen of Scots to her crown and realm up-
on receiving fufficient alTurances for the articles of the
accommodation ; that the fecurity offered for her ac-
ceptance, fhould be fubmitted to her deliberation ; and
that they would immediately proceed to confer with the
deputies for the king of Scots.
The Englifh commiflioners were not unacquainted
with the fentiments of the earl of Morton and his col-
leagues ; and it was from this quarter that they expec-
ted a refolute and definitive interruption to the treaty.
Nor did thefe delegates difappoint the expeAations con-
ceived of them. After afFefting to take ^ comprehen-
five view of the articles under debate, they declared,
that their commiffion gave them authority to treat about
the amity of the two kingdoms, and the mamtcnance
of the true religion ; but that it conferred upon them
no power to receive their queen into Scotland, or to
furrender to Ehzabeth the perfon of their king. They
therefore begged not to be urged to accede to a league
which, in fome future period, might expofe them to a
charge of high treafon.
This fingular declaration was confidered to be folid
and weighty by the Englifh commiflioners ; and, in a
hew conference, It was communicated by them to the ScotlaJ
deputies of Mary. The bifhop of Rofs and his aflb-
dates were difgufted with this formal impertinence.
They did not hefitate to pronounce the plea of an in-
fufficient commiflion from the king to his delegates to
be an unworthy and moll frivolous fubterfuge. The
authors, they faid, ©f the depofition of their fovereign
did not need any authority but their own to fet her at
liberty ; the prince was not yet five years of age, and
could give thera no inftruftlons : and the regent was
wholly dependent upon the will and pleafure of the
queen of England. It was reprefented in return by the
Englifh delegates, that the commiflion of king James
to his deputies, having been perufed by Elizabeth, was
accounted by her to be infufficlent ; and that it was
her opinion, that the earl of Morton fhould return to
Scotland to hold a parliament for obtaining new powers.
The bifhop of Rofs exclaimed, that the queen of Scots
had been amufed with deceitful promifes, that the pru-
dence of Elizabeth had been corrupted by partial coun-
fels, and that the allegations and pretences held out for
interruptinsj the negociation were afFedted and unreal.
The inftrudlions, he faid, from his fovereign to her com-
miflioners, were to negociate and to conclude, and not
to trifle ; and they would not by any means confent to
protrad, by artificial delays, a treaty which the queen
of England, if her intentions were fincere and right,
could immediately terminate upon reafonable and ho-
nourable terms. His fpeech and his demeanour he ac-
knowledged to be free and open ; and he befought
them to excufe him, fince, having been made an inliru-
ment to abufe his miftrefs with falfe hopes, he could
not but refent the indignity, and exprefs what he knew
and what he felt. The Enghfh deputies, addreffing
him and his colleagues, obferved, that as the friends
of Mary, and thofe of the king her fon, could not
come to an agreement, and as their queen was re-
fufed the affurance fhe expefted, they held their com-
miflion to be at an end, and were no longer at liberty
to negociate.
The infincerlty of Ehzabeth, and the failure of the Th^*agita
league or agreement, filled Mary with refentment and ted cotidi
complaints. Her animofities, and thofe of Elizabeth, ^^ion of th
were incrcafed and fortified. She was in hafte to com- l^*^*'
municate to her allies the unworthy treatment fhe had
received ; and fhe fent her commands to her adherents in
Scotland to rife up in arms, to repofe no trufl in truces
which were prejudicial and treacherous, and to employ
all their refources and ftrength in the humiliation of
the regent and his faction . Elizabeth, who by this time
apprehended no enterprife or danger from Charles IX..
or the duke of Alva, refolved, on the other hand, to
give a ftrong and effieAual fupport to the king's friends,
and to difunite by ftratagem, and opprefs by power, the
partizans of the Scottlfh princefs. The zeal of the bi-
fhop of Rofs having railed her anger, fhe commanded
him to depart from London ; and Mary, in contempt
of her mandate, ordered him to remain there under the
privilege of her ambaffador. The high and unbroken
fpirit of the Scottlfh queen, in the midft of her misfor-
tunes, never once awakened the generous admlratiou of
Elizabeth. While it uniformly inflamed her rage, it
feems alfo to have excited her terror. With a pa illa-
nimous meannefs, fhe fent a difpatch to the earl of
Shrewfbury, inftrufting him to keep his ch rge in the
clufefl
SCO [ 8
hvfi, gLufeii (?onfiR*ment, and Ue ince(fajitly pn KIs guard
to prevent her efcape. He obeyed, and rejrretted her
feyerity. The expencc, retinue, and domeflics, of 'the
queen of Scots, were diminlihcd and reduced, and every
probable means by whi'clt llie mip;ht endeavour to obtain
her liberty were removed from her. The riqours, how-
ever, that invaded her perfon could not reach her mind;
and (he pitied the tyrant that could add contumely
to oppreflion, and deny her even the comforts of a
170 •pri[on. _ ^ . - .
dful All this time Scotland was involved In the miferies
ilioi'i '(»f civil war. The friends of Mary were everyvt-liere pu-
nifhed with fines and forfeiture. Private families took
the opportunity of the pi\blic confufion to revenge their
fju^rrels againit each other. Indiviulnals of every de-
rominatlon ranged themfelvee on the fide cither of the
resrent or of the quetn, and took a (hare in the hoitili-
ties of their country, Fatheris divided againit fong, and
fons againtl their fathers, AGs of outrage and violence
were committed in everj' quarter, while, amidll th^ ge-
neral confufion, religion was made the pretence by both
•jx parties.
t repent In the mean time, though many cncountera took
^" 11'-'"' place between the two faftions, yet neither party feems
eli'h^" to have been condudled by leaders ot any ability or
flciU in military affairs. This year, in one of thefe fliir-
mifhes, the regent himfelf was taken pril'oner by a par-
ty of the queen's fadlion, and put tp death. But this
event made little alteration in the affairs of the nation.
The carl of Marre, another of the queen's enemies, was
chofen to the regency : but though he propofed to aft
ai^ainft her party with rigour, he was baflled befoj-e E
i^inburgh cadle, which was llill held by her friends ;
and fome bloody (Iclrmlflies were fought In the north,
where viftory declared In favour of the queen, Thele
advantages, however, were more than compenfated to,
^4 the other party by the tollowing event,
folk's While the negociations with Elizabeth for Mary's
piracy, feftoration were depending, the fcheme of a confpi-
racy for her deliverance was communicated to Iter by
Jiobert Ridolphi a Florentine, who lived in Lyn-
4on many yearij as a merchant, and who was fecretly
:»n agent tor the court of Rome. But to his letters,
while the fate of the treaty was uncertain, (lie return-
ed no reply. Its niifcarrlage, through the duplicity
of EhV.abeth, recalled them forcibly to her atten-
tion,, and Itiniulated her to feek the accompllfliment
of h^r liberty by mcafures bolder and more arduous
than any which had been hitherto employed by her.
She drew up In cipher an ample difcourfe of his com-
fvuinications and of her lituation, and difpatched It to
rhe bithop of Rofs, together with letters for the duke
<)f Norfolk, Her Inllru£lions to this ecclehaftic were
to convey the difcourfe and letters expeditlouily to Nor-
folk, and to concert an interview betvi^een that noble-
man and Ridolphi. The conhdentlaUVrvants by whom
t he duke atted with the bKhop of Rofs were Banniftcr
iind Barker ; and having received from them the dif-
courfe and the letters, they were deciphered by Hick-
I'oid his fccretary. Having conlidered them maturely,
he delivered them to Hickford, with orders- to commit
them to the flames. Kis orders, however, were difo-
beyed,; and Hickford depofited them, with other pa-
pers of coniequence, under the m.ats of the duke's bed-
chamber. The contents of the difcourfe and the kt-
VoL.XVri. Paitl.
f ] SCO
ters awakening the hope and ambition of Norfolk, he ScotlantJ,
was impatient to fee Ridolphi ; and the bl(hop of Rofs
foon brought them together. Ridolphi, whofe ability
was Iirfpinted by motives of rellgioixand intercff, exert-
ed i.11 his eloquence and addrefs to engage the duke to
put himfelf at the head of a rebellion agalnft his fove-
i-eign. He reprefented to htm, that there could not be
a .feafon more proper than the prefent for atchieving the
overthrow of Elixabetli. Many perfons who had en-
joyed authority and credit under her predeceffor were
much difgufted ; the Roman Catholics were numerous
and Incenffd ; the younger fons of the gentry were lan-
guifhiftg In poverty and Ina6tion in every quarter of the
kingdcrn ; and there were multitudes difpofed to infur-
reftion from reftleffnefs, the love of change, and the ar-
dour of enterprife. He Inlinnatcd to liim, that his
rank, popularity, and fortune, enabled him to take the
command of iuch perfnns with infinite advantage. He
inhiled upon hie Imprifonment and the outrages he had
fuftained from EUzabcth ; reprefented the contempt to
which he would expofe himlelf by a tame fubmiffion to
wrongs ; extolled the propriety with which he might
give way to his indignation and revenge ; and painted
out the glory he might purchafe by the humiliation o
his enemies, and by the full accomplifament of his mar-
riage with the queen of Scots. To p lve a flrcngth and
contirmatlon to thefe topics, he produced a long lilt
ot the names of noblemen and gentlemen with whom he
had.pra(ftifed, and whom he affirmed to be ready to ha-
'4ard their lives and riches for a revolutum in the (late.
If the duke would enter into it with cordiality. To fix
decllively tlie duke, he now opened to him the expefta-
tions with which lie might flatter himfelf from abroad.
The pope, he alfured him, had already provided lOOjOOO
crowns for the enterprife ; and if Popery fiiould be ad-
vanced in England, he would cheerfully defray the
whole charges of tlie war. 'i^'he king of Spain would
fupply 4006 hprfe and 6000 foot, which might be land-
ed at Harwich, Charles IX- was devotedly attached
to the queen of Scots, -notwith.ffanding the treaty wliich
had been entered upon with Elizabeth for her marriage
with his brother the duke of Anjou : and when h.^
(hould difcover that^ on the part of the Englifl-i prin-
cefs, this matrimonial fcheme was no better than a de-
vice or a mockery, he would renounce the appearance
of frienddiip he had affumed, and return to his natural
fentlments of diidain and hatred with redoubled vio-
lence- In fine, he urged, that while he might depend
on the affiftance and arms of the greatefl princes of
Chriftendom, he would Intitle himfelf to the admiration
of all of them by his magnanimous efforts and geaerou3
gallantry in the caufe of a queen fo beautiful and fo
unfortunate.
- The duke of Norfolk, allured by appearances fo 1 )ifc< .ver«d
plaufible and flattering, did nat fcruple to forget the I^Y t'^e mi-
duties of a fubjeft, and the fubmiffive obligation I'^'^'i^^Ibeth
which he had bound himfelf to Ell/.aheth never more to
interfere in the affairs of the Scottilh princels. Ri-
dolphi, in this forward Hate of the buineis, advifeJ
him to addrefs letters to the Pope, the king of Spain,
and the duke of Alva, expreflive of his concurrence in
the defign, and infplrlting their activity and refolu-
tions. He even produced difpatches framed for this
purpofe ; and while he Intreated the duke to fubfcribe
them, he offered to carry them himfelf to Flanders,
L RoiTie,
SCO
t 82 1
Scotlanc'. Rome, and Spain. The duke of Norfolk, who was
'^•""^n^ ambitious and timid, difpofeti to treafon, and unfit for
it, hefitated whether he fhould fubfcribe the letters ;
and at len.e;th refuf?d to proceed to that extremity. He
yet allowed the bifhop of Rofs, and Barker his fervant,
to go to the Spanifh ambaffador to exprefs his approba-
tion of the meafures of Ridolphi, to acknowledj^^e that
the letter? were accordinir to his mind, and to empower
this ftatefman to certify their authenticity to his court.
Ridolphi, full of hopes, fet out to execute his commif-
non. He'paffed firll to the duke of Alva, to whom
he communicated the tranfailions in which he had been
engaged, and with whom he held many conference.'^
There was at this time at Bruxelles Charles Bailly, a
fervant of the queen of Scots ; and Ridolphi, after dif-
clofing to him his proceedings with Alva, entrufted
him with letters to her to the duke of Norfolk, the
Spanifh ambaffador, and the biOiop of Rofs. When this
meffenger reached Calais, a letter was delivered to him
from the billiop of Rofs,defiringhimtoleave hisdifpatches
with the governor of that place. From inexperience and
vanity he neglefted this notice ; and being fearched at
Dover, his letters, books, and clothes were feized, and
he himfelf was fent to London, and imprifoned in the
Marfhalfea. The bifhop of Rofs, full of apprehenfions,
applied to lord Cobham, the warden of the cinque ports,
who was friendly to the duke of Norfolk ; and obtain-
ing by his means the packet of difpatches from Ri-
dolphi, he fubftituted another in its place, which con-
tained letters of no danger or ufefulnefs. He had alfo
r the dexterity to convey intelligence of this trick to
Bailly, and to admonlfh him to preferve a profound fi-
lence, and not to be afraid. This fimple and unprac-
' . tiled agent had, however, excited fufpicions by the
fymptoms of terror he had exhibited upon being taken,
and by exclaiming, that the difpatches brought
would involve his own deftruftion and that of others.
At his firft examination he confeffed nothing : but be-
ing fent to the tower, and put upon the rack, he re-
vealed his converfations with Ridolphi, and declared,
that the difpatches which he had brought had been de-
livered to the bifhop of Rofs. An order was granted
for taking the bifhop into cuftody. Having been aware,
however, of his perilous fituation, his houfe was fearch-
ed in vain for treafonable papers ; and he thought to
fcreen himfelf from anfwering any interrogatories under
the fanaity of his charader as the ambaffador of an in-
dependent princefs.
The die's An unexpeaed incident excited, in the meanwhile,
frienus and new fufpicions and alarms. Mary being defirous of
fervants tranfmitting 2000 crowns to the lord Herries to ad-
give evi- ^^jj^g interefts in Scotland, the duke of Norfolk
hi undertook to convey it to him with fafety. He intruft-
gainii nm,^^ Jt to the charge of his confidents Hickford and
Barker, who putting it into a bag with difpatches from
-their matter to lord Herries, ordered a fervant called
£roiun to carry it to Bannifler ; who, being at this time
on the border, could forward it to Scotland. Brown,
fufpicious or corrupted, inftead of proceeding on his
errand, carried the bag and its contents to Sir William
Cecil, now lord Burleigh. The privy-council, deeming
it treafon to fend money out of the realm for the
ufe of the friends of Mary, whom they affefted to con-
fider as enemies, ordered Hickford and Barker to be
SCO
apprehended. The rack extorted from them whatfoever Sc .i!ar
they knew to the prejudice of their matter. Hickford ^
gave intelligence of the fatal difcourfe and the letters
from Mary^ which he had preferved in oppofition to
the orders given to him. All the proceedings between
the queen of Scots, the duke of Norfolk, the bifhop
of Rofs, and Ridolphi, were brought to light. A
guard was placed upon the houfe of the duke of Nor-
folk, in order to prevent his efcape. Sir Ralph Sad-
ler, Sir Thomas Smith, Sir Henry Nevil, and Dr
Wilfon, were commifTioned to examine him ; and being
impreffed with the belief that the difcourfe and the let-
ters had been ceftroyed, he pofitively denied that he
had any concern in the affairs of the queen of Scots,
or any knowledge of them whatfoever. He was com-
mitted to the tower a clofe prifoner. Bannltter by this
time was taken ; and he confirmed the relations of Hick-
ford and Barker. In the 'courfe of their difcoveries,
there appeared reafons of fufpicion againft many perfons
of rank and diftindlion. The earls of Arundel and
Souti'ampton, the lord Cobham, Mr Thomas Cobham
his brother, Sir Thomas Stanley, Sir Henry Percy,
and other gentlemen who were friendly to the queen of
Scots and the duke of Norfolk, were ordered to be
lodtred in different prifons ; and the rack, and the ex-
peftation of a pardon, drew from them the fullcft con-
fefTions. The duke was altogether unable to defend
himfelf. The concurring- teftimonies of his friends and
fervants, with the difcourfe and the letters, which he
fondly imagined had been committed to the flames, were
communicated to him. He was overwhelmed with
amazement and dittrefs ; and exclaimed, that he had
been betrayed and undone. He made ample acknow-
ledgments of his guilt, and had no foundation of hope
but in the mercy of his fovereign.
By the confeflion of the duke himfelf, and from all
the inquiries which had been made by the minifters of
Elizabeth, it appeared obvious beyond a doubt, that
the bifhop of Rofs had been the principal contriver of
the confpiracy. Ridolphi had afted under his direc- Danger
tion, and he had infpirited the duke of Norfolk. He had and per
even proceeded to the extremity of adviling that noble-
man to put himfelf at the head of a feled band of ad-
herents, and to feize boldly the perfon of Elizabeth. Lefly.
In his examinations he was treated with great rigour
and infult. But he made an able defence, and peremp-
torily refufed to make any anfwer to interrogatories.
The counfellors of Elizabeth were difturbed with hi&
obftinacy ; and having certified him, that the rack
would foon render him more pliant, he was ordered in-
to clafe keeping in a dark apartment of the tower.—
When he had remained a few days in this melan-
choly fituation, four privy-counfellors, the lord ad-
miral, the lord Burleigh, Sir Francis KnoUys, and
Sir Thomas Smith, went to the tower, and caufed
him to be brought to them to the lieutenant's lodging.
After having affured him that he was charged by all
the prifoners as the principal contriver of the confpi-
racy, they infifted, in the name of their fovereign, that
he fhould explain fully the part he had aded. The
confeflions of the duke of Norfolk and his fervants, of
the lord Lumley, Sir Thomas Stanley, and other gen-
tlemen, with the difcourfe and difpatches of the queen
of Scots, were fet before him. They now protetted
8. upon
SCO [
and. upon their honour, that if he would make a free and
open declaration of his proceedings, it fhpuld neither be
employed againft himfelf, nor agalnft any other perfon ;
but that if he fhould continue to be refolute in refusing
to give this fatisFaftlon to their queen, who was anxious
to fearch the matter to the bottom, they were inftrud-
ed to let him know, that (he would abfolutely confider
him as a private perfon, and order him to be tried and
executed as a traitor. In this extremity he accepted
the conditions held out to him, and difclofed minutely
all the tranfaftions of the principal parties in the con-
fpiracy. But while he defcribed the offences of his mif-
trefs, the duke of Norfolk, and himfelf, he could not
avoid to detraa from their blame by apologies. It was
natural, he faid, for the queen of Scots to exert the
moft ftrenuous endeavours in her power to recover her
freedom and crown ; and the methods (he adopted to
obtain her purpofes ought ^to be confidered in connec-
tion with the arts of Elizabeth, who pcrtinacioufly de-
nied her accefs to her prefence, who kept her a clofe
prifoncr in contempt of all the principles of humanity
and juftice, and who afforded an open and power-
ful affiftance to her enemies. The duke of Norfolk he
was earneft to excufe on the foundation of the advances^
which had been made in his marriage with the queen of
Scots. Their plighted love, and their engagements,
did not allow him to forfake her. As for himfelf, he
was her ambaflador and her fervant ; and being highly
indebted to her , enerofity and kindnefs, he could not
abandon her in captivity and diftrefs without incurring
the guilt of the mofl fmful treachery and ingratitude.
The daring propofal he had made to feize the perfon of
Elizabeth was the point, he obferved, which feemcd to
prefs upon him the mofl feverely ; and he intreated
them to believe, that he had moved it only with the
view of trying the courage of the duke of Norfolk. —
The privy-counfellors of Elizabeth were now in pofftf-
fion of all the evidence they could expeft in this im-
portant bufmefs. Norfolk was admonilhed to prepare
for his trial ; and bifhop Lefly perceived, that though
he might efcape with his Hfe, he would never more be
permitted to refide in England, and to ad there as the
ambaffador, the minifler, and the friend of the queen
of Scots.
The defeat of the duke of Norfolk's confpiracy was
a blow to Mary which fhe could never recover. Her
moil faithful friends v/ere languifhing in prifons upon
her account ; fhe had no longer the counfels of the bi-
fhop of Rofs ; and the Spanifh ambaffador, who had
entered into her concerns with an imfcrupulous cordia-
lity, had been ordered to withdraw from England. '1 he
trial and condemnation of Norfolk foon followed, and
plunged her into the mofl calamitous diftrefs.
The maffacre of the Protellants at Paris in 1572
of proved alfo extremely detrimental to her. It was in-
terpreted to be a conl'equence of the confederacy which
had been formed at Bayonne for the extermination of
the reformed. The Proteflants were everywhere tranf-
ported with rage againft the Papifts. Elizabeth pre-
pared herftif agaiiifl an attack from the Roman Catho-
lic powers ; and was haunted with the notion that they
meant to. invade her kingdom, and to give it to the
queen of Scots. Her ambaflador at Paiis, Sir Francis
Walfingham, augmented her apprelienfions and terror,
lie compared her weaknefs with the flrength of her ene-
. ft a-', by
Morton,
780
6
'b af-
uined
t fdi
Nor
con-
r,
y the
83 1 SCO
mies, and aflured her that if they fhould pofTefs t|icm- Scotlan^
felves of Scotland, fhe would foon ceafe to be a ^
queen. He reprefented Mary as the great caufe v^rginn^.
of the perils that threatened her perfonal fafety andharncun-
the tranquillity of her kingdom ; and as violent difeafesiels £!iza-
required violent remedies, he fcrupled not to counfel JJ'Jjy"^"*'
her to unite Scotland to her dominions, and to put^g^^i,^
to death a rival whofe Ufe was inconfiftent with her
fecurity. The more bigotted Proteftants of Scotland
differed not very widely in their fentiments from Sir
Francis Walfmgham ; while thofe of them who were
more moderate were ftill more attached to their religion
than to Mary ; and amidft the indignation and horror
into which the fubjefts of Scotland were thrown by the
fan guinary outrages of Charles IX. and Catharine de
Medlcis, they furveyed the fufferings of their fovereigu
with a diminiftied fympathy. _ _ ^
This year the regent, finding himfelf befet with djf-The
ficuhies which he cou^i not overcome, and the affairs r
of the nation involved in confufion from which he could
not extricate them, died of melancholy, and was fuc-
ceeded by the earl of Morton
During the regency of the earl of Marre, a remark-
able innovation took place in the church, which de-
ferves to be particularly explained, being no lefs than
the introdudion of Epifcopacy inflead of the Prcfhyte-
rian form of worfhip. While the earl of Lenox was Ei-ifcopacy
regent, the archbifhop of St Andrew's was put to death, r^t^o^^ ced
becaufe he was ttrongly fufpeded to have had a concern |>J^<^ ^'cot-
in the death of the "earl of Murray ; after which the "
eail of Morton procured a grant of the temporalities of
that fee. Out of thefe he allotted a ftipend to Mr
John Douglas, a Proteftant clei-gyman, who took upon
him the tide of archbifliop. 1 his violence excited ceri-
fure and mui'murs. In the language of the times, it
was pronounced to be a profanation of the kirk, and
a high contempt of God ; and it underwent the fcru-
tiny of the miniftry in applications and complaints to
the regent, 'i'he matter was doubtlefs of too much
importance to be overlooked ; and a commifTion of
privy-counfellors and clergymen was appointed in 'the
name of the king to inquire into it, and to reform and
improve the poHcy of the church. This commiflion,
upon the part of the privy- council, confifted of the earl
of Morton, the lord Rnthven, Robert abbot of Dun-
fermline, Mr James Macgill, Sir John Ballenden, and
Colin Campbell of Glenorchie ; and upon the part of
the church the^.-e were named John Erflcine of Dun, and
Mr John Winram, Mr Hay, Mr Lindfay, Mr Pont,
and Mr John Craig. The confultations and debates
were long ; and the influence and management of the
earl of Morton direded their determinations. It was
refolved, that till the majority of the king, or till the
wifdom of the three eftates fhould be confulted, the
titles of archbifliop and bifliop fhould conti.iue as in the
times which preceded the reformation ; and that a chap-
ter of learned minifters ftiould be annexed to every me-
tropolitan or cathedral feat. It was determined that
the fees, as they became vacant, ftiould be given to thofe
of the Proteftant miniftry who were moft eminent for
their qualifications ; that the archbifKops and bifliops
fliould exercife no higher jurifdidion than what was per
mitted to fuperintendants ; and that they ftiould be lub-
jed to the controul of the general affemblies of the
church. It was agreed, that all abbots, priors, and
L 2 o^er
SCO
Scotland.
Other inferior prelates priefented to benefices, fhould be
examined by the biftop or fuperintendant of the dio-
cefe or precinft where the preferment was fituated ; and
that fheir fitnefs to reprefent the church in parliament
fhould be duly inquired into. It was judged that the
king and the regent (hould recommend qualified perfons
to vacant birtioprics, and that the eledions of them
fhould be made by the chapters of the refpeftive cathe-
drals. It was ordered that all benefices with cure un-
der prelacies fhould only be difpofed of to officiating
jninifters ; that every minifter fhould receive ordination
from the bifhop oF the diocefe, or the fuperintendant of
the province ; and that the bifhops and fuperintendants,
upon the ordination of minifters, fiiould cxaft an oath
from them to recos^nize the authority of the kinp, and
to pay canonical obedience to their ordinary in all things
that •were lawful.
By thefe artful regulations the earl of Mortoa did
not mean folely to confult his own rapacity or that of
the nobles. 'J'he exaltation of the Proteftant church
to be one of the three eftates was a confequence of
them; and the clergy being the ftrenuous enemies of
Mai-y, he might by their means fecure a decided influ-
ence in parliament. I'he earl of Marre, as regent,
giving his fanftion to the proceedings of the commiflion,
they were carried into pra£liee. The delulive expecta-
tion of wealth, which this revival of Epifcopacy held
out to the miniftry, was flattering to them ; and they
bore with tolerable patience this fevere blow that was
ftruck againll the religious policy of Geneva. Mr
John Douglas was defired to give a fpecimen of his
gifts in preaching ; and his elediion took effeft, not-
withitanding the oppofition that was made to it by John
Knox and other ecclefiaflics, wlio ftood up for the rules
and forms which had been eftabliflied at the reformation.
He was inaugurated in his office by the bifliop of Caith-
nefs, Mr John Spotfwood fuperintendant of Lothian,
and Mr David I^indfay, who violating the book of dif-
ctpline, communicated to him his charader and admif-
fiou by the impofition of hands. This was a Angular
triumph to Epifcopacy ; and the exaltation of Douglas
included other peculiarities remarkable and offeniive.
He denied that he had made any fimoniacal agreement
•with the earl of Morton ; yet it was known that the
revenues of the arcbbifhopric were almoft wholly in^rof-
kd by that nobleman, lie had promifed to reiign^ up-
t)n his inftalment, the office of re6for w|iich lie held in
the univerlity of St Andrew's : yet he rcfufed to exe-
cute this engagement. He was in a very advanced age ;
and his mental qualifications, which had never been emi-
nent, were in a ftate of decay.
A general aflembly, which was holden at St An-
dr'ew's, confidering the high moment of the new regu-
lat ions Introduced irito the church, appointed com-
iniflioners to go to John Knox, who was at this time in-
difpofed, and to confult with him deliberately in his
houfe, whether they were agreeable to the word of God.
But from the arts of the nobles, or from the ficknefs of
Knox, it happened that this conference was not ear-
ned into execution. In a general aflembly, however,
Vvhich met at Perth, the new polity was reported and
examiried. The names of archbifliop, dean, arch-dea-
con, chancellor, and chapter, were excepted againft as
Popifli diftindtlons, and as flanderous to the ears of
pious Chriftians. A wilh was expreffed that they micjht
[ S4 )
SCO
be exchanged fpr titles lefs profane and fupcrftiiiooa | Spit!
and an unanimous proteftation was made, that the new ^
polity was merely a temporary expedient, and fhould
only continue and prevail till a more perfedt order
fhould be obtained from the king, the regent, and the
nobility. This tolerating refolution left the new po-
lity in its full force ; and a coknu'able foundation was
now eflablifhed for the laity to partake in the profits
of bifbopncs. The fir^ioniacal padion of Morton and
Douglas was not long a matter of fingularity. Mr
James Boyd was appointed to the archbifhopric of Glaf-
gow, Mr James Paton to the bifhopric of Dunkeld,
and Mr Andrew Graham to the fee of Dumblain ; and
thefe compromifing ecclefiaftics, <upon being allowed
competencies to themfelves, gratified their noble friends
with the greateft proportion of thtir revenues. The
virtue of the common people approved not this fpirit
of traffic ; and the bifnops o/ the new .polity •were treat-
ed openly with reproach or with ridicule. .gj.
'1 he year 1572 is alfo remarkable for the death of Death 1
John Knox, whofe miftaken zeal had contributed not aJ'^^"^
little to bring upon the queen thofe misfortunes with
which fhe was now oppreflcd. Neither by his death,
however, nor by the change of the regency, could fhe
now be relieved. The earl of Morton was ib much
devoted to Elizabeth, that he received particular in-
flruftions from her how to guide the young king. His
elevation, indeed, gave the finifliing ilroke to the queen's
affairs, lie employed himfelf with f.ccefs in dividing Elizi
her party among themfcKes, and by his means the'el'oiv
duke of Chatelhcrault and the earl of Huntley were in-
duced to forfake her. As for Elizabeth, flie was bent j^^^if '
on putting Mary to death ; but as no crime could be
alleged againft her in England, flie thou;?ht it proper
that fhe fhould be carried back to fuffer death in her
own dominions. This propofal, however, was i-ejedVed ;
and the friends who remained true to Mary once more
began to indulge themfelves in hopes of fuccours from
France. New misfortunes, however, awaited than. —
The caflle of Edinburgh, which had hitherto been held.^j
for the queen by Kirkaldy of Grange, was obliged to,,f£jj*'
lurrender to an Englifa army commanded by Sir Wil-burj^hts
liam Drury. Kir-kaldy was folemnly affured by the l^en by 1
Engliih commander of his life and liberty; but Eliza- ^"^''^
beth violated this capitulation, and coi-nmanded him to'^"^"
be delivered up to the regent. An hundred of his re-
lations offered to become vaffals to Morton, and to. pay
him 3000 merks yearly, if he would fpare his life ; but
in varn : Kirkaldy and his brother Sir James were hang-
ed at Edinbur-gh. Maitland of Lethington, who was
taken at the fame time, was poifoued in the pi-ifon hou!c
of Leith. _
The jealoufy of Elizabeth did not diminifh with the iVTaryt*
decline of Mary's caufe. She now treated her withedwitl
more rigour than ever, and patronifed Morton in all the E''*^^'^"'
enormities w^hich he committed againft her friends. ^^I'J
Lefly bifhop of Rofs had been long imprifoned in Eng-
land, on account of his concern in the duke of Noi'-
folk's confpii-acy. Morton earneftly folicited the queen
to deliver him up, and would undoubtedly have put hira
to death ; but as he had afted in the chara<fler of am-
baflador from Mary, this was judged impolitic, and t\tc
prelate was fuffered to depart for France. When he
arrived there, he endeavoured in vain to ff ir up the em-
peror, the pope, and the duke of Alva, to exert them*
felves-
SCO
fclves in behalf cf the queen of Scotland ; and, in
1574, the misfortunes of his royal miilrefs were farther
ajTiiravated by the death of Charles IX. of France, and
,her uncle the cardinal of Loiraine. The regent, in the
mean time, rukd with the moil defpotic fway. He
twice coined bafe money in the name of his fovereign ;
and after putting it into circulation the fecond time, he
jfllvied orders for its paffinf? only for its intrinfic value.
The duke of Chatclherault happeniu'T; to die this year,
the refrent took every method of ruining all thofe of
his name and family. He committed to prifon all the
Hamiltons, and every perfon of dilliuctiou whi) had
fought for the queen at the battle of Langfidc, and
compelled thtm to buy their liberty at an exorbitant
price. He irdligated Douglas of Lochleven to afiaffi-
nate lord Arbroath, and it was with difficulty that the
latter efcaped the ambulh that was laid for him. Reid,
the blfhop of Orkney, having left his eftate to pious
and charitable ufes, the regent prohibited tbe execution
of the will, and took upon himfelf the adm-iniftratign.
To be rich was a fufficient crime to excite his venge-
ance. He entered the warehoufes of merchants, and
confifcated their pioperty ; and if he wanted a pretence
to juftify his conduct, the judges and lawyers were
ready at his call.
In this difaftrous period the clergy augmented the
general confufion. Mr Andrew Melvil had lately re-
turned from Geneva ; and the difcipline of its affembly
5 ] . ,5 . C O
h'ifbnp conrvTred no diftinftion or rank ; that the ofHce
w;is not more honourable than that of the other mi- "
nillers ; and that by the word of God their fundfions
confirted in preaching, in adminiffering the facraments,
and iH txcrcifmg ecclefiaftical difcipline with the con-
fent of the ciders. The Epifcopal eltate, in the mean-
while, was watched with anxious obfervation ; and
the faults 'and demerits of every kind, which were found
in individuals, were charged upon the order with rude-
nefs and afperity. In a new affembly this fubjeft was
again canvafled. It was moved, whether bifliops, as
conllituted in Scotland, had any authority for their
func'tions from the Scriptures? After long debates, it
was thought prudent to avoid an explicit determination
of this important qucftion. But a confirmation was be-
flowed upon the relolution of the former affembly ; and
it was eflabhihtd as a rule, that every bifhop {houM
m.ake choice of a particular church within his diocefe,
and Ihould aAually difcharge the duties of a minifter.
The regent, diifuibed with thefe proceedings of the
brethren, was difpofed to amwfe and to deceive them.
He fent a meffenger to advlfe them not to infringe
and disfigure the cftablifhed forms ; and to admonilh
them, that if their averlion from Epifcopacy was infur-
mountable, it would become them to think ot feme
mode of ecclefiadicai government to which they could
adhere with conttancy. The affembly taking the ad-
vantage of this meffage, made a formal intimation to
-'t'ariJ.
being confidered. by him as the molt perfcdt model of him, that they would diligently fiame a lafting plat-
' ' • - • . ^ , , . . , £-^^^ pohty, and fubmit it to the privy-council-
They appointed, accordingly, a committee ot the bre-
thren for tliis purpofe. The bufinefs was too agrceabie
to be neglefted ; and in a Hiort time Mr David Lind-
fay, Mr James Lawfon, and Mr Robert Pont, were
deputed to wait upon the regent with a new fcheme of
ecclefiaftical government, .\tter reminding him, that
iie had been a notable iiiffrument in purging the realnv
ecclefiaftical policy, he was infinitely offended with the
introduAion of Epifcopacy Into Scotland. His learn-
ing was confiderable» and his fliiU in languages was
profound. He was fond of difputation, hot, violent,
And pertinacious. The Scottifh clergy were in a hu-
mour to attend to him ; and his merit was fufBcient to
excite tlieir admit ation. Inftigated by his praftices,
John Drury, one of the minifters of Edinburgh, called
ni queftion,' in a general affembly, the lawfulnefs of the of Popery, and begging that he would confult witli
bifliops, and the authority of chapters in elefting them, them upon any of its articles which he thought improper
Melvil, after commending his zeal and his motion, de- or incomplete, they informed him, that they did not
claimed concerning the flourifhing ftate of the eftablifii- account it to be a perfect work to which nothing could
ment of Geneva ; and having recited the opinions of be added, or from v. rilch nothing cwild be taken away ;
Calvin and Beza upon ecclefiaftical government, main- for that they would alter and improve it, as the Al-
tained, that there Ihould be no orR-e-bearers in the m.ighty God might farther reveal his will unto them. The
church whofe titles were not feen in the book of God. regent, taking from them their fchtdule, replied, that
He affirmed, that the term hijlop was nowhere to be
found In It in the fenfe in which it was commonly un-
der ftood, as Chrlft allowed not any fuperlority among
minifters- Pie contended that Chrift was the only lord
of his church, and that the minifters of the word were
2^1 equal in degree and power. He urged, that the
tftate of the biftiops, behde being unlawful, had grown
unfeemly with corruptions ; and that \\ they were not
removed out of the church, It would fall into decay,
he would appoint ctrtain perfons of the privy-council
to confer with them. A conference was even beguti
UDOU the fubjeft of their new eftablifliment ; but from
his arts, or from the troubles of the times, no advances
were made in it. ^gg
This year the earl of Bothwtl died In Denmark ; Death of
and in his lafl; moments, being ftiung with remorfe, he Bothwc),.
confeffed that he had been guilty of the king's mur-
der, revealed the names of the perfons who were his
and endanger the interefts of religion. His fentiments accomplices, and with the moft folemn prottftatloiis
were received with flattering approbation ; and though declared the honour and innocence of the cpieen. ^ His^
the archblftiop of Glafgow,' with the blft-.ops cf Dun- confeffion was tranfmitted to Elizabeth by the king of
keld, Galloway, Brechin, Dumblaln, and the Ifles, Denmark ; but was fupprtffed by her with an anxi-
were prefent in this affembly, they ventured not to de- ous folicitude. ^ ... . 7^9
tend their vocation. It was refolved, that the name of The regent ftill continued his enormities, till having Morton is
rendered compelled
to refign fii»-
— — — — ' — - ■ - _— — r,{Hce of rs»
(u) Jebb, Vol. II. p. 227. It has never been pubhfhed. Keith and other hiftorlans have preferred what they gent,
call the earl ofBothiuel's declaration at his death, and account It to be genuine. Their partiality for Mary induced
them the more eafily to fall Into this miftake- The paper they give is demonftratively a forgery ; and the.waus .
of the real confeflioa of Bothwel is ftill a deficiency in our hift.ory.
SCO t S5 ]
-8cfttlan('. rendered himfelf obnoxious to tlie beft part of the no- the crown both of
• bility, he was, in 1577, Gompelled to refign his office
into the hands of Jamea VI. ; but as his majefty was
then only twelve years of aa;e, a general council of twelve
peers was appointed to aflilt him in the adminillration.
Next year, however, the earl of Morton having found
means to gain the favour of the young king, procured
the diffolution of this council ; and thus being left
the fole advifer of the king, he hoped once more to
be raifed to his fcrmer greatnefs. This could not be
done, however, without keeping the king in a kind of
captivity, fo that nobody could have accefs to him but
■himfelf. The king, fenfible of his fiiuation, font a dif-
patch to the earls of Argyle and Athole, intreating
them to relieve him. An army for this purpofe was
foon raifed ; and Morton's partisans were in danger of
being defeated, had not the oppofite party dreaded the
vengeance of Elizabeth, who was refolved to fupport
the eail of Morton. In confequence of this a negocia-
tion was entered into, by which it v/as agreed, that the
earl of Argyle, with fome others, fhould be admitted
into the king's council ; and that four noblemen fhould
be chofen by each party to confider of fame proper
method of prefei ving tranquillity in the nation.
This pacification did not greatly diminifli the power
of Morton. He foon got rid of one of his pnncipal
antagonifts, the earl of Athole, by poifoning him at an
entertainment ; after which he again gave a loofe rein to
his refentments againft the houfe of Hamilton, whom
he perfecuted in the moft cruel manner. By thefe
means, however, he drew upon himfelf a general h?.tred;
and he was fupplanted in tlie king's favour by the lord
d'Aubigney, who came from France in the year 1579,
and was created earl of Lenox. The next year Mor-
ton \vas fufpefted of an intention to deliver up the king
to Elizabeth, and a guard was appointed to prevent
any attempts of this kind. The queen of England
endeavoured to fupport her zealous partifan ; but with-
out effeA. He was tried, condemned, and executed, as
demned and being concerned in the murder of Darnlev. At the
790
He poifons
the earl of
Athole.
791
Is con-
place of execution, it is faid that he confefTed his guilt ;
of Darnley, ^^'^ *^he evidence is not quite fatisfaftory. It is
however certain that he acknowledged himfelf privy to
the plot formed againft the lite of the king ; and when
one of the clergymen attending him before his execu-
tion obferved, that by his own confeflion he merited
death in foreknowing and concealing the murder, he re-
plied *' Ay but, Sir, had I been as innocent as St
Stephen, or as guilty as Judas, I muft have come to the
fcaffold. Pray, what ought 1 to have done in this
matter? You knew not the king's weaknefs. Sir. If I
had informed htm of the plot againft his life, he would
have revealed it even to his enemies and thofe concern-
ed in the defign ; and I would, it may be, have loft
my own life, for endeavouring to preferve his to no pur-
pofe."
The elevation of king James, and the total overthrow
of Morton, produced no beneficial confequences to the
unfortunate Mary. In the year 158 r, fhe addrefTed
a letter to Caftelnau the French ambalTadpr, in which
(he complained that her body was fo weak, and her
limbs fo feeble, that fhe was unable to walk. Caftel-
nau therefore intreated Elizabeth to mitigate a little
the rigours of Mary's confinement ; which being refu-
fed, the latter had thoughts of refigning her claims to
79a
Monftrcus
cruelty of
Elizabeth
£0 Mary.
SCO
England and Scotland into the Sc
hands of her fon, and even of advifing him to ufe every '"^
effort in his power to eftablifh his claim to the Englifh
crown as preferable to that of Elizabeth. But being
apprehenfive of danger from this violent method, fhe
again contented herfelf with fending to the court of
England inefFe&ual memorials and remonftrances. Eli-
zabeth, inftead of taking compaffion on her miferable
fituation, affiduouHy encouraged every kind of diforder
in the kingdom, on purpofe to have the queen more
and more in her power. Thus the Scottilh malcon-Th«
cnts finding themfelves always fupported, a confpiracy taken pt
was at laft entered into, the defign of which was to
hold James In captivity, and to overthrow the authority
of Arran and Lenox, who were now the principal
perfons in the kingdom. The chief aftors in this con-
fpiracy were the earls of Gowrie, Marre, and Glen-
calrn, the lords Lindfay and Boyd, with the mafters of
Glammis and Ollphant. By reafon of the youth and
imbecilllty of the king, they eafily accomphthed their
purpofe ; and having got him in their power, they
promifed him his liberty, provided he would command
Lenox to depart the kingdom. This was accordingly
done ; but the king found hitnfelf as much a prilbner as
before. The more effeflually to detain him in cuftody,
the rebels conftrained him to iflue a proclamation,
wherein he declared himfelf to be at perfeft liberty.
Lenox was preparing to advance to the king's relief
with a confiderable body of forces, when he was dif-
coticerted by the king's peremptory command to leave
Scotland ; upon which he retired to Dumbarton, in
order to wait for a more favourable opportunity. The
earl of Arran, being more forward, was committed to
clofe cuftody for fome time, but afterwards confined
only in his houfe of Kinneil. The rebels took upon
them the title of " lords for the reformation of the
ftate."
'J 'he clergy, who had all this time been exceedingly whtdfi.
averfe to Epifcopacy, now gave open countenance toapprovs*
the lords of the reformation. On the 13th of Ofto-'*f ''^
ber 1582, they made a folemn a6l, by which the raid'^^^'^^
of Ruthverif as the capture of the king was called, was
deemed a fervlce moft acceptable to all who feared God,
refpeAed the tru*. religion, and were anxious for the
prefervation of the king and ftate ; and every minifter
was commanded to declaim from his pulpit upon the
expediency of this meafure, and to exhort the people
t6 concur with the lords in profecuting the full deli-
verance of the church, and the perfeft reformation of
the cortimon wealth. Not fatisfied with this approba-
tion of the clergy, the confpirators got their proceed-
ings approved by the ftates of Scotland, as " a good,
a thankful, and a neceffary fervicc to the king-" At
the fame time • it was enabled, that no fuit civil or
criminal of any kind fhould ever be inftitutcd againft
the perfons concerned in it. Soon after this, Lenox
took his leave of Scotland, and failed for France, where
he died.
The unfortunate Mary was driven to defpair when fhe M
heard that her fon was taken prifoner by rebels who ^'ri^es to
had been inftigated by Elizabeth. In this diftreis, fhe
addrefTed a moft fpirited letter to Elizabeth, in which
fhe at once afferted her own innocence, and fet forth
the conduft of Elizabeth herfelf in fuch language as
mull have put the moft impudent of her adverfaries to
the
79S
SCO
t 87 ]
SCO
\1
;h am-
nd. the blu{h. Elizabeth could not reply, and therefore
had recourfe to her ufual arts of treaclierous negocla-
tion. New terms were propofed to Mary, who would
»er gladly have fubmltted almoft to any thing, provided fhe
(er- could procure her freedom. It was pi-opofed, as had
often been done before, to aflbciate the queen of Scots
with her fon in the government ; but as this was to
be referred to the king, who was in the hands of Eli-
zabeth's friends, and to the parliament, who were under
the power of the fame faclion, it is eafy to fee that no
fuch afTociation ever could take place, or indeed was
ever intended.
A fter the death of Lenox, the confpirators appre-
j^^^ bended no further danger, little fuppofmg that a prince
led in young and unexperienced could deliver himfelf from
»nd. captivity. This, however, in the year 1583, he effeft-
ed in the following manner. A convention of the
eftates had been fummoned to meet at St Andrew's.
James, whom the earl of Arran, notwithftanding his
confinement at Kinneil, had found means to inftruft
and advife, pretended a defire of vifitlng his grand-uncle
the carl of March, who refided at St Andrew's, and
was for that purpofe permitted to repair thither a few
days before the convention. The better to deceive the
earls of Gowrie, Angus, and Marre, who attended him,
he took up his lodgings in an old inn, which .was quite
open and defencelefs. But having expreffed a defire to
fee the caftle of St Andrew's, he was admitted into it ;
and colonel Stuart, who commanded the caftle, after
admitting a few of his retinue, ordered>the gates to be
fhut. Tlie earls of Argyle, Marifchal, Montrofe, and
Rothes, who were in concert with the king, haftened
to make him an offer of their fwords. The oppofite
(es"^ faflion, being unprepared for hoftllities, were filled with
I cap- confternation. Of all the confpirators, the earl of
Y' Gowrie alone was admitted into the king's prefence, by
the favour of colonel Stuart, and received his pardon.
The earls of March, Argyle, Gowrie, Marifchal, and
R®thes, were appointed to be a council for affifting the
king in the management of his affairs ; and foon after
this James fet out for Edinburgh. The king no foon-
er found himfelf at liberty, than, by the advice of his
privy council, he iffued a proclamation of mercy to the
confpirators ; but they, flattering themfelves with the
hopes of fupport from Elizabeth, obftinately refufed to
accept of his pardon. In confequence of this, they
were denounced rebels. Elizabeth failed not to give
them underhand all the encouragement fhe could, and
the clergy uttered the moft feditious difcourfes againft
the king and government ; and while they railed againft
Popery, they themfelves maintained openly the very
charafteriftic and dinftinguifhing mark of Popery, name-
ly, that the clerical was entirely independent of the civil
power.
^ At laft the rebels broke forth into open hoftilities ;
but by the vigilance of Arran, the earl of Gowrie, who
lemned had again begun his treafonable praftices, was commit-
exciu- ted to cuftody ; while the reft, unable to oppofe the
"iiing, who appeared againft them with a formidable
army, were obliged to fly into England, where Eliza-
I beth, with her ufual treachery, protefted them.
The earl «f Gowrie fufFered as a traitor ; but the
feverity exercifed againft him did not intimidate the
clergy. Thty ftill continued their rebellious praftices,
until the Jung being iHformed that they were engaged
in a correfpondence with feme of the fugitive lords, Scotland,
citations were given to their leaders to appear before — v— ^
the privy -council. The clerjrymen, not daring to ap. p^^°^^,
pear, fled to England ; and on the 20th of May 1 584,j„g, againft
the king fummoned a convention of the eftates, on pur- the cicrgy»
pofe to humble the pride of the church in an effectual
manner. In this affembly the raid of Ruthven was
dechred to^e rebellion, according to a declaration
which had formerly been made by the king. And, as
it had grown into a cuftom with the promoters of fedi-
tlon and the enemies of order, to decline the judgment
of the king and the council, when called before them
to anfwer for rebellious or contumelious fpeeches, uttered
from tlie pulpit or in pvibllc places, an ordination was
made, aflerting that they had complete powers to judge
concerning perfons of every degree and funftion ; and
declaring, that every aft of oppofition to their jurifdic-
tion fhould be accounted to be treafon. It was enafted,
that the authority of the parliament, as conftituted by
the free votes of the three eftates, was full and fupreme ;
and that every attempt to diminifti, alter, or infringe,
its power, dignity, and juriidiftion, fliould be held and
punlflied as treafon. All jurifdift ions and judgments, -
all affemblles and conventions, not approved of by the
king and the three eftates, were condemned as unlaw-
ful, and prohibited. It was ordained, that the king
might appoint commlffioners, with po\yers to examine
into the delinquencies of clergymen, and, if proper, to
deprive them of their benefices. It was commanded,
that clergymen fhould not for the future be admitted to
the dignity of lords of the feffion, or to the adminiftra-
tlon of any judicature civil or criminal. An ordination
was made, which fubjefted to capital punilhment all -■■
perfons who fliould inquire into the aftairs of ftate with
a malicious curiofity, or who fliould utter falfe and
flanderous fpeeches in fermons, declamations, or familiar
difcourfe, to the reproach and contempt of the king, his
parents, and progenitors. It was ordered that a guard,
confifting of 40 gentlemen, with a yearly allowance to
each of 200 1. fliiould continually attend upon the king, ,
This parliament, which was full of zeal for the crown, Attempts' •
did not overlook the hlftory of Buchanan, which about to fuppreft --
this time was exciting a very general attention. It Bijchanaa-*
commanded, that all perfons who were pofleired of copies '^'^'^'^y*
of his chronicle, and of his treatife on the Scottifli go-
vernment, fliould furrehder them within 40 days, under
the penalty of 200 1. in order that they might be pur-
ged of the offenfivc and extraordinary matters they con-
tained. This ftroke of tyranny was furious and in-
effeftual. Foreign nations, as well as his own country-
men, were filled with the higheft admiration of the
genius of Buchanan. It was not permitted that his
writings fliould fufl^er mutilation ; they were multiplied
in every quarter ; and the feverity exercifed againft
them only ferved the more to excite curiofity, and to ^
diffufe his reputation. ,
While the parliamentary afts, which ftruck againft -pj^^ ^*^^,
the importance of the church, were in agitation, theg„(jejvour
minlfters deputed Mr David Lindfay to foUcit the king fo fupport
that no ftatutes fliould pafs which affefted the eccle- themfelves
fiaftical eftabllflimcnt, without the confultation of the ^"^^^g^^,
general affembly. But the carl of Arran having intel-
ligence of this commiflion, defeated it, by committing
Mr Lindfay to prlfon as a fpy for the difcontented
nobles. Upon the publicaiiun, however, of thefe afts
I
SCO [8
f!,eot3jin4 Mr Robert Font minlAcf of St Cutlu
- j^g^^'j^ oj^g the feriators of the court of fdfiop)
' with Mr Walter Balcanqyal, ])rotcftec| formally in the
name of the chvirch, that It difl'tnted from them, and
that they were confequently invalid. I-lavini? inude
this proteftatiop, they inttantly !ltd» and were pro.
claimed traitorg. By letters md pamphlets, which
were artfully ipread among tlie people, tUeir pafllons
vtre rouzed againft the king and his couiicil- The
jniniftevs of Edinburgh took the refolution to forfake
their fiocks, and to retire to England. And in an a-
■ jjology circulated by tlieir raanagement, they anxiouf-.
ly endeavovired to awaken commiferation tmd pity.
They maiinified the dans^ers which threatened them ;
• and they held out, in vindication of their condu6l, the
example of the prophets, the apoftles, the martyra, and
< f Chrill himfelf, who all concurred, they faid, ia op-
poHng the ordinations of men, when contradiftory to
the will of heaven, and in declining the rage tlie
enemieB oF God, The king appointed big own chap-
lains nid the archbifliop of 8t Andrew's to perform the
niinillerial fun6lion8 in his capiiah The clergy over
Scotland were commanded to fubfcribe a declaration,
"tvliich irnperted the fupremacy of the king over the
rhurch, and their fr.bmiffion to the authority of the bi-
iliops. The national fermeutJi llill increafed in violence.
Many midfters refufed to fubfcribe this declaration,
and were 'deprived of their livings. It was contended,
tliatto make the king fnpreme over the church was no
better than to fet np a new pope, and to comrnit trea-
fon agalnit jefus Chrift. It was urjjed, that to over-
throw aremblies and prePoyteries, and to give dontiinon
to biihops, was not only to overfet the edablifhed poll-
ty cf the church, but to deftroy religion Itfvlf, For
the bilnops were the llaves of the court, were fehifina-
tical in their opinions, and depraved in their lives. It
was ainrnned, th?-t iierely, atheifrn, and popery, would
flrike a deep root, and grow into llrcngth. And
jjeople were taught to believe, that the bilhops would
corrupt the nation into a refemblance with themfelves ;
iiud that there everywhere prevailed diffimulation and
blafphemy, jierfccution and obfcenity, the profanation
t)f the fcriptures, and the breach of laith, covetoufncfsj
perjury, and facrilege. It was reported abroad, that
<iie mir.iilcrs alone wer« entrulled with cccleliallical
limilions, and with the fword of the word ; and that
it wa;^ moll wicked and prolane to imagine, that Ju'fua
Chriit had ever committed the keys of the kingdom
of iieaveu to civil magiltrutes and their fervants or de-
puties.
While (he clergy were thus impotently venting their
wrath, Eii/.abeth, alarmed beyond rneafure at this fud-
den revolution, and terrified by a confeHlon extorted
by the rack from one Francis Throgmorton, concern-
ing a combination of the Catholic princes to invade
England, began to treat with Mary in a more fuicere
manner than ufual ; but having gained over to her lide
the earl of Arran, the only man of a«5tivit:y in Scot-
land, Ihe fefolvcd to proceed to extremities with the
queen of Scota, The Roman Catholics, both at home
and abr(»ad, were infiamed againlt her with a bouiidlefs
jmd implacable rage. 1 here prevailed many rumours
of plots and conipirscieg againft her kingdom and her
jife. BooJcs were pubhilied, which detailed her cruth
tses ruid injudicc to Miiy in the moll indignant Ian-
5 1 SCO
guage of rfprQ:ich, siud AvhicU recotT}tBend«'d htr fflaf* ^mh
lination a moft ineritorioua aft. The eavl of Arran
had explained to her the praflices of the queen of Scots
with her fon, and had difcovt-nd tiie inijio'UovS of the ^^3
Cathohc princes to gain htm to the*!'" v\ .\v?^. 'While
hcv leniibuitie^ anu teara were levereiy rx^i-.t^ i^ui^ng .,_„gijj.,
to her, circumlUnces happened which roniirmc^ them JiCcove
ia iheir lircvigth, and provoked her to j:;;vc the iifileii
fcope to the malignity of her paf ' - ■ 'licht'jn, a
Scottifli Jefuit, Y)^lTing into \m own va? taken
by Netherland pirates ; and fome p;ipc;>. \* itich he had
torn in plecf s und thfov/n into the fea being recovered,
were tranfmitted to Engh - ' William Wade put
them together with dexu . \ they demonftrated
beyond a doubt, th^t the invi>!K)u of England war, ct)n-
certcd by the Pope, the ki'i,:?: ol Spain, -a'-'A the >iu>;(- rS ^
Guife. About this time, too, a remarksbk: i 'l^r^.-'ir.
intercepted from Mary to Sir Francis Englefii-' , ...
complained ia it that fhe could have no rthance upon 1'','^'^!.^
the Integrity of Elizabeth, and that flie expected nubvKuz
happy iffue to any treaty which might be opc-ie<l forl cth,
her veftoration and liberty. She urged the advance'
mcpt of thf great plot (he intiniatcii, that the
prince her fon was favourable to the deiignment,'*
and difjiofed to be directed by her jidvice ; (he intreat*
ed, that every delicacy with regard to her own (late
and condition fhould be laid afide withor.t fcmple }
and (he affiired him, that me would moil willingly fuf.
fer perils and dangers, and even death itfclf, to give re.
lief to the uppreiTed children of the church. Thefe
difcoveriea, fo exafperating to the inquietudes pnd di>
ItrclfeH of EHxabtth, were followed by a deep and ge*
neral conllernaiioru The terror of an invafion fpread
itfelf with rapidity over England ; and the Pr'neitants,
while they trembled for tlie life of their champion, wery '
llill more alarmed with the dangcrt, win'eh threatened
their religion.
fij thia (late of perplexity and diftraftion, the couin
fellors of Elizabeth did not forget that they h?.d been
her inflruments in perfecuting the queen of Scots, and
of the feverities witlj which (he had treated the Hooiiui
CatholicH. They were fully fenfible, that her greub
ncfs and fafety were intimately connefted with their own;
and they concurred in indulging her fears, jealouhcs,
and refentment. It was reiolved that Mary fhould ^.^^ff^
pcriih. An afTociation was formed, to which perfons;, rpf(,i
tif every conthtion and degree were invited. The pro- on,
(efled bufmefs of this alTociatiott or fociety was the pre-
fervation of the life of Elizabeth, which it was affirmed
was in danger, from a confpiracv ta advance fome pre-
tended title to the crown ; and its members vowed and
protelled, by the majedy of God, to emjjloy the is*
whole power, their bodies, liven, and goods, 14 her i'er^
vice; to withftand, as well by force of arms as by other
methods of revenge, all perfons, of whatfoever nntion
or rank, who (hould attempt in any form to invade n'.id
injure her fafety or her life, and never to defift from
the. forcible parfuit of them till they (l)ould be com-
pletely exterminated. 'J hey alio vowed and protelled, i»j
the prefence of the ctcrual God, to prolecute to dellruc-
lion any pretended fucccfTor by whom, or (or v/hon.,
the deteilable deed of the alfafiination of Elizabetlt
fliould be attempted or committed. The earl of Lei»
cci'ter was in a pa; ticular manner the patron of this af-
fucialiou ; and the whole inliucncc lif Elisabeth and her
7 mlniikr*
SCO
mInJders was ?xcrted to multiply the fubfcriptions to a
' bond or lea'^ue which was to prepare the way, and to
be a foundaaon for accomplifhing the full dcllruftion
and ruin of the ScottlHi queen,
A combination fo refolute and fo fierce, which point-
ed 1»o the death of Mary, which threatened her titles
to the crown of England, and which might defeat the
fucceffioa of lier fen, could not fail to excite in her bo-
fom the bittereft anxieties and perturbation. Weary of
her fad and long captivity, broken down with calami-
ties, dreading afflictions ftill more cruel, and willing to
- take away from Elizabeth every pofllble pretence of
feverity, (he now framed a fcheme of accommodation,
to which no decent or reafonable objection could be
made. By Naw,. her fecretary, fhe prefented it to E-
lizabeth and her privy-council. She protefted in it,
that if her liberty fhould be granted to her, fhc would
enter into the clofeft amity with Elizabeth, and pay an
obfervance to her above eveiy other prince of Chriften-
dom ; that (he would forget all the injuries with which
fhe had been loaded, acknowledge Elizabeth to be the
rightful queen of England, abftain from any claim to
her crown during her life, renounce the title and arms
of England, which (he had ufurped by the command
of her hufband the king of France, and reprobate the
bull from Rome which had depofed the Englifh queen.
She likewife protefted, that flie would enter into the
aflbciation which had been formed for the fecurity of
tlizabeth ; and that fhe would conclude a defenfive
league with her, provided that it Ihould not be preju-
dicial to the ancient alliance between Scotland and
France ; and that nothing fliould be done during the
life of the Enghfli queen, or after her death, which
fliould invalidate her titles to the crown of England, or
thofe of her fon. As a confirmation of thefe articles,
fhe profefled that flie would confent to ftay in Eng-
land for fome time as an hoftage ; and that if fhc was
permitted to retire from the dominions of Elizabeth,
fhe would furrender proper and acceptable perfons as
fureties. She alfo protefted, that fhe would make no
alterations in Scotland ; and that, upon the repeal of
what had been enadled there to her difgrace, fhe would
bury in oblivion all the injuries fhe had received from
her fubjefts : that fhe woidd recommend to the king
her fon thofe counfellors who were moft attached to
England, and that fhe would employ herfelf to recon-
cile him to the fugitive nobles : that fhe would take no
fi;eps about his marriage without acquaint'ng the queen
of England ; and that, to give the greater firmnefs to
the propofed accommodation, it was her defire that
he fhould be called as a party to it : and, in fine, fhe af-
firmed, that file would procure the king of France and
the princes of Lorraine to be guarantees for the per-
formance of her engagements. Elizabeth, who was
flcilful in hypocrify, difcovered the moft decifive fymp-
VoL. XVII. Part I.
r 89 ]
SCO
toms of fatjsfadion and joy when thefe overtftres were Scottand.
communicated to her. She made no advances, how- » ' t
ever, to conclude an accommodation with Mary ; and
her minlfters and courtiers exclaimed againft lenient
and pacific nieafurcs. It was loudly infifted, that the
liberty of Mary would be the death of Elizabeth ; that
her affociation with her fon would be the ruin both of
England and Scotland ; and that her elevation to power
would extend the empire of Popery, and give a deadly
blow to the doftrlnes of the reformation.
In the mean time, an aft of attainder had pafled
agalnft the fugitive nobles, and their eftates and ho*
nours were forfeited to the king; who, not fatisfied
with this, fent Patrick matter of Gray to demand a
fui-render of their perfons from the queen oF Enohnd.
As this ambaffador had refided fome time in France,
and been intimate with the duke of Guife, he was re-
commended to Mary : but being a man of no prin-
ciples, he eafily fuftered himfelf to be corrupted by E-
llzabeth ; and while he pretended friendfhip to the un-
fortunate queen, he difcovered all that he knew of the ^oS
intentions of her and her fon. The moft fcandalous Falfe re-
falfehoods were forged agalnft Mary ; and the lefs fhe poi ts raifecS
was apparently able to execute, the more fhe was faid a's'^nifl: the
to delign, _ That an unhappy woman, confined and
guarded with the utmoft vigilance, who had not for
many years fufiiclent intereft to procure- a decent treat-
ment for herfelf, fliould be able to carry on fuch clofe
and powerful negociations with different princes as
v/erc imputed to her, is an abfurdity which It muft for
ever be impofTible to reconcile. That fhe had an amour
with her keeper the earl of Shrewfbury, as was now-
reported, might be ; though of this there is no proof.
This, however, could fcarce be treafon agalnft Eliza-
beth (x) : yet, on account of this, Mary was commit-
ted to the charge of Sir Amias Paulet and Sir Drue
Drury, zealous puritans, and who, it was hoped, would
treat her with fuch feverity as might drive her to de-
fpair, and induce her to commit fome rafh aftion. — g
The earl of Teicefter, faid to be Ellzabetli's paramour, Affalfinf
even ventured to fend afTalTins, on purpofe, by the mur- f^nt to
der of Mary, at once to deliver his ralftrefs from her "^"""^ec
fears. But the new keepers of the caftle, though re-
ligious bigots, were men of ftrlcl probity, and rejefted
with fcorn fuch an infamous tranfaftion. In 1585,
Mary began to feel all the rigours of a fevere imprlfon-
ment. She had been removed from Sheffield to the
caftle of Tutbury ; and under her new keepers fhe ex-
perienced a treatment which was in the higheft degree g
unjuft, difrefpeftful, and acrimonious. Two apart- she Js°con.;
ments of chambers only were allotted to her, and they fined, and"
were fmall.and inconvenient, meanly furnifhed, and fo
full of apertures and chinks, that they could not pro-
teft her agalnft the inclemencies of the weather. The
liberty of going abroad for pleafnre or exercife was de-
M nied
treated.
(x) Amidfl: the infamous calumnies which this princefs was folicitous to fix upon the queen of Scots, it mufl
excite the higheft indignation to confider her own contempt of chaftlty, and the unprincipled licentioufnefs of her
private life. See Haynes's Colka. of State Papers, p. 99, &c Even when palfied with age, fhe wag yet
burning with unquenchable defires ; and vain of her haggard and cadaverous form, fought to allure to her many
bvers. See Mardin, p.^ 558, 560, 657, 718, 719. and the difcoveries of a writer, whofe pen, elegant, poignant,
rnquifitlve, and polite, improves and embeUiflies every topic that it canvafTes ; Walpole, Catalogue of royal and
soble Authors, vol. i. p. 126, {^Stuart, vol, ii. p. 282, note.]
SCO
[ 90 1
SCO
Scotlard
811
iLIizabeth
lows dif-
fenlion be-
tween Ma-
ry and her
fon.
nied to her- She was affailed by rheumatlfms and other
maladies; and her phylician would not undertake to
effeft a cure, or even to procure her any eafe, unlefs
fhe (hould be renaoved to a more commodious dweUing.
Applications for this purpofe were frequently made,
and uniformly rejefted. Here, however, her own uf-
llitlions did not extinguilh in her mind her fenfibility
for the misfortunes of others ; and fhe often indulged
berfelf in the fatisfattion of employing a fervant to go
through the village of Tutbury in iearch of objedls of
diftreis, to whom fhe might deal out her charity. But
her inhuman keepers, envying her this pleafure, com-
manded her to abftain from it. Imputing their rigour
to a fufpicious fidelity, fhe defired that her fervant
might, on thefe occafions, be accompanied by one of
the foldiers of their guard, or by the con liable of the
village. But they would not alter their prohibition.
They refufcd to her the exercife of the Chrlftian duty
of difpenfing an alms ; and they would not allow her
the fott confolation of moiftening her eye with for-
rows not her own. To infult her the more, the caflle
of Tutbury was converted into a common jail. A
young man, whofe crime was the profefiion of the Ro-
mifh religion, was committed to a chamber which was
oppofite to her window, in order that he might be per-
fecuted in her fight with a peflilent cruelty. Notwith-
ftanding his cries and refiflance, he was dragged every
morning to hear prayers, and to join in the Proteftant
worfliip ; and after enduring feveral weeks this extraor-
dinary violence to his confcience, he was unmercifully
ilrangled vs'ithont any form of law or juftice. Mary
remonllrated with warmth to Elizabeth againft indig-
nities fo fhocking and fo horrible ; but inftead of ob-
taining confolation or relief, fhe was involved more
deeply in wo, and expofed to ftill harder Inventions of
malice and of anger.
In the midft of her misfortunes, Mary had flill fola-
ced herfelf with hope ; and from the exertions of her
fon fhe naturally expefted a fuperlative advantage. He
had hitherto behaved with a becoming cordiality ; and
in the negociatlon which fhe had opened vwth him for
her afTociation in the government, he had been fludi-
ous to pleafe and flatter her. He had informed her
by a particular difpatch, that he found the greatefl
comfort in her maternal tendernefs, and that he would
accomplifh her commands with humility and expedi-
tion ; that he would not fail to ratify her union and
aflbciation with him in the government ; that it would
be his mofl earneft endeavour to reconcile their com-
mon fubjefts to that meafure ; and that fhe might ex-
peft from him, during his life, every fatisfafhion and
duty which a good mother could promife to herfelf
from an aifeflionate and obedient fon. But thefe fair
bloffoms of kindnefs and love were all blafled by the
treacherous arts of Elizabeth. By the matter of Gray,
who had obtained an afcendant over James, fhe turned
from Mary his affeftions. He delayed to ratify her
afTociation in the government ; and he even appeared
to be unwilling to prefs Elizabeth on the fubjeft of
lier liberty. The mafter of Gray had convinced him,
<hat if any favour was fhown to Mary by the queen of
England, it would terminate in his himiiliation. He
ufTured him, that if his r. other were again to mount
the Scottifh throne, her zeal for Popery would induce
ijer to feck a hufband in the heufe of Auilria j that
Scofia
81a
fhe would diiTolve his afTociation with her in the go-
vernment, on the pretence of his attachment to the re-
folrmed doArines ; and that he would not only lofe the
glory of his prefent pov/er, but endanger his profpeAs
of fucceflion. Mary expoftulated with him by letter
upon the timidity and coldnefs of his behaviour ; and
he returned her an anfwer full of difrefpidt, in which
he intimated his rcfolution to confider her in no other
charader than as queen-mother. Her amazement, in-
dignation, and grief, were infinite. She wrote to Ca-
flelnau the French ambaffadijr to inform him of her
inquietudes and anguifh. " My fon (fald fhe) is un-
grateful ; and I defire that the king your mafter fliall
confider him no longer as a fovereign. In your future
difpatches, abflain from giving him the title of king,
I am his queen and his fovereign ; and while I live,
and continue at variance with him, he can at the beil
be but an ufurper. From him I derive no luflre ; and
without me he could only have been lord Darnley or
the earl of Lenox ; for I raifed his father from being
my fubjedl to be my hufband. I aflc from him nothing
that is his ; what I claim is my own ; and if he perfifls
in his courfe of ifnpiety and ingratitude, I will beftow
upon him my maledlftion, and deprive him not only
of all right to Scotland, but of all the dignity and
grandeur to which he may fuccsed through me. My
enemies fhall not enjoy the advantages they expeft from
him. For to the king of Spain t will convey, in the
ampleft form, my claims, titles, and greatnefs."
Elizabeth having thus found means to fow difTen-
fion between the queen of Scots and her fon, did not
fail to make the beft ufe fhe could of the quarrel for
her own advantage. The Pope, the duke of Guife, Allianc
and the king of Spain, had concluded an alliance, call-^^e Po;
ed the /jo/y league, for the extirpation of the Proteilant ^°^^^\
religion all over Europe. EHzabeth was thrown intOzabeth-
the greateft confternation on this account ; and the
idea of a counter aflbciation among the Proteftant
princes of Europe immediately fuggefted itfelf. Sir
Edward Wotton was deputed to Scotland ; and fo com-
pletely gained upon the imbecihty of James, that he
concluded a firm alliance with Elizabeth, without ma- S13
king any ftipulatlon in favour of his mother. Nay, fo Mean i
far was he the dupe of this ambafTador and his mifirefs,|^J|^'^^|^
that he allowed himfelf to be perfuaded to take into J j^""
his favour Mr Archibald Douglas, one of the murder-
ers of Lord Darnley ; aad, as if all this had not been
fufficient, he appointed this afTaffin to be his ambafTador
for England.
Mary, thus abandoned by all the world, in the hands
of her moft inveterate and cruel enemy, fell a viftim to
her refentment and treachery in the year 1587. A A
plot of afTafTinatlon had been formed in the fpring ofBabing
the year 1586 againft tlie Englifh queen ; partly with^°P^*^"^
a view to refcue the Scottifh princefs ; but chiefly from^^inft 1
a motive to ferve the interefts of the Roman Catholic zabeth,
rehgion. This confpiracy, which originated with Ro-
man Catholic priefts and perfons of little note, was
foon imparted to Mr Babington, a perfon of great for-
tune, of many accomphfhments, and who had before
that time difcovered himfelf to be a zealous friend of
queen Mary. That fhe had correfponded with Ba-
bington there is no doubt ; but it was fome years
previous to the formation of the pl»t. A long fi-
lence had taken place between them} and Morgan,
3 one
814
cccut
SCO
[ 9' ]
SCO
and. one of the Englifti fugitives in France, and awarm
friend of Mary's, in the month of May 1586, wrote a
letter to her, repeatedly and in the moll prefling man-
ner recommending a revival of that correfpondence.
In confequence of which, in her anf\^'er to Morgan,
dated the 27th day of July, fhe informed him, that (he
had made all apologies in her power to Babington, for
not having written to him for lo long a fpace ; that he
had generoufly offered himfelf and all his fortune in her
caufe ; and that, agreeably to Morgan's advice, fhe
would do her belt to retain him in her interefts ; but
fhe throws out no hint of her knowledge of the intend-
ed alfaflination. On the very fame day (he wrote like-
wife to Paget, another of her n-ofl confidential friends;
but not a word in it with rcfpedl to Babington 's fcheme
of cutting off the Englifti queen. To Morgan and to
Paget Ihe certainly would have commimicated her mind,
more, readily and more particularly than to Babington,
and have confultcd them about the plot, had (he been
acceffory to it. Indeed it feems to have been part of
the policy of Mary's friends to keep her a ilranger to
all clandeftine and hazardous undertakings in her fa-
vour. *ro be convinced of this, we have only to re-
coUeft, that Morgan, in a letter of, the fourth of July,
exprefslyj and in the ftrongeft. terms, recommended to
rJin, have no intelligence at iall with Ballard *, who was
one of the original contrivers of the plot, and who was
the very perfon who communicated it to Babington.
The queen, in confequence of this, ftiut the door agalnft
all correfpondence, if it ftlould be offered, with that
•534- P^'"'^'^" t' fame time, Morgan afligned no par-
ticular reafons for that advice ; fo cautious was he
about giving the queen any information upon the fub-
jeft : What he faid was generally and lludioufly ob-
fcure : " Ballard (faid he, only) is intent on fome mat-
ters of confequence, the iflue of which is uncertain."
He even went farther, and charged Ballard himfelf to
abftain in any wife fiom opening his views to the queen
of Scots.
The confpiracy which goes under the name of Ba-
Utigton was completely dete6led by the court in the
month of June : The names, proceedings, and reli-
dences, of thofe engaged in it were then known : The
blow might be foon ftruck : The life of Elizabeth was
in imminent hazard. The confpirators, however, were
not apprehended ; they were permitted to enjoy com-
plete liberty ; treated as if there were not the lead fuf-
picion againft them ; and in this free and quiet ftate,
were they fuffered to continue till the beginning of Au-
guft, for a period it fhould feem of near two months.
What could be the reafons for fuch a conduft I From
what caufes did the council of England fufpend the
juft vengeance of the laws, and leave theit- queen's life Scotlint!.
Hill in jeopardy ? Was it on purpofe to procure more -'•*'*v**~"
confpirators, and involve others in the crime ?
Mary queen of Scots continued flill detached from
Babington and his affociates. Their deftruftion was a
fmail matter compared with her's. Could flue be de- j
coyed into the plot, things would put on a very new
face : Babington's confpiracy, which in reality occi-
fioned little dread, as it was early found out, and well
guarded againft, would prove one of the moft grateful
incidents in queen Elizabeth's reign. Elizabeth's mi-
nifters, too, knew how much they had rendered them-
felves juftly obnoxious to the Scottifli princefs : Should
ftie come to mount the throne of England, their down-
fall v^as inevitable ; from which, it (hould feem, is to be
explained, why they were even more zealous than their
miftrefs to accomplilh her ruin. gj^r
Of thefe, Sir Francis Walfingham fecretary of ftate A^t »nd
appeals to have taken upon himfelf the chief manage- •''^eachery
ment in concerting a plan of operations againft ^^^j^^t^'and
queen of Scots ; and as a model, he feems to have had j^^^ nvuu-=
in his eye that which was purfued upon a former occa- fters.
fion by the earl of Murray. His fpies having early
got into the confidence of the lower fort of the confpi-
rators, he BOW employed the very agency of the latter
for his purpofes. Learning that a packet from France
was intended to be conveyed by them to queen Mary,
and by the hands of one Gilbert Gifford a prieft, whom
he had fecretly gained over from their affociation, he
wrote a letter to Sir Amias Paulet, who had now the
cuftody of the Scottilh queen, requefting that one of
his domeftics might be permitted to take a bribe for
conveying that packet to the captive princefs. This
was on purpofe to communicate to her a letter forged
in the name of Babington, in which that confpirator
was made to impart to the Scottifh queen his Icheme
of affaffination, and to claim rewards to the perpetra-
tors of the deed. Paulet, however, to his honour, re-
fufed to comply with the requeft of Walfingham ;
upon which Gifford corrupted a brewer in the neigh-
bourhood, who put his letters to Mary in a hole in the
caftle-wall. By the fame conveyance it was thought
that Mary would anfwer the letters ; but it appears that
fhe never faw them, and that of courfe no return was
made (y). It was then contrived that anfwers, in the •
name of the queen of Scots to Gifford, fliould be found
in the hole of the wall. Walfingham, to whom thefe
letters were carried, proceeded formally to decipher
them by the help of one Thomas Philips, a perfon
ftcilled in thefe matters ; and after exa£t copies were
taken of them, it is faid that they were all artfully
iealed and fent off to the perfons to whom they were
M 2 dire&ed.
(y) Dr Robertfon of Dalmeny, who, in his Hiftory of Mary queen of Scots, has thrown much light upon
thofe dark tranfaftions of Elizabeth's nefarious miniftcrs, thinks it not improbable that an anfwer to Babing-
ton's letter was written by the Scottifh queen's fecretaries. Although they could not communicate that letter
to herfelf, on account of her known abhorrence of afTaflGnation, they perhaps wrote a difpatch in her name, ao-
proving ©f it ; tempted by the profped of efcaping from imprifar.ment, and of their miftrefs being feated on the
throne of England. This difpatch being conveyed through the fame chink of the wall, was carried by Gifford
to Walfingham ; opened ; deciphered, and copied by him ; and then fent to Babington. Camden informs us,
that Walfingham artfully forged a poftfcript in the fame cipher to this difpatch ; in which queen Mary was
made to requell of Babington to inform her particular!)^ of the names of his accompllcts, and of others whc
were friends to the caufe.
Scotland.
8i(J
Mary is
charged
with the
corifpiia-
St 7
B ..iibera-
liors on the
methnd of
) roceetling
agaiiift her.
SCO [9
direfted. It appeals, however, that only the letters dl-
refted to Babington were fent to hira ; and the anfwers
which he made to the queen's iuppofed letters were
carried direftly to Walfingham. A foundation for
criminating Mary being thus laid, the confpirators were
quickly difcovered, as being already known, and iuffer-
ed the death of traitors, 'i^he unhappy princefs, eager-
ly watched by Paulet, and unacquainted with the late
occurrences, received a vifit from Sir Thomas Gorges.
This envoy, as inftrufled by Elizabeth, furprifed her
when fhe had mounted her horfe to take the pleafure
of the chace. His falutation was abrupt and uncere-
monious ; and after informing her of the difcovery and
circumftances of the confpiracy of Babington, he rude-
ly charged her with a concern in it. Her aftonifliraent
•was great, and (he defired to return to her chamber :
but this favour was refufed to her ; and after being car-
ried from one houfe to another, in an anxious and per-
plexing uncertainty, flie was committed to Fotheringay
caiUe in Northamptonfliire. Naw and Curl, her two
fecretaries, the former a Frenchman, the latter a native
of Scotland, were taken into cuftody. Paulet break-
ing open the doors of her private elofet, pofTtfled him-
felf of her money, which amounted not to more than
7000 crowns. Her cabinets were carefully fealed up ;
and being fent to London, were examined In the pre-
fcnce of EHzabcth. They contained many difpatches
from perfons beyond the fea, copies of letters which
had been diftated by her, and about 60 tables of ci-
pheis and charafters. There were alfo difcovered in
them many dIfpatcheS to her from Englifh noblemen,
which were full of admiration and refpeft. Thefe E-
llzabeth concealed ; but their authors fufpeftlng that
they wei-e known, fought to purchafe her forglvencfs
by the moll abjeft proteftatlons of an attachment to
her perfon, and by the exerclfe of the moft inveterate
enmity to the queen of Scots. Naw and Curl decla-
red, that the copies of her letters were In their hand-
writing. They had been diftated by her in the French
language to Naw, tranflated into Englifli by Curl, and
then put Into cipher. They contained not, however,
any matters with which fhe could be reproached or cri-
iTiinated. It was upon the foundation of tlie letters
which Gifford had com.municated to Walfingham that
her guilt was to be Inferred ; and with copies of thefe,
and with an attefted account of the confpiracy of Ba-
bington and his aflbciates, Sir Edward Wotton was
now dlfpatched Into France to accufe her to Henry III.
and to txplain to him the dangers to which Elizabeth
was expofed from the machinations and pradlices of the
EngHih exiles.
The privy counfellors of Elizabeth deliberated upon
the moft proper method of proceeding againft Mary.
To fome it appeared, that as fhe was only acceflbry to
the plot, and not the defigner of It, the moft eligible
feverity to be exerclfcd agaiaft her was a clofer and more
rigorous confinement and they endeavoured to fortify
this opinion, by obferving, that fhe was fickly, and
could not live long. By others who were haunted by
the terrors of Popery, it was urged, that flie ought to
be put Inftantly to death by the foriTialities of the law..
The earl of Leicefter recommended it as moft prudeat
to difpatch her fecretly by polfon. But this cx)unfel
■was rejected as mean, difgraceful, and violent, 'i he
lawyers \v?re of opinion, tbat fhe might be tried upon
2 ] SCO
the ftatute of Edward HI. ; by which it vras enafted Scotlt
to be treafon to imagine the deftruftion of the fove- -""y*
reign, to make war agalnft his kingdom, or to adhere
to his enemies. Ehzabeth, however, and her miniftcra
had provided a more plaufible foundation for her trial.
This was a parhamentary ftatute appioving the aft of
alfociatlon. As It had been pafled while Mary was in
England, It was argued, that fhe was bound by it in a
local allegiance to Elizabeth. The next point of de-
bate was the defignation under which it was moft ad-
vifable to arraign her. To employ a foreign name and
title as direftly defcrlptlve of her, was not judged to be
confiftent with the law of England. It was therefore
refolved to defign her " Mary, daughter and heir of
James V. king ®f Scotland, and commonly called queen
of Scots, and dowager of France." StS
This refolution being once taken, Elizabeth next ap-Cumm
pointed above 40 peers or privy counfellors, and five^'""^'''
judges, btftowing upon them in a body, or upon the['"y"j^g
greater part of them, abfolute power and authority to
inquire into the matters compafl.ed and Imagined agalnft
her by the Scottlfli princefs, and to pafs fentence ac-
cording to the fpirit and tenor of the aft which had
been pafied. Of thefe commlffioners a great majority
proceeded to the caftle of Fotheringay 5 and the day
after their arrival, they deputed to Mary, Sir Walter
Mildmay, Sir Amias Paulet, and Edward Barker a
public notary, to deliver to her a letter from Elizabeth.
In this letter the Engllfh queen gratified her unhappy
pallions, and after reproaching Mary with her crimes,
informed her that commifiioners were appointed to tak©
cognizance of them. The Scottifh princefs, though
aftonifhed with the projeft of being brought to a pub-
lic tnal, was able to prclerve her dignity, and addrefled ^
thtm with a compofed manner and air. " It is a mat-g|.^^.
ter (faid (he) altogether uncommon and ftrange, thatro-Jieij
Elizabeth fiiould command me to fubmic to a trial, asnfu.cli
if I were her fubjeft. I am an independent lovereign;
and will not tarnlfh by any meannefs my high birth, the
princes my predeceffors, and my fon. Misfortunes and
mifery have not yet fo Involved me In dejeftion, as that
I am to faint and fink under this new calamity and infult.
I defire that you will remember what I formeily pro-
tefted to Bromley, who Is now lord-chancellor, and to
the lord La War. 1 o fpeak to me of commiffionerS)
is a vain mockeiy of my rank. Kings alone can be my
peers. The laws of England are UHknown to me ; and
I have no counfellors to whofe wifdom I can apply for
inflruftion. My papers and commentaries have been
taken from me ; and no perfon can have the perilous
courage to appear as my advocate. I have Indeed re-
commended myfelf and mv condition to foreign prince?^
but T am clear of the guilt of having conlpired the de-
ftruftion of Ehzabeth, or of having incited any perfon
whatfoever to deftroy her. It Is only by my own words,
and writings that an Imputation of this kind can be
fupported ; and I.am confcious beyond the poffibility
of a doubt, that, thefe evidences cannot be- employed
againft me." The day after fhe had in this manner re.
fufed to allow the jurlfdiftlon of the commlffioners,
Paulet and Barker returned to her, and informed her
that they had put her fpeech into writing, and defired
to know if file would abide by it. She heard It read
diftinftly, acknowledged it to be rightly taken, and
avowed her rcadinefs to perfift in the feutiments fhe had
delivered.
ni.
o
6CCU-
l Is
rred
la he:
SCO [
delivered. But flie added, there was a circumflance to
which (he had omitted to fpeak. " Your queen (laid
Ihe) afFeds in her letter to obferve, that I am fubjeft
to the laws of England, becaufe I have lived under their
proteftion. This fentiment and mode of thinking- are
very furprifmg to me. I came into England to crave
her affillance and aid ; and, ever fmce, I have been con-
fined to a prifon. The miferies of captivity cannot be
called a proteftion, and the treatment I have fufFered is
a violation of all law,"
This afflided but undaunted princefs, after having
thus fcorned the competency and repelled the pretexts
of the commlffioners, was induced at lad, by arguments
under the infidious mafk of candour and friendlhip, to
depart from the proper and dignified ground which
fhe had taken, and confent to that mode of the trial
which had been propofed. It was reprefented to her
by Hatton the vice-chamberlairj, that by rejefting a
trial, (he injured her own reputation and interefts, and
deprived herfelf of the only opportunity of fetting her
innocence in a clear light to the preient and to fu-
ture times. Impofed upon by this artifice, fhe con-
fented to make her appearance before the judges ; at
the fame time, however, fhe ftill protefted agalnft the
juvifdiftion of the court, and the vahdity of all their
proceedings.
After various formalities, the lord-chancellor opened
the cafe ; and was followed by Serjeant Gawdry, who
. proceeded to explain the above ftatute, and endeavour-
ed to demonfti ate that fhe had offended againft it. He
then entered into a detail of Babington's confpiracy ;
and concluded with fffirming, " That Mary knew it,
had approved it, had promifed her affiftance, and had
pointed out the means to effedl it." Proofs ot this
charge were exhibited againft her, and dilplayed with
great art. The letters were read which Sir Francis
Walfingham had forged, in concert with Gifford, &c.
and her fecretaries Naw and Cml. The three fpies had
afforded all the neceffary intelligence about the confpi-
racy, upon which to frame a correfpondence between
Mary and Babington, and upon which difpatches might
be fabricated in her name to her foreign friends ; and the
ciphers were furnifhed by her two fecretaries. But be-
fide thefe pretended letters, another fpecies of evidence
was held out againft. her. Babington, proud of the dif-
patch fent to him in her name by Walfingham and Gif-
ford, returned an anfwer to it ; and a reply from her
by the fame agency was tranfmitted to him. Deluded,
and in toils, he communicated thefe marks of her atten-
tion to Savage and Ballard, the mofl confidential of his
affociates. jHis confeffion and thtirs became thus of im-
portance. Nor were her letters and the confeffions of
thefe confpirators deemed fufficient vouchers of her
guilt. Her two fecretaries, therefore, wl!.o had lately
torfaken her, were engaged to fubfcribe a declaration,
that the difpatches in her: name were written by them
at her command, and according to her iuilruftlons.
Thefe branches of evidence, put together with (kill, and
heightened with all the impofing colours of eloquence,
were preffed upon Mary. Though fhe had been long
accuftomed to the perfidious inhumanity of her enemies,
her amazement was infinite. She loft not, however, her
courage ; and her defence was alike exprefiive of her
penetration and magnanimity. .
93 1 SCO
" The accufatlon preferred to my prejudice Is a moll Scotland,
deteftable calumny. I was not engaged with Babing-
ton in his confpiracy ; and I am altogether. innocent of y[^^y>g
having plotted the death of Elizabeth. The copies of fence.
Babington's letters which have been produced, may in- ^^^^^^
deed be taken from originals which are genuine ; btit
it is impoffible to prove that I ever received them. Nor
did he receive from me the difpatches addreffed to him
in my name. His confeffion, and thofe of his affociates,
which have been urged to eftablifh the authority of my
letters to him, are impel feft and vain. If thefe confpi-
rators could have teftiiied any circumftances to my hurt,
they would not fo foon have been deprivedof their lives.
Tortures, or the fear of the rack, extorted improper
confeffions from them ; and then they were executed.
I'heir mouths were opened to utter falfe criminations;
and were immediately fhut for ever, that the truth might
be buried in their graves. It was no difficult matter
to obtain ciphers which I had employed ; and my ad-
verfaries are known to be fuperior to fcruples. I am
informed, that Sir Francis Walfingham has been earneit
to recommend himfelf to his fovereign by praftices both,
againft my life and that of my fon ; and the fabricatioa
oi papers, by which to effeftuate my ruin, is a bufinefs
not unworthy of his ambition. An evidence, the molt
clear and inconteftable, is neceffary to overthrow my
integrity ; but proofs, the moft feeble and fufpicious,
are held out againft me. Let one letter be exhibited,
written in my hand, or that bears my fuperfcription, and
I will inilantly acknowledge that the charge againft me
is fufiiciently fupported. The declaration of my fecre-
taries is the effect of rewards or of terror. They are
ftrangers ; and to overcome their virtue- was an ealy at-
chievement to a queen whofe power is abfolute, whofe
riches are immenfe, and whofe minitters are profound and
daring in intrigues and treachery. I have often had oe-
cafion to fufpeft the integrity of Naw j axid Curl, whofe
capacity is more limited,, was always mofl obfequious '
to him. They may have written many letters in my
name without my knowledge, or participation.; and it
is not fit that I fhould bear the blame of their inconfi-
derate boldnefs. They may have put many things into -
dilpatches which are prejudicial to Elizabeth ; and they
may even have fubfcribed their declaration to my pre-
judice,, under the prepoffeffion that the guilt which-
would utterly overwhelm them might be pardoned in '
me. I have never diftated any letter to them which
can be made to corrcfpond with their teftimony. And
what, let me af]<, would become of the grandeur, the
virtue, and the fafety of princes, if they depended upon
the writings and declarations of fecretaries ? Nor let it
be forgotten, that by afting in hoftihty to the duty aad
allegiance which they folemnly iwore to obferve to me^
they have utterly incapacitated themfelves from ob-
taining any credit. The violation of their oath of fi-
delity is an open perjury ; and of fuch men the protef-
tations are nothing. But, if they are yet in life, let
them be brought before me. T he matters they declare
are fo important as to require that they fhould be ex-
amined in my prefence. It argues not the fairnefs of
the proceedings; againft me, that this formality is ne-
gledted. I am alfo without the affiftance of an advocate^ .
and, that I might be defencelefs and weak in the great-
eft degree, I L^ve been robbed of ray papers and coni/.-
mentariea*.
SCO
[ 94 3
SCO
Scnfland. mentan'es. As to the copies of the difpatclies which
/— — ^^jj have been written by my direftion to Men-
doza, thc-4ord Paget, Chailes Paget, the archbifhop of
Glafgow, and Sir Francis Inglefield, they are moft un-
profitable forgeries. For they tend only to fhow that
I was employed in encouraging my friends to invade
England. Now, if I fliould allow that thefe difpatches
were genuine, it could not be inferred from them that
I had confpired the death of Elizabeth. I will even
confefs, that I liave yielded to the ftrong impulfes of
nature ; and chat, like a human creature, encompaffed
with dangeis and infulted with wrongs, I have exerted
myftif to recover my greatnefs and my liberty. The
efforts I have made can excite no blufhes in me ; for
the voice of mankind muft applaud them. Religion, in
- her fterneft moments of feverity, cannot look to them
with reproach ; and to confider them as crimes, is to
defpife the fanftimonious reverence of humanity, and to
give way to the fufpicious wretchednefs of dcfpotifm.
1 have fought by every art of conceffion and friendfhip
to engage my filter to put a period to m.y fufferings.
Invited by her fmiles, I ventured into her kingdom, in
the pride and gaiety of my youth ; and, under her an-
ger and the miferies of captivity, I have grown into
age. During a calamitous confinement of 20 years,
my youth, my health, my happinefs, are for ever gone.
To her tendcrnefs and generofity I have been indebted
as little as to her juttice : and, opprefTed and agonizing
with unmerited afflidions and hardfhips, I fcrupled not
to befeech the princes my allies to employ their armies
'to relieve me. Nor will 1 deny, that 1; ha\^ endeavour-
ed to promote the advantage and intereft of the perfe-
cuted Catholics of England. My intreaties in their be-
half have been even offiered with earnefl^neis to queen
EHzabeth herfelf. But the attainment of my kingdom,
the recovery of my liberty, and the advancement of
that religion which I love, could not induce me to ftain
inyfelf with the crimes that are objefted tome. I would
difdain to purchafe a crown by the affairmation of the
meaneftof the human race. To accufe me of fcheming
the death of the queen my filler, is to brand me with
the infamy which I abhor molt. It is my nature to em-
ploy the devotions of Either, and not the fword of Ju-
dith. Elizabeth heifelf will atteft, that I have often
admonifhed her not to draw upon her head the refent-
mcnt of my friends by the enormity of her cruelties
to me. My innocence cannot fincerely be doubted ;
and it is known to the Almighty God, that I could
not pofiibly think to forego his mercy, and to ruin my
foul, in order to compafs a tranfgreffion fo horrible as
that of her murder. But amidll the inclement and un-
principled pretences which my adverfaries are pleafed to
invent to overwhelm me with calamities and anguifh, I
can trace and difcover with eafe the real caufes ot their
hoftility and provocation. My crimes are, my birth,
the injuries I have been compelled to endure, and iny
religion. I am proud of the fijrft ; I can forgive the
fccond ; and the third is a fonrce to me of fuch comfort
and kope, that for its glory I will be conlenttci that my
blood {hall flow upon the fcaffold."
To the defence of Mary, no returns were made be-
fiJe flout and unfupported affirmations of the truth of
the evidence produced to her prejudice. In the courfe
of the trial, however, there occurred fome incidents
which deferve to be related. My .lord Burleigh, who
was willing to difcompofe her, charged her with a fixed Sco*
refolution of conveying her claims and titles to England — —
to the king of Spain. But though, in a dilcontented
humour with her fon, flie had threatened to difinherit
him, and had even correfponded on the fubjedl with her
fele6l friends, it appears that this projedl is to be eon-
fldered as only a tranfient cffetl of refentment and paf-
fion. She indeed acknowledged, that the Spaniard pro-
fefled to have pretenfions to the kingdom of England,
and that a bock in juflification of theni had been com-
municated to her. She declared, however, that fhe had
incurred the difpleafure of many by difapproving of this
book ; aiid that no conveyance of her titles to the Spa-
niard had been ever executed.
I'he trial continued during the fpace of two days ;
but ihe commiflloners avoided to deliver their opinions.
My lord Burleigh, in whofe management Elizabeth
chiefly confided, and whom the Scottifh queen difcom-
pofcd in no common degree by her ability and vigour,
being eager to conclude the bufmefs, demanded to
know if fhe had any thing to add to what fhe had g,
urged in her defence. She informed him, that fhe She t
would be infinitely pleafed and gratiSed, if it fhould befol'e
permitted to her to be heard in her juflification before '"^^j.*^
a full meeting of the parliament, or before the queen
and her privy-council. This intimation was unexpec- th; q
ted ; and the requeft implied in it was reje6led. 'J"he
court, in confequence of previous kiflruftions from Eli-
zabeth, adjourned to a farther day, and appointed that
the place of its convention fhould be the flar-chamber at
Weflminfler. It accordingly affembled there ; and Navv
and Curl, who had not been pvoduced at Fotheringay-
caftle, were now called before the commiffioners. An
oath to declare the truth was put to them ; and they
definitely affirmed and protefted that the declaration
they had fubfcribed was in every refpctl jufl and faith-
ful. Nothing farther remained but to pronounce fen- g,
tence againfl Mary. The commiffioners unanimoufly jmi^
concurred in dehvering it as their verdift or judgment, i^i 'en
that file " was a party to the confpiracy of Babington ;
and that fhe had compaffed and imagined matters with-
in the realm of England tending to the hurt, death, and
deflrudtion, of the royal perfon of Elizabeth, in oppofi-
tion to the flatute framed for her proteAion." Upon
the fame day in which this extraordinary fentence was
given, the commiffioners and the judges of England if-
fued a declaration, which imported, that it was not to
derogate in any degree from the titles and honour of
the king of Scots.
The fentenct againfl Mary was very foon afterwards Tht .
ratified by the Englifh parliament. King James was'^oc^
flruck v/ith horror at hearing of the execution of his^^'" •
mother; but that fpiritlefs prince could fhow his re-^''?'
fentment no farther than by unavaihng enibaffies and re-
monflrances. Fiaiice iat>;rpoftd in the fame ineffeftual
manner ; and on the 6th of December 1586, Elizabeth
caufed the fentence of the conmiiffioners againfl her to
be proclaimed. After this the was made acquainted
with her fate, and received the news with the greatell
compofure, and even apparent fatisfaftion. Her keep-
ers now refufed to treat her with any reverence or rd-
fpedl. They entered her apartment with their heads
covered, and made no obeifance to her. They took
down her canopy of flate, and deprived her of all the
badges of royalty. By thefe iniulting mortifications
they
SCO
r
they meant to inform her, that fhe had funk from the
dignity of a princefs to the abjeft ftate of a criminal.
She fmiled, and faid, " In defplte of your fovereign
and her fubfervient judges, T will live and die a queen.
My royal charafter is indelible ; and I will furrender it
with my fpirit to the Almighty God, from whom I
received it, and to whom my honour and my innocence
are fully known." In this melancholy fituation Mary
addreffed a magnanimous letter to Elizabeth, in which,
without makin-T the leaft folicitation for her lite, fhe
only requeued that her body might be carried to France ;
that fhe might be publicly executed ; that her fervants
might be permitted to depart out of England unmo-
lefted, and enjoy the legacies which fhe bequeathed them.
But to this letter no anfwer was given.
In the mean time James, who had neither addrefs
nor couraire to attempt any thing in behalf of his mo-
ther, announced her lituation to his bigotted fubjetits,
and ordered prayers to be faid for her in all the church-
es. The form of the petition he prefcrlbed was framed
with delicacy and caution, that the clergy might have
no objeftlon to it. He enjoined them to pray, " that
it might pleafe God to enlighten Mary with the light
of his truth, and to proteA her from the danger which
was hanging over her." His own chaplains, and Mr
David Lindfay miniftcr of Leith, obferved his command.
But all the other clergy refufed to proftitute their pul-
pits by preferring any petitions to the Almighty for a
Papift. James, flTocked with their fpirit of intolerance
and fedition, appointed a new day for prayers to be faid
f©r Mary, and ilTued a ftrltter injunction to.the clergy
to obey him ; and that he might be free himfelf from
any Infult, he commanded the archblfhop of St Andrew's
to preach before him. The ecclefiaftics, difgufted with
his injunction, perfuaded Mr John Cowper, a proba-
tioner in divinity, to occupy the pulpit defigned for
the archbiihop. When the king entered the church, he
teftified his furprlfe, but told Cowper, that if he would
obey his injunction, he might proceed to officiate.
Cowper replied, " that he would do as the fpirit of
God would direCl him." The king commanded him
to retire, and the captain of his guard advanced to com-
pel him to obedience. The enraged probationer ex-
claimed, that this violence " would witnefs againft the
king in the great day of the Lord ;" and denounced a
curfe againft the fpeftators for not exerting' themfelves
in his defence. The archblfhop now afcending the pul-
pit, performed with propriety the funftion to which he
had been called, and took the opportunity to recom-
mend moderation and charity to the audience. In the
afternoon Cowper was cited before the privy-council ;
and was accompanied there by Mr Walter Balcanqual
and Mr William Watfon, two miaifters remarkable for
their zeal. As a punirtiment for his audacious petu-
lance, he was committed to the caftle of Blacknefs ;
and his attendants having diftinguiihed themfelves by
an impudent vindication of him, weie prohibited from
preaching during the pleafure of the king.
Elizabeth, in the meanwhile, felt the torment and
difquiet of unhappy and miferable paffions. At times*
fhe courted the fadnefs of folitude, and refufed to be
confoled or to fpeak. In other feafons her fighs were
frequent, and (he broke out into loud and wild excla-
mations expreffive of the ftate of her mind. Her fub-
jefts waited the determination of her wiU under a dif-
95 1 see
trading agitation and uncertainty. Her minifters, who Scotland.^
knew that it is the nature of fear to exclude pity, were ^^J^^^^ '
induftrious in inventing terrifylTig intelligence, and in
circulating it through the kingdom. There were ru-
mours that the Spanifh fleet had arrived at Milford-ha-
ven ; that a formidable army of Scottifh combatants
was advancing to the capital : that the duke of Guife
had difembarked many troops of veteran foldiers in Suf-
fex ; that Mary had efcaped out of prifon, and was col-
lecting the Englifli Catholics ; that the northern coun-
ties had thrown afide their allegiance ; and that there
was a new plot to kill Elizabeth, and to reduce Lon-
don to afhes. An aClual confpiracy was even mallciouf-
ly charged upon L'Aubefpine the French refident ;
and he was forced to withdraw from England in dif-
grace. From the panic terrors which the miniiters of
Elizabeth were fo ftudlous to excite, they fcrupled not
loudly and invariably to infer, that the peace and tran-
quillity of the kingdom could alone be re-eftabliihed by
the fpeedy execution of the Scottifii queen. 827
Willie the nation was thus artfully prepared for the ri-^ns-
deftruCtion of Mary, Elizabeth ordered Secretary D^-f^nt^f^'
vidfon to bring to her the warrant for her death. Ha-j^^a^y's
ving perufed it with deliberation, fhe obferved that itdeaih-
was extended in proper terms, and gave it the authori-
ty of her fubfcription. She was in a humour fomewhat
gay, and demanded of him if he was not fony for what
fhe had done. He replied, that it was affiiCting to him
to think of the ftate of public affairs ; but tliat he
greatly preferred her life to that of the Scottifh prin-
cefs. She enjoined him to be iecret, and d<:fired, that
before he fhould deliver the warrant to the chancellor,
he fhould carry it to Walfingham. " I fear much
(faid fhe, in a merry tone), that the grief of it will
kill him."
This levity was momentary ; and fears and anxieties
fucceeded it. Thoagh fhe earneftly defired the death
of Mary, fhe was yet terrified to encounter its infamy.
She was folicitous to accomplifh this bafe tranfaCfion
by fome method which would conceal her confent to it. 8z8
After intimating to Mr Davidfon an anxious wifh that Wiihes to
its blame fhould be removed from her, fhe counfelled '^^.^^
him to join with Walfingham in addrefling a letter toj^^^j^g^jj
Sir Amias Paulet and Sir Drue Drury,. recommending
it to them to raanifeft their love to her by fhedding pri-
vately the blood of her adverfary. The unlawfulnefs of
this deed affeCted Davidfon, and he objeCled to it. She
repeated refolutely her injunctions, and he departed to
execute them. A letter under his name and that of
Walfingham was difpatched to Mary's keepers, com-
municating to them her purpofe. Corrupted by her
paflions, and loft to the fcnfibilitles of virtue, Elizabeth
had now reached the laft extremity of human wlcked-
nefs. Though a fovereign princefs, and entrufted with
the cares of a great nation, fhe blufhed not to give it in
charge to her minifters to enjoin a murder ; and this
murder was conneCted with every circumftance that
could make it moft frightful and horrid. The viClini
for whofe blood fhe thirfted was a woman, a queen, a
relation, who was fplendid with beauty, eminent in abi-
lities, magnanimous under misfgrtunes, and fmiling with 3^9
innocence. Sir Amias Paulet and Sir Drue Drury, tho' Which hef
the (laves of religious prejudices, felt an elevation of keepers re-
mind which reflected the greateft difgrace upon the^'^^'^'
fovereign. They confidered themfelves as grofsly in-
fulted'.
Scotland.
Stuart,
830
The war-
^rant paffcs
■the great
^ C O [96
fiilted by the purpofe propofed to tliem ; and In there-
turn they made to Walfmgham, they affured him, that
the queen might command their lives and their proper,
ty, but that they would never confent to part with
their honour, and to ftain theraftlves and their pofterity
with the guilt of an affaffination. When Davidfon car-
ried their difpatch to her, fhe broke out into anger.
Their fcrupulous delicacy, fhe faid, was a dainty in-
fringement of their oath of aflbciatlon ; and they were
nice, preeife, and perjured traitors, who could give great
promifes in words, and atchieve nothing. She told him,
that the bufinefs could be performed without them; and
•recommended one Wingfield to his notice, who would
not hcfitate to ftrike the blow. The ailonifhed fecre-
tary exclaimed with warmth againft a mode of proceed-
ing fo dangerous and unwarrantable. He protefted,
that if Ihe fliould take upon herfelf the blame of this
deed, it would pollute her with the blacked difhonour ;
and that, if (he fhould difavow it, fhe would overthrow
for ever the reputation, the eflates, and the children, of
the perfons who flwuld aflifl in it. She heard him
with pain, and withdrew from him with precipitation.
The warrant, after having been communicated to
Vv''alfingham, was carried to the chancellor, who put
the great feal to it. This formality was hardly con-
cluded, when a meffage from EHzabeth prohibited
Bavldfon from waiting upon the chancellor till he
fliould receive farther inftruftions. Within an hour af-
ter, he received a fecond meffage to the fame purpofe.
He haflened to court ; and Elizabeth afl<ed eagerly,
it he had feen the chancellor. He anfwered in the affir-
mative ; and fhe exclaimed with bitternefs againft his
hafle. He faid, that he had adled exaftly as fhe had
diredled him. She continued to exprefs warmly her
difpleafure ; but gave no command to ftop the opera-
tion of the warrant. In a flate of uneafinefs and appre-
henfion, he communicated her behaviour to the chancel-
lor and the privy-council. Thefe courtiers, however,
who were well acquainted v/Ith the arts of their miftrefs,
and who knew how to flattei- her, paid no attention to
him. They perceived, or were fecretly informed, that
■fhe dcfired to have a pretence upon which to complain
of the fecretary, and to deny that he had obeyed her
inflruftions. They obferved to him, that by fubfcri-
bing the warrant, flie had performed whatever the law
required of Ker ; and that it was not proper to delay
the execution any longer. While they were anxious to
pleafe Elizabeth, they were cenfcious of their own
cruelty to Mary, and did not imagine they could be in
perfeft fecurity while fhe lived. They difpatched the
warrant to the earls of Shrewfbury and Kent, vvith in-
ftruftions to them to fulfil its purpofe.
Bc uainted When the two earls and their retinue reached Fo-
^ith^hcr t^eringay-caflle, they found that Mary was fick, and
1
SCO
Mary is
Pace. repofmg upon her bed. They infifled, notwithfland-
ing, to be introduced to her. Being informed by her
fervants that the meffage they brought was important
and prefTmg, fhe prepared to receive them. They were
condufted into her prefence by Sir Amias Paulet and
Sir Drue Drury ; and with little formaUty they told
her, that Elizabeth hadconfented to her death, and that
flie was to fuffer the next morning at eight o'clock.
Then Beale, one of the clerks of the privy-council, who
accompanied them, read over the warrant, which fhe
^jepd with pious compofure and unfhaken fortitude,
J
They then affeded to juftify their miflrefs by entering Sccitl
into details concerning the confplracy of Babington.
She put her hand upon the Scriptures, which lay upon
a table near her, and fworc in the mofl folemn manner,
that fhe never devifed, confented to, or purfued the
death of Elizabeth in any fhape whatfoever. The carl
of Kent, imwifely zealous for the Proteftant religion,
excepted againft her oath, as being made upon a Popifh
Bible. She replied to him mildly, " It is for this ve-
ry reafon, my lord, to be rehed upon with the greater
fecurity ; for I efteem the Popifh verfion of the Scrip-
tures to be the moft authentic." Indulging his puri-
tanical fervour, he declaimed againft popeiy, counfelled
h^ to i-enounce its errors, and recommended to her at-
tention Dr Fletcher dean of Peterborough. She heard
him with fome impatience ; and difcovered no anxiety
to be converted by this eccleliaflic, whom he reprefent-
ed as a moft learned divine. Riling into pafTion, he ex-
claimed, that " her life would be the death of their re-
ligion, and that her death would be its life." After
infonning him that flie was unalterably fixed in her re-
ligious fentiments, ^he defired that her confeffor might
have the liberty to repair to her. The two earls con-
curred in obferving, that their confciences did not al-
low them to grant this requeft. She intimated to them
the favours for which flie had applied by her letter to
Elizabeth, and expreffed a wifh to know if her fifter had
attended to them. They anfwered, that thefe were
points upon which they had received no inftruftions.
She made inquiries concerning her fecretaries Naw and
Curl ; and aflced, whether it had ever been heard of, in
the wickedeft times of the mofl unprincipled nation,
that the fervants of a fovereign prineefs had been fub-
orned for the purpefe of deftroying her. They looked
to one another, and were filent. Bourgoin her phyfi-
cian, who virith her other domeftics was prefent at this
interview, feeing the two earls ready to depart, be-
fought them with an emphatic earneftnefs to refleft up-
on the fhort and inadequate portion of time that they
had allotted to his miftrefs to prepare herfelf for death.
He infifted, that a refpeft for her high rank, and the
multiplicity and importance of her concerns, required at
leaft a period of fome days. They pretended, however,
not to underftand the propriety of his petition, and re-
fufed it. g
Upon the departure of the two earls, her domeftics si c
gave a full vent to their afflidtions ; and while fhe ex-P^*
perienced a melancholy pleafure in their tears, lamen-'-''^^''
tations, and kindnefs, flie endeavoured to confole them.
Their grief, fhe faid, was altogether unavailing, and
could neither better her condition nor their own. Her
caufe had every thing about it that was moft honour-
able ; and the miferies from which fhe was to be le-
lieved were the moft hopelefs and the moft affliAing.
Inftead of dejeftion and fadnefs, fhe therefore enjoined
them to be contented and happy. That fhe might
have the more leifure to fettle her affairs, fhe fupped
early, and, according to her ufual cuftom, fhe eat little.
While at table, fhe remarked to Bourgoin her phyfician,
that the force of truth was infurmountable ; for that
the eail of Kent, notwithftanding the pretence of her
having confpired againft Elizabeth, had plainly inform-
ed her, that her death would be the fecurity of their
religion. When fupper was over, fhe ordered all her
fervants .to appear before her, and treated them with
ihe
s CO r
the kindhefs which we have mentioned in her life. Ha-
vin^ fettled thefe attentions, {he entered her bedchamber
with her women ; and, according to her uniform prac-
tice, employed herfel£ in religious duties, and in read*
ing in the Lives of the Saints. At her accuftomedtime
Ihe went to flcep ; and after enjoying fome hours of
found reft, (he awaked. She then indulged in pious
meditation, and partook of the facrament by the means
of a confecrated hoft, which a melancholy prefenti-
ment of her calamities had induced her to obtain from
Pius V.
It of At the break of day Ihe arrayed herfelf in rich, but
cu- becoming apparel ; and calling together her fervants,
Ibe ordered her w-^U to be read, and apologifed for the
fmallnefi of her legacies from her inability to be more
generou-S. Following the arrangement fhe had previ-
oufly made, fhe then dealt out to them her goods, ward-
robe, and jewels. To Bourgoin her phyfician fhe com-
mitted the care of her will, with a charge that he would
deliver it to her principal executor the duke of Guife.
She alfo entrufted him with tokens of her affefcion for
the king of France, the queen-mother, and her relations
of the houfe of Lorraine. Bidding now an adieu to
all worldly concerns, fhe retired to her oratory, where
fhe was feen fometimes kneeling at the altar, and fome-
times Handing motionlefs with her hands joined, and
her eyes diredied to the heavens. In thefe tender and
figitated moments, fhe was dwelling upon the memory
of her liifferings and hei- virtues, repoling her weaknelTes
in the bofom of her God, an^J lifting and fblacing her
fplrit in the contemplation of his perfe£lions and his
mercy. While f!ie was thus engaged, Thomas An-
-drews, the high fheriff of the county, announced to
her, that the hour for her execution was arrived. She
•came forth drefled in a gown of black filk ; her petti-
coat Vv'as bordered with crimfon-velvet ; a veil of lawn
bowed out with wire, and edged with bone-lace, was faf-
tened to her caul, and hung down to the ground : an
Agnus Dei was fufpended from her neck by a poman-
der chain ; her beads were fixed to her girdle ; and fhe
bore in her hand a crucifix of ivory. Amidfl the
fcreams and lamentations of her women fhe defcended
the flairs ; and in the porch fhe was received by the
ifearls of Kent and Shrewfbury with their attendants. —
Here, too, fhe met Sir Andrew Melvil the mafter of
her houfehold, whom her keepers had debarred from
her prtfence during many days. Throwing himfclf at
her feet, and weeping aloud, he deplored his fad def-
tlny, and the forrowful tidinga lie was to carry inlo
Scotland.
After fhe had fpoken to Melvil, flie befoufiht the
two earls that her iervants might be treated with civili-
ty, that they might enjoy the prefents fhe had bellow-
ed upon them, and that they might receive a fafe con-
duct to depart out of the dominions of Elizabeth,
Thefe flight favours were readily granted to her. She
then bcggtd that they might be permitted to attend her
to the fcaffold, in order that they might be witnefles of
her behaviour at her death. To this requefl the earl of
Kent difcovered a ilrong reliiftance. He faid that they
would behave with an intemperate pafTion ; and that
they would praftife fuperftitious formalities, and dip
their handkerchiefs in her blood. She replied, that fhe
\Vas fure that none of th«ir adions would be blameable j
Vol. XVII. Part L
97 3 SCO
and that it was but decent that fome of her women Stotlani.
(heuld be about her. The earl ftill hefitating, (he was — -v— "
affefted with the infolent arid flupid indignity of his
malice, and exclaimed, " I am coufin to your miftrefs,
and defcended from Henry VII. I am a dowager of staart,
France, and the anointed qtieen of Scotland." The
earl of Shrewfbury interpofmg, it was agreed that (he
fhould feleft two of her women who might alTift her
in her lafl moments, and a few of her men-fervantsi,
who might behold her demeanour, and report it.
She entered the hall where flie was to fuffer, and ad-
vanced with an air of grace and majefty to the fcaf-
fold, which was built at its fartheft extremity. The
fpedlators were numerous. Her magnanimous carriage,
her beauty, of which the luftre was yet dazzling, and
her matchlefs misfortunes, affefted them. They j^ave
way to contending emotions of awe, admiration, and
pity. She afcended the fcaffold with a firm ftep and a
ferene afpeft, and turned her eye to the block, the axe,
and the executioners. The fpeftators were diffolved in
tears. A chair was placed for her, in which fhe feated
herfelf. Silence was commanded ; and Beale read aloud
the warrant for her death. She heard it attentively»
yet with a manner from which it might be gathered
that her thoughts were employed upon a fubjeft more
important. Dr Fletcher dean of Peterborough taking
his llation oppofite to her without the rails of the fcaf-
fold, began a difcourfe upon her life, pall, prefent, and
to come. He affsiled to enumerate her trefpaffes againft
Elizabeth, and to defcribe the love and tendernefs which
that princefs had il own to her. He counfelled her to
repent of her crimes ; and while he inveighed againft
her attachment to Popery, he threatened her with ever-
lafting fire if fhe fhould delay to renounce its errors^
His behaviour was indecent and coarfe in the greatell
degree ; and while he meant to infult her, he infulted
Hill more the religion which he profeffcd, and the fo-
tereign whom he flattered. Twice fhe interrupted him
with great gentlenefs. l^ut he pertinicioufly continued
his exhortations. Railing her voice, fhe commanded
him with a refolute tone ?o with-hold his indisjnities and
menaces, and not to trouble her any more about her
faith, " I was born (faid fhe) in the Roman Catholic
religion ; I have experienced its comforts during xnf
life, in the trying feafons of ficknefs, calamity, and for-
rovv ; and I am refolved to die in it." The two earls,
aChamed of the favage obilinacy of his deportment, ad-
monilhcd him to defift from his fpeeches, and to con-
tent himfelf with praying for her converfion. He en-
tered upon a long prayer ; and Mary falling upon her
knees, and difregarding him altogether, em.ployed her-
felf in devotions from the office of the Virijin.
After having performed all her devotions, her wo-
men affifted her to difrobe ; and the executioners offer-
ing their aid, fhe reprefled their forwardnefs by obfer-
ving, that fhe was not accuftomed to be attended by
fuch fervants, nor to be undrefled before fo larire an af-
fembly. Her upper garments heing laid afide, fhe
- drew upon her arms a pair of filk gloves. Her women
and men fervants burft out into loud lamentations. She
put her finger to her mouth to admonilh them to be
filent, and then bade them a final adieu with a fmile
that feemed to confole, but that plunged them into
deeper wo. She kneeled refolutely before the block,
N and
o c 1 see
'*!c©i1and. and Taidi " In tliee, 0 Lord I ;do 1 truft, let nie never ifen-ed, that they amounted to no .morc '-t^iafn to Ikucny
be confounded." She covered her eyes whh .a Hnen whether James v. as difpofc i to fell his mother's blood ;
liandkerchief in which the eucharift ha<3 been inclofed ; adding, that the Scottilh nobility and people were detei-
and ftretching forth her body with great tranquilHty, mined to revenge it, and to intereft in their quarrellhe
and fitting her neck for the fatal ft roke, (he caiUed out, other princes of Europe. Upon this Gary dehverel
" Into thy hands, O God ! I commit my fplrit." Tlie to them the letter .from Elizabeth, together with a dc-
executloner, from defijrn, from unfldlfulnels, or from clnration ofhis own concerning the murder of the queen;
■inquietude, ftruck three blows before he feparated her and it does not appear that he proceeded farther,
head from her body. He held it up, mangled with This reception of her arabaifador threw Elizabeth in-
wounds, and ilreaming with blood ; and , her hair be- to the utmoll conllernation. ,She was apprehenfive that
ing difcompofed, was dlfcovered to be already grey with James would join his force to that oi Spain, and entire-
afflidlions and anxieties. The dean of Peterborough ly overwhelm her ; and had the refentment or the fpirit
ah)ne cried out, " So let the enemies of Eliznbeth pe- of the king been .equal to that of the nation,' it is pro-
rifh." The earl of Kent alone, in a low voice, anfwer- bablc that the haughty EngUih princefs would have been
ed, " Amen." All the other fpeftators were melted made feverely to repent her perfidy and cruelty. It
into the ttndereft fympathy and forrow. doth not, however, appear, that James had any ierious
Her women haftened to proteft her dead body f'-om intention of caUing Elizabeth to an account for the.
the curiofity of the fpeftators ; and folaccd thenift^vts murder of his mother ; for which, perhaps, his natural
with the thoughts of mourning over it undifturbed imbecility may be urged as an excufe, though it is more
when they fhould retire, and of laying it out in its fune- probable that his own necefiity for money had fwallowed
ral 2;arb. But the two earls prohibited them from dif- up every other cojifideration. By the league formerly
charging thefe melancholy yet pleafing offices to their concluded with England, it had been agreed that Eliza-
departed miftrefa, and drove them from the hall with
indignity. Bourgoin her phy^fician applied to them
that he might be permitted to take oiit her heart for
the purppfe of preferving it, and of canying it with
hiqi to France. But they refufed his intreaty with
difdain and anger. Her remains were touclied by the
rude hands of the executioners, who canied them into
an adjoining apartment ; and who, tearing a cloth from
834^
Infamous
diflimula-
tion in
Elizabeth,
and indiffe-
rence in
James,
beth fhould pay an annual penfion to the. king of Scot-
land. James had neither economy to make his own re-
venue anfwer his purpoles, nor addrefs to get it increa-
fed. Ke was thevefore always in want ; and as Eliza-
beth had plenty to fpare, her friendfhip became a va-
luable acquifition. To this confideration, joined to his
view of afcending the Englifli throne, muft chiefly be
afcribed the little refentment fhown by him to the atro-
an old billiard-table, covered that form, once fo beauti- cious conduA of Elizabeth. g
ful. The block, the cufhion, the fcaflfold, and the gar- Elizabeth was not wanting in the arts of difTimula- Secr
tnents, which were ftained with her blood, were con- tion and treachery now more than formerly. Slie pro- Liu '
fumed whh fire. Hei body, after being embalmed and fecuted and fined fecretary Davidfon and lord Bur-
committed to a leaden coffin, was buried with royal leigh for the aftive part they had taken in Mary's
death. Their punidiment was indeed much lefs than
they deferved, but they certainly did not merit fuch treat-
ment at her hands. 'VValfingham, though equally guil-
ty, yet efcaped by pretending indii'pofition, or perhaps
efcaped becaufe the queen had now occafion for his fer-
viccs. By her command he drew up a long letter ad-
drefl'ed to lord Thirlfton, king James's prime minifter ;
in which he fliowed the necellity of putting Mary to-
death, and the folly of attempting to revenge it. He
boafted of the fuperior force of England to that of Scot-
land ; (hewed James that he would for ever ruin his
fplendour and pomp in the cathedral of Peterborough
Elizabeth, who had treated her like a criminal while fhe
lived, feemed difpofed to acknowledge her for a queen
when fhe was dead.
On the death of his mother, the full government
of the kingdom devolved on James her fon. Elizabeth,
apprehenfive of his refentment for her treatment of his
mother, wrote him a letter, in which fhe difclaimed all
knowledge of the fa£l. James had received intelligence
of the murder before the arrival of this letter, which was
fent bv one Gary. The meflenger was flopped at Ber
■wick by an order from the king, telling him, that, if pretenfions to the Englifh crown, by involving the two
Mary had been executed, he ftiould proceed at his pe- nations in a war ; that he ought not to truft to foreign
ril. James Ihut himfelf up in Dalkeith cattle, in order alliances ; that the Ron.an Catholic party were fo di-
to indulge himfelf in grief ; but the natural levity and vided among themfelves, that he could receive little or
imbecility of his mind prevented him from afting in no affittaUce from them, even fuppofing him fo ill advifed
any degree as became him. Inflead of refolutely adhe- as to change his own rehgion for Popery, and that 1 hey
rino- to his firft determination of not allowing Gary to would not truft his fincerity. Laftly, he attempted to
fet foot in Scotland, he in a few days pave his confent
that he fhould be admitted to an audience of certain
members of his privy-council^ who took a journey to
the borders on purpofe to wait upon him. In this con-
fliow, that James had already difcharged all the duty
towards his mother and his own reputation that could
be expefted from an affcdlionate fon and a wife king ;
that his interceding for her with a concern fo becoming
ference, Gary demanded that the league ©f amity between, nature, had endeared him to the kingdom of England
the two kingdoms irouli be inviolably obfervcd. He • ' •■ 11 v - r. .... l 1
faid that his niiftrefs was grieved at the death c*f Mary,
which ha.', happene ' without her confent ; an in Eli-
zabeth's name, offered any fatisfaftion that James could
demand. The Scots commiiTioners treated Gary's
fpeech and ptopofal with becoming difdain. They obr
but that it would be madnefs to puih his refentment
farther.
This letter had all the effeft that, could be defired.
James gave an audience to theEngli h ambaffador ; and
being affured that his blood was not tainted by the excr
cution of his mother for treafon againft Elizabeth, but
tha*^
SCO I 99 1 SCO
:hnd.(tha!t !he was till capable of fucceedirig to the crown of py credulity m the operation of demons and witches, Sc<
England, lie confented to make up matters, and to ad- declared a moft inhuman and bloody war againft the
■drels the murderer of his mother by the title of loving poor old women, many of whom^ were burnt for the
and afFeftionate fifter. imaginary crime ef converfing with the devil.
The reign of James, till his acceflionto the crown of In autumn 1600 happened a remarkable confpiracy
England by Elizabeth's death in 1603, affords Kttle
matter of moment. His fcandalous conceffions to Eli-
zabeth, and his conftant appHcations to her for money,
filled up the meafure of Scottifb meannefs. Ever fince
the expulfion of Mary, the country had in fail been re-
duced to the condition of an Englifli province. The
fovereign had been tried by the queen of England, and
executed for treafon ; a crime, in the very nature of the
thing impoffible, had not Scotland been in fubjeAion to
England ; and to complete all, the contemptible fuccef-
for of Mary thoughit himfelf well off" that he was not a
traitor too, to his fovereign the queen of England we
muft fiippofe, for the cafe will admit of no other fuppo-
fition.
an- During the reign of James, the religious difturbances
v/hich began at the reformation, and that violent ftrug-
"^^gle of the clergy for power which never ceafed till the
revolution In i6'88, went on witli great violence. Con-
tinual clamours were raifed againft Popery, at the
fame time that tlie very fundamental principles of
Popery were held, nay urged in the moft infolent man-
ner, as the effefts of immediate infpiration. Thefe
were the total Independence of the clergy on every
«arthly power, at the fame time that all earthly powers
were to be fubjefl to them. 'Hieir fantaftic decrees
were fuppofed to be binding in heaven .; and they took
<:are that they fhoirld be binding on earth, for whoever
had offended fo far as to fall under a fentencc of excom-
munication wa3 declared an outlaw.
It is eafy to fee that this circumllance muft have con-
tributed to diflurb tlie public tranquillity in a great de-
gree. .Butbefides this, the wcaknefs of James's goverri-
ment was fuch, that, under the name of peace, the
whole kingdom was involved iri'the miferies of civil war ^
the feudal animoflties revived, and flaughter and murder
prevailed all over the country. James, fitted only for
i pedantry^ difpiited, argued, modelled, and re- modelled,
'and conftitution to no purpofe, > The clergy continued
'. their inl'olence, and the laity their violences upon one
another ; at tlie fame time that the king, by his unhap-
againfl the liberty, if not the life, of the king. The at- '
tainder and execution of the ■earl of Gowrie for the •
part he acSted in the raid of Ruthven and for ftibfequent
pra6tices of treafon liave been already mentioned. His ■
fon, however, had been reftored to his paternal dignity
and eftates, and had in confequence profeffed gratitude
and attachment to the king. But the Prefbyteriart
clergy continued to exprefs their approbation of the raid
of Ruthven, and to declare on every occafion that in their
opinion the earl of Gowne had faffered by an unjuft
fentence. One of the mofl eminent and popular of that
order of men was preceptor to the younger Gowrie and
his brothers, who, from their frequent converfations
with him, muft have been deeply impreffed with the
behef that their father was murdered. The paffion of
revenge took pofTefHon of tlieir breafls ; and having in-
vited the king from Falkland to the earl of Gowrie's
houfe at Perth, under the pretence of fhowing him a
fecret treafure of foreign gold, which he might lawfully
appropriate to his own ufe, an attempt was made to
keep him a clofe prifoner, with threats of putting him
to inftant death if he fhould make any attempt to regain
his liberty.
The reality of this confpiracy has been queftioned by
many writers, for no other reafon, as it would appearj
but becaufe they could n*t affign a rational motive for
■Gowrie's engaging in fo hazardous an enterprife ; and
fome have even infinuated that the confpiracy was en-
tered into by the king againft Gowrie in order to get
pofieffion of his large eftates. It has been fhown how-
ever by Arnot, in his Criminal Tiials, with a force of
evidence which leaves no room for doubt, that the con-
fpiracy was the earl's, who feems to have intended that
the king fhould be cut off by the hand of an aflaffin ;
and the fame acute and difci-iminating writer has made
it appear highly probable, that he entertained hopes, in
the then diftradted ftate of the nation not ill founded,
of being able to mount the throne of his murdered fo-
vereign( z). From this imminent danger James was re-
fcued by his attendents the duke of Lenox, the earl of
N 2 Marpe,
(z) The family of Ruthven had long been looked upon as the head of that party which was attached to
England and the reformation ; and the accompliihments of the latter C-owrie qualified him to be the leader of
an enterprHing faftion. The importance he derived from ariltocratic influence over his extenfive domains, and
from the attachment of a powerful party in church and ftate, was embellifhed with the luftre of a regal defcent.
Thus ambition, as well as revenge, might ftimulate him to his daring enterprife. Indeed, if his attempt wasrto
te directed againft the life of the king, it -could no longer be fafe for him to remain in the condition of a fub-
jeft : and the indecent and malicious imputation of baftardy, with which the fanatics reproached king James,
mie;ht afford a plaufible pretext for fecluding the royal offspring. The family of Hamilton, next heir to the
crown, had long loft its popularity, and the earl of Arran, its head, had loft his judgment ; and, though there
vmdoubtedfuly were feveral families interpofed between Gowrie and the crown in the ftrift line of luccefTion, .
none of them' probably poffeffed power and popularity to fupport their right. _ But if Gowrie and his brother
were really endowed with thofe perfonal accompliihments which have been fo highly extolled, and which rnade
their countrymen conceive the moft /anguine hopes of their early virtues ; it is abfurd to fuppofe lord Gowrie to
have flattered liimfelf, that in a country whae the church -was m danger^ where the trumpet of fedition was found-
ed by the minifters, who fortified the chief bloch-houfe of the Lord's Jerufalem^ his piety, popularity, and bravery,
fhould fupply the defeft in title, and make him be called, while there were nearer heirs to the crown ; as has
iince "happened in the fame country, on a fimilar occafion.
SCO [ ,00
Marre, Sir Thomas Erikine afterwards earl of Kellie,
and Sir Johu Ilamfey who was likewifc ennobled ; and
tjiough Gowrie and his brother fell in the ftruggle, they
were attainted by an aft; of parliament, which decerned
their name, memory, and dignity, to be extlngiiifhed ;
their arms to be cancelled ; their whole eftates to be
torfeited and annexed to the crown ; the name of
Uutbven to be abolirtied ; and their poflerity and iur-
vivina; brethren to " '
] SCO
that fall into gloomy vales or glens Ixlow, fome of them Scot!
fo nanow, deep, and difmal, as to be altogether impe-
netrable by the rays of the fun ; yet even thefe moun-
tains arc in fome places floped into agreeable rjreen hills
lit for padure, and flcirted or interfperfed with pleafant
ftraths or valleys capable of cultivation. It may be un-
iieccfTary to obferve, that the Lowhnders of Scotland'
fpcak an ancient dialeft of the Englilh lanE:;uage, inter-
838
The V\^f-
ftern lilan-
ders cis'i-
lized.
ren to be incapable of fiicceeding to, or of larded with many terms and idioms which thef borrow,
offices, honmn-s, or poffeflions. cd immediately from France, in a lonjT couife of cor-
hulding, any
The moll memorable tranfaftion of James's, rtign,
and that molt to his honour, is the civilizing of the
weftern iflanders. For this purpole, he inllituted a
company «t gentlemen adventurers, to whom he gave
large privileges for reforming them. Tjie method he
propofed was to tranfport nun^bers of tliem to his low
c;ountries in Scotland, and to give their iflands, wh.ich
were very iir.proveable, in fee to his lowland fuhjechs
V^ho fhould choofe to rcfide in the iflands. The ex-
pcrinitnt was to be made upon the Lewes, a long range
of the Ebitds ; from wlience the adventuiers expelled
Murdoch Macleod, the tyrant of the inhabitants. .Mac
refpondence with that kingdom : they likewife copy
thtir lout hern neighbours in their houles, equipage,
habit, induftry, and application to commerce. As t!?"
the inhabitants of the mountains, fee the article High^
LANDERS. Tliey are, all, however, comprehended im.
der tlie name of Scots governed by the lame laws, and
tried by the fame judges j and, whatever may be their
difier.fions at home, they always, when abroad, a,c*
knowledge and aflill one another as IViends and country-
mea. Some authors have divided Scotland into that
part which lies to the fouthward of the Frith, and that
which lies to the northward j but the true divifiou is.
leod, however, kept the fea ; and intercepting a flu'p like that of England, into flu'res, counties, Itewart-,
which carried one of the chief adventurers, he lent him
prifoner to Orkney, after putting the crew to the fword.
Maclcod was loon after betrayed by his own brother,
and hanged at St Andrew's, I he hiftory of this new
undertaking is rather dark ; and the fettlers themfelves
feem to have been defeflive in the arts of civilization.
The arrangements they made were conhdcred by the culture
inhabitants as very oppreffive ; and one Norman, of the hu
ries or bailiwicks, of which there are above 40 within
the kingdom or Scotland.
The face of this country exhibits a very mountain- p^,^'*^
ous appearance, efpecially to the weft and northward ; mount
but, at the fame time, it difplays many larj^e and hnn £cc.
trafts of plain ground lit for all the purpofes or agri-
It is divided from eaft to weft by a chain of
ge mountains, kiiown by the name of Grant's bnin
8,^9
Jam? s fuc.
ceed' to tlf(
crown of
Enghnd,
840
General
defcription
of Scot-
land.
Macleod family, attacked and fubdued them fo effeftual- or the Grampian In/.'s. There is another chain called
ly, that they not only confented to yield the property the Pentland bllh, v.-hich run through Lothian, and
ot the iflands to him, but engaged to obtain the king's join the mountains of Tweeddule ; a third, called Lam-
pardon ior what he had done. mer.mmr, rihng near the eaftern coaft, runs weftward
In i.f.03 James^\ya8 called to the throne of England through the Merfe : but befides tliefe, there is a vail
by the death of Elizabeth, and the fame year took a number of detached hills and mountains, remarkable
final leave of Scotland (a) From this period the hi- for their ftupendous height and fteepnefs. There is-
ftory of Scotland, being blended with that of Enoland, no country in the world Ix-tter fupplie 1 than Scotland
is- included in the article Britain ; to which therefore whh rivers, lakes, rivulets, and fountains. Oter and
wc refer the reader, and ftiall proceed to give a general above the principal livers of Tweed, Forth, Clyde,
account of the country. _ Tay, and Spey, there is an. infinity of fmaller ftreams
Tlie iirft and great divlfion of Scotland is into the that contribute to the beauty, convenience, and ad-
Highlands and Lowlands. The former engrofs more vantage of the kingdom. Tweed takes its life from,
than one half of Scotland; extending from Dumbar- the borders of rvnnandale; ferves as a boundary b&
tonlhire to the moft northern part of the ifland, a fpace tween Scotland and England ; and, alter a lon.^ fer
of 200mdes in length, and in breadth from 50 to 100. pentine courfe, difcharges itfelf into the fea
This traft, however, includes leveral extenfive diftrifts
of low, fruitful ground, inhabited by people who are in
all refpeds different from the mountaineers. Nothing
can be more favage and tremendous to the eye of a
ftranger, than the appearance of the Highlands, com-
6
at Ber-
wick. Forth rifes in Monteith near Callendar, pafles
by Stirhng, and after a courfe of 25 leagues^ runs into
the arm of the fea called the Frith of Fo' thy which,
divides the coaft of Lothian from File. Clyde takes
its rife from Errick hill, in the fliire of Lanerk ; tra-
pofed of blue rocks and dufl^y mountains heaped upon verfes the ftiire of Clydefdale, to which it gives name j
one another even above the clouds, their interftices wathes the city of Glafgow, widens in its'' palTage to
rendered impalFable by bogs, their fides embrowned the caftle of Dumbarton, and forms the frith of Clyde
with heath, and their fummits covered with fnow, adjoining to the Irifli fea. Ta,y, the largeft river in
which lies all the year unthawcd, pouring from tl^eir Scotland, derives its fource from Loch-Tay in. Bread-
jagged fides a thoufand torrents and roaiing cataraas a&ane ; and, after a iouth-eall courie, difdiarges itfelf
into
(a) In 1589 James was married to Anne princefs of Denmark, for whom he made a voyage on purpofe t©
that country. This princefs feems to have intermeddled very little with ftate- affairs, fince we find her fcarce ever
mentioned either by Scots or Englifh hiftorians. In Ixer private condud ihe is faid to have been ttnprincipledi
viiididlive, and unfaithful to her hufband.
SCO
s c o
into the fea below Dundee. Spay, or Spey, ilTues
from a lake of ibe fame name in Badenoch ; and, vim-
ning a norlh-eafterly cowrfe, falls into the German
ocean, at Speymouth. Some of the frefh-water lakes
are beautiful pieces gf water, incredibly deep^ and fur-
prifingly extended. There are feveral large forells of
fir in Scotland, and a great number of woods ; which,
however, produce very little timber of any confcquence :
but the couiitry, in general, is rather bare of trees ; and
in many places neither tree, fhrnb, nor any kind of pUa-
tation, is jto be fecn. The cafe has been otherwife of
uge trunks of trees are often du!^ from ua-
\ in almoll eery ])art of the kingdom,
north of Scotland, the day at midfummer is
1 out to 1 8 hours and 5 minutes ; fo that
ft night does not exceed 5 hours and cj
tlie night and day, in winter, are in the fame
». 'I he air of this kingdom is generally moid
;rate, except upon the tops of high moun.
red with eternal inow, where it is cold, keen,
>-rciag In oiher parts it is tempered by warm
irs from the fea, wliich environs it on three fides,
far up into the land by friths, inlets, and in-
s. This neigbbouriiood of the fea, and the
' of hills and mountains, produce a conftant
n in the air, and many hard gales, that pu-
climate, wliich is for the moft part agreeable
hy. Scotland aifords a great vai iety of foil
,nt parts of the country, which, bein^ hilly,
rral well adiipted to pailurage : not but that
k'lands are as fertile, and, when properly in-
.,;, /,»id manured, yield as good crops of wheat as
any grounds in the ifland of Great Britain. The wa-
ter in Scotland is remarkably pure, light, and a greeable
to the ftomach : but, over and above that which is ufed
for the ordinary purpofes of life, here are many medi-
cinal fprings of great note.
Scotland abounds with quarries of free-flone eafily
worked, which enable the people to build elegant houfes,
both in town and country, at a fmall expcnce, efpe-
eially as they have plenty of lime-flone, and labour
very cheap. The eaft, w^eft, and northern parts of the
4'ountry produce excellent coal ; and where tliis is want-
ing, the natives burn turf and peat for fuel. Cryftals,
■variegated pebbles, and prec'ous flones, are found in
Boany parts of Scotland ; talc, ftint, and fea fhells, fuller's
eerth, potter's clay, and metals in great plenty. The
country produces iron and copper ore, a prodigious
quantity of lead, mixed with a large proportion of filver ;
a«d in fome places little bits of folid gold are g.athered'
in brooks immediately after torrents.
The Lowlands of Scotland, ar, has been obferved
when duly cultivated, yiekl rich harvefts of wheat and
indeed it muft be owned that many parts of this king-
dom rival the beft fpots of England in agriculture :
but thefe improvements have not yet advanced into the
weilern and northern extremities of the ifland, where
we fee nothing but fcanty harvefts of oats,^ rye, and
barley. The Highlands are fo defeftive even in thefe,
that it is nectffary to import fupph'es of oatmeal from
Ireland and Liverpool. Thi& (carcity, however, we
rauft not impute to the barrennefs of tlie loil, fo much
a* to the floth and poverty ot the tenants, opprelfed by
rapacious landlords, who refufe to grant fuch leafes as
"Would encourage the hulbaudman to improve Lis farm
Scoit..
and make himfelf better acquainted with the fclence of Scot?an<t
agriculture. This is perfectly well underftood in the
Lothians, where we fee fubftantial inclofures, planta-
tions, meadows for bay^nd pafture, wide extended fields
of wheat, the fruits or fkill and induftry, and meet
with fanners who rent lands to the amount of 400 1. or
500 1. a year. Of plants this country produces an im-
menfe variety, growing wild, exclufive of thofe that arc
raifed by the hands of the hnfbandman and gardener.
Their farnr-groundi are well iloeketl with wheat, rye^
barley, oats, hemp, and flax : their gardens produce
great plenty of kitchen-roots, falads, and greens ; among
which laft we reckon the colewort, known by the name^
ot Srolch iat/ r their orchards bear a variety of apples,
pears, cherries, plums, fti-awbeiTies, goofeberries, rafp-
berries, and currants : here alio apricots, neftarines,.
peaches, and fometimes grapes, are brought to matu-
l ity. In a word, there is nothing, whether fhrub, fruity-
or flower, tliat grows in any part of South Britain,
which may not, with a little pains, be brouglrt to the
fame perfection in the middle of Scotland. Among"
the trees and (hrubs which are the national growth of
this countrv, we may reckon the oak, the fir, the birch,,,
the poplar, the alder, willow, elder, hazle, mountain-afh^
crab-tree, and juniper ; which lafl abounds to fuch x
degree in fome parts of the Highlands, that in the fpace
of a few miles many t»ns of the berries might be year-
ly gathered : befides thefe, we find the hawthorn, the^
floe, the dojj-roie, furze, bioom, fern, and whole trafts
of land and mountains covered with ftrong heath. This-
affords flielter for the myrtillis, the fruit of which, call-
ed lllherrki, is here found in great abundance, as well
as the Ijraiubleberry, cranberry, and wild ftrawberry.
Tlie afh, the elm, the fycamore, lime and walnut-tree,
are chiefly planted about the houfes of gentlemen ; but
even the inclofures of quickfct appear naked for want of
fuch hedge-rows as adorn the country of England.
Indeed, great part of this kingdom lies naked and ex-
pofed like a common ; and other parts have no other
inclofure than a p^sltry wall huddled up of loofe ftones,
which yields a bleak and mean profpecA, and ferves na-
other purpofe than that of keeping out the cattle. Alt
the lea-coaft is covered with alga marina, dulfc, and^
other marine plants.
The Highlands are well ftocked with red deer, and'
the fmaller fpecies called the roe-bvtly as well as withe-
hares, rabbits, foxes, wild cats, and badgers -f. and they
abound with all forts of game. The rivers and lakes^
pour forth a profulion of falmon, trout, jack, and eels %
the fea-coafl ;fwarms with all the produ6lions of the
ocean. The hills and mountains are covered with fheep-
and black cattle for exportatiorr, as well as domeftic ufe.
Thefe are of fmall fiae, at are alfo the horfes bred iiu
the Highlands ; but the Lowlandieratife the large breeds
which came originally from England.
New Scotland. See Nova Scotia.
SCOTOMIA, in medicine, a vertigo aceompatliect
with dimnefs of iight, frequently the toi-erimner of aa
apoplexy.
SCOTT (John), an em.inent Englifh divine, was
born in 1638, and became miniller of St Thomas's ia
Southvvark. In 1684 he was collated to a prebend ia
the cathedral of St Paid's. Dr Hiskes tells us, that,
after the revolution, " he ftrft refufed the bifhoprie of
Chefter, becaufe he would not take the oath of ho-
3 w«ge ^
SCO r IS
«c«ta^, « ; mS. afterjsrands another biThoprlc, the ^eatiei-y
fecuugal yiTorchefter, awd a prebend of the church .of Wind-
for., becaufe diey were all places of deprived men."
He piibliflied leveral excellent works, particularly The
Chriftian Life, &c. and died in 1695, He was errii-
nent for his humanity, affability, fincerity, and readi-
■nefs to do good ; and his talent for preaching was >ex-
traondicary.
SCOTUS (Duns). See Duns. ■
Sc.iTus (John). See Erjgeka.
_ SCOUGAL (Henry), fecond fon of Patrick Seougal
t)ifhop of Aberdeen, was born, June J 650, at Salton
in Eaft Lothian, where his father, the immediate pre-
■ deceflor of Biiliop Burnet, was reftor. His father,
defigning him for tlie facred miniftry, watched over his
infant mind with peculiar care ; nor was his care be-
fl®wed in vain. He had foon the fatisfaftion of per-
ceiving the moft amiable diipofitions unfold tbemfelves,
and his underftanding rife at once into the vigour of
manhood. Rclinquifhing the araufements of youth,
young Scougal applied to his ftudies with ardour ; and,
agreeable to his father's wifh, at an early period he di-
refted his thoughts to facred literature. He perufed
the hiilorical parts of the bible with peculiar pleafure,
and then began to examine its contents with the eye
of a philofopher- He was ftruck with the pecularities
of the Jewifh difpenfation, and felt an anxiety to under-
fland the reafou why its rites and ceremonies were
-aboliflied. The nature and evidences of the Chriftian
religion alfo occupied his mind. lie perufed fermons
with pleafure, committed to writing thofe paffages which
moH affesSed him, and could co)mprehend and remember
their whole fcope. Nor was he inattentive to polite
literature. He read the Roman clafTics, and made con-
fiderable proficiency in the Greek, in the Hebrew, and
other oriental languages. He was alfo well verfed in
hiftory and mathematics. His diverfions were of a
manly kind. After becoming acquainted with the Ro,
man hiftory, in concert with fome of his companions
he formed a little fenate where orations of their own
compofition were delivered.
At the ageof fifteenhe entered the univerfity, where
.he behaved with great modefty, fobriety, and dili-
gence. He difliked the philofopky then taught, and
applied himfelf to the ftudy of natural philofophy ;
that^ philofophy which has now happily got fuch foot-
ing in the world, and tends to enlarge the (acuities. In
confequence of this, we may here obferve, that when
he was yet about eighteen years of age, he wrote the
refleaions and ftiort eflays fmce publiihed ; which tho'
written in his youth, and fome of them left unfinifhed,
breathe forth fo much devotion, and fuch an exalted foul,
as muft convince us his converfation was in heaven.
In all the pib^ic meetings of the ftudents he was
unanimoufly chofen prefidcnt, and had a fingular de-
ference paid to his judgment. No fooner had he finiih-
ed his courfes^, but he was promoted to a profelforftiip
in the univerfity of Aberdeen, where he confcientiouf-
ly perforrned his duty in training up the youth under
his care in fuch principles of learning and virtue as
might render them ornaments to church and ftate.
When any divifions and animofities happened in the
foclety, he was very inftrumental in reconciling and
bringing them to a good underftanding. He maintain-
2 1 SCO
ed his authonty , among the ftudcHts ia Cueh
to keep them in awe, and at the fame time to gain their V
love and efteem. .Sunday -evenings were fpent with his
fcholars in difcourfing againfl; vice and impiety of all
kinds, and encouraging religion i-n principle and prac-
tice. He allotted a confiderabk part of his yearly in-
come for the poor ; and many indigent fimilies, of
different perfuaiions, were relieved in their ftraits by his
bounty ; though fo fecretly that they knew not whence
their fupply came.
Having been a profeffor of philofophy for four years,
he was at the age of tw^enty-three ordained a minifter,
and fettled at Auchterlefs, a fmall village about twenty
miles from Aberdeen. Here his zeal and ability for
his great Mifter's fer vice were eminently difplayed.
He catechifed with great plainnefs and affedion, and
ufed the moft endearing methods to recommend religion
to his hearers. He endeavoured to bring them to a
clofe attendance on public worfliip, and joined with
them himlelf at the beginning of it. He revived the
ufe of ledfures, looking- on it as very edifying to com-
ment upon and expound large portions of fcripture.
And though he endured feveral outward inconvenien-
cics, yet he bore them with patience and raeeknefe. But
as God had defigned him for an eminent ftation, where
he could be of more univei fal ule in his church, he "was
removed from his private charge to that of training up
youth for the holy miniftry and the care of fouls. In
the twenty -fifth year of his age he was admitted pro-
feftbr of divinity in the king's college, Aberdeen ; and
though he was unanimoufly chofen, yet he declined a
ftation of fuch importance, from a modeft fenfe of his
unfitnefs for it : And a% he had been an ornament to
his other ftations of life, fo in a particular manner he
applied hiinfelf to the exerclfe of this office. After he
had guarded his ftudents againft the common artifices
of the Roraiih miffionaries in making profelytes, he
propofed two fulijeds for public exercifes ; the one, of
thepaftoral care ; the other, of cafuiftical divinity : but
there were no debates he was more cautious to meddle
with than the decrees of God ; fenfible that fecret
things belong to God; and to us things revealed.
The inward difpofitions of this excellent man are
beft feen in his writings ; and the v/hole of his outward
behaviour and converfation was the conftant practice
of what he preached ; as we are aifured by the con-
curring teftimony of feveral refpeilable perfons who
knew him. How unfuitable then would paaegyric
be, where the fubjecSt was full of humility ? and there-
fore let it fufiice to fay, that after he began to appear
publicly, you fee him as a profeflbr, earneft at once
to improve his fcholars in human and facred learning ;
as a paftx)r, he ceafed not to preach the word, to ex- ,
hort, to reprove, and to rebuke with all authority :
and as a profeflbr of divinity, he beftowed the utmoft
pains to convince the candidates for the miniftry of
the weight and importance of that high office ; that
it was not to be followed for lucre, but purely to
promote the worftiip of God and the falva^on of men.
Again, if we confider his private fife, how meek, how
charitable, and how felf-denied ! how difinterefted in all
things, how refigned to the divine will ! and above all,
how refined his fentiments with regard to the love
of God ! How amiable muft he then appear ! Howr
worthy
wortlTy of imitation, and of the univcrrul regret at "uis
death! In this light we fee clearly that the memory
..of the juft is hlefTed.
At length his health began to be Impaired by in-
celfant ftudy, and about the twenty-feventh year of his
:age he fell into a confumption, which wafted him by flow
-,de<-rees. i\nt during the whole time of his licknefs he
■behaved with the utmoll .reiignation, nor did he ever
fliow the leaft impatience.
When his friends came to viflt him, he would fay,
*' he had reafon to blefs God it was no worfe with
him than it was. And (fays he) when you have the
charity to remember me in your prayers, do r,ot think
me a better man than I am ; 'but look on me, as indeed
I am, a miferable finner." Upon the tvventieth day of
June .1678 he died, in the greatefl calrnnefs, in the
twenty-eighth year of his age, and was buried in the
King's College -Church in Old Aberdeen, 1 he prin-
cipal work of Scougal is a fmall treatife intitled, The
Life of God in the Soul of Man. This book is not only
valuable for the fubhme fpirit of piety which it breathes,
but for the purity and elegance of its ftyle ; qualities
for which few Englifh writers were diftinguifted before
'the Revolution.
SCOUTS, in a military fenfe, are generally horfe-
men fent out before, and on the wings of an army, at
the diftanee of a mile or two, to difcover the enemy,
and give the general an account of what they fee.
SCRATCH-PANS, in the EngUih falt-works, a name
given to certain leaden pans, which are ufually made
about a foot and an half long, a foot broad, and three
inches deep, with a bow or circular handle of iron, by
which they may be drawn out with a hook when the
liquor in the pan is boiling. Their ufe is to receive a
felenitic matter, known by the name of fo/l /cratch,
which falls during the evaporation ef the falt-water.
See the article Sea- Salt.
SCRATCHES, in farriery. See there, ^ xxxvli.
SCREED, with plallerers, is the floated work be-
hind a cornice, and is only neceffary whea a cornice Is
to be executed without bracketing.
SCREW, one of the fix mechanical powers. A
fcrew is a cylinder cut into feveral concave fm-faces, or
rather a channel or groove made in a cylinder, by car-
rying on two fpiral planes the whole length of the fcrew,
in fuch a manner that they may be always equally in-
clined to the axis of the cylinder in their whole pro-
grefs, and alfo inclined to the bafe of it m the fame
angle. See Mechanics, n 30
N'^ 1 . To con(lru£l a common^ or one-threaded Screw.
— Make a parallelogram of paper equal in length to
the cylinder which is to be fcrewed,. and equal in
breadth to the circumference of that cylinder. Divide
the fide of the parallelogram, which is equal to the cir-
cumference oF the cylinder, Into two equal parts. Di-
vide the other fide of the parallelogram, which is equal
in length to the cylinder, into as many parts as the
thicknefs or breadth of the Intended thread will run
ever. Then join the iecond point on the circumference
fide to the fecond point on the length fide of the pa-
rallelogram, and fo join all the fucceeding points as you
fee in the figure.
N'^ 2. To make a four-threaded Screiv, or that luh'ich
is comman/y ujed for the litter •preJs.—'M.d^t a parallel-
3
sen
Screw,
Scribe.
ogram, as defcrlbed be!"ore ; divide that fide v/hich Is
equal to the circumfertnce of tlic cylinder into eight
equal parts, or tv/ice the number of threads. Divide ^ '
the other fide into as many parts as the diltance be-
tween two threads will run over, then join the points
as in vP i. (fig. I ). Plafe
Corollary. To make a left-hmded fcrew .Make
the parallels to the right inftead of the left, as expreifed
by the figures, n^ 3.
This is the true and only prafticable way of making
all kinds of fcrews that are cut on a cylinder.
ylrchimedes's ScRhir. See Hydrostatics, n"4.o.
Endlefs or Pcrbelual ScRF.ir, one fo fitted in a com-
pound machine as to turn a dented wheel ; fo called,,
becanfe it may be turned for ever without coming to
an end.
If in the endlefs or perpetual fcrew, AB (n'' 4.),
whofe threads take the teeth of the wheel CD, you
take the diftanee of two threads, according to the length
of the axis AB ; or the diftanee of two teeth in the
wheel CD, in the direftion of the circumference ; and
if a weight W aft at the circumfeitnce of the wheel :.
then, if the power D be to the weight W, as that di-
ftanee of the teeth or threads, to the length defcribed
by the power P in one revolution, the power and weii^bt
will be in equilibrio ; becaufe in <ane revolution of P,,
the wheel DC, with the weight W, has moved only"
the diftanee of one tooth.
SCRIBE, in Hebrew "i3a fopher, is v^rf common in.
fcripture, and has feveral fignlficatlons. It fignincs,
1. A clerk, writer, or fecretary. This was a very
confiderable employment in the court ok the kings of
Judah, in which the fcripture often mentions the fe-
cretaries as the firft officers of the crown. Seraiah was
fcribe or fecretary to king David (2 Sam. viii. 17).
Shevah and Shemalah exercifed the fame office under
the fame prince (2 Sam. xx. 21;). In Solomon's time
we find Elihorepii and Ahiah fecretaries to that prince,
( I Kings iv. 4). Shebna under Plezekiah (2 Kings
xix. 2). And Shaphan under Jofiah (2 Kings xxii. 8).
As there were but few in thofe times that could write
v/ell, the employment of a fcribe or writer was very
confiderable.
2. A fcribe is put for a commiffary or mufter-mafter
of an army, who makes the review oi the troops, keeps
tlie lift or roll, and calls them over. Under the reign
of Uz7,iah king of Judah, there is found Jell the fcribe
who had under his hand the king's armies (2 Chr.
xxvi. 11). And- at the time of the captivity, It Is faid.
the captain of the guard, among other confiderable per-
fons, took the principal fcribe of the hoft, or fecretary
at war, which mufteied the people of the land ( l Kings
XXV. 19).
3. Scribe is put for an able and flcllful man, a doftoi*
of the law, a man of learning that underftands affairs.
Jonathan, David's uncle by the father's- fide, was a
counfellor, a wife man, and a fcribe ( r Chr. xxvii. 32).
Baruch, the difciple and fecretary to Jeremiah, is call-
ed a fnhc (Jer. xxxvi. 26). And Ezra is celebrated
as a fkllful fcribe in the law of his God (Ezra vil. 6).
The fcrlbes of the people, who are frequently men-
tioned in tlie Gofpel, were public writers and profef-
fed doftors of the law, which they read and explained-
to the people. Some place the original of fcribes un«"
4 dsB
A
Stribe
S € R [I
Scr Mofes : but their tiame does ■not appear till under
the judges. It is faid, that in the wars of Barak ajjainft
Sifera, out of Machir came down governors, and out
. of Zebulun they that handle the pen of the writer."
(Judges V. 14). Others think that David £rft inftitu-
ted them, when he ellablifted the feveral claffes of the
priefts and Levites. 'The Icrlbes were of the tribe of
Levi ; and at the time that David is faid to have made
the regulations in that tribe, we read that 6000 men
of them were conflituted officers and judges (i Chr.
xxiit, 4.) ; amona; whom it is reafonable to think the
icrlbes were Included. For in 2 Chr. xxIt. 6. we read
•of Shemaiah the fcribe, one of the Levites ; and in
2 Chr. xxxiv. 13. we find it written, " Of the Levites
that were fcribes and officers,"
The fcribes and dodVors of the law, in the fcripture
?phrafe, mean the fame thing ; and he that in Mat. xxii,
3 1;. is called a ^kilor of the iaiv^ or a lawyer, in Mark
xii. 28. is named a fcribe, or one of the fcribes. And as
the whole religion of the Jews at that time chiefly
confided in pharifaical traditions, and in the ufe that
was made of them to explain the fcripture ; the great-
eft number of the do£lors of the law, or of the fcribes,
were pharifees ; and we almoft always find them joined
together in fcripture. Each of them valued themfelves
upon their knowledge of the law, upon their Undying
and teaching it (Mat. xxii. 52.) : they had the key of
knowledge, and fat in Mofes's chair (Mat. xxiii. 2).
Epiphanius, and the author of the Recognitions impu-
ted to St Clement, reckon the fcribes among the feels
of the Jews ; but it is certain they made no fe£l by
ihemftlves ; they were only diftinguifhed by their ftudy
of the law.
SCRIBONIUS (Largus), an ancient phyfjcian in
the reign of Auguftus or Tiberius, was the author of
fcvcral works ; the beft edition of which k that of John
Rhodius.
SCRIMZEOR or ScRiMGtouR (Henry), an emi-
iient reftorer of learning, was born at Dundee in the
year 1506. He traced his defcent from the ancient fa-
mily of the Scrimzeours of Didupe, who obtained the
office of htrt'ditary flandard-bearers to the kings of
Scotland in 1057.
04 1
S G It
At the grammar fchool of Dundee our author ac- Serin
quired the Greek and Latin languages to r.n uncommon ^
degree of perfeAlon, and that in a fhorter fpace of time
than many fcholars before him. At the univerfity of
fit Andrew's his fuccefsful application to philofophy
gained him great appiaufe. The next fcene of his ftu-
dles was the univerfity of Paris, and their more parti-
cular objeft the civil law. Two of the moft famous ci-
vilians of that age, Egulnard Baron and Francis Dua-
ren (a), were then giving their leftures to crowded cir-
cles at Bourges. The fame of thefe profefTors oc-
cafioned his removal from Paris ; and for a confider-
able time he profecuted his ftudles under their direc-
tion.
At Bourges be had an opportunity of becoming ac-
quainted with the celebrated James Amiot, Greek pro-
felFoir in that city, well known in the learned world by
his tranflatlon of Plutarch's Lives, and difllngu'fhed af-
terwards by his advancement ta great honours in the
church, and finally to the rank of cardinal.
Through the recommendation of this eminent per-,
fon, Mr Scrimzeor engaged in the education of two
young gentlemen of tlie nameof Bucherel, whom he in.-
ftrufted in the belles lettres, and other branches of li»
terature, calculated to accompliih them for their ftation
in life.
THis conne£\it)n introduced him to Bernard Borne-
tel bilhop of Rcnnes, a perfon famed in the political
world for having ferved the ftate in m^any tionourablc
cmbaffies. Accepting an Invitation from this prelate
to accompany him to Italy, Mr Scrimzeor greatly en-
larged the fphere of his literary acquaintance, by hia
converfatlon and connexion with moft of the diftin*
guifhed fcholars of that country. The death of Fran-
cis Spira (b) happened during his vlfit at Padua ; iind
as the charadler and conduct of this remarkable perfon
at that time engaged the attention of the world, Mr
Scrimzeor is faid to have collected memoirs of lilm in a
publication entitled, " The Life of Francis Spira, by
Plenry of Scotland." This performance, however, does
not appear in tjie catalogue of his works.
After he had ftored his mind with the literature of
foreign caimtries, and fatlsfied his curiollty as a travel-
(a) " Francis Duarcn was the firft of the French civilian!) who purged the chair in the civil law fchools from
the barbaiifms ot the GlofTarits, in order to introduce the pure fources of the ancient jurifprHdence. As he did
! ot dc-fiie to lh?.rc that glory with any one, Ivc looked with an envious eye o:l the reputation of his colleague
Egiiinard Baron, wlio alfo mixed good literature with the knowledge of the law. This jealoufy put him upon
compofing a work, v/hcrciu be endeavoured to lefTen the ellecm th?.t people had for his colleague 'I'he maxim,
' Pajciiur in T:^)!s iivcr ^ pvjl fata qinefcit^^ was verified remarkably in him; for after the death of Baron, he
fiiowed himfdf moft zealous to eternize his memory, and was at tlie expencs of a monument to the honour of th6
deceafed." From the Tranflatlon of Bayle's DiCl. of 1710, p. i 145-^.
(b) Francis Spira was a lawyer of great reputation at Civtadella iii the Venetian ftate, at the beginning of
the 16th century. He had imbibed the principles of the Reformation, and was accufed bc'ore John de la Cafa>
archbiftiop of Bcneveiito, the pope's nuncio at Venice. He made fome conccfilous, and aflved pardon of the
pap.al minifter for his errors. But the nuncio infifted upon a pubho recantation. Spira was exceedingly averfe
to this mea:fure ; but at the preffing inftances of his wile and his friends, who reprefented to him that he mull
lofe his pra<5tice and ruin his affairs by perfilling againft it, he at lait complied. Shortly after he fell into a deep
meJancholy, loft his heaUh, and was removed to Padua for the advice of phyficians and divines ; but his diforders
augmented. The recantation, which he faid he had made from cowardice and intereft, filled his mind with con-
tinual horror and renwrfe ; infomuch that he fometlmes imagined that he felt the torments of the damned. No
means being found to reftorc either his health or his peace of mind, in 1548 he fella vidlim t© his miferable fitu-
ation. See CoUycr's Did. — Spira.
SCR
[ 105 1
SCR
eor. rt was his intention to have revlfited Scotland. He
might without vanity have entertained hopes, that the
various knowledge which he had treafured ;vould have
won him a partial reception among his countrymen.
An ambition of being ufefuUy diiUnguifhed among
them as a man of letters is juftly fuppofed the princi-
pal motive of his defire to return : but the moft fan-
guine projefts of life are often ftrangely diverted by ac-
cident, or rather perhaps are invifibly turned by Provi-
dence, from their purpofcd courfe. Mr Scrimzeor, on
his journey homewards, v/as to pafs through Geneva.
His fan-iC had long forerun his footfteps. The fyndics
and other magillrates, upon his arrival, requefted him
to fet up the profefllon of philofophy in that city ; pro-
mifrng a compenfation fuitable to the exertion oF his
talents. He accepted the propofal, and eftabhflied the
philofophical chair.
After he had taught for fome time at Geneva, a fire
broke out in his neighbourhood, by which his houfe
was confumed, and he himfelf reduced to great diftrefs.
His late pupils, the Bucherels, had not forgotten their
obligations to him, and fent a cMifiderable fum of mo-
ney to his relief.
At this time flourifhcd at AugHjurg that famous
mercantile family (c), the Fuggers. Ulric Fugger
was then its reprefentativc ; a man poffelfed of prodigi-
ous wealth, paffionately fond of literature, a great col-
k£tor of books and manufcripts, and a munificent pa-
tron of learned men. Being informed by means of his
literary correfpondence of the misfortune which had
befallen Mr Scrimzeor in the burning of his houfe, he
immediately fent him a preffing invitation to accept an
afylum beneath his roof till his affairs could be re-efta-
hliflied. Mr Scrimzeor, gladly avaihng himfelf of fuch
a hofpiiable kindnefs, loft no time in going to Ger-
many.
Whilft refiding at Augfburg with Mr Fugger, he
was much employed in augmenting his patron's library
! by vaft coUfftions, purchafed from every corner of Eu-
repe. Manufcripts of the Greek and Latin authors
were then of ineflimable value, and feem to have been
more particularly the objeft of Mr Scrimzeor's re-
fearches.
He did not lead a life of yawning indolence amidft
thefe treafures, and, hke a mere unfeeling coUedtor,
leave them unenjoyed. As librarian, he was not con-
tented to aft the part of a black eunuch to his literary
feragllo. He feems to have forgotten that he was not
its Grand Sultan, and accordingly ranged at will among
furrounding beauties. He compofed many works of
great learning and ingenuity, whilft he continued in a
fituation fo peculiarly agreeable to the views and habits
of a fcholar.
When his manufcripts were ready for the prefs, he
was defirous of returning to Geneva to print them. His
patron, Fugger, recommended him for this purpofe to
the very learned Henry Stephens, one of his penfioners,
and at that time one of the moft celebrated printers in
Europe.
VoL.XVn. Part I.
Immediately on his arrival at Geneva, 1 5 63, he wag Scrlmzeop.
earneftly folicited by the magiftrates to refume the """^ ' ^
chair of philofophy. Notwithftanding his compliance,
and in confequence of it the dedication of much f his
time to the ftudy of phyfics, he, two years afterwards,
inftituted a courfe of leftures in the civil law, and had
the honour of being its firft founder and profeflbr at
Geneva.
As foon as he was fettled again in this city,
he hoped, amidft his other occupations, to profecute
the great objeft of his literary fame, the printing of
his various works. But a fufpicion which Henry Ste-
phens entertained, that it was his intention to fet up a
rival prefs at Geneva, occafioned great diffenfions be-
tween them. The refult of the quarrel was, that the
»repubhc of letters, during Mr Scrimzeor's life, was de-
prived of his valuable produftions. They fell moft of
them at his death into the hands of Ifaac Cafaubon, who
has been Jiccufed of publifhing confiderable portions of
them as his own.
Some account of Mr Scrimzeor's feveral perfor-
mances will give an idea of his extenfive erudition.
He wrote critical and explanatory notes upon Athc-
nasus's (d) Delpnofophijisy or Table-converfations of Phi-
lofophers and Learned Men of Antiquity ; having firft
collated feveral manufcripts of his author. This work
Cafaubon publifticd at Leyden in 1 600 ; but without
diftinguifhing his own notes from thofe of Scrimzeor.
A Commentary and Emendations of the Geography
of Strabo were among our author's literary remains.
Thefe were publiftied in Cafaubon's Parifian edition of
Strabo, 1620. Henry Stephens, from an idea of ju-
ftice due to Scrimzeor's literary fame, notwithftanding*
the violent animofity which had fubfifted betwixt them,
reproaches Cafaubon for adopting our Scottifh critic's
lucubrations on Strabo without acknowledgment.-—
Dempfter affures us, that Scrimzeor, in his manufcript
letters, mentions his defign of publifhing this perform-
ance ; whence, it is probable, that his work appeared
to himfelf of confiderable confequence, and had taken
up much of his attention. Although Cafaubon, in his
ample notes exhibited at the foot of Strabo's text,
makes no confeflion of having derived any thing from
Scrimzeor, it muft not be concealed, that in an epiftle
to Sir Peter Young, our critic's nephew, through whom
the Commentary and Emendations of Strabo came into
his hands, Cafaubon acknowledges how very ufeful to
him they might be made ; for fpeaking there of his in-
tended edition of Strabo, he fays, *♦ It cannot be ex-
prefled how much affiftance I may obtain from your
notes of Scrimzeor."
Edward Herrifon, a Scottifti author. In his Commen-
tary on Plutarch's Book concerning the Inconfiftencies
of the Stoics, informs us, that Scrimzeor collated dif-
ferent manufcripts of all the works of Plutarch. This
undertaking appears fufficient to have occupied half the
hfe of an ordinary critic. Every one knows how vo-
luminous an author was the philofopher, the hiftori-
an, and orator of Chasronea. Whether our learned
O critic
(c) They were ennobled by the emperor in 15 10, under the title of Barons of Kirkberg and Weiflenborn.
(d) Athenseus was a grammarian of Naucrates in Egypt, and lived in the fecond century. His Deipnofo-
phifta; is a very curious and learned work, in 15 books. It is full of interefting anecdotes and defcriptions of
ancient manners, and has prcferved many relics of Grecian poetry not to be found elfewhere.
SCR
[ io6 ]
SCR
SStirazeor. critic had meant to publiHi aa edition of Plutarch's
^•"■'y^''^ works is not known ; but fuch an intention fllould feem
highly probable frona this laborious enterprife of colla-
ting them.
The 10 books of Diogrncs Lacrtlus on the Lives,
Opinions, and Apophthegms of tlie Philofophers, were
collated from various manufcripts by Scrimzeor. His
corredted text of this author, with notes full of erudi-
tion, came alfo into Cafaabon's pofTeflion, and is fup-
pokd to have contributed much to the value of his edi-
tion of the Grecian Biographer, printed at Paris in
The works of Phornutus and Palsephatus were alfo
among the collations of Mr Scrimzeor. To the latter
of thefe authors he made fuch conGderable additions,
that the work became partly his own, Thefe were
two ancient authors who explain the fables of tlie hea^
then deities. The former wrote De Natura Deormn,
feu de Fnbularum Poeticarum Allegor'ns Speculation '* On
the Nature of the Gods, or the Allecrorical Fiftions of
the Poets." The latter entitled his book A«-ir», 5iw
de falfts Narrationibmy " Things incredible, or concern-
ing fdlfe Relations." Thefe works were printed at Ba-
1570 whether in Greek or Latin is uncertain.
They have been publifiied fince in both languages.
The manufcripts of them were for fome time pre-
ferved in the library of Sir Peter Young, after that of
his uncle Scrimzeor, which was brought into Scotland
in I J73, had been added to it. What became of this
valuable becjueft at the death of the former, is uncer-
tain.
Our learned philologer left alfo behind him in manu-
fcript the orations of Demofthenes, -(Efchines, and Ci-
cero, and the Ecclefiaftical Hlftory of Eufeblus, all carer
fully collated.
Among his literary remains was a colleftlon of his
I^atln epiftles. The men of letters in the ifth and
16th centuries feem to iiave kept their republic, as it is
called, more united and compact than it Is at prefent,
• by an epillolary Intercourfe in the Latin language, then
I the univerfal medium of literature and felence. This
general fpirlt of communication could not but con-
tribute greatly to the advancement of IcarniHg, as
well as to the pleafure, and, we may add, to the impor-
tance, of thofe who were engaged in its purfuit. The
intercourfe and union of enlightened men, able and dlf-
pofed to promote the happinefs of their fellow- creatures,
cannot be too elofe. From fuch inteHedual combina-
tion alone It is, that uniformity of religious, moral, and
political principles, to its greateft attainable degree,
can ever be expefted ; or, in other words, th« greateft
pofilble benefit derived from the cultivation; of letters.
Of the many performances which had exercifed his
pen, it does not appear that any were immediately
pubhfhed by himfelf but his Tranfiation of Juftini-
an',8 Novels into Greek. This was printed at Pa-
ris in 1558, and again with Holoander's Latin verfion
at Antwerp in 1575. This work has been highly ex-
tolled, both for the purity of Its language and the ac-
curacy of Its execution, and is hkely, according to fome
refpeftable opinions, to hold its eitlmation as long as
any ufe or memory of the civil law fiiall exift.
A Latin tranfiation of the Baftlicay or Bafilics, as
they are called by our civilians, is tlxe laH ws. have to
S
mention of this author's performances. This Is a cot- Scr
leftion of Roman I^aws, which the eaftcrn emperors
Bafil and ]^eo, who reigned In the iiflh century'^, com-
manded to be tranOated into Greek, and which pre.
ferved their authority till the difiblutlon of the eallern
empire. The Eatilics compreliend the infUtutes, di-
geils, code, and nov<?l5, and fome of the edidls of Jiilh'-
nlan and other emperors. Of 60 original books, 41
only remain. Mr Scrimzeor collated them with vari-
ous manufcripts, probably before he commenced his-
tranfiation.
From the foregoing recital of the learned iahonrs of
this profound fcholar and critic, it will be concluded,
that almoft the whole of his life, although long, was
fpent in hi« library, and that the biographer, having
now terminated the catalogue of his writings, Is proba*
bly not dlllant from the conclufion of his life. DifFc-
rent years have been afiigned for tlte time of his death %
but It appears moft likely, from a comparlfon of the
different accounts of this event, that it happened very
near the expiration of 157 1, or at the beginning of the
fueceeding year, about the 66th year of hi& age. He
died In the city of G^fneva.
The charafteriftic features of Scrimzeor are few, but
they are prominent and ftriking, and remote pofterity*
may regard him with no inl^erlor degree of refpeft. Hl»
induftry and perfeverance In the purfuit of knowledge
and erudition were equalled only by the exquillte judge-
ment which he difplayed In his critical annotations and
commentaries on the errors and obfcurltles of ancient
books and manufcripts.
HI* acqulfitions in the Greek, Latin, and oriental
languages, were reckoned much beyond thofe of molt
of the profefTed llnguifls of his time. The great Cu-
jacius ufed to fay, " Thai he never quitted Mr Scrim-
zeor's converfation without having learned fomething
new." But that which lent peculiar grace to fach fu-
perlority, was the amiable modefly which upon all oc«
eafions was obferved to accompany it. From the com-
mendation given him by the lUuflrious civilian juft men-
tioned, it win be concluded, that he did not brood, with-
a jealous referve, over unlocked treafures of erudition
but that, confclous of poflefling ftores too ample to be
foon exhaufted, at the fame time that he avoided an
oftentatlous profufion of them, he obliged and delight-
ed his friends by a liberal communication. From the
period at which he lived, confidered with the nature
and extent of his fludies, and his abilities in profecuting
them, he may defervedly be ranked among thofe emi-
nent charafters who have mofl fuccefsfuUy contributed
their exertions to the revival of letters in Europe.
SCRIPTURE is a word derived from the Latin Script
fcriptura, and in its original fenfe is of the fame import
with •writing., fignlfylng " any thing written." It is?^^^^^.^
however, commonly ufed to denote the writings of the nient*
Old and New Teflaments ; which are called fometimes
the Scriptures^ fometimes the /acred or holy Scriptures.^
and fometimes canonical Scripture. Thefe books are
called the Scriptures by way of eminence, as they are
the mofl important of all writings j they are fald to be
holy or f acred on account of the facred doArlnes which
they teach; and they are tenned canonical, becaufewhen
their number and authenticity were afcertalned, their
naiues were infeited in ecclefiaftical canons^ to dllUn-
at)'
SCR [ 1
puifl! them from other books ; whicli, beln^ of no au-
thority, were kept as it were oat of fight, and there-
fore 11) led apocrypha/ [&.).
The authenticity of tPse Old Teftament may be prcv
oy ved from the charafttr of the Jews, from internal evi-
nenc dence, and from tcftimony.
' I. The chara<9:er of the Jews affords a flrong pre-
^j^^ fumptive evidence that they have not forged or corrupt-
rter t^i^ Old Teftament. Were aperfon brought before
Jews, a court of juftiqe on a fufpicion of forgery, and yet no
prefumption or pofitive evidence of his guilt could be
produced, it would-^ allowed by all that he ought to
be acquitted. But faHher, if the forgery alleged were
inconfilient with the charafter of the accufed ; if it
tended to expofe to difgrace and reproach his gene-
ral principles and conduft ; or If we were alTured that
lie confidered forgery as an impious and abominable
crime — it would require very ftrong teftimony to efta-
blEfh his guilt. The cafe now mentioned correfponds
exaftly with the character and fituation of the Jev/s.
If a Jew had forged any book of the Old Teftament,
he muft have been impelled to fo bold and dangera;i3
an enterprife by fome very powerful motive. It could
not be national pride, for there is fcarcely one of theie
books which does not feverely cenfure the national man-
ners. It could not be the love of fame ; for that paf-
iion would have taught him to flatter and extol the na-
tional charadler ; and the punifhment, if detefted, would
have been infamy and death. The love of wealth could
wot produce fuch a forgery ; for no wealth was to be
gained.
The Jews were felefted from the other nations of
the world, and preferved a diilinti people from the
time of their emigration from Egypt to the Babylonifh
captivity, a period of 892 years. The principal pur-
pofes for which they were feleAed was to prelerve in a
world running headlong into idolatry the knowledge and
■worihip of the one true God, and to be the guardians
of thofe facred books that contained the prophecies
which were to prove to future ages the divine miffion of
the Redeemer of mankind. To fit them for thefe im-
portant trulls, the fpirit of their laws and the rites of
their religion had the ftrongeft tendency. Miracles
were openly performed, to convince them that the, God
of Ifrael was the God of all the earth, and that he alone
was to be worfhipped. Public calamities always befel
them when they became apoftates to their God ; yet
^hey continued violently attached to idolatry till their
captivity In Babylon made them for ever renounce it.
The Jews then had two oppofite charafilers at diffe-
rent periods of their hlftory : At firft they were addiiSl-
ed" to idolatry ; afterwards they acquired a ftrong anti-
pathy againft it.
Had any books of the Old Teftament been forged
before the Babylonifli captivity, when the Jews were
devoted to idolatry, is it to be conceived that the ira-
poftor would have inveighed fo ilrongly againft this
vice, and fo often Imputed to it the calamides of the
ftate ; fince by fuch conduft he knew that he would
render himfelf obnoxious to the people and to thofe ido-
latrous monarchs who perfecuted the prophets ?
07 ] SCR
But it may next be fuppofed, that "'the facred books Scripfuiy?.-
were forged after the Babylonifti captivity, when the »
principles of the Jews would lead them to inveigh •
againft the worihip of Idols. But thefe principles would
furely never lead them to expofe the charafter of their
anceftors, and to detail their follies and their crimes.
Never had any people more national pride, or a higher
veneration for their anceftors, than the Jews. Miracles
and prophecies ceafed foon after their return to Jeru-
falem ; and from that period their refpcdt for the facred
books approached to fuperif Itlon. They prefer;ved them
with pious care, they read them often in their fyna-
gogues, and they confidered every attempt to alter the
text a$ an aft of facrilege. Is It poffible that fuch men
could be guilty of forgeiy, or could falfe writings be
eafily Impofed on them ? 4
2. There is an internal evidence In the books of the Old Prom in-
Teftament that proves them to have been written by j^"^"^'
different perfons, and at diftant periods ; and enables us '
with precifion to afcertain a time at or before which
they muft have been compofed. It is an undeniable
fa£t that Hebrew ceafed to be the living language of
the Jews during the Babylonifh captivity, and that the
Jewifh produfllons after that period were in general
written either in Chaldee or in Greek, The Jews o^^^"^^"*
Paleftlne, fome ages before the coming of our Saviour, ^^^^-^^"^^^^
were unable, without the afliftance of a Chaldee para-^^^.^ hooks of
phrafe, to underftand the Hebrew original. It necef- Mo/it.
farily follows, therefore, that every book which Is writ-
ten in pure Hebrew was compofed either before or
about the time of the Babylonifh captivity. This be-
ing admitted, we may advance a ftep farther, and con-
tend that the period which elapfed between the compo-
fitlon (if the moft -ancient and the molt modern book of
the Old l^ftament was very confiderable ; or, In other
words, that the moft ancient books of the Old Tefta^
ment were written many ages before the Babylonifti
captivity.
No language continues flationary ; and the Hebrew,
like other tongues, palTed through the feveral ftages of
infancy, youth, manhood, and old age. If therefore,
on compatlfon, the feveral parts of the Hebrew Bible
are found to difter not only in regard to ftyle, but alfo
in regard to charafter and cultivation, we have ftrong
internal mai^ts that they were compofed at different
and. diftant periods. No claflical fcholar would beheve,
independent of the Grecian hiftory, that the poems
afcribed to Homer were written in the age of Demof-
thcnes, the Orations of Demofthenes in the time of Ori-
gen, or the Commentaries of Origen in the time of
Lafcarls and Chryfoloras. For the ver^- fame reafon,
ic is certain that the five books which arc afcribed to
Mofes were not written in the time of David, the
Pfahns of l>avld In the age of Ifaiah, nor the prophe-
cies of Ifaiah m the time of Malachl ; and fince the
Hebrew became a dead language about the time of the
iiifbylonlfh captivity, the book of Malachi could not
have been written much later. Before that period there-
lore were wrlttcu the prophecies of Ifaiah, ftlU earlier
the Pfalais of David, and much earher than thefe the
books which are afcribed to Mofes.
O 2 3. Let
(a) From t^^oH^^'^'^i to ^ut out of Ji^ht,
SCR
SCR
Scripture. Let now confider the evidence of teftimony for
^ " the authenticity of the Old Teftament. As the Jews
From tefti- were a more ancient people than the Greeks or Ro-
mony. mans, and for many ages totally unconne(5tcd with them,
it is not to be expefted that we Ihould derive much
evidence from the hiftorians of thofe nations ; it is to
the Jews alone we muft look for information. But it
has unfortunately happened that few of their works ex-
cept the Scriptures themfelves have been preferved to
pofterity. Jofephus is the moft ancient of the jewifh
hiftorians to whom we can appeal. He informs us,
that the Old Teftament was divided into three parts,
the Law, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa or poeti-
cal books. No man, fays he, hath ever dared to add
or take away from them. He tells us alfo, that other
books were written after the time of Artaxerxes ; but
as tl ^y were not compofed by prophets, they were not
reckoned worthy of the fame credit.
Since the promulgation of the Chriftian religion, it
is impoflible that any material alterations or corruptions
could have taken place in the books of the Old Tefta-
ment ; for they have been in the hands both of Jews
and Chrlftians from that period. Had the Jews at-
tempted to make any alterations, the Chrlftians would
have detefted and cxpofcd them ; nor would the Jews
have been lefs fevere againft the Chrlftians if they had
corrupted the facred text. But the copies in the hands
of Jews and Chrlftians agree ; and therefore we juftly
conclude, that the Old Teftament is ftill pure and un-
corrnpted.
The divifion mentioned by our Saviour into the Law,
the Prophets, and the Pfalms, correfponds with that of
•Jofephus. We have therefore fufficient evidence, it is
hoped, to convince even a deift, that tiie Old Teftament
exifted at that time. And if the deift will only allow,
that Jefus Chrift was a perfonage of a virtuous and ir-
reproachable charadler, he will acknowledge that we
draw a fair conclufion when we afiert that the Scrip-
tures were not corrupted in his time: for when he ac-
cufed the Pharifees of making the law of no effeA by
their traditions, and when he injoined his hearers to
fearch the Scriptures, he could not have failed to men-
tion the corruptions or forgeries of Scriptwre, if any in
that age had exifted. But we are afliired, by very re-
fpeftable authority, that the canon of the Old Tefta-
ment was fixed fome centuries before the birth of Jefus
Chrift. Jefus the fon of Sirach, the author of Eccle-
fiafticus, makes evident references to the prophecies of
Ifaiah *, Jeremiah f, and Ezekiel and mentions thefe
prophets by name. He fpeaks alfo of the twelve minor
prophets It appears alfo from the prologue, that
the law and the prophets, and other ancient books, ex-
ifted at the fame period. The book of Ecclefiafticus,
according to the calculations of the beft chronologers,
was written in Syriac abwit A. M. 3772, that is, 232
years before the Chriftian era, and was tranflated into
Greek in the next century by the grandfon of the au-
thor. The prologue was added by the tranflator : but
|his circumftance does not diminifh the evidence for the
antiquity of Scripture ; for he informs us, that the law
and the prophets, and the other books of their fathers,
were ftudied by his grandfather : a fufficient proof that
they exifted in his time. As no authentic books of a
- ' " more ancient date, except the facred writings them-
» Icclefi-
adieus
Xlviii. 42.
f xlix. 6.
t xHx. S.
§ xlix. 10
felves, have reached our time, we can afcend no higli!:r Scripc
in fearch of tettimony. — ~v
Tiiere is, however, one remarkable hiftorical faft,
which proves the exiftence of the law ot Moles at tlie
diffolution of the kingdom of Ifrael, when the ten tribes
were carried captive to Affyria by Shahnanefer, and dif-
perfcd among the provinces of that extenfive empire j
that is, about 741 years before Chrifl. It was about
that time the Saniaritans were tranfported from Affyria
to repeople the country, which the tan captive tribes
of Ifracl ha^ formerly infiabitcd. The pofterity of the
Samaritans ftill inhabit the land of their fathers, and ;
have preferved copies of the Pentateuch, two or th;-ee \
of which were brought to this country in the la ft I
century. The Samaritan Pentateuch is written in !
old Hebrew charafters (fee Philology, n° 28).
and therefore muft have exifted before the time of
Ezra. But fo violent were the animofities which fub-
fifted between the Jews and Samaritans, that in no pe-
riod of their hiftory would the one nation have received
any books from the other. • They muft therefore have
reteived them at their fiift fettleraent in Samaria from
the captive prieft whom the Affyrian monarch fent to |
teach them how they ftiould fear the Lord {2 Kings jl
xvii.) ^
The canon of the Old Teftament, as both Jewifh The
and Chriftian writers agree, was completed by Ezra'^^
and fome of his immediate fuccefibrs (fee Bible), ^"fe^t^ej
our copies the facred books are divided into 39. The i
Jews reckoned only 22, correfponding to the number
of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. They united the
books of Judges and Ruth ; they joined the two books
of Samuel ; the books of Kings and Chronicles were
reckoned one ; Ezra and Nehemiah one ; the Prophe-
cies and Lamentations of Jeremiah were taken nnder
the fame head ; and the 1 2 minor prophets were con-
fidered as one book — fo that the whole number of books
in the Jewifh canon amounted to 22.
The Pentateuch confifts of the five books Genefis, The
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Se-
veral obfervations have been already made refpefting the ^^'^^fg*
authenticity of thefe under the article Pentateuch ;
but feveral additional remarks have occurred, which may
not improperly be given in this place. For many of
thefe we acknowledge ourfelves indebted to a fermon
publifhed by the reverend Mr Marfh, whole refearch
and learning and critical accuracy will be acknow-
ledged by every reader of difcernment.
One of the ftrongeft arguments that have occurred
to us in fupport of the authenticity of the Pentateuch,
and the infpiration of the writer, has already been given
under the article Religion, n'' 14, &c. which fee:
But we fhall in this place prefent two arguments of a
different kind, which would be fufficient to prove at
leaft the former of thefe conclufions. We argue from
the language and contents of the Mofaic writings, and
from the teftimony of the other books of Scripture. 8
From -the contents and language of the Pentateuch
there arifes a very llrong prefumption that Mofes was
its author. The very mode of writing in the four laft,"
books dlfcovers an author contemporary with the events
which he relates ; every defcription, both religious and
political, is a proof that the writer was prefent at each
refpedive fcene j and the legiflative and hiftorical parts ;
6 arc
SCR
r 109 1
SCR
arc (0 Interwoven with each other, that neither of them
could have been written by a nnan who lived in a later
acje. The accc^unt which is given in the book of Ex-
odus ot the conduft of Pharaoh towards the children of
Ifrael, is fuch as might be expefted from a writer who
was not only acquainted with the country at large, but
had frequent acceis to the court of its foveieign : and
the minute geographical defcription of the paffage thro'
Arabia is iuch, as could have been given only by a man
like Mofes, who had (pent 4P years in the land of Mi-
dian. The language itfelf is a proof of its high anti-
quity, which appears partly from the great fimplicity
of the ftyle, and partly from the ufe of archailms or
antiquated exprelTions, which in the days even of Da-
vid and Solomon were obfolete (b). But the ftrongelt
argument that can be produced to fhow that the Pen-
tateuch was written by a man born and educated in
Egypt, is the ufe of Egyptian words ; words which
never were, or ever could have been, ufed by a native of
Paleftine : and it is a remarkable circumftance, that the
very fame thing which Mofes had expreffed by a word
that is ptjre Egyptian, Ifaiah, as might be expeited
from his birth and education, has exprefled by a word
that is purely Hebrew (c).
That Mofes was the author of the Pentateuch is pro-
ved alfo from the evidence of teftimony. We do not
here quote the authority of Diodorus Siculus, of Lon-
ginus, or Strabo, becaufe their information muft have
been derived from the Jews. We (hall feek no autho-
rity but that of the fuccetding facred books themfelves,
which bear Internal evidence that they were written in
different ages, and therefore could not be forged unlefs
we were to adopt the abfurd opinion that there was a
fuccelTion of impoftors among the Jews who united to-
gether in the fame fraud. The Jews were certainly
beft qualified to judge of the authenticity of their own
books. I'hey could judge of the truth of the fails re-
corded, and they could have no intereft in adopting a
forgery. Indeed, to fuppofe a whole nation combined
in committing a forgery, and that this combination
fliould continue for many hundred years, would be the
moft chimerical fuppofition that ever entered into the
mind of man. Yet we muft make this fuppofition, if
we rejeft the hiftorical fails of the Old Teftament. No
one will deny that the Pentateuch exiiled in the time
of Chrift and his apoftles ; for they not only mention
it, but quote it. " This we admit," reply the advo-
cates for the hypothefis which we are now combating ;
" but you cannot therefore conclude that Mofes was the
aiithor ; fox there is reafon to believe it was compoled
by Ezra." But unfortunately for men of this opinion,
both Ezra and Nehemiah afc^ribe the book of the law
' to Mofes f. 2. The Pentateuch was in the poffelTion of
the Samaritans before the time of Ezra. 3, It exifted
in the reign of Araaziah king of Judah,^ A. C. 839
years f . 4. It was In public ufe In the reign of Jeho- Scn'pfiir'c.
laphat, A. C 91 Z ; for that virtuous prince appointed "^"^^^j]^
Levites and priefts who taught in Judah, and had the^^^^
book of the law of the Lord with them, and v^'ent 1 Kings
about throughout all the cities of Judah and taught xiv. 6.
the people;^. 5. It is referred to by David in his dying J a Chroii.
admonitions to Solomon §. The fame royal bard n\akes 9-
many allufions to it in the book of Pfalms,^ and fome- ?j ^ King'
times quotes it *. There remains therefore only one"'^*
refource to thofe who contend that Mofes was not the pcajj^ cm,
author, viz. that it was written In the period which 7, 8. with,
elapfed between the age of Jofhua and that of David, lixod.
But the whole hillory of the Jews from their fettle- ^''''^'j^'
ment In Canaan to the building of the temple prefup-gj^j.^!
pofes that the book of the law was written by Mofes. where th&
6. We have fatisfaftory evidence that it exiiled in the words are
time of Joihua. One paffage maybe quoted where ^^'^^f^'^^g^'^^
fa6t is ftated. The Divine Being makes ufe of thefe
words to Jolhua : " Only be thou llrong, and very
courageous, that thou mayeft obferve to do all accord-
ing to the laiv which Mofes my fervant commanded
thee ; turn not from it to the right hand or te the left,
that thou mayeft profper whitherfoever thou goelt. This
book of the iaiv Ihall not depart out of thy mouth ; but
thou fhalt meditate therein day and night, that thoa
mayeft obferve to do according to all that is written
therein f." _ . . . ■
To the foregoing demonftratlon objeftions may be xxiii.6.
ftated. " We will admit the force of your arguments, ' 10
and grant that Mofes aftually wrote a work called the General
book of the law ; but how can wc be certain that it °„f^gjedt
was the very work which is now current under his
name I And unlefs you can fhow this to be at leaft
probable, your whole evidence is of no value." To il-
luftrate the force or weaknefs of this obje£tion, let uS
apply it to feme ancient Greek author, and fee whether
a clafTical fcholar would allow it to be of weight. " It
is true that the Greek writers fpeak of Homer as an
ancient and celebrated poet ; it is true alfo that they
have quoted from the works which they afcribe to him
various palfages that we find at prefent in the Iliad and
Odyffey : yet ftiU there Is a poflibihty that the poems
which were written by Homer, and thofe which we call
the Iliad z.w^OdyJj'ey, were totally diftinft productions "
Now an advocate for Greek literature would' reply to
this objedlion, not with a ferious anfwer, but with a
fmile of contempt ; and he would think it beneath his
dignity to fdence an opponent who appeared to be deaf
to the cleareft eonvIAion. But ftill more may be faid
in defence of Mofes- than, in defence of Homer ; for the
writings of the latter were not depofited in any temple
or facred archive, in order to leeure them from the de-
vaftations of time whereas the copy of the book of
the law, as written by Mofes, was intruftcd to the priefta
and the elders, preferved in the ark of the covenants
and
(b) For inftance, i7/<r, and iVJ /«f , which are ufed in both genders by no other writer than Mofes. See
Gen. xxiv. 14. 16. 28. 55. 57. xxxviii. 21. 25.
(c) For inftance, inw {perhaps written originally "ni*, and the » lengthened Into 1 by miftake), written by the
Seventy ^a:' or a;c^'. Gen. xli. 2. and nan, written by the Seventy ^'^'» or ^<C'>. See JJa Croze Lexicon JEgyp-
tiacum, zrt, axi and ghbi
The fame thing which Mofes expreifes by tnKj Gen. xli. Z, Ifaiah xix. 7. exprefles by for the Seventy
have tranflated bothtof thefe woids hf»x'»
{Sc! ip'vire.
EI
-''Farticular
obje(ftions
sen
and read to the people every leventli year (n). Safllcietit
care therefore was taken not only for the prefervatioii of
tlie original record, but that no fpurious prodnclion
fhould be fubditnted in its ftead. And that no fpurious
prodiiftion ever has been fubftituted in the ftead of the
original compofition of Mofes, appears from the evidence
t)oth of the Greek and the Samaritan Pentateuch. For
as thefe agree vviih the Hebrew, except in fame trif-
ling variations (e), to which every work is expofed by
length of time, it is abfolutely certain that the fiv«
hooks which we now afcribe to Mofes are one and the
fame work with tiiat which was tranflated isto Greek
in the time of the Ptolemies, and, what is of ftill great-
er importance, with that which exifted in the time of
Solomon. And as the Jews could have had no mo-
tive whatfoever, during that period which elapfed be-
tween the age of jofhua and that of Solomon, for fub-
ftituting a fpurious produftion inilead of the original
as written by Mofes, artd, even had they been incHned
to attempt the impofture, would have been prevented
by the cave which had been taken by their lawgiver,
we mull conclude that our prefent Pentateuch is the ve-
ry identical wavk that was delivered by Mofes.
The pofitive evidence being' now produced, we fliall
endeavour to anfwer fome particular obje6lions that have
been urged. But as moft of thefe occur in the book of
Genefis, wc fhall refcrve them for feparate examination,
and fhall here only conlidcr the objections peculiar lo
the four laft books. They may be comprifed under
one head, viz. exprellions and paflages in thefe books
which could not have been written by Mofes. i. The
account of the death of Mofes, in the laft chapter of
Deuteronomy, we allow mull have been added by fome
fucceeding writer ; but this can never prove that the
book of Deuteronomy is fpurious. What is more com-
mon among ourfelves than to fee an account of the hfe
and death of an author fubjoined to his works, without
informing us by whom the narrative was written ? 2. It
has been objeAed, that Mofes alv/ays fpeaks of hiinfelf
in the third perfon. This is the objeftion of foohfh
ignorance, and therefore fcarcely deiervcs an aniwer-
Wc fufpeft that fuch perfons have never read tlie claf-
fics, particularly Csefar's Commentaries, where the au-
thor uniformly fpeaks of himfelf in the third perfon, as
every writer of correal tatte will do who reflects on the
abfurdity of employing the pronoun of the firll perfon
r 110 1 SCR j
in a work intended to be read long after his death. (Sec Scrii
Grammar, 33.) 3. As to the objeftion, that in — 1
fame places the text is defeftivc, as in Exodus xv. 8. it f
is not direftcd againft the author, but a yainft fome tran- |i
icriber ; for what is wanting in the Hebrew is inferted f
In the Samaritan. 4. The only other objedion that de-
ferves notice is made from two paffages. It is faid in
one place that the bed of Og is at ivamah fo thts day ;
and in another (Deut. iii. 14.), " Jair the fon of Ma-
nalTeh took all the country of Argob unto the coafta
of Gefhuri and Maacathi, and called them after his
own name, Bafhan-havoth-jair, unto this day." The lafl
claufe in both thefe paffages could not have been writ-
ten by Mofes, but it was probably placed in the margin
by fome tranfcrlber by way of explanation, and was af-
terwards by miftake Inferted in the text. Whoever
doubts the truth of this affertion may have recourfe to
the manufcripts of the Greek Teftament, and he will
find that the fpurious additions in the texts of fome
manufcripts are adlually written in the margin of
others (i ).
'i'hat the Pentateuch, therefore, at leaft the four laft
books of it, was written by Mofes, we have very fatis-
{aSiory evidence ; which, indeed, at the diftance of ^000
years is wonderful, and which cannot be affirmed of any
profane liiftor)' written at a much later period.
Ilie book of Genefis was evidently not written by aAmh<
perfon who was contemporary with the fafts which he '^^^y ®^
records; for it contains the hillory of 2369 years, aQg||^|
period comprehending almoft twice as many years as all
the reft of the hiftorical books of the Old Teftament
put together. Mofes has been acknowledged as the au-
tiior of this book by all the ancient Jews and Chrif-
tians ; but it has been a matter of difpute from what
fource he derived his materials ; fome affirming that all
the fafts were revealed by infpiration, and others main-
taining that he procured them from tradition.
Some who have looked upon themfelves as profound
philofophers, have rejeCled many parts of the book of
Genefis as fabulous and abfurd : but it cannot be the
v/ifdom of philofophy, but the vanity of ignorance,
that could lead to fuch an opinion. In faft, the book
of Genefis affords a key to many difficulties in philofo-
phy which- cannot otherwife be explained. It has been
fuppolcd tliat the diverfities among mankind prove that
they are not defcendcd from one pair ; but it has been
fully
(d) And Mofes wrote this law, and delivered It unto the pi lefts the fons of Levi, which bare the ark of the
covenant of the Lord, and tmto all the elders of Ifracl. And Mofes commanded them, faying. At the end of
every feven years, in the folemuity of the year of releafe, in the feaft of tabernacles, when all lirael is come to
- appear before the Lord thy God, in the place which he ihall choofe, thou flialt read this law before all Ifrael
in their hearing. And it came to pafs, when Mofes had made an tad of writing the words of this law in a book
until they were finiflied, that Mofes commanded the Levites, which bare the ark of the covenant of the Lord,
faying, 'lake this book of the law, and put it in the fide of the ark of the covenant of the Lord your God."
Deut. xxxi. 9 — I ». 24 — 26. There is a paffage to the fame purpofe in Jofephus : a»xwt«i Sia, tu)» avaxfi/atvay in
ra ui-a >-f 5r^//aTo», Jofepht y^Titiguitat. Lib. V. c. I. ^ 17. ed. Hudfon.
(e) See the collation of the Hebrew and Samaritaii Pentateuch, in the 6th vol. of the London Polyglot, p. 19.
of the Ammadverjlones Samaritica.
(f) To mention only-two examples. i.The common reading, i Cor. xvi. 2. is a""* o-a(?/3aTttv; but the Codex
Pitavian I 3. has Kupiaxn* fn the margin ; and in one of tl^ manufcripts which Beza ufed, this marginal ad-
dition has been obtruded in the text. See his note on this paffage. 2. Another inftance is, i John ii. 27. where
the genuine reading is X!"°'f^^ ; but Wetftein quotes two manufcripts, in which »»:i.At« is vvrittcn in the margin ;
and this marginal reading has found its way not only into the Codex Covelii 2, but i^to" the jSoptic and Ethiopia
SCR
fully fiicwn that ail thefe diverfities may Be accounted
for by natural caufes. It has been reckoned a great
difEculty to explain how folTil fhells were introduced
into the bowels of the earth ; but the deluge explains
this faft better than all, the romantic theories of ph^lo-
fophers. It is impofTible to account for the origin of
fiich a variety of languages in a more falisfaflory man-
ner than is done in the account of the conftifion of
tongues which took place at Babel. It would be no
eafy matter to (hew why the Cea of Sodom is fo differ- '
ent from every other Cea on the globe which has yet
been explored, if we had not pofTefftd the fcriptural ac-
count of the miraculous deftruAiou of Sodom and Go*
morrah. It is fa*urated with bitumen and lalt, and con-
tains no fifhes. Thefe are very fingular fatls, which
have been fully eftablifiied by late travellers. The book,
of Gent'fis, too, has been treated with contempt, be-
caufe it makes the world lefs ancient than is nectlfary
to fupport the theories of modern philofophers, and be-
cauie it is difficult to reconcile the chronolnaies ot fcve-
ral nations with the opinion that the world is not above
6000 or 7000 years old. The Chaldeans, in the time
of Cicero, reckoned up 470,000 years. The Egyp-
tians pretend that they have records extending 50,000
years back ; and the Hindoos go beyond all bounds of
probability, carrying back their chronology, according
to Halhed, more than 7,000,000 of years.
An attempt has been made by M. Bailly, lately
ogy mayor of Paris, to reconcile thefe map,nilied calcula-
tions with the chronology of the Septuagint, which
is juftly preferred to the Hebrew, (See Septuagint.)
He informs us, that the Hindoos, as well as the Chal-
deans and Egyptians, had years of arbitrary determina-
tion. They had months of 15 days, and years of 60
days, or two months. A month is a night and day of the
patriarchs ; a year is a night and day of the gods ; four
thouiand years of the gods are as many hundred years
of men. By attention to fuch modes of computation, the
age of the world will be found very nearly the fame in
the writings of Mofes, and in the calculations and tra-
ditions of the Bramins. With thefe alfo we have a
remarkable coincidence with the Perfian chronology.
Bailly has eftablifhed thefe remarkable cpochas from the
Creation to the Deluge.
The Septuagint gives - - 2256 years.
The Chaldeans . - 2222
The Egyptians - - 2340
The Perfians - * 2000
The Hindoos - - 2000
The Chinefe - - 2300
The fame author has alfo flievvn the fingular coinci-
dence of the age of the world as given by tour diltin<ffc
aiid diftantly fituated people.
The ancient Egyptians, • 5544- years.
The Plindoos, - •
The Perfians - . - 550l.
The Jews, according to Jofephus, - 555^
Plaving made thefe few remarks, to fhew that the fa<fls
recorded in Genelis are not inconfiftent with truth, we
fliall now, by a few obfervations, confirm the evidence,,
from teftimony, that Mofes was the author, and anfwer
the objeftions that feem ftrongeft.
There arifes a great probability, ftorn the book of
Genefia itfelf, that the author lived near the time of Jo-
fcph i for a& we advarice towards the ead of that bock.
I ] SCR
the facts gmdaally bf come more miauta. The materials S:ripturftt
of the antediluvian hiftoiy arc very fcanty. The ac-
count of Abraham is more complete ; but the hiftory
of Jacob and his family is Hill more fully detailed. This
is indeed the cafe with every hiftoiy. In the early part,
the relation is very fliort and general ; but when the hi-
fborian approaches his own time, his materials accumu-
late. It is certain, too, that the hoo^ of Genefis mufl:
have been written before the reft of the Pentateuch ;
for the allufions in the laft four books to the hiftory of
Abraham, of Ifaac, and Jacob, are very frequent. The
fimplicity of the ftyle fhows it to be one of the moft .
ancient of the facred books ; and perhaps its fimilarity
to the ftyle of Mofes would determine a critic to afcribe
it to him. It will be allowed, that no man was better
qualified than Mofes to compofe the hiftory of his an-
eeftors. He was learned in dl'the wiidom of the Egyp-
tians, the moft enlightened nation of his time, and he
had the beft opportunities of obtaining accurate infor-
mation. The Ihort account of the antediluvian world
eould eafily be remembered by Abraham, who might
obtain it from Shem, wh» was his contemporary. To -
Shem it might be conveyed by Methufelah, who wass
340 years old when Adam died. From Abraham to
Mofes, the interval was lefs than 400 years. The fplen-
did promifes made to that patriarch would certainly be
carefully com.municated to each generation, with the
concomitant fafts : and thus the hiftory might be con-
veyed, to Mofes by the moft diftinguiftied perfons. Thr ■
accounts refpedling Jacob and his fon Jofeph might be
given to Mofes by his grandfather Kohath, who muft
have been born long before the defcent to Egypt ; and
Kohath might have heard all the fads refpecting Abra-
ham and Ifaac from Jacob himfelf. Thus we can eafily
point out how Mofes might derive the materials of the
book of Genefis, and efpecially of the laft 38 chapters,
from the moft authentic fource. _
It will now be neceiTary to confider very fhortly the l^^^j^jg^'j''"*
objections that have been fuppofed to prove that Gene-j|^gj,jjj.j(y
fis could not have been written by Mofr:. i. It is ob-of ihe book
jefted, that the author of the firft chapters of Genefis «f 9"'"''^^
muft have lived in Mcfopotamia, as he difcovers a"^^'*^^*^"
knowledge of the rivers that watered Paradife, of the
cities Babylon, Erec!i» Jirfen^ and Calneh ; of the gold
of Pifon ; of the bdt;ilium and onyx ftoire. But if he
could not derive this knowledge from, the wifdi)!n of the
Egyptians, which is far from being improbable, he
might furely obtain it by tradition from Abraham, who
was bom and brought Up beyond the Euphrates. 2. In
Genefis xiv. 14. it is faid, Abraham piirfued the four
confederate kings to Dan, yet that name was not given , .
till after the conqueft of Paleftine *. We anfwer, this^j^^^ xx'iii^
might be inferted by a tranfcriber. But fuch a fuppofi-jg,
tion is not necelfary ; for though we are told in the book
of Judge* that a city originally called Laifll received
then the name of Dan, this does i •it prove that Laifli ;
was the lame city with the Dan which is mentioned in
Genefis. The fame anfwer may be given to the objec*
tion which is brought from Genefis xxxv. 21. where the
tower of Edar is mentioned, which the objedtors fay
was the name of a tower over one of the gates ot Jeru-
falem. But the tower of I'^dar fignifies the tower of the
flocks, which in the paftoral country of Canaan migl\t
be a very common name. 3. The moft formidable
objc'Ctiou 15 derived froHi thefe two pufiagesy Gen, xii. 6.
'♦And;-
SCR [ ] SCR
Scripture, « And die Canaanxte was then in the land." Gen.xxxvi. the wUdemcfs. The divine origin of thefe laws, and the Scrlptui
» "" 3^- " Thefe are the kirgs that reigned over the land of miracles by which they vi'ere lanftioned, muft already — nr-
Edom, be/pre there reigned any king over the children of have been well known to them ; yet a folemn recapitu-
. Ifraei:^ Now, it is certain that neither of thefi2 pal- lation of thefe by the man who had miraculoufly fed the 1
fages could be written by Mofes. We allow they were prefent generation from their infancy, who by the lift-
15
The. book
of £xQdus.
added by a later writer ; but this circumltance cannot
invalidate the evidence which has been already produ-
ced. It does not prove that Mofes was not the author
of the book of Genefis,- but only that the book of Ge-
nefis ha« received two alterations fince his death.
According to Rivet, our Saviour and his Apoftles
have cited 27 paffages verbatim from the book of Ge-
nefiR, and have made ^8 allufions to the fenfe.
ing. up of his hands had procured them vidory in the
day of battle, and who was going to leave the world to
give an account of his conduft to the God of lirael,
could not but make a deep and lafting impreflion on the
minds of all who heard him. He inculcates thefe laws
by the moft powerful motives. He prefents before
them the moft animating rewards, and denounces the
fevereft punifhments to the rebeUious. The prophecies
The book of Exodus contains the hiftory of the If- of Mofes towards the end of this book, concerning the
raelites for about 145 years. It gives an account of the fate of the Jews, their difperfions and calamities, the
flavery of the Ifraelites in Egypt ; of the miracles by conqueft of Jerufalem by the Romans, the miferies of
which they were delivered ; of their paiTage through the befieged, and the prefent ftate of the Jewifli nation,
the Red Sea, and journey through the wildernefs ; of cannot be read without aftonilhment. They are perfpi-
thc folemn promulgation of the Decalogue on Mount cuous and minute, and have been literally accomphfhed.
This book is cited as the produdlion of Mofes by
* Matth.
16
Leviticus.
Sinai, and of the building and furniture of the Taber
nacle. This book is cited by David, by Daniel, and Chrift and his apoftles *.
other facred writers. Twenty-five paflages are quoted
by our Saviour and his apoftles in exprefs words, and
they make 1 9 allufions to the fenfe.
The book of Leviticus contains the hiftory of the from the Pentateuch, and the writings more properly
Ifraelites for one month. It coniifts chiefly of laws, ftyled prophetical, contain a compendium of the Jewifh rhe^hiao-
Indeed, properly fpeaking, it is the code of the Jewifh , hiftory from the death of Mofes, A. M. 2552, to the dc Loks^'
ceremonial and pohtical laws. It defcribes the confe- reformation eftablifhed by Nehemiah after the return
oration of Aaron and his fons, the daring impiety and from the captivity, A. M. 3595, comprehending a pe-
exeraplary punifhment of Nadab and Abihu. It reveals riod of 1043 years.
* ^ Chron
JCXX. 16,
Jerem vii.
42, 23.
ix; 16.
Iv^ek. XX.
Matth.
viii. 4.
Rom. X. 5.
xiii. 9.
a Cor. vi.
16.
Gal. iii. 12
1 Pet. i. 16.
17
Numbers.
f Numb i.
xxvi,
§ Nurrib.
xxiv. 17,
* Jofhua
iv. 1 i.
1 Chron.
xxix- 1 1,
xxxi. 3.
f.zek. XX
13. xliv %■].
Matrh.
jcii. 3.
Johi' vi.
3. IX. 36.
18
Peuteio-
Bonay.
alfo fome prediftions refpefting the puniftiment of the
Ifraelites in cafe of apoftacy ; and contains an affiirance
that every fixth year fliould produce abundance to fup-
port them during the feventh or fabbatical year. This
book is quoted as the produftion of Mofes in feveral
books of fcripture *.
The book of Numbers comprehends the hiftory of the
Ifraelites for a period of about 38 years, reckoning
from the firft day of the fecond month after their de-
parture from Egypt. It contains an account of two
numberings of the people ; the firft in the beginning of
the fecond year of their emigration, the fecond in the
plains of Moab towards the conclulion of their journey
in the wildernefs f. It defcribes -the ceremonies cm-
ployed at the confecration of the tabernacle, gives an
exad journal of the marches and encampments of the
Ifraelites, relates the appointment of the 70 eiders, the
To enable us to difcover the authors of thefe books,
we have no guide to conduft us but conje6ture, inter-
nal evidence, or the authority of the modern Jews.
From the frequent references in Scripture, and from the
teftimony of Jofephus, it appears that the Jews were
in poffeffion of many hiftorical records which might
have thrown much light upon this fubjeft if they had
ftill been preferved. But during the calamities which
befel that infatuated nation in their wars with the Ro-
mans, and the difperfion which followed, thefe writings
have periftied. But though we can produce no tefti.^^^^'"^''^!?
mony more ancient than the age of our Saviour to au-gj^^J^jf^J/"'
thentlcate the hiftorical books, yet there are fome fadts^
refpeaing the mode of their prefervation which entitle
them to credit.' The very circumftance itfelf, that the
Jews have preferved them in the facred volume to this
day, while their other ancient books have been loft, is
miraculous cure performed by the brazen ferpent, and a proof that they confidered them as the genuine re
the mifconduit o! Mofes when he was commanded to
bring water from the rock. There is alfo added an ac-
count of the death of Aaron, of the conqueft of Silion
and Og, and the ftory of Balaam, with his celebrated
prophecy concerning the Mefliah §.
'The book of Numbers is quoted as the work of Mofes
in feveral parts of Scripture *
cords of their nation. Jofephus f, whofe authority is^ Contra,
of great importance, informs us, that it was the pecu- ^/'^''s
liar province of the prophets and priefts to commit to^'''*
writing the annals of the nation, and to pi-eferve them
to potterity. That thefe might be faithfully preferved,
the facerdotal function was made hereditary, and the
greateft cate was obferved to prevent intermarriages
The book of Deuteronomy comprehends a period of either with foreigners or with the other tribes. No
nearly two months. It confifts of an interefting addrefs
to the Ifraelites, in which Mofes recals to their remem-
brance the many inftances of divine favour which they
had experienced, and reproaches them for their ingrati-
tude. He lays, before them, in a compendious form,
the laws which he had formerly dehvered, and makes
could officiate as a prieft who could not prove his de-
fcent in a nght hue by unqueftionable evidence J. Re-t Ezra ii.
gifters were kept in Jerufalem, which at the end of eve-6i,6a.
ry war were regularly revifed by the furviving priefts ;
and new ones were then compofed. As a proof that
this has been faithfully performed, Jofephus adds, that
fome explanatory additions. This was the more necef- the names of all the Jewifh priefts, 'in an uninterrupted
fary, becaufe the Ifraelites, to whom they had been ori- fucceffion from father to fon, had been regiftered for
ginally promulgated, and who had feen the miracles in 2 0:;o years ; tiiat is, from the time of Aaron to the age
Egypt, at the Red Sea, and Mount Sinai, had died in of Jofephus.
The
SCR
Autbeniici
of the
Hebrew
sScfip^ura. "f ii!;; Rativjnal recovr'.s were not Rllowed to W written
"■^ hy auy man who might think himfelt fit for the of-
ilce ; andif^ a pried faliihed them, he was exducled from
t! e altar and deoofed from his office. Thus we are
afTured, the Jewifii' records were committed to tlie charge
of the priefts » and as they may be coiifidered as the
fame family from Aaron to the Babylonifh captivity and
downwards, the fame credit is due to them that would be
due to family records, which by antiquarians are eiteem-
„^ ed the moll authentic fources of information.
the 2 2 books which Jofephus reckoned himfelf
bound to believe, the hiftorical books from the death of
Mofes to the reign of Artaxerxes, he informs us, were
written by contemporary prophets. It appears, then,
that the prophets were the compofers, and the priefts
the hereditary keepers, of the national records. Thus,
the beft provilion polGble was made that they fliould be
written accui'ately, and be preferved uncorrupted. The
principal office of thefe prophets was to inftruft the
people in their duty to God, and occafionally to com-
municate the prediftions of future events. For this
purpofe they were educated in the fchools of the pro-
phets, or in academies where facred learning was
taught. The prophets were therefore the learned men
of their time, and confequfintly were bcfl qualified for
the office of hiftorians. It naay be.objefted, that the
prophets, in concert with the prieils, misjht have forged
any writings they pleafed. But before we fufpefb
that they have done fo in the hiilorical books of the
Old Teftament, we muft find out fome motive which
could induce them to commit dai'ing a crime. But
this is impoffible. No encomiums are made either upqn
the prophets or the priefts ; no adulation to the reign-
ing monarch appears, nor is the favour of the populace
courted. The faults of all ranks are delineated with-
out referve. Indeed there is no hittory extant that has
more the appearance of impartiality. We are prefent- ■
ed with a fimple detail of fafts, and are left to difcover.
the motives and intentions of the feveral characters ;
and when a charafter is drawn, it is done in a few
words, without exaggerating the vices or amplifying
the virtues.
•It is of no real confequcnce, therefore, whether we
(^an afcertain the authors of the different books or not.
From Jofephus we know that they exifted in his time ;
and from his account of the manner in which thty were
preferved we are affiired they were not in danger of
being corrupted. They exifted alfo when the Septua-
gint tranflation was made. Frequent references are
"made to them in the writings of the later prophets ;
fometimes the fame fails are i-elated in detail. In fliort,
there is fuch a coincidence between the hiftorical books
and the writings of thofe prophets who were contempo-
rary, that it is impoffible to fuppofe the latter true
V.'ithout receiving the former.
Indeed, to fuppofe that the Jews could have recei-
ved and preferved with fuch care for fo many hundred
years falfe i-ecords, which it muft have been in the pow-
Tsr of every perfon to difprovo, and which at the fame
time do fo little credit to the charafter of their nation,
Vol. XVII. Part 1.
] s n II
is to fuppofe one of the preateft abfurdities in the Scrlpttrrc.
world ; it is to fuppofe that a whole nation could ad — ^
contrary to all thofe principles which have always pre-
dominated in the human mind, and which muft always
pi-cdominate till human nature undergo a total revolu-
tion. ^ '
The book which, immediately follows the Penta- Joflrua,
teach has been generally afcribed to Joftiua the fuc-
ceffor of Mofes. It contains, however, fome things
which muft have been inferted after the death of Jo-
fhua. It is neceflary to remark, that there is fome ac-
cidental derangement in the order of the chapter-s of
this book, wl»ich was probably occafioned by the an-
cient mode of fixing together a number of rolls. If
chronologically placed, they ffiould be read thus, ift:
chapter to the I oth verfe, then the 2d chapter ; then
from the i cth verfe to the end of the i ft chapter ; af-
terwards ffiould follow the vi. vii. vili. ix x. and xi.
chapters ; then the xxii. ; and laftly the xii. and xiii.
chapters to the 24th verfe of the latter.
Tlie fafts mentioned in this book are i-eferred to by
many of the facred writers §. In >the book of Kingsf. '-Chrott,
xvi. 34. the words of Jofhua are fa id- to be the words of": I
OOd. bee JOSHUA. (.^iv •
By whom the book of Judges was written is uncer-ITa. xxviii,
tain ; but as it contains the hlftory of the Jewifh repub-'^.l' ' '^'^^
he for 317 years, the materials muft have been furniik-^^*^'^-' V
ed by different perfons. The book, however-, fecms to ji.Hxiii. 5,
be the compofition of one individual (o), who hved af- James ii.
ter the regal government was eftabliffied |:, but before the ^ 3 ■ ;
acceffion of David : for it is faid in the 2lft vei-fe of
the I ft chapter, that the Jebufites were ftiU in Jerufa-i-,'!/^. '
lem ; who, we know, were difpoflelTed of that city ear- ' " a.^
]y in the reign of David ^. We have reafon, therefore, J"'^ges._
to afcribe this book to Samuel. ; Jud.xix.rg
The hiftory oFthis book may be divided into twoparrs;^''^ sim,
the firft contains an account of the Judges from Othnielv .6, 8.
to Samfon, ending at the i6th chap. The fecondpart
relates feveral remarkable trairfadions which occurred
foon after the death of Jofhua; but are thrown to the end
oi the book, that they might not interrupt the courfe of
the hiftory. See Judges.
The book of Ruth is a kind of fupplement to thcf^^^^.*
book of Judges, and an introduAion to the hiftory of
David, as it is i-elated in the books of Samuel. Since
the genealogy which it contains defcends to David, it
muft have been written after the birth of that prince,
but not at any confiderable time a' ter it ; for tlie hi-
ftory of Boaz and Ruth, the great-grandfather and
great-grandmother of David, could not be remembei-ed
above two or three generations. As the elder brothers
of David and their fons are omitted, and none of his
own children are mentioned in the genealogy, it is evi-
dent that the book was compofed in honour of the He-
brew monarch, after he was anointed king by Samuel,
and before any of his childi-en were born ; and conft-
qiiently in the ix-ign of Saul. The Jews afcribe it to
Samuel ; and indeed there is no perfoir of that age to
whom it may be attributed with more propriety. We
are infoi-med (t Sam. x. 25.) that Samuel was awritep,
P and
(g) In fupport of this opinion, it may be obferved, that the author, chap. ii. 10, Sec. lays before us the con-
■tents of the book.
SCR
[ 114 ]
SCR
45
The two
b<>ck. of
Samuel.
Scr'ptu -e. and are afTured that no perfpn In the rei,8;n oF Saul was
""■"'"v— ' fo well acquauited with the fplendid profps^ts of David
as the prophet Samuel.
The Greeks denominate the books of Samuel, which
follow next in order, The Books of Kingdoms ; and the
Latins, The Books of Kings I. and II. Anciently there
wore but two books of Kino;s ; the firft was the two
bcxiks of Samuel, and the fccond was what we now call
the two books of Kin^s. According to the prefent
divifinn, thefe two books are four, viz. the firft and fe-
eond books of Samuel, and the firft and fecond books
of Kings,
ConcerninoT' the author of the two b;'')ks of Samuel
there are different opinions. Some think that Samuel
wrote only twenty or twenty-four chapters of the firft
book, and that the hiftory was continued by Nathan
and Gad. This opinion they ground on the following
§ I Chron. paffage in Chronicles §, *' Now the afts of David the
xxix. 25», king, firft and laft, behold they are written in the book
of Samuel- the /ffr, and in the book of Nathan the pro-
phety and Gad the feer^ Others think they were
compiled by Ezra from ancient records ; but it is evi-
dent that the books of Samuel were written before the
books of Kings and Chronicles ; for on comparifon it
will be found, that in the laft mentioned books many
circumftanccs are taken from the former. The firft
book carries dovirn the hiftory of the Ifraelites from the
birth of Samuel to the fatal battle of Gilboa, compre-
hending a period of about 80 years. The fecond re-
lates the hiftory of David from his fucceffion to the
throne of Ifrael till within a year or two of his death,
containing 40 years. There are two beautiful paiTages
in thefe books which every man of fentiment and tafte
muft feel and admire, the lamentation or elegy on Saul
and Jonathan, and the parable of Nathan. The im-
partiality of the hlftorian is fully attefted by the can-
dour and freedom with which the aftions of Saul and
David are related. There are fome remarks interfpcr-
£ed which were probably added by Ezra.
When the two books of Kings were written, or by
whom they were compiled, is uncertain. Some have
fuppofed that David, Solomon, and Hezikiah, wrote the
hiftory of their own times. Others have been of opi-
nion that the prophets, viz. Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Gad, and
Nathan, each of them wrote the hiftory of the reign in
which he lived. But it is generally believed that E-z.ra
wrote thefe two books, and publifhed them in the form
in which we have them at prefent. There can be no
doubt but the prophets drew up the lives of the kings
who reigned in their times ; for the names and writings
of thofe prophets are frequently mentioned, and cited.
Still, however, it is evident that the two books of Kings
are but an abridgment of a larger work, the fubftance
of which is contained in the books before us. In fup-
port of the opinion that Ezra is the author of thefe
books, it is faid, That in the time of the penman, the
ten tribes were captives in Affyria, whither they had
been carried as a punifhment for their fins ; That in the
fecond of thefe books the author makes fome refle61ions
on the calamities of Jfrael and Judah, which demon-
ftrate that he lived after that event. But to this it is
objetled. That the author of thefe books expreffes
himfelf throughout as a contemporary, and as one
would have done who had been an eye and ear witnefs
cf what he related. To this objedlion it is anfwered,
a6
€£ King
That Ezi*a compiled _thefe books from the prophetic Sca^- tur
writings which he had in his pofteftion ; that he copied
them exaftly, narrating the fafts in order as they hap-
pened, and interfperfed in his hiftory fome reflecflions
and remarks arifing from the fubjefts which he hand-
led.
The firft book comprifes a period of t 26 years, from
the death of David to that of Jehofhaphat. The fecond
book records the tranfafllons of many kings of Judah
and Ifrael for the fpace of about 300 yeat-s, from the
death of Jehofhapliat to the deftruclion of Jerufalem and
the temple, A. M. 3416. A. C. 588.
The Hebrews ftyle the two books of Chronicles De- ^7
beri Imim§, i. e. Words of days, journals or diaries, irinicles^^
allufion to thofe ancient journals which appear to have § d>d' ^af
been kept among the Jews. The Greeks call them
Paralipomenfi which fignifies things omitted; as if ^ ,r«faXfi
thefe two books were a kind cf fupplement to inform ,yo^{v«.
us what had been omitted or too much abridged in the
books of Kings. The two books of Chronicles contain
indeed feveral particulars which are not to be met
with in the other books of fcripture : but it is not
therefore to be fuppofed that they are the records of
the kings of Judah and Ifrael, fo often referred to in the
books of Kings. Thofe ancient regifters were appa-
rently much more copious than the books before us ; and
the compiler of the books of Chronicles often refers to
them, and makes long extrafts from them.
Some fuppofe that the author of thefe two books
was the fame with that of the two books of Kings.
The Jews fay that they were written by Ezra, after the
return from the captivity, affifted by Zechariah and
Haggai, who w^ere then alive. But events are men-
tioned in them of fo late a date as to fhow that he could
not have written them in their prefent form ; and there 13
another objeftion to his being their author, which is lit-
tle lefs forcible: between the books of Kings ^iViiS. Chroni-
cles there is a great number of variations both in dates
and fa£ls, which could not have happened if Ezra had
been the author of them, or indeed if they had been the
woi'k of any one perfon.
The books of Chronicles are not to be confidered
merely as an abridgment of former hiftories with fome
ufeful addrtions, but as books written with a particular
view; which feems to have been to furnifti a genealogical
regifter of the twelve tribes, deduced from the earlieft
times, in order to point out thofe diftinftions which
wei'e necefiUry to difcriminate the mixed multitude that
returned from Babylon ; to afcertain the lineage of
Judah ; and to re-eftablifh on their ancient footing the
pretenfions and fundlions of each individual tribe.
The book of Ezra, and alfo that of Nehemiah, ^^^'YhthoiAi
attributed by the ancients to the former of thefe Ezra,
prophets ; and they called them the 1 ft and 2d books
of Efdras ; which title is ftill kept up by the Latin
church. It is indeed highly probable that the former
of thefe books, which comprifes the hlftor}"- of the Jews
froni the time that Cyrus made the decree for their re-
turn until the twentieth year of Ar-taxerxes Longima-
nus (which was about 100 years, or as others think
79 years), was all compofed by Ezra, except the firft fix
chapters, which contain an account of the firft return of
the Jews upon the decree of Cyrus ; whereas Ezra did
not return till the time of Artaxerxes. It is of this
fecond return therefore, that he writes the account ; and
8 adding
SCR [I
rl;.;fiire adding it to the other, which he found ready compofed
to his hand, he made it a complete hiftory of the Jewifh
reftoration.
This book is written in Chaldee from chap. iv. 8. to
chap, vli, 27. As this part of the work chiefly con-
tains letters, converfations, and decrees expreffed in that
language, the fidelity of the hiftorian has probably in-
duced him to take down the very words which were
ufed. The people, too, had been accuftomed to the
Chaldee daring the captivity, and pi-obably underftood
it better than Hebrew ; for it appears from Nehemiah'a
account, chap, viii. 2, 8. that all could not underfland
the law.
Nche- The book of Nehemlah, as has been already obfer-
■i^- ved, bears, in the Latin bibles, the title of the fecond
book of Efdras ; the ancient canons likewife give it the
fame name, becaufe, perhaps, it was confidered as' a
fequel to the book of Ezra. In the Hebrew bibles it
has the name of Nehemlah prefixed to it ; which name is
retained in the En-rlifh bible. But though that chief is
by the writer of the fecond book of Maccabees affirm-
ed to have been the author of it, there cannot, we think,
be a doubt but that either it was written at a later
period, or had additions made to it after Nehemiah's
death.
With the book of Nehemlah the hiftory of the Old
Teftament concludes. This is fuppofed to have taken
place about A. M. 3574. A. C. 434. But Prideaux
with more probabhty has fixed it at A. M. 3595. See
Nehemiah.
hfther '^^ uncertain who was the author of the book of
Efther. Clement of Alexandria, and many commen-
tators, have afcribed it to Mordecai ; and the book itfelf
feems to favour this opinion ; for we are told in chap,
ix. 20. that " Mordecai wrote thefe things." Others
have fuppofed that Ezra was the author ; but the more
15 ] SCR
probable opinion of the Talmudifts is, that the great Scripture.
fynagogue (fee Synagogue), to perpetuate the me-
mory of the deliverance of the Jews from the confpira-
cy of Haman, and to account for the origin of the feaft
of Purim, ordered this book to be compofed, very likely
ot materials left by Mordecai, and afterwards approved
and admitted it into the facred canon. The time when
the events which it relates happened, is fuppofed by
fome to have been in the reign of Artaxerxes Longi-
manus, and by others in that of Darius the Ton of
Hyftafpes, called by the facred penman Ahafuerus.
Concerning the author of the book of Job there are Of Job.
many different opinions. Some have fuppofed that Job
himfelf v/rote it in Syr'iac or Arabity and that it was
afterwards tranflated by Mofes. Others hare thought
that Eithu wrote It ; and by others It is afcribed to
Mofes, to Solomon, to Ifaiah, and to Ezra. To give
even an abridgment of the arguments brought in iup-
port of thefe various opinions would fill a volume, and
at laft leave the reader In his prefent uncertainty. He
who has leifure and inclination to weigh t*hem may
ftudy the fecond feAion of the fixth book of Warbur-
ton's Divine Legation of Mofes, together with the fe-
veral works there referred to ; but the queftlon at ilfue
is of very little importance to us. The book of Job,
by whomfoever it was written, and whether it be a real
hiftory, or a dramatical poem founded on hiftory, has
been always efteemed a portion of canonical fcrlpture»
and Is one of the moft fublime compofitioas in the facred
volume.
The book of Job appears to ftand fingle and unpa-
ralleled In the facred volume. It feems to have little
connection with the other writings of the Hebrews,
and no relation whatever to the affairs of the Ifraelites.
The fcene is laid in Idumsea ( h ) ; the hiftory of an In-
habitant of that country Is the bafis of the narrative ;
P 2 the
(h) " The Information which the learned have endeavoured to colled from the writings and geography of the
Greeks concerning the country and refidence of Job and his friends, appears to me (fays Dr Lovvth) fo very in-
conclufive, that I am inclined to take a quite different method for the iulution of this queftion, by applying fole-
ly to the Sacred Writings : the hints with which they have furniftied me towards the illuftration oi this fubjeft,
I (hall explain as briefly as poffible.
" The land of £/z, or Gnut%, Is evidently Idumaaf as appears from Lam. iv. 21. was the grandfon of Seir
the Horlte, Gen. xxxvi. .20, 21, 28. i. Chrori. I. 38, 42. Seir Inhabited tliat mountainous trad which was
called by his name antecedent to the time of Abraham ; but his pofterlty being expelled, it was occupied by the
Idumaeans : Gen. xlv. 6. Deut. 11. 12. .Two other men are mentioned of the name Uz i one the grandion of
Shem, the other the fon of Nachor, the brother of Abraham ; but whether any diftri6t was called after their
name is not clear. Idumaea is a part of Arabia Petraea, fituated on the louthern extremity of the tribe of
Judah : Numb, xxxiv. 3. Jofti. xv. i, 21. The land of Uz therefore appears to have been between Egypt and
Philiftia, Jer. xxv. 20. where the order of the places feems to have been accurately obfervcd in reviewing the
different nations from Egypt to Babylon ; and the fame people feem again to be defciibed in exadly the fame
fttuations, Jer. xlvi— 1.
<' Children, of the Eajl, or Eajlern people, feems to have been the general appellation for that mingled race of peo-
ple (as they are called, Jer. xxv. 20.) who inhabited between Egypt and the Euphrates, bordering upon judea from
the fouth to the eaft j the Idumseans, the Amalekites, the Miuianltcs, the Moabites, the Ammonites. See Judgess
vi. 3. and Ifa. xi. 14. Of thefe the Iduma-ans and Amalekites ceitainly pofieffed the fouthern parts. Sec Numb,
xxxiv. 3, xlii. 29. 1 Sam. xxvii. 8, 10. This appears to be the true Itate of the cafe : The whole region be-
tween Egypt and Euphrates was called the Eaft, at nift In refped to Egypt (where the learned Jof. Mede
thinks the Ifrathtes acquired this mode oflpeakiug. Mede's IVorks, p. 580. j, and afterwards abfolutely and with-
out any relation to fituation or circumftances. Abraham is laid to have fent the fo'ns of his concubines, Hagar and
Keturah, " eaftward, to the country which is commonly called the Eaft." Gen. xxv. 6. where the name of the
region feems to have been derived trom the fame fituation. Solomon is reported " to have excelled in wifdom
all the Eaftern people, and all Egypt," i Kings iv. .3c. ; that is, all the neighbouring people on that quarter : for
-ther-e
SCR [ 116 1 SCR
own aftions and fentlments. He is holy, devout, and Sc.Ipt
moil pioufly and reverently impreffed with the facred — "
awe of his divine Creator ; he is alfo upright, and con-
fcious of his own integrity; he is patient of evil, and
yet very remote from that infenfibfiity or rather ftupi-
dity to which the Stoic fchool pretended. Oppreffed
therefore with unparalleled misfortunes, he lameacs his
mifery, and even wiflies a rekafe by death ; in other
words, lie obeys, and gives place to the diftates of na-
ture. Irritated, however, by the unjuft infinuations and
the levere reproaches ot his pretended friends, he is more
vehemently exafpcrated, and the too great confidence
in his own righteoufnefs leads him to expoilulate with
God in terms fcarcely confiftent with piety and llridl
decorum.
It muft be obferved, that the firft fpeech of Job,
though it burfts forth with all the vehemence of paflion,
coflfifts wholly of complaint, " the words and fenti-
ments of a defpairing perfon, empty as the wind * 'j^b
which
there were people beyond the boundaries of Egypt, and bordering on the fouth of Judea, who were famous for
v.'ifdom, namely, the Idumaeans (fee Jer. xllx. 7. Ob, 8.), to whom we may well beheve this pafiage might have
fome relation. Thus Jehovah addrefles the Babylonians ; " Afife, aicend unto Kedar, and lay walle the chil-
dren of the Eaft," (Jer. xlix. 28). notwithftanding thefe were really fituatedto the well of Babylon. Although
Job, therefore, be accounted one of the orientals, it by no means follows that his refidence muil be in Arabia
Deferta.
" EUpha-z the Temnmte was the fon of Efau, and Teman the fon of Eliphaz, (Gen. xxxvi. 10, 11.), I'he
Eliphaz of Job was without a doubt of this race. Teman is certainly a city of Idumaea, (Jer. xlix, 7, 20,
Ezek. XXV. 13. Amos i. 11, 12. Ob. 8, 9.).
^' Bildad X\mi Sbuhite : Shuah was one of the fons of Abraham by Keturah, whofe pofterity were numbered among
the people of the Eail, and his fituation was probably contiguous to that of his brother Midian, and of his ne-
phews Shebah and Dedan, (fee Gen. xxv. 2, and 3.) Dedan is a city of Idumrea (Jer. xlix. 8.), and feems to-
have been fituated on the eailern fide, as Teman was on the weft, (Ezek. xxv. 13.). From Sheba originated
the Sab^ans in the pafiage from Arabia Felix to the Red Sea: Sheba is united to Midian (Ifa. Ix. 6.); it is in
the fame region however with Midian, and not far from Mount Horeb, (Exod. ii. 15. iii. i.)
<■<■ Zophar\\\.zNaamath'Ue : among the cities which by lot fell to the tribe of Judah, in the neighbourhood of
Idumsea, Naama is enumerated, (Jofii. xv. 21, 41.) Nor does this name elfewhere occur; this probably was the
country of Zophar.
" FA'ihu the Bu%ite : Buz occurs but once as the name of a place or country (Jer. xxv. 23.), where it is men-
tioned along with Dedan and Thema : Dedan, as was juft now demonllrated, is a city of Idumaea ; Therna
beloncred to the children of Iflimael, who are faid to have inhabited from Havilah, even to Shur, which is iu
the diftridl of Egypt, (Gen. xxv. 19. 18.) Saul, however, is faid to have fmitten the Amalekites from Havi-
lah even to Shur, which is in the diftrift of Egypt, (i Sam. xv. 7.) Havilah cannot, therefore, be very far
from the boundaries of the Amalekites ; but the Amalekites never exceeded the boundaries of Arabia Petrasa.
(See Reland Palasflin. lib. i. c. xiv.) Thema, therefore, lay fomevvhere between Havilah and the defert of Shur,
to the fouthward of Judea. Thema is alfo mentioned in connexion with Sheba, (Job vi. 19,)
" Upon a fair review of thefc fads, I think we may venture to conclude, ftill with that modetty which fuch a
queftion demands, that Job was an inhabitant of Arabia Petraea, as well as his friends, or at leaft of that neigh-
bourhood. To this folution one objeAion may be railed : it may be allced, How the Chaldeans, who lived on
the borders of the Euphrates, could make depredations on the camels of Job, who lived in Idumcca at fo great a
(llftance ? This too is thought a fufficient caufe for affigning Job a fituation in Arabia Deferta, and not far from
the Euphrates. But what fliould prevent the Chaldeans, as well as the Sabasans, a people addided to rapine, and
rovino- about at immenfe diftances for the fake of plunder, from wandering through thefe defencelefs regions, which
v^ere divided into tribes and families rather than into nations, and pervading from Euphrates even to Egypt ?
Further, I would aflc on the other hand, whether it be probable that all the friends of Job who lived in Idumasa
and its neighbourhood, fhould inftantly be inf^"orraed of all that could happen to Job in the defert of Arabia
and on the "confines of Chaldea, and immediately repair thither ? Or whether it be reafonable to think, that, fome
of them being inhabitants of Arabia Deferta, it fliould be concerted among them to meet at the refidence of Jyb ;
fmce it is evident, that Eliphaz lived at Theman, in the extreme parts of Idumaea ? With refpeft to the /iifitas
of Ptolemy (for fo it is written, and not Aujttas) it has no agreement, not fo much as in a fingle letter with the
Hebrew (Jnut-x. The LXX indeed call that country by the name Jufithia, but they defcribe it as fituated in
Idumsa ; and they account Job himfelf an Idumaean, and a defcendant of Efau." See the Appendix of the
3^XX to the book of Job, and Hyde Not. in Peritzol. chap. xi. hoivlh on Hebrew Poetry.
Sc'i; ture, tjjg characlers who fpeak are IdumosanS) or at leaft Ara-
* blans of the adjacent countr}', all originally of the race of
Abraham. The language is pure Hebrew, although
the author appears to be an Idumaean ; for it is not
improbable that all the pofteiity of Abraham, Ifraelites,
Idumaeans, and Arabians, whether of the family of Ke-
turah or Ifhmael, fpoke for a confiderable length of time
one common language. That the Idumasans, however,
and the Temanites in particular, were eminent for the
reputation of wifdom, appears by the teftimony of the
^ Jer .x^iy. prophets Jeremiah- and Obadiah ^ : Baruch alfo parti-
7. Ob. 8. cularly mentions them among ".the authors (or ex-
pounders) of fables, and fearchers out of underftand-
§ B.iruch ing
ill. 22, 23. Xhe principal perfonage in this poem is Job ; and in
The"cha- ^'^^ charafter is meant to be exhibited (as far as is con-
racf^er of fiftent with human infirmity) an example of perfeft
Job. virtue. This is intimated in the argument or intro-
diiftion, but is ftill more eminently difplayed by his
SCR [ 1.17 J sen
wluch IS Indeed the apology that he immediately makes Kay mine enemy be as the impious man, _ Scriptw.
And. he that l ifeth up agaiait me a3 the wicked t] , ■^7m'~*^"~~'^
for hii conduft ; intimating, that he is far from prefii-
mino; to plead with God, far from daring to call in quci-
tion the divine decrees, or even to mention his own in-
nocence in the prefence of his all-juft Creator : nor is
there any good reafon for the cenfure which has been
paffed by fome commentators upon this paflagc. The
poet feems, with great judgment and ingenuity, to have
performed in this what the nature of his work required.
He h?.s depided the aiHiflion and anguilli of Job, as
flowing from his wounded heart in a manner fo agree-
able to human nature (and ce'rtainly fo far venial), that
it may be truly faid, " in all this Job finned not with
Iiis lips." It is, neverthelefs, embeUifheJ by fuch af-
fetling imagery, and infpired with fuch a warmth and
force of fentiment, that we find it afforded ample fcope
for calumny ; nor did the unkind witneiles of his fuffer-
iiigs permit fo fair an opportunity to efcape. The
occafion is eagerly embraced by Eliphaz to rebuke the
impatience of Job ; and, not fatisfied with this, he pro-
ceeds to accufe him in direft, terms of wanting forti-
tude, and obliquely to infmuate fomething of a deeper
dye. Though deeply hurt with the coarl'e reproaches
of Eliphaz, Hill, however, when Job afterwards com-
plains of the feverity of God, he cautioufly refrains
from violent expollulatlons with his Creator, and, con-
tented with tli-e fimple expreffion of afHiction, he humbly
. confeffes himfelf a fuiner 5[, Hence it is evident^ that
thofe vehement and perverfe atteftations of his inno-
cence, thofe murmurs againft the divine Providence,,
which his tottering virtue afterwards permits, are to be
confidered merely as the confequences of momentary
paffion, and not as the ordinary effefts of his fettled
charaAer or manners. They prove him at the very
worft not an irreligious man, but a man poffeflcd of in-
tegrity, and too confident of it ; a man oppreffed with
almoft every imaginable evil, both corporal and mental,
and hurried beyond the limits of virtue by the ftrong
influence of pain and aflliftion. When, on the con-
trary, his importunate vifitors abandon by filence the
caufe which they had fo wantonly and fo maliciouilj^
maintained, and ceafe unjuftly to load him with un-
merited criminations ; though he defends his argument
with fcarcely lefs obftinacy, yet the veliemence of his
grief appears gradually to fubfide;. he returns to himfelf,
and explains his fentiments with more candour and fe-
datenefs : and Irowever we may blame him for affuming
rather too much of arrogance in his appeals to the Al-
mighty, certainly his defence againfb the accufations of
EHphaz is no more than the occafion will itrittly julti-
fy, Obferve, in the firft place, how admirably the con-
fidence and perfeverance of Job is difplayed in replying
to the flander of his falfe fritnds:
As God liveth, who hath removed my judgment ;
Nay, as the Almighty liveth, who hath embittered my
foul ;
Verily as long as I have life in me,
And the breath of God is in my noftrils ;
My lips fhall not fpcak perverfity.
Neither fhall my tongue whifper prevarication.
God forbid that I ihould declare you righteous !
'IaW I expire I will not remove my integrity from me.
I have fortified myftlf in my righteoufnefs, .
And I will not give up my ftatian :
My heart fhall not upbraid me as long as I live.
y Chap.
But how magnificent, how noble, how inviting and * 7<>-
beautiful is that image of virtue in which he delineates
his pafl life ! What dignity and authority does heleem
to poffefs !
If I came out to the gate, nigh the place of public rc'
fort,
If I took up my feat in the ftreet ;
The young men faw me, and they hid themfelves ;
Nay, the very old men rofe up and ftood.
The princes refrained talking,
Niiy, they laid their hands on their mouths.
'Jlienoblesheldtfieirper.ee,
And their tongue cleaved to the roof of their mouth ff.fChap.
XJCIX.7 10),
What liberality ! what a promptitude in beneficence 1
Becaufe the ear heard, therefore it bleffed me ;
The eye alfofaw, therefore it bare teftimony for me.
That I delivered the poor who cried.
The orphan alfo, and him who had no helper.
I'he blcifing of him who was ready to penfh came upon
me.
And I caufed the heart of the widow to fing for joy
What fandity, what integrity in a judicial capacity ! ,3.
I put on righteoufnefs, and it clothed me like a robe ;
My julllce alfo was a diadem.
I was a father to the poor,
■And the con4:roverfy which I knew not, I fearched it
out.
Then brake I the g-rinders of the oppreffor,
And I plucked the prey out of his teeth^. f Chap*
But what can be more engaging than the purity of his
devotion, and his reverence for the Supreme Being,
founded upon the beft and mofl philofophical princi-
ples ? Befides that through the whole there runsaflrajn
of the moft amiable tendernefs and humanity :
For what is the portion which God diftributeth from,
above,
And the inheritance of the Almighty from on high ?
Is it not deflrudion to the wicked.
And banifhmerlt from their country to the doers of ini-
quity ?
Doth he not fee my ways ?
And numbereth he not all my fteps ?
If I fliould defpife the caufe of my fervant.
Or my maid, when they had a controverfy with me,
What then fliould I do when God arifeth.
And when he vifiteth, what anfwer could I make him ?
Did not he who formed me in the belly form him,
And did not one fafhlon us in the womb 1| i ^ ^j^^^
The three friends are exadly fuch charaders as the ^^'^ ^ 4*
nature of the poem required. They are fevere, irrita-
ble, malignant cenfors, readily and with apparent fatis- charaiflers
fadion devialtlng from the purpofe of confolatioa into of his three
reproof and contumely. Even from the very firft they friends,
manifeft this evil propenfity, and indicate what is to be
expeded from them. The firil of them, indeed, in the
opening of his harangue, aflumes an air of candour ;
Wouldft thou take it unkindly that one fhould effay to
fpeak to thee 5[ ? 5 Chag*
ladignaticu'''"
•Scfipturft.
4 Chap,
'viii. a.
* Chap.
■4i 2, 3.
_ 35
Cf Elihu,
•Sentiments
'of ihe
poem of
Job.
3 Chap,
siv. I, 2,
SCR f II
tn^ignatlon is, however, inllantly predominant :
But a few words who can forbear ?
The fecond flames forth at once :
How lohg wilt thou trifle in this mannet ?
How Ion? fliall the words of thy mouth be as a mighty
wind jj ?
But remark the third :
Shall not the matter of words be anfwered ?
Or fliall a man be acquitted for his fine fpeeches ?
Shall thy prevarications make men filent ?
Shalt thou even feoff, and there be no one to make thee
afhamed * ?
The lenity and moderjition of Eliliu ferves as a beau-
tiful contraft to the intemperance and afpertty of the
other three. He is pious, mild, and equitable ; equal-
ly free from adulation and feverity ; artd endued with
fingular wifdom, which he attributes entirely to the infpi-
ration of God : and his uiodefty, moderation) and wif-
dom, are the more entitled to commendation when we
tonfider his unripe youth. As the characters of his
detradtors were in all refpefts calculated to inftame the
mind of Job, that of this arbitrator is admirably adapted
to footh and compofe it: to this point the whole drift
of the argument tends, and on this the very pui-port of
it feems to depend.
Another circumfl:ance deferving" particular attention
in a poem of this kind, is the fentiment ; which muft be
Agreeable to the fubjeft, and embellidied with proper
exprefiion. It is by Ariftotle enumerated among the
effentials of a dramatic poem ; not indeed as peculiar to
that fpecies of poetry alone, but as common, and of the
greatell importance, to all. Manners or charadter are
elfential only to that poetry in which living perfons are
introduced ; and all fuch poems muft afford an exadi
reprefentation of human rhanners : but fentiment is
effential to every poem, indeed to every compofition
whatever. It refpedts both perfons and things. As far
tis it regards perfons, it is particularly concerned in the
delineation of the manners and paffions : and thofe in-
flances to which we have juft been adverting are fenti-
ments cxpreffive of manners. Thofe which relate to the
tlelineation of the pafTions, and to the defcription of
other objefts, yet remain unnoticed.
The , poem of Job abounds chiefly in the more vehe-
ment palTions, grief and anger, indignation and violent
contention. It is adapted in every refpeft to the in-
citement of terror ; andj as the fpecimens already quo-
ted will fufficiently prove, is univerfally animated with
the true fpirit ot fublimity. It is however not wanting
in the gentler affections. The foUov^^lng complaintSj for
infl:ance, are replete with an affedting fpirit of Aitlan-
choly :
Man, the offspring of a woman,
Is of few days, and full of inquietude ;
He fpringeth up, and is cut off like a flower ;
He fleeteth Hke a fliadow, and doth not abide i
Upon fuch a creature doft thou open thine eyes ?
And wilt thou bring even me into judgment with thee?
Turn thy look from him, that he may have fome re-
fpite,
Till he fliall, like a hireling, have completed his day f].
ST.. SCR
The whole paffage abounds with 'the moft beautiful Sen;
imagery, and is a moft perfedt fpecimen of the Elegiac. ^
His grief aftervvards becomes more fervent ; but is at
the fame time foft and querimonious.
How long will ye vex my foul,
And tire me with vain harangues?
Theie ten times have ye loaded me with reproaches,
Are ye not afliamed that ye ai'e fo obltinate againfi me ?
Pity me, O pity me, ye are my friends,
For the hand of God hath fmitten me.
Why will you be my pcrfecutors as well as God,
And therefore will ye not be fatisfled with mvflefli f > ' ^'^
^ ■ xix, z,
The ardour and alacrity of the war-horfe, and his*''^2<
eagernefs for battle, is painted with a mafterly hand : , 37
^ Its fubli
For-eagernefs and fury he devoureth the very ground : ^^^Y'
He believeth it Hot when he heareth the trumpet.
When the trumpet foundeth, he faith, ahah !
Yea he fcenteth the battle from afar,
The thunder of the chieftains and their flioutsf . -
The following fublime defcription of the creation is*'"''^' ^
admirable:
Where wafl; thou when I laid the foundations of th^
earth ?
.If thou knoweft, declare.
Say, who fixed the proportioiis of it, for furely thou
knoweft ?
Or who ftretched out the line upon it ?
Upon what were its foundations fixed ?
Or who laid the corner-ftone thereof?
When the nriorning-ftars fung together,
And all the fons of God fliouted for joy ;
When the fea was fhut up with doors ;
When it burft forth as an infant that tometh out of
the womb ;
When I placed the cloud for its robe,
And thick darknefs for its fwadling-band;
When I fixed my boundary againft it,
When I placed a bar and gates;
When I faid, Thus far {halt thou comcj and not ad-
vance, '
And here fliall a flop be put to the pride of thy waves :f. fjoh x
Let it fuffice to fay, that the dignity of the ftyle is^
anfwerable to that of the fubjedl ; its force and energyj
to the greatnefs of thofe pailions which it defcribes :
and as this produdtion excels all the other remains of
the Hebrew poetry in economy and arrangement, fo it
yields to none in fublimity of ftyle and in every oracc
and excellence of compofition. Among the principal of
thefe may be accounted the accurate and perfedtly poe-
tical conformation of the fenteijees, which is indeed ge-
nerally moft obfervable in the moft ancient of the poeti-
cal cdmpofitions of the Hebrews. Here, however, as is
natural and proper in a poem of fo great len gth and
fublimity, the writer's fliill is difplayed in the proper
adjuftment of the period, and in the accurate diftribu-
tion of the members, rather than in the antithefis of
words, or in any laboUred adaptation of the paralle-
lifms.
The woi'd P/a/ms Is a Greek term, and fignines Songs. The boo
The Hebrews call it Seper Te/je//m§, that is, "the Book ^^^^^
of Praifes ;" and in the Gofpel it is ftyled the Book of^°'""^'^
Pfalms. Great veneration has always been paid to this
cdledikiii
SCR r II
pniK colleftlon of divine fongs. The Chriftian church has
~" from the beginning; made them a principal part of her
holy fervices ; and in the primitive times it v^as almoil
a general rule that every bifhop, prieft, and religious
perfon, fhould have the pfalter by heart.
Many learned fathers, and not a few of the moderns,
have maintained that David was th« author of them all.
Several are of a different opinion, and infill that David
wrote only 72 of them ; and that thofe without titles
are to be afcribed to the authors of the preceding pfalms,
- . whofe names are affixed to them. Thofe who fuppofe
that David alone was the author, contend, that in the
New Teftament, and in the language of the church uni-
verfal, they are exprefsly called the Pfalms of David.
That David was the principal author of thefe hymns is
univerfally acknowledged, and therefore the whole col-
leftion may properly enough go under his name ; but
that he wrote them all, is a palpable miftake. Nothing
certain can be gathered from the titles ot the pfalms ;
for although unqueftionably very ancient, yet authors
are not agreed as to their authority, and they differ as
much about their fignification. The liebrew doftors
generally agree that the 9 2d pfalm was compofed by
35 Adam ; an opinion which for many reafons we are not
Itten by inclined to adopt. Inhere feems, however, to be no
crent doubt but that fome of them were written by Mofes ;
^°"* that Solomon was the author of the 49th ; and that
others were occafioned by events long pofterior to the
flourifhing era of the kingdom of Judah. Tlie 137th
particularly is ojie of thofe which mentions the captivi-
ty of Babylon.
The following arrangement of the' Pfalms, after a
careful and judicious examination, has been adopted by
Calmet.
J . Eight Pfalms of which the date is uncertain, viz.
1,4,19,81,91,110, 139,145. The firft of thefe
was compofed by David or Ezra, and was fung in the
temple at the feaft of trumpets held in the beginning
ef the year and at the feaft of tabernacles. The 8 ill
13 attributed to Afaph, and i loth to David. The au-
thors of the reft are unknown.
2. The Pfalms compofed by David during the per-
fecution of Saul. Thefe are feventeen, 11, 31,34,
56, 16, 54, 52, I09» 17, 22, 35, 57, 58, 142, 140,
141, 7- ...
3. The Pfalms compofed by David at the begmnmg
of his reign, and after the death of Saul. Thefe are
fixteen, 2,9,24, 63, loi, 29,, zo, 21, 28, 39, 40, 41,
5i> S2. 33-
4. The Pfalms written by David during the rebellion
©f Abfalom are eight in number; 3, 4, 55, 62, 70, 71,
5. The Pfalms written between the death of Abfa-
lom and the captivity, which are ten, 18, 30, 72, 45,
78, 82, 83, 76, 74, 79: of thefe David wrote only
three; 18, 30, and 72.
6. The Pfalms compofed during the captivity, which
a-mount to forty. Thefe were chiefly compofed by the
dffcendants of Afaph and Korah ; they are, 10, iti, 13,
H» 53> 15' 25, 26,. 27,. 28, 36, 37,. 42, 43, 44, 49,
9 1
SCR
50, 6d, 64, 69, 73, 75, 77, 80, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, Scripture.
92» 93' 94'^95» 99> '20, 121, 123, 130, 131, 132. _
Laftly, Thofe hymss of joy and thankfgiving, writ-
ten upon the releafe from the Babylonifh captivity, and
at the building and dedication of the temple. Thefe
are, 122, 61, 63, 124, 23, 87, 85, 46, 47, 48, frona
96 to 117 inclufivc, 126, 133 to 137 inclufive, 149,
1 50, 146, 147, 148, 59, 65, 66, 67, 118, 125,
127, 128, 129, 138. — According to this diftribution,
only 45 are pofitively affigned to David.
jofephus, and moll of the ancient writers, afTert, that
the Pfahns vv^ere compofed In numbers : little, however,
refpefting the nature and principles of the Hebrew^
verfification is known.
There exifted a certain kind of poetry among the Obferva ■
Hebrews, principally intended, it fhould feem, for the"onson the
affiflance of the memory; in which, when there was '^^^'"^^
little conneftion between the fentlments, a fort of or-^'"^^*^^'
der or method was preferved, by the initial letters of
each Hue or ftanza following the order of the alphabet.
Of this there are feveral examples extant among the
facred poems (i) ; and in thefe examples the verfes are
fo exaftly marked and defined, that it is impoflible to
iniftake tliem for profe ; and particularly if we atten-
tively confider the verfes, and compare them with one
another, fince they are in general fo regularly accommo-
dated, that word anfwers to word, and almoft fyllable
to fyllable. This being the cafe, though an appeal
can fcarcely be made to the ear on this occafion, the
eye itfelf will diftlnguifti the poetic divifton and arrange-
ment, and alfo that fome labour and accuracy has been
employed m adapting the words to the meafure.
The Hebrew poetry has likewife another property
altogether peculiar to metrical compofitlon. It admits
foreign words and certain particles, which feldom occur in
profe compofition, and thus forms a diftin6l poetical dia-
ledl. One or two of the peculiarities alfo of the Hebrewr
verfification it may be proper to remark, which as they
are very obfervable in thofe poems in which the verfes
are defined by the initial lettera, may at leaft be reafon-
ably conjeftured of the reft. The firft of thefe is, that
the verfes are very unequal in length ; the fhorteft con-
fifting of fix or feven fyllables ; the longeft extending
to about twice that number : the fame poem is, how-
ever, generally continued [hroughqut in verfes not very
unequal to each other. It muft alfo be obferved, that
the clofe of the verfe generally falls where the menibere
of the fentences are divided.
But although nothing certain can be defined con-
cerning the metre of the particular verfes, there is yet
another artifice of poetry to be remarked of them when
in a colleftive ftate, when feveral of them are taken to-
gether. In the Hebrew poetry, as is before remarked,
there may be obferved a certain conformation of the
fentences ; the nature of which is, that a complete fenfe
is almoft equally infufed into every component part, and
that every member conftitutes an entire verfe. So that
as the poems divide themfelves in a manner fpontane-
oufly into periods, for the moft part equal ; fo the pe-
riods themfelves are divided into verfes, moft common-
ly
(i) Pfalms xxv. xxxiv. xxxvii. cxi. cxii. cxix. cxlv. Prov. xxxi. from the lOth verfe to the end. The whols;.:
af the Lamentations of Jeremiah except the laft chapter, ^
SCR
[ 120 1
SCR
4 J
Peculia'
ties of i
•Scripture. ly couplt;ts, thoujrh freqiieatly of greater lenjjth. This
is chiefly obfervable in thofe pafTa'^es which frequently
occur ill the Hebrew poetry, in which they treat one
fubjeft ill many different ways, and dwell upon the fame
ientimeiit ; when they exprefs the fame thing in diffe-
rent words, or different things in a fimilar form of
words; when equals refer to equals, and oppofites ta
oppofitcs : and fmce this artifice of compofition feldora
jails to produce even in profe an agreeable and meafii-
r(;d cadence — we can fcarcely doubt that it niuft have
imparted to their poetry, were we mafters of the verfi-
licat'ion, an exquif.te degree of beauty and grace.
The degant and ingenious Dr Lovvth bas with great
acutenefi examined the peculiarities of Hebrew poetry,
and has arranged them under frenerai divifions. The
correlpondence of one verfe or line with another he calls
paraUtl':fm. When a proportion is delivered, and 2 fe-
c<ind is fubjoir.ed to it, equivalent or contrafted with it
in fer.fe, or fimilar to it in the form of grammatical
conltruAion, thefe he calls parallel lines^ and the words
or phrafes anfwering one to another in the correfpond-
ing lines, parallel terms. Parallel lines he reduces to
three forts ; parallels fynonymous, parallels antithetic,
and parallels fynthetic. Of eacli of thefe we fiiall pie-
fent a few examples.
Firfl, of parallel lines Ivnonymous, which conefpond
one to another by expreffing the fame fenfe in different
but equivalent terms.
0- Jehovah, in-thy-ftrength the-klng Ihall-rejoice ;
And-in-thy-falvation how greatly fhall-he-exult !
The-defire of-his-heart thou-haft-granted unto-him ;
And-the-requell of-his-hps thou-haft-not denied.
Pf. xxi. I. 2,
Becaufe I-called, and-ye-refufed ;
1- ftretched-out my-hand, and-no-one regarded:
But-ye-have-defeated all my-counfel ;
And-would-not incline to-my-reproof ;
T alfo will-laugh at-y our- calamity ;
l-wlll-mock, when-what-you-feared cometh ;
V/hen-what-you-feared cometh like-a-devallation ;
And-your-calamity advanceth like-a-tempeft ;
When diftrefs and-angiiifh com.e upon-you :
Thtjn lhall they-call-upon-me, but-I-will-not anfwer ;
They-fliall-feek-me-early, but-they-fliall-not find-me :
Becaufe they-hated knowledge ;
And-did-not choofe the-fear of-Jehovah ;
Did-not incline to-my-counfel ;
Contemptuoufly-rejefted all iny-reproof ;
Therefore-fhall-they-eat of-the-fruit of-their-waj s ;
And-ffiall be-fatiated with-their-own-devices.
For the-defe£fion pf-the-hmple fliall- flay -them ;
And-the-fecurity of-fools ffiall-deftroy them.
Prov. i. 24. — 32.
Seek-ye Jehovah, while-hc-may-be-found ;
Call-ye-upon him, while-he-is near ;
Jjet-the-wlcked forfake his-way ;
And-the-unrighteous man his-thoughts :
.\nd-Iet-him return to Jehovah, and-he-wlU-compafllon-
ate-hiiri ;
And unto our-God, for he-aboundeth in forgivenefs ( k).
Ifaiah Iv. 6. 7.
Thefe fynonymous parallels fometimes confift of two,
of ihree, or more fynonymous terms, Soinetiraea they 5cr:p
are formed by a repetition of part of the fu ll fentence:
As,
What fhall I do unto thee, O Ephraim !
Wiiat (Irall I do unto thee, O Judah !
For your goodnefs is as the morning cloud.
And as the early dew it paffeth away.
Hofea vi. 4.
I'he foFlowing is a beautiful infbance of a parallel
triplet, when three lines correfpond ajid form a kind of
ttanza, of which two only are fynonymous.
That day, let It become darknefs ;
Let not God from above inquire after it ;
Nor let the flowing light radiate upon it.
That night, let utter darknefs feize it ;
Let it not be united with the days oF the year ;
Let it not come into the number of the months.
Let the flars of its twilight be darkened :
Let it look for light, and may there be none ;
And let it not behold the eyelids of the morning.
Job iii. 4, 6, 9.
The fecondfbrt of parallels are the antithetic, when
two lines correfpond with one another by an oppofition
of terms and fentiment? ; when the fecond is contraited
with the fifft, fometimes in expreflions, fometimes in
fenfe only. Accordingly the degrees of antithelis are
various : from an exaft contrapotition of word to word
through the whole fentence, down to a general difparity,
with fomething of a contrariety, in the two propoli-
tions. Thus in the following examples ;
A wife fon rejolceth liis father ;
But a foolifh fon is the grief of his mother.
Prov. X. r.
Where every word hath its oppofite : for the term.,?
father and mothar are, as the logicians fay, relatively op-
pofite.
The memory of the jufl is a blefTing ;
But the name of the wicked fhall rot. Prov. x. 7.
Here there are only two antithetic terms : for memory
and name are fynenymoas.
There is that fcattereth, and ftill increafeth ;
And that is unreafonably fparing, yet groweth poor.
Prov. xi. 24.
Here there is a kind of double antithefis ; one between
the two lines themfclves ; and likewife a fubordinate op«
jx)fition between the two parts of each.
Thefe in chariots, and thofe in horfes ;
But we in the name of Jehovah our God will be ftrong.
They are bowed down, and fallen ;
But we are rifen, and maintain ourfelves firm.
Pf. XX. 7, 8.
For his wrath is but for a moment, his favour for life;
Sorrow may lodge for the evening, but in the morning
gladnefs. Pf. xxx. 5.
Yet 2 little while, and the wicked fhall ht no more ;
Thou fhalt look at his place, and he fhall not be found :
But the meek fhall inherit thejand ;
And delight themfelves in abundant profperity.
Pf. xxxvii. 10, I r.
In
(k) All the words bound together by hyphens anfwer to lingle words in Hebrew.
SCR
In the laft cKample the oppofition l!e« between the two
parts of a ftanza of four lines, the latter diftich being
oppofed to the former. So lil^ewife the following :
For the mountains fhall be removed j
And the hills fnall be overthrown:
But my kindnefs from thee (hall not be removed ;
And the covenant of my peace fhall not be overthrown.
Ifaiah liv. lo.
Ifaiah by means of the antithetic parallelifm, without
departing from his ufual dignity, adds greatly to the
fweetnefs of his compofition in the following inftances:
In a little anger have I forfaken thee ;
But with great mercies will I receive thee again :
In a (hort wrath I hid my face for a moment from thee ;
But with everlafting kindnefs will I have mercy on thee.
Ifaiah liv. 7, 8.
Behold my fervants fhall eat, but ye (hall be famifhed ;
Behold my fervants (hall drink, but ye fhall be thirfty ;
Behold my fervants (hall rejoice, but ye (hall be con-
founded ;
Behold my fervants fhall fmg aloud, for gladnefs of
heart,
But ye fhall cry aloud for grief of heart ;
And in the anguifh of a broken fpirit fhall ye howl.
Ifaiah Ixv. 13, 14.
"Frequently one line or member containi two fenti-
ttients :
The nations raged; the kingdoms were moved;
He uttered a voice ; the earth was difTolved :
Be ftill, and know that I am God :
I will be exalted in the nations, I will be exalted in the
earth. Pf. xlvi. 6. i o.
When thou paffefi through waters I am with thee ;
And through rivers, they fhall not overwhelm thee :
When thou walkeft in the fire thou flialt not be fcorched;
And the flame fhall not cleave to thee.
Ifaiah xllii. 2.
The third fort of parallels is the fynthetic or con-
ilruftive : where the pai-allelifm confifls only in the fi-
milar form of conflruftion ; in which word does not
anfwer to word, and fentence to fentence, as equivalent
or oppofite ; but there is a correfpondence and equality
between different propofitions, in refpeft of the fhape
and turn of the whole fentence, and of the conftruftive
parts ; fuch as noun anfwering to noun, verb to verb,
Wiember to member, negative to negative, interrogative
to interrogative.
Lo ! he withholdeth the waters, and they are dried up :
And he fendeth them forth, and they overturn the earth.
With him is ftrength, and perfeft exiftence ;
The deceived, and the deceiver, are his.
Job xli. 13 — 16.
Is fuch then the faft which I choofe ?
That a man fhould afflift his foul for a day ?
Is it, that he fhould bow down his head like a bulrufh,
And fpread fackcloth and afhes for his couch ?
Shall this be called a faft,
And a day acceptable to Jehovah ?
Is not this the fail that I choofe ?
To difTolve the bands of v/ickednefs ;
To loofen the oppreffive burthens ;
To deliver thofe that are crufhed by violence ;
VouXVII. Fart I.
21 1 SCR
And that ye fhould break afunder every yoke ? Scf ipturs.
Is it not to diftribute thy bread to the hungry ; '
And to bring the wandering poor into thy houfe ?
When thou feeft the naked, that thou clothe him ;
And that thou hide not thyfelf from thine own flefli ?
Then fhall thy light break forth like the morning ;
And thy wovmds fhall fpeedily be healed over ;
And thy righteoufnefs fhall go before thee ;
And the glory of Jehovah fliall bring up thy rear.'*
Ifaiah Ivlii. 5—8,.
We fhall produce another example of this fpecles of
parallelifm from Pf. xix. 8 — 11. from Dr Lowth :
The law of Jehovah is perfeft, reftoring tlie foul ;
The teftlmony of Jehovah is fure, making wife the
fimple :
The precepts of Jehovah are right, rejoicing the heart ;
The commandment of Jehovah is clear, enlightening
the eyes ;
The fear of Jehovah Is pure, enduring for ever ;
The judgments of Jehovah are truth, they are jufl alto«
gether.
More defirable than gold, or than much fine gold ;
And fweeter than honey, or the dropping of honey-
combs-
Synonymous parallels have the appearance of art and
concinnity, and a fludled elegance ; they prevail chiefly
in fliorter poems ; in many of the Pfalms ; In Balaam's
prophecies ; frequently in thofe of Ifaiah, which arc
mofl of them diilin6l poems of no great length. The
antithetic parallelifm gives an acutenefs and force to
adages and moral fentences ; and therefore abounds In
Solomon's Proverbs, and elfewhere is not often to be
met with. The poem of Job, being on a large plan,
and In a high tragic ftyle, though very exaft In the di-
vlfion of the lines and In the parallelifm, and affording
many fine examples of the fynonymous kind, yet con-
fifls chiefly of the conftruftlve. A happy mixture of
the feveral forts gives an agreeable variety : and they
ferve mutually to recommend and fet off one another.
The reader will perceive that we have derived every
thing we have fald relating to Hebrew poetry from the
elegant Ledures of Dr Lowth, which are beautifully
tranflated by Mr Gregory, a diftinguifhed author as
well as tranflator. 4^
The book of Proverbs has always been accounted ca-The bools
nonlcal. The Hebrew title of It Is Mijhli* ^ which
nifies " fimllitudes." It has always been afcribed to So-^",^,^jj
lomon, whofe name it bears, though fome have doubted
whether he really was the author of every one of the
maxims which It contains. Thofe In chap. xxx. are In-
deed called the words of Agur the fon of Jakeh^ and
the title of the 3ifl or laft chapter is the words of
King Lmuel. It feems certain that the colledllon call-
ed the Proverbs of So/omm was digefted In the order In
which we now have it by different hands ; but it Is
not, therefore, to be concluded that they are not the
work of Solomon. Several perfons might have made
coUedions of them : Hezeklah, among others, as men-
tioned chapter xxv. Agur and Ezra might have dene
the fame. From thefe feveral colledlons the work was
compiled which we have now in our hands.
The book of Proverbs may be confidered under five
divifions. i-. The firftj which Is a kind of preface, cx*
tendi
SCR [ 12
Scripture, tends to the loth chapter. This contains general cau-
^— ■"v""^ tions and exhortations for a teacher to his pupil, cx-
preffed in elegant language, duly connected in its parts,
illuftrated with beautiful defcription, and well contrived
10 engage and intereft the attention.
2. The fecond part extends from the beginning of
chap. X. to chap. xxii. 17. and confifls of what may
ftriftly and properly be called proverbs, viz. unconne6t-
ed ftutence?, ejipfeffed with much neatnefs and fimpli-
city. Thty are truly, to ufe the language of their fage
author, " apples of gold in pidliires of hlver."
3. In the third part, which is included between chap-,
ter xxii. 16, and chapter xxv. the tutor drops the fen-
tentiouH ftyle, addrefTes his pupil as prcfent, and delivers
his advices in a conneAed manner.
4. The proverbs which are included between chapter
XXV. and chapter xxx. are fuppofed to have been feleft-
ed by the men of Hexeh'iah from fome larger coUeAron
of Solomon, that is, by the prophets whom he em-
ployed to reftore the fervice and writings of the church.
Some of the proverbs wkich Solomon had introduced
into the former part of the book, are here repeated.
5. The prudent admonitions which Agur delivered to
his pupils Ithiel and Ucal are contained in the 30th
chapter, and in the 3 1 ft are recorded the precepts which
the mother of Lemuel delivered to her fon.
Several references are evidently made to the book of
•R'ym.xli. Proverbs by the writers of the New Teftament*.
The Proverbs of Solomon afford fpeclmens of the
didaftic poetry of the Hebrews. They abourid with
aTitithetic parallels ; for this form is peculiarly adapted
to that kind of writing, to adages, aphorilms, and de-
tached fentcnces. Indeed, the elegance, acutenefs, and
force of a great number of Solomon's wife fayings arife
in a great meafnre from the antithetic form, the oppo-
fition of didtion and fentiment. Take the following
examples :
The blows of a friend are faithful ;
But the kilTes of an enemy are treacherous.
The cloyed will trample upon an honeycomb ;
But to the hungry evei-y bitter thing is fweet.
Tliere is who maketh himfelf rich, and wanteth all
things ;
Who maketh himfelf poor, yet hath much wealth.
The rich man is wife in his own eyes.
But the poor man that hath difcernment to trace him
• Proverbs out will defplfe him*.
The Hebrew title of the book which we call Eccle-
xxviii. II. fiaftes is Keleth^ that is, the Gatherer or ColleSor ;
43 and it is fo called, either becaufe the work itfelf is a
Scdefiaftes. ^^^^^^^-^^ of maxims, or becaufft it was delivered to an
affembly gatheral together to hear them. The Greek
term Ecclefiajles is of the fame import, fignifying one
who gather J together a congregation, or who difcourfes
or preaches to an alTembly convened. That Solomon
was the author of this book is beyond all doubt ; the
beautiful defcription of the phenomena in the natural
world, and their caufes ; of the circulation of the
* See ffor. blood, as fome think *, and the economy of the hu-
Jley's Si-r- jji^jj frame, (liews It to be the work of a phllofopher.
T/>"H'!m\ wh^t period of his life it was written may be eafily
Society. found out. The afftfting account of the Infirmities of
old age which It contains, Is a ftrong indication that the
author knew by experience what they werej and- his
npt
16, 10
1 Pet. iv
8. v. 5.
James iv
6.
2 -] SCR
complete convlftion of the vanity of all earthly enjoy- Sc
ments proves it to have been the work of a penitent.
Some paflages in it feem, indeed, to exprefs an Epicu-
rean notion of Providence. But It is to be obferved,
that the author, in an academic way, difputes on both
fides of the queftion ; and at laft concludes properly,
that to " fear God and keep his commandments Is the
whole duty of man ;. for God (fays he) will bring every
work to judgment, and every fecret thing, whether it
be good, or whether it be evil."
The general tenor and ftyle of Ecclefiaftes is very dif-
ferent from the book of Proverbs, though there are
many detached fentiments and proverbs Interfperfed.
For the whole work is uniform, and confined to one ^^'^ *
fubjeft, namely, the vanity of the world exemplified by p^J^^
the experience of Solomon, who Is introduced in the cha-
rafter of a perfon inveftlgating a very difficult queftion,
examining the arguments on either fide, and at length
dlfengaglng himfelf from an anxious and doubtful dif-
putatlon. It would be very difficult to dlftingulfti the
parts and arranoement of this produAIon ; the order of
the fubjecl, and the connexion of the arguments, are
involved in fo much obfcurlty, that fcarcely any two
commentators have agreed concerning the plan of the
work, and the accurate divifion of It into parts ©r fec-
tions. The truth Is, the laws of methodical compofi-
tlon and arrangement were neither known by tlie He-
brews nor regarded in their didaftic writings. They
uniformly retained the old fententious manner, nor did
they fubmit to method, even where the occafion appear-
ed to demand It. The ftyle of this work is, however,
fingular ; the language Is generally low ; It Is frequently
loofe, unconne£ted, approaching to the incorreflnefs of
coHverfation ; and polTeffes very little of the poetical
charafter, even In the compofition and ftruiture of the
periods : which peculiarity may poffibly be accounted
for from the nature of the fubjefh. Contrary to the opi-
nion of the Rabbles, Ecclefiaftes has been claffed among
the poetical books ; though, If their authority and opi-
nions were of any weight or importance, they might
perhaps on this occafion deferve fome attention.
The Song of Solomon, in the opinion of Dr Lowth, Song o
Is an ep'tthalamium or nuptial dialogue, in which the Solona
principal charafters are Solomon, his bride, and a cho-
rus of virgins. Some are of opinion that it is' to be
taken altogether In a literal fenfe ; but the generality
of Jews and Chrlftians have efteemed it wholly allego-
rical, expreffing the union of Jefus Chrift and the
church. Dr Lowth has fupported the common opi-
nion, by fhowing that the facred writers often apply
metaphors to God and his people derived from the
conjugal ftate. Our Saviour is ftyled a bridegroom by
John the Baptift (John iii.), and is reprefented in the
fame character in the parable of the ten virgins. Mi-
chaelis, on the other hand, rejefts the argument drawn
from analogy as inconclufive, and the opinion of Jews
and Chriftians as of no greater authority than the opi-i
nion of the moderns.
The fecond of thofe great divifions under which the
Jews clafTed the books of the Old Teftament was
that of the Prophets, which formerly comprehended 16
books.
The Prophets were 16 iji number : Ifalah, Jeremiah^.
Ezckiel, Daniel, Hofea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah,
Micah, Nahuro, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Ze-
ch&rlah>
C R [ 123 ] SCR
The four firft are called the greater vifions, that tve Jloall not attempt to he tvlfe ahove ivhat is Scrlp^ure^j
iptufr, chariah, Malachi.
"*"■ prophets ; the other twelve are denominated the minor
propliets.
g,of The writinos of the Prophets are to Chn'ftians the
0- moil interefting part of the Old Teftament ; for they af-
ford one of the moft powerful arguments for the divine
origin of the Chriftian religion. If we could only
prove, therefore, that thefe prophecies were uttered a
lingle century before the events took place to which
they relate, their claim to infpiration would be unquef-
tionable. But we can prove that the interval between
their enunciation and accomplifhment extended much
farther, even to 300 and icoo years, and in fome cafes
much more.
ai)- The books of the prophets are mentioned by Jo-
iiiticity fephus, and therefore furcly exiited in his time ; they are
alio quoted by our Saviour, under the general denomina-
tion of the Prophtis. We are informed by Tacitus and
Suetonius, that about 60 years before the birth of our
Saviour there was an uiiiverfal expeftation in the eaft
of a great perfonage who was to arife ; and the fource
of this expedlation is traced by the fame writers to the
facred books of the Jews. They exifted alfo in the
time of Amtiochus Epiphanes, A. C. 1 66 ; for when
that tyrant prohibited the reading of the law, the books
of the Prophets were fubftituted ia its place, and were
continued as a part of the daily fervice after the inter-
dift againft the law of Mofes was taken off. We for-
merly remarked, that references are made by the author
of Ecclejtajlicusy A. C 20O, to the writings of Ifaiah,
Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, and that he mentions the i2
Prophets. We can afcend ftill higher, and affert from
the language of the Prophets, that all their writings
muft have been compofed before the Babylonifh capti-
vity, or within a century after it ; for all of them, ex-
cept Daniel and Ezra, are compofed in Hebrew, and
even in them long pafTages are foimd in that language :
but it is a well known fa€l, that all the books written
by Jews about two centuries after that era are compo-
fed in the Syriac, or Chaldaic, or Greek language.
*' Let any man (fays Michaelis) compare what was writ-
ten in Hebrew after the Babylonifti exile, and, I appre-
hend, he will perceive no lefs evident marks of decay
48.
than in the Latin language." Even in the time of Ez- * which are moral and pohtical
ivrtlten. The manner in which the allwife and unfecn
God may think proper to operate upon the minds of
his creatures, we might exped a priori to be myfterious
and inexphcabls. Indeed fuch an inquiry, though it
were fuccefsful, would only gratify curiolity, without
being in the leaft degree conducive to ufeful know-
ledge.
The bwfinefs of philofoph^/ ii not to inquire how al-
mighty power produced the frame of nature, and bc-
ftowed upon it that beauty and grandeur which is eve«
rywhere confpicuous, but to difcover thofe marks of in-
telligence and defign, and the various pui-pofes to which
the works of nature are fubfervient. Philofophy has
of late been direfted to theology and the ftudy of the
Scriptures with the happieft effefta ; but it is not per-
mitted to enter within the vail which the Lord of Na-
ture has thrown over his councils. Its province,
which is fufficiently extenfive, is to examine the lan-
guage of the prophecies, and to difcover their appli-
cation.
The charafter of the prophetic ftyle varies accord- Charaitef
ing to the genius, the education, and mode of fl^eir
ving of the reipeAive authors ; but there are fome pe- hoi^f^.a[°^'"
culiarities which run through the whole prophetic
books. A plain unadorned ftyle would not have fuit-
ed thofe men who were to wrap the myfteries of futu-
rity in a veil, which was not to be penetrated till the
events themfelves fhould be accomplifned. For it was
never the intention of prophecy to unfold futurity to
our view, as many of the rafh interpreters of prophecy
fondly imagine ; for this would be inconfittent with the
free agency af man. It was therefore agreeable to the
wifdom of God that prophecies fhould be couched in a.
language which would render them uninielHgible till
the period of their completion ; yet fuch a language
as is diftinft, regular, and would be eafily explained
when the events themfelves fhould have taken place,
'i'his is precifely the charader of the prophetic lan-
guage. It is partly derived from the hieroglyphical
fymbols of Egypt, to which the Ifraelites during their
fervitude were familiarized, and partly from that ana-
logy which fubfifts between natural objedls and thofe
ra, the common people, from their long refidence in
Babylonia, had forgotten the Hebrew, and it was ne-
ceffary for the learned to interpret the law of Mofes to
them. We can therefore afcertain with very confider-
able precifion the date of the prophetic writings ;
which indeed is the only Important point to be deter-
mined : For whether we can difcover the authors or
not, if we can only eftablifh their ancient date, we fhall
be fully entitled to draw this conclufion, that the pre-
diftions of the Prophets are infpired
The prophets borrowed their imagery from the mofl Burrowed
fplendid and fwblime natural objefts, from the hoft of from ana*
heaven, from feas and mountains, from ftonns and
earthquakes, and from the moft ftriki^jg revolutions in
nature. The celejiial bodies they ufed as fymbols to ex-
prefs thrones and dignities, and thofe who enjoyed
them. Earth was the fymbol for men ef low eftate.
Hades reprefcnts the miferable. Ascending to heaven^
and defcending to earthy are phrafes which exprefs riling
to power, or falling from it. Great earthquakes , the
Much has been written to explain the nature of in- Jha king of heaven and earth, ^taot^ iht coxnmoiions and
fpiration, and to (how by what methods God imparted
to the prophets that divine knowledge which they
were commanded to publifli to their couiltrymen. At-
tempts have been made to difclofe the nature of dreams
and vifions, and to defcribe the ecftacy or rapture to
which the prophets were fuppofed to be raifed while
they uttered their predidlions. Not to mention the
degrading and indecent comparifon which this laft cir-
cumftance fuggefts, we fliall only inform thofe who ex-
peft here an explanation of the prophetic dreams and
overthrow sf kingdoms. The fun reprefents the whole
race of kings fhining with regal power and glory. The
moon is the fymbol of the common people. '1 lie fiars
are fubordinate princes and great men. Light denotes
glory, trutli, or knowledge. Darknefs expreffes obfcu-
rity of condition, error, and ignorance. I he darkening
of the funy the turning of the moon into blood, and the fall-
ing of the fiars, fignify the dcftrudlion or defolation of
a kingdom. New moons, the returning of a nation from
a difperfcd ftate. Conflagration of the earthy is the fvm-
Q. 2 " 'br.|
50
A>id from
bierogly.
SCR t
Scripture, tol for deftruftton by war. The a/cent of fmoke from
any thing burning for ever, denotes the continuance of
a people under flavery. Riding in the clouds, fignifies
leigning over many fubjefts. Tempeftuous nvinds, or motion
of the clouds, denote wars. Thunder denotes the noife
of multitudes. Fountains of rcuaters exprefs cities.
Mountains and tjlands, cities v/ith the territories belong-
ing to them. Houfes and flips ftand for families, af-
femblies, and towns.- A forefl is put for a kingdom.
A ivildernefs for a nation much diminiftied in its num-
bers.
Animals, as a lion, bear, leopard, goat, are put for
kingdoms or political communities correfponding to
their refpeftive charafters. When a man or beaft is
put for a kingdom, the head, reprefents thofe who go-
vern ; the tail thofe who are governed ; the horns de-
note the number of military powers or ftates that rife
from the head. Seeing fignifies underftanding ; eyes men
of underftanding ; the mouth denotes a lawgiver ; the
arm of a man is put for power, or for the people by
whofe ftrength his power is exercifed ',:feet reprefent the
loweft of the people.
Such is the precifion and regularity of the prophetic
language, which we learn to interpret by comparing
prophecies which are accomplifhed with the fafts to
which they correfpond. So far is the ftudy of it car-
ried already, that a diftionary has been compofed to
explain it ; and it Is probable, that in a fhort time it
may be fo fully underftood, that we fliall find little dif-
ficulty in ex-plaining any prophecy. But let us not
from this expeft, that the prophecies will enable us to
penetrate the dark clouds .of futurity : No 1 . The diffi-
culty oi" applying^ prophecies- to their correfponding
events, before completion, will ftill remain unfurmount-
able. Thofe men, therefore, however pious and well-
meaning they may be, who attempt to explain and ap-
ply prophecies which are not yet accomplifhed, and
who delude the credulous multitude by their own ro-
mantic conjeAures, caunoc be acquitted of raflmefs an4
prefumption.
The prediftions of the prophets, according to the
opinion of Dr Lowth, are- written in a poetic flyle.
They poffefs indeed all the charafterlflics of Hebrew
poetry, with the fmgle exception, that none of them
arc alphabetical or acroflic, which. Is an artificial ar-
124 ] SCR
rangement utterly repugnant to the nature
SI
Is alfo
f peucal.
I
of pro- Scriptu
phecy.
The other arguments, however, ought to be parti-
Gularly adverted to upon this fubjedl : the poetic dia-
led!:, for inflance, the ditlion fo totally different from
the language of common life, and other fimilar circum-
ftances, which an attentive reader will eafily difcover,.
but which cannot be explained by a few examples ; for
circumftances which, taken feparately,, appear but of
fmall account, are in a united view frequently of the
greatefl importance. To thefe we may add the artifi-
cial conformation of the fentences which are a necef-
fary concomitant of metrical compofition, the only one
Indeed which Is now apparent, as it has always appear-
ed to us.
The order In which the books of the minor prophets
are placed is not the fame in the Septuagint as in the
Hebrew *. According to the latter, they ftand as in *
our tranflatlon ; but in the Greek, the feries is altered^-^ ^-^^'^^
as to the fix firft, to the following arrangement: Ha-
fea, Am.os, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah. This change,
however, is of no confequence, fince neither in the ori-
ginal, nor in the Septuagint, are they placed with ex-
aft regard to the time in which their facred authors re«
fpeftively flourifhed.
The order in which they fhould ftand, if chronologi-
cally arranged. Is by Blair and others fuppofed to be
as follows ; Jonah, Amos, Hofea, Micah, Nahum, Joel,
Zephaniah, Habbakuk, Obadiah, Haggal, Zechariah,
Malachl. And this order will be found to be generally
confiftent with the periods to which the Prophets will
be refpeftlvely afligned in the following pages, except
in the Inftance of Joel, who probably flourifhed ra-
ther earlier than he Is placed by thefe chronologers.
Tlie precife period of tliis prophet, however, cannot
be afcertained ; and fome difputes might be maintained
concerning the priority of others alfo, when they were
nearly contemporaries, as Amos and Hofea ; and when
the firft prophecies of a later prophet were delivered at
the fame time with, or previous to, thofe of a prophet
wlio was called earlier to the facred office. The fol*
lowing fcheme, however. In which alfo the greater pro*
phets will be Introduced, may enable the reader more
accurately to comprehend the aAual and relative periods
in which they feverally prophefied.
The Brojhets In their fuppofed Order of ' Time, arranged according to Blair's Tables *
with, but little Variation.
Before Chrllt.
Kings of Judah.
lyings of Ifrael.
Jonah,
Between 856
and 784.
Jehu, and Jehoahaz, accord-:
ing to Lloyd; but Joafh
and Jeroboam the Second
according to Blair.
Arrtos,
Between 810
and 785.
Uzzlah, ch. i. I.
Jeroboam the Second,
chap. i. I.
1
j Hofea,
Between 8 10
and 72 ^.
Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, the
third year of Hczekiah.
Jeroboam the Second,
chap. I. I.
o
\J xv
(
SCR
Before Chrlft.
Klncfs of Tudah.
Kings of Ifracl.
Ifaiah,
Between 8io
and 698.
Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah, chap, i. i. and
perhaps Manafleh,
Joel,
Between 810
and 660, or
later.
Uzziah, or poflibly Manaf-
feh.
Micah,
Between 758
and 69c).
Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze-
kiah, chap. i. I.
Pekah and Hofea.
Nahum,
Between 720
and 698.
Probably towards the clofe
of Hezekiah's reign.
Zephaniah,
Between 640
and 609.
In the reign of Jofiah, chap,
i. I.
Jeremiah,
Between 628
and 586.
In the thirteenth year of
Tofiah.
Habakkuk,
Between 612
and 598.
Probably in the reign of
Tehoiakim.
Daniel,
Between 606
and
During all the Captivity.
Obadiah,
Between 588
and 583.
Between the taking of Jeru-
falem by Nebuchadnezzar
and the dellruftion of the
Edomites by him.
Ezekiel,
Between 595
and c?6.
During part of the Capti-
vity.
•
Haggai,
About 520
to 518.
After the return from Ba-
bylon.
Zechariah,.
From 5 20 to
518, or longer.
Malachi,
Between 436
and 397..
Scripturen
Ifaiah is fuppofed to have entered upon the prophe-
tic office in the laft year af the reign of Uzziah, about
758 years before Chrift : and it is certain that he lived
to the 15th or i6th years of Hezekiah. This makea
the leaft polTiblc term of the duration of his propheti-
cal office about 48 years. The Jews have a tradition
that Ifaiah was put to death in the reign of ManafTeh,
being fawn afunder with a wooden faw by the command
of that tyrant : but when we recoUeft how much the
traditions of the Jews were condemned by our Saviour,
we will not be difpofed to give them much credit.
The time of the delivery of fome- of his prophecies Is
either exprefsly marked, or fufficlently clear from the
hiftory to which they relate. . The date of a few others
may with fome probability be deduced from internal
marks ; from expreflions, defcriptions, and circumftances
interwoven.
Ifaiah, the firft of the prophets both' in order and
f hiTftyie. dignity, abounds in fuch- tranfcendant excellencies, that
^ S3
!hara<3er
he may be properly faid to afford the moft perfeft mo.
del of the prophetic poetry, He is at once elegant
and fublime, forcible and ornamented ; he unites energy
with coploufnefs, and dignity with variety. In his fen- Lcivfh's '
timents there is uncommon elevation and majefty ; in IfaLh^
his imagery the utmoft propiiety, elegance, dignity, and
diverfity ; in his language uncommon beauty and ener-
gy ; and, notwithftanding the obfeurity of his- fubjefts,
a farprifmg degree of clearnefs and fimpllcity. To
thefe we may add, there-is fuch fweetnefs in the poeti-
cal compofitlon of his fentences, whether it proceed
from art or genius, that if the Hebrew poetry at pre-
fent is poffeffed of any remains of its native gi^ace and
harmony, we ihall chiefly find them In the writings of
Ifaiah: fo that the laying of Ezekiel may molt juftly /
be applied to this prophet :
Thou art the confirmed exemplar of meafures, * Ezek.*--
Full of wifdora, and perfed in beauty *.
I&iah^^
SCR
Ecripfure. Ifalah greatly excels too in all the graces of method,
^ order, connexion, and arrangement : though in avert-
ing this we mud not forget the nature of the prophetic
impulfe, which bears away the mnid with irreliftible
violence, and frequently in rapid tranfuions from near
to remote objefts, from human to divine ; we mull alfo
be careful in remarking the limits of particular predic-
tions, fmce, as they are now extant, they are often im-
properly connefted, without any marks of difcrimina-
tion ; which injudicious arrangement, on fome occafions,
creates almoll infuperable difficulties. It is, in faft, a
body or colleftion of different prophecies, nearly allied
to each other as to the fubjeft, which, for that reafon,
having a {&rt of connexion, are not to be feparated but
with the utmoft difficulty. The general fubjeft is the
rettoration of the church. Its deliverance from capti-
vity ; the deftruftion of idolatry ; the vindication of
the divine power and truth ; the confolatioTi of the If-
Taelites, the divine invitation which is extended to them,
their incredulity, impiety, and rejeftion ; the calling in
of the Gentiles; the reftoiatlon of the chofen people;
the glory and felicity of the church in its perfeA Hate ;
and the ultimate dedruftion of the wicked— are all fet
forth with a fufficient refpeft to order and method. If
we read thefe paffages with attention, and duly rejfrard
the nature and genius of the myftical allegory, at the
fame time rtmembering that all thefe points have?
been frequently touched upon in other prophecies pro-
mulged at dlfFerent times, we (hall neither find any ir-
regularity in the arrangement of the whole, nor any
want of order and connection as to matter or fentiment
in the dlfFerent parts. Dr Lowth efteems the whole
book of Ifaiah to be poetical, a few paffages excepted,
which, if brought together, would not at moil exceed
the bulk of five or fix chapters.
The 14th chapter of Tfalah is one of the mofl fu-
bllme odes in the Scripture, and contains one of the
14th chap.'^'^^^^^^ P^''^°"ifi'^^^i° to be found in the records of
«er. j)oetry.
The prophet, after predifling the liberation of the
Jews from their fevere captivity in Babylon, and their
refloratlon to their own country, introduces them as re-
citing a kind of triumphal fong upon the fall of the
Babylonlfh monarch, replete with imagery, and with
the mofl elegant and animated perfonifications. A
fudden exclamation, exprelHvc of their joy and admira-
tion on the unexpeAed revolution in their affairs, and
the deftrudlion of their tyrants, forms the exordium of
the poem. The earth itfelf tiiumphs with the inhabi-
tants thereof; the fir-trees and the cedars of Lebanon
(under which images the parabolic flyle frequently de-
lineates the kings and princes of the Gentiles) exult
with joy, and perfecute with contemptuous reproaches
the humbled power of a ferocious enemy :
The whole earth is at refl, is quiet ; they buril forth
into a joyful fhout :
Even the fir-trees rejoice over thee, the cedars of Le-
banon :
Since thou art fallen, no feller hath come up agalnfl ns.
This ifi followed by a bold and animated perfonifica-
tlon of Hades, or the infernal regions ;
Hades from beneath is moved becaufe of thee, to <meet
thee at thy coming ;
r 126 ]
SCR
54
•Unp%rallel.
«d fubli-
anity of the
Is
Is
He roufeth for thee the mighty dead, all the great Scr;p
chiefs of the earth ;
He maketh to rife. Hp from their thrones all the kings
of the nations.
Hades excites his inhabitants, the ghofls of princes,
and the departed fplrits of kings : they rife immediate-
ly from their feats, and proceed to meet the monarch of
Babylon ; they infult and deride him, and comfort them-
felves with the view of his calamity :
Art thou, even thou too, become weak as we? art thou
made like unto us ?
then thy pride brought down to the grave ; the
found of thy fprightly inflruments ?
the vermin become thy couch, .and the earthworm
thy covering i
Again„the Jewifh people are the fpeakere, in an excla-
matisn after the manner of a funeral lamentation, which
indeed the whole form of this compofition exadly imi-
tates. The remarkable fall of this powerful manaVch is
thus beautifully illuflrated :
How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, fon of the
morning !
Art cut down from earth, thou that didfl fubdue the
nations !
Yet thou didfl fay in thy heart, I will afcend the hea-
vens ;
Above the flars of God I will exalt my throne ;
And I will fit upon the mount of the divine prefence,
on the fides of the north :
1 will afcend above the heights of the clouds j I will
, be like the mofl High.
But thou fhalt be brought down to the grave, to the
fides of the pit.
He himfelf is at length brought upon the Hage, boaft-
ing in the mofl pompous terms of his own power ; which
furnifhes the poet with an excellent opportunity of dif-
playing the unparalleled mifery of his downfal. Some
perfonS are introduced, who find the dead carcafe of
the king of Babylon cafl out and expfjfed ; they at-
tentively contemplate it, and at kll fcarccly know it to
be his :
Is this the man that made the earth to tremble, that
fhook the kingdoms ?
That made the world like a defert, tliat dcilroyed the
cities i
That never dlfmiffed his captives to their own home ?
All the kings of the nations, all of them,
Lie down in glory, each in his own fcpulchre :
But thou art cafi out of the grave, as the tree abom*»
nated ;
Clothed with the flain, with the pierced by the fword,
With them that go down to the flones of the pit ; as a
trodden carcafe.
Thou fhalt not be joined unto them in burial ;
Becaufe thou hail deflroyed thy country, thou haft flain
thy people :
The feed of evil doers fliall never be renowned.
They reproach him with being denied the common rites
of fepulture, on account of the cruelty and atrocity of
his condutl ; they execrate bis name, his offspring, and
their poflerity. A folemn addrefs, as of the Deity him-
2 felf.
S C R
{ 127 ]
SCR
• fclf, clofes the fcene, and he denounces agalnfl: the king
of Babylon, his potterity, and even againft the city
which was the feat of their cruelty, - perpetual deftruc-
tion, and confirms the immutability of his own counfels
by the folemnity of an oath.
How forcible is this imagery, how diverfified, how
fublime ! how elevated the dtftion, the fi(?;ures, the fen-
tlments ! — The Jewifh nation, the cedars of Lebanon,
the ghofts of departed kings, the Babylonifh monarch,
the travellers who find his corpfe, and lall of all Jeho-
vah himfelf, are the charadlers which fupport this beau-
tiful lyric drama. One continued a£lion is kept up, or
rather a feries of interefting aftions are conneAed toge-
ther in an incomparable whole. This, indeed, is the
principal and diflinguidied excellence of the fublimer
ode, and is difplayed in its utmoft perfedlion in this
poem of Ifaiah, which may be confidered as one of the
moft ancient, and certainly the moil finifhed, fpecimen
of that fpecies of compohtion which has been tranf-
mitted to us. The perfonifications here are frequent,
yet not confufed ; bold, yet not improbable : a free, ele-
vated, and trulyaivine fpirit, pervades the whole ; nor
js there any thing wanting in this ode to defeat its
claim to the character of perfeft beauty and fublimity.
*' It (fays Dr Lowth) I may be indulged in the free de-
claration of my own fentiments on this occaliou, I do
not know a fmgle inftanee in the whole compafs of
Greek and Roman poetry, which, in every excellence
of compofition, can be faid to equal, or even approach
it."
Jeremiah was called to the prophetic office in the
13th year of the reig^n of Jofiah the fon of Amon,
A. M. 3376, A. C. 628, and continued to prophecy
upwards of 40 years, during the reigns of the degene-
rate princes of Judah, to whom he boldly threatened
thofe marks of the divine vengeance wluch their rebelli-
ous conduft drew on themfelves and their country. Af-
ter the deftruftion of Jerufalem by the Chaldeans, he
was fuffcred by Nebuchadnezzar to remain in the defo-
late land of Judea to lament the calamities of his infatu-
ated countrymen. He was afterwards, as he himfelf
informs us, carried with his difciple Baruch into Egypt,
by Johanan the fon of Kareah.
It appears from feveral pafiages that Jeremiah com-
mitted his prophecies to writing. In the 36th chap-
ter we are informed, that the prophet was commanded
to write upon a roll all the prophecies which he had ut-
tered ; and when the roU was deilroyed by Jehoiakim
the king, Jeremiah dictated the fame prophecies to Ba-
ruch, who wrote them together with many additional
circumftances. The works of Jeremiah extend to the
Ikft verfe of the 51ft chapter ; in which we have thcfe
words, " Thus far are the words of Jeremiah.'* ' The
5 2d chapter was therefore added by fome other writer.
It is, however, a very important fupplement, as it illuf-
trates the accompliftiment of Jeremiah's prophecies re-
fpefting the fate of Zedekiah.
The prophecies of Jeremiah are not arranged in the
chronological order in which they were delivered.
What has occafioned this tranfpofition cannot now be Scripturf,.
determined. It is generally maintained, that if we con- "V*"',
fult their dates, they ought to be thus placed : f
In the reign of Jofiah the firft 1 2 chapters.
In the reign of Jrhoiakim, chapters xiii. xx. xxi. v.
II, 14. ; xxli. xxiii, xxv. xxvi. xxxv. xxxvi. xlv.-xlix.,i
—33-
In the reign of Zedekiah, chap. xxi. i — i®. xxiv,
xxvii. xxxiv xxxvii. xxxix. xhx. 34 — 39. 1. and li.
Under the government of Gedaliah, chapters xl. xliv.
The prophecies which related to the Gentiles were con-
tained in the 46th. and five following chapters, being
placed at the end, as in fome ineafure unconnefted with
the reft. But in fome copies of the Septuagint thefe
fix chapters follow immediately after the 13th verfe of
the 25 th chapter.
Jeremiah, tliough deficient neither in elegance nor
fublimity, mufl give place in both to Ifaiah. Jerome
feems to objeft againft him a fort of rufticity "of lan-
guage, no veftige of which Dr Lowth was able to dif-
cover. His fentiments, it is true, are not always the
moft elevated, nor are his periods aWays neat and com-
paft ; but thefe are faults common to thofe wrlters-
whofe principal aim is to excite the gentler afFe6lk»ns,
and to call forth the tear of fympathy "or forrow. This
obfervation is very ftrongly exemplified in the Lamen-
tations, where thefe are the prevailing paflions ; it is,
however, frequently inftanccd in the prophecies of this
author, and moft of all in the beginning of the book(L),
which is chiefly poetical. The middle of it is almoft
entirely hlftorical. The latter part, again, confifting of
the fix laft chapters, is altogether poetical ( m ) ; it con-
tains feveral different predidions, which are diftinftly
marked 5 and in thefe the prophet approaches very near
the fublimity of Ifaiah. On the whole, however, not
above half the book of Jeremiah is poeticah
The book of Lamentations, as we are informed in Thc'book-
the title, was compofed by Jeremiah. We fhall prefent^^ Lamen--
to our reader an account of this elegiac poem from the'^'^*^"''
elegant pen of Dr Lowth.
The Lamentations of Jeremiah (for the title is pro-
perly and fignificantly plural) confift' of a number of
plaintive effufions, compofed upon the plan of the fu-
iieral dirges, all upon the fame fubjeftj and uttered with-
out connexion as they rofe in the mind, in a long courfe
of feparate ftanzas. Thefe hav^e afterwards been put
together, and formed into a colkftion or oorrefpondent
whole. If any reader, however, fhould expeft to find
in them an artificial and methodical arrangement of the
general fubjeft, a regular difpofition of the parts, a per-
k&. connection and orderly fucceffion in the matter,
and with all this an uninterrupted feries of elegance *
and correftnefs, he will, really expe£l what was foreign
to the prophet's defign. In the charafter of a mourn-
er, he celebrates in plaintive ftrains the obCequies of his
ruined country : whatever prefented itfelfto his mind
in the midft of defolatlon and mifery, whatever ftruck
him as particularly wretched and calamitous, whatever
the inftant fentiment of forrow diftated, he pours forth =
(l) See the whole of chap. Ix. chap. xiv. 17, &c. xx. 14 — 18.
(m) Chap, jdvi.— li. to ver, 59. Chap. Hi. properly belongs to the Lamentations, to which it fcrves as
exordiiuQ.
S8
JIow di-
vided.
SCR
Stfip'wve. a kind of fpontweoua efFufion.
*"*"^^v~*^ fes, and, as it were, ruminates upon the fame object ;
frequently varies and illuftrates the fame thought with
different imagery, and a different choice of language ;
fo- that the w'hole bears rather the appearance of an ac-
cumulation of correfponding fentiments, than an accu-
rate and conncdted feries of different ideas, arranged in
the form of a regular treatife. There is, however, no
wild incoherency in the poem ; the tranflations are eafy
atid elegant. ^
The work is divided into five parts ; in the firft, le-
cond, and fourth chapters, the prophet addreffes the
people in his own perfon, or introduces Jerufalem as
fpeaking. In the third chapter a chorus of the Jews
is reprefented. In the fifth the whole captive Jews
pour forth their united complaints to Almighty God.
Each of thefe five parts is diftributed into 22 ftanzas,
according to the number of the letters of the alphabet.
In the three firft chapters thefe ftanzas ponfift of three
lines. In the four firft chapters the initial letter of
each period follows the order of the alphabet ; and
in the third chapter each veife of the fame ftanza
begins with the fame letter. In the fourth chapter all
the ftanzas are evidently diftich^, as alfo in the fifth,
which is not acroftic. The intention of the acroftic
was to affift the memory to retain fentences not much
connefted. It deferves to be remarked, that the verfes
of the firft four chapters are longer by almoft one half
than Hebrew verfes generally are : The length of them
feems to be on an average about 1 2 fyllables. The
prophet appears to have chofen this meafure as being
Iblemn and melancholy.
<' That the fubjeft of the Lamentations is the deftruc-
tion of the holy city and temple, the overthrow of the
ftate, the extermination of the people ; and that thefe
events are defcribed as actually accompliflaed, and not
in the ftyle of prediftion merely, muft be evident to
every reader ; though Tome authors of confiderable re-
putation * have imagined this poem to have been com-
pofed on the death of king Jofiah. The prophet, in-
deed, has fo copioufly, fo tenderly, and poetically, be-
wailed the misfortunes of his country, that he feema
completely to have fulfilled the office and duty of a
mourner. In my opinion, there is not extant any poem
which difplays fuch a happy and fplendid feleftion of
imagery in fo concentrated a ftate. What can be more
elegant and poetical, than the defcriptioh of that once
flourifhing city, lately chief among the nations, fitting
in the charafter of a female folitary, aiHifted, in a ftatc
of widowhood, deferted by her friends, betrayed by her
deareft conneftions, imploring relief, and feeking confo-
lation in vain ? What a beautiful perfonification is that
of " the ways of Sion mourning becaufe none are come
to her folemn feafts ?" How tender and pathetic arc
the following complaints i
Chap: i. Is this nothing to all you who pafs along the way ? be-
ji»,i6. hold and fee,
If there be any forrow, like unto my forrow, which is
inflifted on me ;
Which Jehovah inflided on me in the day of the vio-
lence of his wrath.
Tor thefe things I weep, my eyes ftream with water ;
l^ecaufe the comforter is far away, that lliould tranqui-
lize my foul :
My children arc defolate, becaufe the enemy was ftrong.
6a
Ezek
lowth.
59
The fub-
3e<5t and
beauty of
it.
jferome,
UJferius,
I n8 3 SCR
He frequently pau- But to detail It3 beauties would be to tr^nfcribe tbe Serlp^
entire poem."
Ezekiel was earned to Babylon as a captive, and re-
ceived the firft revelations from heaven, in the fifth year
of Jehoiakim's captivity, A. C. 595, The book of
Ezekiel is fometimes diftributed under different heads.
In the three firft chapters the commiffion of the prophet
is defcribed. Fi-om the fourth to the thirty-fecond
chapter inclufive, the calamities that befel the enemies of
the Jews are predicted, viz. the Ammonites, the Moab-
ites, and Philiftines. The ruin ©f Tyre and of Sidon,
and the fall of Egypt, are particularly foretold ; prophe-
cies which have been fulfilled in the moft literal and af-
tonifhing manner, as we have been often affured by
the relation of hiftorians and travellers. From the 32d
chapter to the 40th he inveighs againft the hypocrify
and murmuring fpirit of his countrymen, admonifiiing
them to refignation by promifes of deliverance. In
the 38th and 39th chapters he undoubtedly predi£i:s the
final return of the Jews from their difperfion in the lat-
ter days, but in a language fo obfcure that it cannot be
underftood till the event take place. The nine laft
chapters of this book furnifh the defcription of a very
remarkable vifion of a new temple and city, of a new-
religion and polity.
*' Ezekiel is much inferior to Jeremiah in elegance ; in C^ara|
fublimity he is not even excelled by Ifaiah : but his *
fnblimity is of a totally different kind. He is deep,
vehement, tragical ; the only fenfation he affefts to ex-
cite is the terrible : his fentiments are elevated, fervid,
full of fire, indignant ; his imagery is crouded, magni-
ficent, terrific, fometimes almoft to difguft : his lan-
guage is pompous, folemn, auftere, rough, and at times
unpoHfhed : he employs frequent repetitions, not for
the fake of grace or elegance, but from the vehemence
of paffion and indignation. Whatever fubjeft he treats
of, that he feduloully purfues, from that he rarely de-
parts, but cleaves as it were to it ; whence the connec-
tion is in general evident and well preferved. In many
refpefts he is perhaps excelled by the other prophets ;
"but in that fpecies of compofition to which he fecms
by nature adapted, the forcible, the impetuous, the
great and folemn, not one of the iacred writers is fupe-
rior to him. His diftion is fufficiently perfpicuous ; all
his obfcurity confifts in the nature of the fubjedl. Vi-
fions (as for inftance, among others, thofe of Hofea,
Amos, and Jeremiah) are neceffarily dark and confufed.
The greater part of Ezekiel, towards the middle of the
book efpecially, is poetical, whether we regard the mat-
ter or the diftion. His periods, however, are frequent-
ly fo rude and incompadl, that I am often at a lofs how
to pronounce concerning his performance in this re-
fpeft.
" Ifaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, as far as relates to
ftyle, may be faid to hold the fame rank among the He-
brews, as Homer, Simonides, and ^fchylus among the
Greeks."
So full an account of Daniel and his writings has
been already given under the article Daniel, that little
remains to be faid on that fubjeft. Daniel flourifhed
during the fucceffive reigns of leveral Babylonifti and
Median kings to the conqueft of Babylon by Cyrus.
The events recorded in tbe 6th chapter were contempo-
rary with Darius the Mede ; but in the 7th and 8th
chapters Daniel returns to an earlier period, to relate;
I the
.J
T>4
SCR I 12
t!ie vifien? which h? beheld m, the thrf^e firft ytm of
Belfhazzar's reign ; and thofe whick follow in the. four
laft chapters were revealed to hira- in the reign of Da-
rius. The fix laft chapters are compefed of prophecies
delivered at different times ; all of which are in fome de-
gree connefted as parts of one great fcheme. They
extend throu.s^h many ages, and furnifh the moft ftriking
.defcri,ption of the fall of fuccefllve kingdoms, which
were to be introduftory to the cftablifhment of the Mef-
fiah's reign. They chaiafterize in defcriptive terms the
four great monarchies of the world to be fucceeded by
" that kingdom which ihould not be deftroyed.'*
The whole book of Daniel being no more than a
plain relation of faAs, partly paft and partly future,
muft be excluded the clafs of poetical prophecy. Much
indeed of the parabolic imagery is introduced in that
book ; but the author introduces it as a prophet only ;
as vifionary and allegoi-ical fymbols of objefts and events,
totally untinftured with the true poetical colouring.
The Jews, indeed, would refufe to Daniel even the cha-
rafter of a prophet : but the arguments under which
they (helter this opinion are very futile 5 for thofe
points which they maintain concerning the conditions
on which the gift of prophecy is imparted, the diffe-
rent gradations, and the difcriminatlon between the true
prophecy and mere infpiration, are all trifling and ab-
furd, without any foundation in the nature of things,
and totally deftitute of fcriptural authority. They add,
that Daniel was neither originally educated In the pro-
phetic difcipline and precepts, nor afterwards lived con-
formably to the manner of the prophets. It is not,
however, eafy to comprehend how this can diminifh his
claim to a divine mifTion and infpiration ; it may pof.
fibly enable us, indeed, to aflign a reafon for the difli-
milarity between the ftyle of Daniel and that of the
other prophets, and for its poffeffing fo little of the dic-
tion and charafter of poetry, which the reft feem to
have imbibed in common from the fchools and difcipline
in which they were educated.
The prophecies of Daniel appear fo- plain . and intel-
ligible after their accomplifhment, that Porphyry^ who
wrote in the 3d century, affitms, that they were written
after the events to which they refer took place. A
little refleftion will fhow the abfurdity of this: fuppofi-
tion.^ Some of the prophecies of Daniel clearly refer to
-Autiochus Epiphanes, with whofe oppreflions the Jews
were too well acquainted. Had the book of Daniel
not made its appearance till after the death of Epipha-
nes, every Jew who read it muft have difcovered the
forgery. And what motive could induce them to re-
ceive it among their facred books ? It is impoflible to
conceive one. Their charaAer was quite the reverfe :
their refped for the Scriptures had degenerated into fu-
perftition. _ But we are not left to determine this im-
portant point from the charafter of the Jews ; we have
accefs to more decifive evidence ; we are fure that the
book of Daniel contains prophecies, for fome of them
have been accompliftied fince the time of Porphyry ;
particularly thofe refpefting Antichrift : now, if it con-
tains any prophecies, who will take upon him to affirm
that the divine Spirit, which didated thefe many cen-
turies before they were fulfiUed, could not alfo have
delivered prophecies concerning Antiochus Epiphanes?
The language in which the book of Daniel is com-
pofed proves that it was written about the time of the
Vou XVII. Part I. ■
9 1 SCR
Babylom'lh captivity. Part of it is pure Hebrew ; a Scripfufff,
language in which none of the Jfcwifh books were com- *-Ar^
pofed after the age of Epiphanes. Thefe are argu.
ments to a dcift. To a Chriftian the internal marks of
the book itfelf will fhow the time in which it was writ-
ten, and the teftimony of Ezekicl will prove Daniel to
be at leaft his contemporary*. *Ezek.xIr.
The twelve minor prophets were fo called, not from M-xxviii.j.
any fuppofed inferiority in their writings, but on ac- _ ^.^
count of the fmall fize of their worKS. Perhaps it was n,S^o7pra-
for this reafon that the Jews joined them together, and phets.
cofifidered them as one volume. Thefe 1 2 prophets
prefent in fcattered hints a Hvely ll<etch of many parti-
culars relative to the hiftory of Judah and of Ifrael, as Gr-ay\ K^y
well as of other kingdoms : they prophefy with hifto- '^''^
rical exadnefs the fate of Babylon, of Nineveh, of Tyre, '^?/^"'"^"^'
of Sidon, and of Damafcus. The three laft prophets
efpecially illuftrate many circumflances at a period when
the hiftorical pages of Saipture are clofed, and when
profane writers are entirely wanting. At firft the
Jewifti prophets appeared only as fmgle lights, and fol-
lowed each other in individual fucceffion ; but they
became more numerous about the time of the captivity.
The light of infpiration was collefted into one blaze^
previous to its fufpenfion ; and it ferved to keep alive
the expeftations of the Jews during the awful interval
which pi-evailed between the expiration of prophecy
and its grand completion on the advent of Chrift.
Hofea has been fuppofed the moft ancient of the 1 2 Prophedei
minor prophets. He flourifhed in the reign of Jero- Hofeai
boam n. king of Ifrael, and during the fuccefllve reigns
of Uzziah, Jothara, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Ju-
dah. He was therefore nearly contemporary with I-
falah, Amos, and Jonah. The prophecies of Hofea be-
mg fcattered through the book without date or con-
nexion, cannot with any certainty be chronologically
■arranged.
Hofea Is the firft In order of the minor prophets, and Chafadei
is perhaps, Jonah excepted, the moft ancient of them ofthcic
all. ^ His ftyle exhibits the appearance of very remote ^y^^'
antiquity ; it Is pointed, energetic, and concife. It
bears a diftinguifhed mark of poetical compofition, in
that priftine brevity and condenfation which is obfer-
vable in the fentences, and which later writers have in
fome meafure neglefted. This peculiarity has not
efcaped the obfervation of Jerome : " He is altogether
(fays he, fpeaking of this prophet) laconic and fenten-
tious." But this very circumftance, which anciently was
fuppofed no doubt to impart uncommon force and ele-
gance, in the prefent ruinous ftate of the Hebrew lite-
rature Is produdlve of fo much obfcurity, that although,
the general fubjeft of this writer be fufficiently obvious,
he is the moft difficult and perpkxed of all the pro-
phets. There is, however, another reafon for the ob-
fcurity of his ftyle : Hofea prophefied during the reigns
of the four kings of Judah, Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah. 'i'he duration of his miniftry, therefore, in
whatever manner we calculate, muft include a very con-
fiderable fpace of time We have now only a fmall vo-
lume of his remaining, whidi feems to contain his
principal prophecies ; and thefe are extant in a conti-
nued feries, with no marks of diftlnftlon as to the times
in which they were publiftied, or the fubjefts of which
they treat. There is therefore no caufe to wonder if,
in peruling the prophecies of Hofea, we fometimes find
K our-
SCR. C I
Seriptirrp, (onffclves in a fimilar pre^icameBt with thofc who con-
■ .fulted the fcattered leaves of the Sibyl.
A3 a fpecimen of Hofta's Ityle, wc feleft the folkw-
ing beautiful pathetic paffage :
How fhall I refic;.!! theC; O Ephraim !
How (hall I deliver thee up, O Ifrael !
How fhall J refian thee as Admah 1
How ihall I make thee as Zeboim !
My heart is changed within me ;
I am warmed alio with repentance towards thee.
I will not do according to the fervour of my wrath ;
1 win not return to deftroy Ephraim :
Tor 1 am God, and not man ;
Holy in the raidft of thee, though I inhabit not thy cities.
^8 Concerning the date of the prophecy of Joel there
Prophecies are various conjeaures. The book itfelf affords nothing
cf Joel. by which we can difcover when the author lived, or
»ipon what occafion it was written. Joel fpeaks of a
great famine, and of mifchiefs that happened in confe-
£[uence of an inundation of locufts ; but nothing can be
leathered from fuch general obfervations to enable ut> to
fix the period of his prophecy. St Jerome thinks (and
it is the general opinion) that Joel was contemporary
with Hofea. This is pofilbly true ; but the founda-
tion on which the opinion reits is very precaricn;is, uiz.
That when there is no proof of the time in which a
prophet lived, we are to be guided in our conjeftures
refpefting it by that of the preceding prophet^ whofe
epoch is better known. As this rule is not infallible, it
therefore ought not to hinder us from adopting any
other opinion that comes recommended by good rea-
fons. Father Calrpct places him under the reign of
•Jofiah, at the fame time with Jeremiah, and thinks it
probable that the famine to which Joel allude:?, is the
lame with that which Jeremiah prediiled ch. viii. 13.
^ The llyle of Joel is effentially different from that of
OhaSskr Hofea ; but the general charaaer of his diftion, though
of their of a different kind, is not lefs poetical. He is elegant,
itylc. perfpicucus, copious, and fluent; he is alfofubhme, ani-
mated, and energetic. In the firft and fecond chapters
lotvtb he difplays the full force of the prophetic poetry, and
pntZretv fhows how natui-ally it inclines to the ufe of metaphors,
/v<>;ji,Se<a. allegories, and comparifons. Nor is the connexion of
-the matter lefs clear and evident than the complexion
of the ftyle : this is exemplified in the difplay of the
impending evils which gave rife to the prophecy ; the
aexhortation to repentance ; the promifes of happinefs
-and fuccefs both terreflrial and eternal to thofe who be-
come truly penitent ; the reftoration of the Ifraelites ;
and the vengeance to be taken of their adverfaries. But
while we allow this juft commendation to his perfpi-
cuity both in language and arrangement, we muft not
■deny that there is fomctimes grett obfcurity obfervabk
,in his futjjea, and particularly in the latter part of the
(prophecy. n • 1
The following prophecy of a plague of locufts is de-
.fcribed with great fublimity of exprelEon ;
Tor a nation hath gone up on my land.
Who are ftrong, and without number :
They have deftroyed my vin?, and have ma(3e my fig-
tree a broken branch.
They have made it qxiite bare, and caft it away: the
30 ] S C R
Amos was <;ofrtemporary with Hofea. They both Serif
began to prophecy during the reigns of Uzziah over
Judah, and of Jeroboam II. over Ifrael. A mos faw p^j^j^j
his firft vifion two years before the earthquake, which of aj
Zechariah informs us happened in the days of Uzziah.
See Amos.
Amos was a herdfman of Tekop., a fm?.ll town in tlie
(territory of Judah, and a gatherer of fycaniore fmit.
In the fimplicity of former times, and in the happy cU-
•inates of the Eafl, thefe were not confidtred as difho-
rourable occupations. He was no prophet (as he in-
formed Amaziahf), neither was he a propliet's fon,^
that is, he had no regular education in the fchools of 14. '
the prophets.
'J'he prophecies of Amos confift of feveral d'flincl:
difcourfes, which chiefly refpeft the kingdom of liVael;
ypt fometimes the prophet inveighs agaiuft Judah, and
threatens the adjacent nations, the Syrians, Philiftincs,
Tyrians, Edomites, Ammonites, and Moabices.
Jerome calls Amos " rude in fpeech, but not iti Their [
knowledgeijl;" applying to him what St Paul modellly t ''"^
profefTes of himfelf.^. Many (lavs Dr Lowth ) Ivdve
followed the authority of Jerome in fpeaking of this§ ^(jy|
prophet, as if he were indeed quite rude, intloquent, 0.
and deflitute of all the embellifhments of compolition.
The matter is, however, far otherwife. Let any perfon
who has candour and perfpicacity enough to judge, not
from the man but from his writings, open the volume
of his pifc'diftions, and he will, 1 think, agree with me,
that our fhepherd * i? not a whit behind the very chief ,
of the prophets He will agree, that as in fublimity i| 2 Od
and maonificence he is almofl equal to the greatert, kti'
in fplendour of diftion and elegance of exprefTion he is
fcarcely inferior to any. The fame celeftial Spirit in-
deed actuated Ifaiah and Daniel in the court and Amos
in the fheep-folds ; conftantly Itleftirig fjuch interprctei*8
of the divine will as were bcfl adapted to the occafion,,
and fometimes ' from tiie- mouth of babes and fuckiines
perfefting praife :' occafioRaliy employing the natural
eloquence.of fame, and occafionally making others elo-
quent,"
Mr Locke has obCerved, that the comparifons o*"thi»
prophet aie chiefly drawn from lions and other animals
with which he was moil accuftomed ; bat the fiaeft
images and allufions are drawn from fcenes of nature.
There are many beautiful paflkges in the writirigs of A-
raos, of which we fhall prcfent one fpecinaea :
Tl>e ficM k laid wafte; the .ground mourneth.-*.
branches thereof are made white.
Wo to them that are at cafe in Zion,
And truft in the mountains of Samaria }
Who are named chief of the nations.
To whom the houfe of Ifrael came ;
Pais ye unto Calneh and fee,
And from thence go to Hamath.the Great 5
Then go down to Gath of the Philiftifies ;
Are they better than thefe kingdoms ?
Or their borders greater than their border* ?
Ye that put far away the evil day,
-And caufe the feat or violence to cotne near j
That lie upon beds of ivory.
And ftretch yourfdves upon couches ;
That eat the lambs out of the flock,
And the calves out of the mLdft of the ftall i
That chant to the found of the viol,
And like David devife iclkuineuts of mufic j
That
I
[ iji 1 SCR
' king of Affyria carried captive the natives ofr Galilee and Scripture.^
other parts about A. M. 3264. It is, however,, pro- '
babie, that his prophecies were dellvei'ed in the reign
of Hezckiah ; for he appears to fpeak of the takinsT of
. The wi-iting^s of Obadiah, which confift of one diap- No-Ammon a city of Egypt, and of the infolent mel^
"^"^' ter, arfc<:ompofed with much beauty, and unfold a very fengers of Sennacherib, aa of things paft i and he hk^-
SCR
Ttia* dirirtit wine in bowls^
And anoint yourfelves with chief ointmetits ;
£vt are not grieved for theaJtiSion of Jofeph |f.
intereftlng; fcene of prophecy. Of this prophet little
can be feid, as the fpecimen of his genius i« fo (hort,
a-nd the greater part of it included in one of the pro-
phecies of Jeremiah. Compare Ob. i —9. with Jar.
»liK. 14, I 16. See OfiABtAH.
wife defcribes the people of Judah as ftill in their
own country, and defirous of celebrating their fefti-
vals.
While Jerufalem was threatened by Sennacherib, Na-
hum promifed deliverance to Heiekiah, and predided
Though Jonah be placed the fixth in the order of that Judah would foon celebrate her folemn feafts fecure
the minor prophets both in the Hebrew and Septua- from invafion, as her enemy would no more difturb her
gint, he is generallv confidered aa the moft ancient of peace. In the fecondand third chapters Nahum fore-
aU the prophets, not excepting Hofea. He lived in tels the downfal of the AfTyrian empire and the final
the kingdom of Ifrael, and prophefied to the ten tribes deftruaion of Nineveh, which waspn^bably accomphfh-
under the reign of Joafh and Jeroboam. The book of ed by the Medes and Babylonians, whofe combined
Jonah Is chiefly hillorical, and contains nothing of poe- forces overpowered the Affyrians by furpnfe «J while
try but the prayer of the prophet. The facred writers,
and our Lord himfelf, fpeaks of Jonah as a prophet
of cpnfiderable eminence*. See Jonah.
Micah began to prophecy foon after Ifaiah, Hofea»
■Joel, and Amos; and he prophefied between A.
, 3246, when Jotham began to reign, and A. M. 3305
they were folden together as thorns,, and while they
were drunken as drunkards,** when the gates of the ri-»
Ter were opened, the palace demolifhed, and an " over-
running flood" afTifted the conquerors in their derafta-
tion ; who took an endlefs ftore of fpoil of gold and
filver, making an utter end of the place of Nineveh, of
when Hezekiah died. One of his prediftlona is faid f that vaft and populous city, whofe walls were I go feet
to have faved the life of Jeremiah, who under the reign
of Jehoiakim would have been put to death for prophe-
fyiiig the deftruftion of the temple, had it not appeared
that Micah had foretold the fame thing under Heze-
kiah above 100 years before J. Micah is mentioned „ r , vn.
as a prophet in the book of Jeremiah and in the New It is impoflible to read of the cxaft accomphfhment
Teflament t|. He is imitated by fucceedingprophets(N), of the prophetic denunci^tronsr agamft the enemies ot
as he himfelf had borrowed exprelTions from his prede- the Jews, without refleamg on the aftonifliing proofs
ce(rors(o). Our Saviour himfelf fpoke in the languaj^e which that nation enjoyed of the divme origin of their
• " rclifrion. From the Babylonifli captivity to the time of
high, and fo broad that three chariots could pafs abrealb,
Yet fo completely was this celebrated city deftroyed,
that even in the 2d century the fpot on which it ftood
could not be afcertained, every veftigc of it being
gone.
of this prophet ( i>).
The ftyle of Micah is for the mofl: part clofe, for-
cible, pointed, and concife ; fometimts approaching the
obicurity of Hofea ; in many parts animated and fub-
\smt ; and in general truly poetical. In his prophecies
there is an elegant poem, which Dr Lowth thinks is a . 1 1 r o. 1
citation from the anfwer of Balaam to the king of the prophecy, too, forms a regular and pertett poem ; the
Moabites: exordium is not merely magnificent, it is truly majeltic;
the preparation for the defti uftion of Nineveh, and the
gion. j:'romtlic Babylonifli captivity
Chrift they had numberlefs inftances of the fulfilment ©f
their prophecies.
The charafter of Nahum as a writer is thus defcribed
by Dr Lowth : " None of the minor prophets feem to
equal Nahum in boldnefs, ardour, and fublimity. His
Wherewith Hiiall I come before Jehovah ?
Wherewith fhall I bow myfelf unto the High God ?
Khali I come before him with burnt-offerings.
With cslves of a year old?
Will Jehovah be pleafed with thoufands of rams ?
With ten thoufands of rivers of oil ?
Shall I give n^y fi)-ft-born for my ti-anfgreffion ^
The fruit of my body for the fin of my foul ?
He hath fhowrd thee, O man, what is good :
And what doth Jehovah require of thee,
But to do jultice, and to love mercy,
And to be humble in walking with thy God ?
Jofephus afierts, that Nahum lived in the time of Jo-
tham king of Judah ; in which cafe he may be fuppofed
%i3 have prophefied agaiaft Nineveh when Tiglath-Pilefer found reverence of religion.
R s
dtfcription of its downfal and defolation, are expreffed
in the mofl; vivid colours, and are bold and luminous in
the highcfl degree." ^
As the prophet Habakku-k makes no mention of thcQf Habak«
Aflyrians, and fpeaks of the Chaldean iiivafions as nearkuk.
at hand, he probably lived after the .deftruftion of the
Aflyrian empire in the fall of Nineveh A. M. 3392,
and not long before the devaft:ation of Judea by Nebu-
chadnezzar. Habakkuk was then nearly contempora-
ry with Jeremiah, and predlfted the fame events. A
general account of Habakkuk's prophecies have already
been given under the word Habakkuk, which may be
confulted. We would, however, farther obferve, that
the prayer in the third chapter is a mofl: beautiful and
perfect ode, pofiefling all the fire of poetry and the proi
God.
(n) Compare Zephan. ill. 19. with Micah iv. 7. and Ezek. xxll* 27. with Micah iii. m»
(o) Compare Micah iv. i — 3. and Ifaiah ii. 2 — 4. Micah iv, x^.with Ifaiah xli. 150
(*) Compare MicdUx vii, 6. with Matt, x. 36.
S C R _ _ I
Scripture. God came from Teman,
"-"V^ And the Holy One from-^ mount Paran :
His glory covered the heavens,
And the earth was full of his praife.
His brightnefs was as the light ;
Beanns of glo'ry iflued from his fide ;
And there was the hiding of his power.
Before him went the peltilence ;
And burning coals went forth at his feet.
He flood and meafured the earth ;
iPtt beheld and drove afunder the nations ;
The everlafting mountains were fcattered ;
The perpetual hills did bow.
The prophet illuftrates this fubjeft throughout with
equal fublimity ; felefting from fuch an afiemblage of
miraculous incidents the moft noble and important^ dif-
playirig them in the moft fplendid colours, and embel-
lifliing them with the fublimeft imagery, figures, and
diftion ; the dignity of which is fo heightened and re-
commended by the fuperior elegance of the conclufion,
that vfere it not for a few fhades which the hand of
tifne has apparently caft over it in two or three pafla-
ges, no compofition of the kind would appear more
elegant or more perfecl than this poem.
Habakkuk is imitated by fucceediog prophets, and
his words are borrowed by the evangelical writers j|.
Zephaniah,, who was contemporary with Jeremiah,
prophefied in the reign of Jofiah king of Judah ; and
from the idolatry which he defcribes as prevailing at
that time, it is probable that his prophecies were deli-
vered before the laft reformation made by that pious
prince A. M. 3381.
The account which Zephaniah and Jeremiah give of
the idolatties of their age is fo fimilar, that St Ifiodere
afferts, that Zephaniah abridged the defcriptions of Je-
remiah. But it is more probable that the prophecies
©f Zephaniah were written fome years before thdfe of
his contemporary ; for Jeremiah feems to reprefent the
abufes as partly removed which Zephaniah defcribes as
flagrant and exccffivc ( q_)-
In the firft chapter Zephaniah denounces the wrath
of God againft the idolaters who worfhippi^d Baal and
the hoft of heaven, and againft the violent and deceitful.
In the fecond chapter the prophet threatens deftruc-
tion to the Philiilincs, the Moabites, the Ammonites,
and Ethiopians and defcribes tlie fate of Nmeveh in
emphatic terras : *' Flocks fliall lie down in the midft
of her ; all the beafts of^4.he nations, both the cormo-
rant and bittern, (hall ledge in lier ; their voice fhall
£ng in the windows ;. defolation fhall be in the threfh-
olds." In the third chapter the prophet Inveighs againft.
the pollutions and oppreffions of the Jews ; and con-
cludes with the promife, '* That a remnant would be
faved, and that multiplied bleffings would be beftowed
upon the penitent." The ftyle of Zephaniah is poeti-
cal, but is not diftinguiflied by any peculiar elegance or
beauty, though generally animated and impreffive.
Haggai, the tenth of the minor prophets,, was the
firft who flourifhed among the Jews after the Babylo-
nifh captivity. He began to prophefy in. the fecond
H Heb. X.
37> 38.
Rom. i. 17.
Gal. iii. z.
A(Sts xiii.
4 1, com par-
with Hab.
»' 5^
78
Prophecies
of Zepha-
.79
132 1 SCR
year of Darius Hyftafpes, about 520 years before^cript
Chrift. . —
The intention of the prophefy of Hagffal was to en-
courage the difpirited Jews to proceed with the build-
ing of the temple. The only.prediftion mentioned re-
fers to the MefQah, whom the prophet affures his coun-
trymen would fill the new temple with glory. So well
was this prediction underttood by the Jews, that they
looked with earneft expeftatlon for the Meffiah's ap-
pearing in this temple till it was deftroyed by the Ro-
mans. But as the vicloriuus Mefliah, whom they ex-
pefted, did not then appear, they have fince applied the
prophecy to a third temple, which they hope to fee
reared In fome future period.
The ftyle of Haggai, In the opinion of Dr Lowth,
is profaic. Dr Newcome thinks that a great part of
it is poetical.
Zechariah was undoubtedly a contemporary of Hag-of Ze*
gal, and began to prophecy two months after him, In rlah.
the eighth month of the fecond year of Darius Hyf-
tafpes, A. M. 3484, being commiffioned as well as
Haggai to exhort the Jews to proceed In the building
of the temple after the interruption which the v/ork
had fuffered. We are informed by Ezra (vi. 14.),
that the Jews profpered through the prophefying of
Zechaiiah and Haggai.
Zechariah begins with general exhortations to his
countrymen, exciting them to repent from the evil
ways of their fathers, whom the prophets had admonlfli-
ed in vain. He defcribes angels of the Lord interce-
ding for m.ercy on Jerufalem and the defolate cities of
Judah, which had experienced the indignation of the
Moft High for 70 years while the neighbouring nations
were at peace. He declares, that the houfe of the
Lord ftiould be built in Jerufalem, and that Zion fhould
be comforted. The prophet then reprefents the in-
creafe and profperity of the Jews under feveral typical
figures. He defcribes the eitabllfhment of the Jewifli
government and the coming of the Mefliah. He ad-
monifhes thofe who obferved folemn fafts without due
contrition, to execute juftice, mercy, and compaflion,
every man to his brother ; not to opprefs the widow
nor the fatherlefs, the ftranger nor the poor. He pro-
mifes, that God would again fhow favour to Jerufalem.;
that their movu nful fafts fhould be turned into cheerful
feafts ; and that the church of the Lord fhould be en-
larged by the acceffion of many nations.
The 1 2th veife of the 1 1 th chapter of this book,
which exhibits a prophetic defcription of fome circum-
ftances atterwards fulfilled in our Saviour, appears to
be cited by St Matthew (xxvlii 9, 10.) as fpoken by
Jeremiah; and as the iith, 12th, and 13th chapters-,
have been thought to contain fome particulars more
fultable to the age of Jeremiah than to that of Zecha-
riah, fome learned, writers are of opinion that they were,
written by the former prophet, and have been from fi--
milarity of fubjeft joined by miftake to thofe of Ze-
chariah. But othera are of opinion, that St Matthew"
might allude to fome traditional prophecy of Jeremiah^
or, what Is more probable, that the name of Jeremiah,
was fubftituted by miftake in place of Zechariah.
The.
(qj Compare Zephaniah i. 4, 5, 9. with Jeremiah iL 5, 20,, 3Z,.
SCR [133
The latb, 13th, and 14th chapters contain prophe-
cies which refer entirely to the Chriftian difpenfation ;.
tlie circumftances attending which he defcrlbcs with a
clearnefs whicli indicated their near approach.
The ftyle of Zechariah is fo fimilar to that of Jere-
miah, that the Jews were accuftomed to remark that
the fpiiit of Jeremiah had paffed into him. He is ge-
nerally profaic till towards the conclufion of his work,
when he becomes more elevated and poetical. The
whole is beautifully connefted by eafy tranfitions, and
prefent and future fcenes are blended with the greateft
delicacy.
'Malachi was the laft prophet that flourifhed under
the Jewifh difpenfation j but neither the time in which
he lived, nor any particulars of his hlftory, can now be.
afoertained. It is even uncertain whether the word
Malachi be a proper name, or denote, as the Septua-
gint have rendered it, his angel (r), that is, " the angel
of the Lord." Origen fuppofed, that Malachi was an
angel incarnate, and not a man. The ancient Hebrews,
the ChaW^e paraphraft, and St Jerome, are of opinion
he was the fame perfen with Ezra : but if this was the
cafe, they ought to have afligned fome reafon for gi-
ving two different names to the fame perfon.
As it appears from the concurring teftimony of all
the ancient Jewifh and Chriftian writers, that the light
of prophecy expired in Malachi, we may fuppofe that
the termination of his miniftry coincided with the ac-
complifhment of the firft feven weeks of Daniel's pro-
phecy, which was the period appointed for fealing the
vifion and prophecy. This, according to Prideaux's
account, took place in A. M. 3595 ; but, according to
the calculations of Bifhop Lloyd, to A. M. 3607, twelve
years later. Whatever reckoning we prefer, it muft
be allowed that Malachi completed the canon of the
Old Teftament about 400 years before the birth of
Chrift.
It appears certain that Malachi prophefied under
Nehemiah, and- after Haggai and Zechariah, at a time
when great diforders reigned among the priefls and
people of Judah, which are reproved by Malachi. He
inveighs againft the priefts (i. 6, &c. ii. i, 2, &c.) ;
he reproaches the people with having taken ftrange wives
(ii. II.) ; he reproves them for their inhumanity to-
wards their brethren (ii. lO. iii. 5.) ; their too fre-
quently divorcing their wives ; their neglcdl of paying
their tithes and firft-fruits (Mai. iii. 13.) He feems
to allude to the covenant that Nehemiah renewed with
the Lord (iii. lo. and ii. 4, 5, &c.), alTifted by the
priefts and the chief of the nation. He fpeaks of the
facrifice of the new law, and of the abolition of thofe
of the old, in thefe words (i. 10, i r, 1 3, 13.) : *' I
have no pleafure in you, faith the Lord of hofls, neither
will I accept an offering at your hand. For from the
riling of the fun, even unta the going down of the
fame, my name fhall be great among the Gentiles, and
in every place incenfe fhall be offered unto my name,
and a pure offering : for my name fhall be great among
the Heathen, faith the iord of hofts." He declares
that the Lord was weaiy with the impiety of Ifrael ;
and alTures them, that thi Lord whom they fought
S C R
fhould fuddenly come to his temple preceded by the Scripture^,
meffenger of the covenant, who was to, prepare his way C""^
that the Lord when he appeared fhould purify the fons
of Levi from their unrighteoufnefs, and refine them as
metal from the drofs ; and that then the offering 01
Judah, the fpiritual facrifice of the heart, iliould be plea-
fant to the Lord. The prophet, like one who was de-
livering a laft meffage, denounces deftruclion agalnfl the
impenitent in emphatic and alarming words. He en-
courages thofe who feared the name of the Lord with,
the animating promife, that the " Sun of righteoufnefij.
fliould arife with falvation in his rays,." and render thenv
triumphant over the wicked. And now that prophecy
was. to ceafe, and miracles were no more to be perform-
ed till the coming of the Meffiah ; now that the Jews-
were to be left to the guidance of their own reafon,
and the written inftruftions of their prophets — Malachi
exhorts them to remember the law of Mofes, which the
Lord had revealed from Horeb for the fake of all If-
rael. At length he feals up the prophecies of the Old'
Teftament, by predicting the commencement of the
new difpenfation, which fliould be ufhered in. by John,
the Baptift with the power and fpirit of Elijah ; who-
fhould turn the hearts of fathers and children to repen-
tance ; but if his admonitions fhould be rejedted, that
the Lord would fmite tlic land with a curfe..
8*
The colleftion of writings compofed after the afcen-NEw Tes*
fion of Chrift, and acknowledged by his followers to be,'^^'^^^^-
divine, is known in general by the name of <?<a5^y.».
This title, though neither given by divine command,,
nor applied to thefe writings by the apoftles, was adopt-
ed in a very early age, though the precife time of its
introduftion is uncertain, it "being juftified by feveral
pafTages in Scripture -f^, ^nd warranted by the authori- f Matth.
ty of St Paul in particular, who calls the facred books^''"- ;f 8.
before the time of Chrift J'i«6i»x» |. Even long^j^j^ 'viii^'^'
before that period, either the whole of the Old Tefta-y_ j^] ij. ..
ment, or the five books of Mofes, were entitled /Sf^^'^v ao..
/iaSuxnf , or book of the covenant t ^ Cor. iiL
As the word Sia.%t,^n admits of a two-fold interpretation, .
wc may tranflate this title either the New Cotienant or the *
New Tejlament. The former tranflation muft be adopt«
ed, if refpeft be had to. the texts of Scripture, from
which the name is borrowed, fince thofe paffages evi-
dently convey the idea of a covenant and, befides, a
being incapable of death can neither have made an old
nor make a new teftament. It is likewife probable,^
that the earUeft Greek dil'ciples, who made ufe of this
expreffion, had no other notion in view than that of
covenant. We, on the contrary, are accuftomed to.
give this facred coUeftion the name of Tejiament ; and
lince it would be not only improper, but even abfurd,.
to fpeak of the Teftament of God, we commonly un-
derftand the Teftament of Chriil ; an explanation which
removes but half the difficulty, fince the new only, and
not the old, had Chrift for its teftator.. g^.
In ftating the evidence for the truth of Chriftianity,.Tmportancc-
there is nothing more worthy of confideration than the '^'f tf^a argu-
83
Title,.
Thi
ment from
authenticity of the books of the New Teftament. "-'"-the authen
is the foundation on which aU other arguments reft ;ticity of.tha:
and,bouk$>.
[^r] *3n'7D Malachi fjgnifies properly my angeh
§ G It
C >
4lcrtptT3rf, aWd if It 18 folld, the CKriftisTi rclipjott Is fully eftablifh-
— v—— ed. The proofs for the authenticity of the New Te-
ftament have this peculiar advantage, that they are plain-
and fimple, and involve no metaphyfical fuhtiitiesi —
Every man who ca-n diftinguifh truth from falfehood muft
fee their force ; and if there are any lb hlit^dcd by pre-
judice, or corrupted by licentioufncfs, as to attempt by
fophiftry to eliide them» their fophiftry will be ealily
deteded by every man df common underftanding, who
has read the hiftorical evidence with candour and at-
t'ertion. Inftead, therefore, of declaiming againft the
infidel, we folicit his attention to this fubjetft, convin-
ced, that where truth refide?, it will fliine with fo con-
ftant and clear a light, that the combined ingenuity of
all the delfts fince the beginning of the world will ne-
ver be able to extinguifh or to obfcure it. If the books
of the New Teftament are really genuine, oppofition
'ft'ill incite the Chriftian to bring forward the evidence;
and thus by the united efforts of the deift and the Ghri-
ftlaa, the arguments will be ftatcd with all the clear-
fiefs and accuracy of which they are fufceptible in fo
I'emarkable a degree.
It is furpnfmg that the adverfanes of Chriftiani-
fy have not always made their firft attacks in this quar-
ter ; for if they admit that the writings of the New Te-
Itament are as ancierlt as we affirm, and compofed by
the perfons to whom they are afcribed, they muft al-
low, if they reafon faii-ly, that the Chriftian religion is
true.
The apoftles allude frequently in their epiftles to the
gift of miracles, which they had communicated to the
Chriftian converts by the impofition of hands, in con-
firmation of the doftrlne dehvered in their fpceches and
writings^ and fometimes to miracles which they them-
Ml'iael'i^s ^^^"^^^ ^^d performed. Now if thefe epiftles are really
intTiduHion genuine, it is hardly pofllble to deny thofe miracles to
to the New be .true. The cafe is here entirely different from that
of an hift:orian, who relates extraordinary events in the
courfc of his narrative, fince either credslity or an ac-
tual intention to deceive may induce him to defcribe as
true a feries of falfehoods rcfpedling a foreign land or
diftant period. Even to the Evangelifts might an ad-
verfary of the Chriftian religion make this objefkion :
but to write to perfons with whom we ftand in the
p'eareft; connexion, " I have not only performed mira-
cles in your prefence, but have likewife communicated
to you the fame extraordinary endowments," to write
in this manner, if nothing of the kind had ever hap-
pened, would require fucli an incredible degree of ef-
frontery, that he who pofleffed it would not only ex-
pofe himfelf to the utmoft ridicule, but by giving his ad-
verfaries the faireit opportunity to deleft his impof-
fure, would ruin the caufe which he attempted to fup-
port.
St Paul'8 Firft EpiftJe to the Theffalonians la addref-
fed to a community to which he had preached the gof-
pel only three Sabbath days, when he vva's forced to
quit it by the perfecution of the populace. In thia
epiftle he appeals to the miracles which he had per-
foimed, and to the gifts of the Ifoly Spirit which he
had communicated. Now, is it poffible, without for-
feiting all pretenfions to common fenfe, that, in writing
to a community which he had lately eftabliftied, he could
fpeak of miracks performed, and gifts of tlie Holy
'44, i4
34 1 - SCR
Ghoft comnWrtScatei; if no mertbet- the fodet jr Ead Scrfjs
feen the on6, or received the other *
To fuppofe that ati impoft^or could write to the con-
verts or adverfai-ies of the new religiton fuch epiftles a#
thefe, with a degree of triuittph over his opponents,
and yet maintain his authority, implies ignorance and
ftupidity hardly to be believed. Cr-edwlous as the Chr»-
ftians have beeiv in later ages', and even fo early aa th#
third century, no lelV fevtre were they in their inqui-
ries-, and guarded againil deception, at the introdu^^lioif
of Chriftlanity. l^ia eharafter giv^n them even bj«
Lucian, a writer of the fecond century, who vented
his fsttirc not only againft certain Chrittians *, who*0?«ji
had fupplied Peregrinua with- the means of fubfii^- l^^ f-j'^
ence, but alfo againft heathen oraclea and pretended
wonders. He relates of his impoftor (Pfeudomantis), ro'm. ii
that he attempted nothing fupernatural in the prefence 3^4 — jj
of the Chriftians and Epicureans, This Pfeudomantis 34''
exclaims before the whole affcrably, ** Away with the?
Chriftians, away with' the Epicureans, and let thofe on-
ly remain who believe in the Deity!" (aiftvovrfc tj*
®'f') upon which the populiace took up ftones to drive
away the fufpicious ; while the other philofophers, Py-
thagoreans, Platonifts, and Stoics, as credulous friends
and proteftors of the caufe, were permitted to re-
main ^; ^ ^Ahx,r.
It i.^ readily acknowledged, that the arguments^" p/'u
drawn from the authenticity of the New Tettament'"'"*''''j
only eftablifh the truth of the miracles performed by^^' ^ '
the apoftles, and are not applicable to the miracles of',
our Saviour ; yet, If we admit the three firft gofpels to
be genuine, the truth of the Chriftian religion will be
proved From the prophecies of Jefus. For If thefe go-
fpels were compofed by Matthew, Mark, and Luke,
at the time in which all the primitive Chriliians affirm,
that is, previous to the deftruftion of Jerufalem, they
muft be infpired ; for they contain a circumftantial pro-
phecy of the deftru^b'on of Jerufalem, and determine
the period at which It wi^accompliihed. Now it was
impoflible that human fagacity could forefeet that event;
for when it was predicted nothing was more impra
bable. ' The Jews were refolved to avoid an open re-
bellion, well knowing the greatriefs of their danger, and
fabmitted to the oppreftions of their governors in the
hope of obtaining- redrefs from' the court of Rome. -—
The circum'iance which gave birth to thefe misfortunes
is fo trifling in itfclf, that, independent of its confe-
quenccs, it would not dcfei-vc to be recorded. In the
narrow entrance to a fynagogue in Caefarea, fome per-
fon had made an offering of birds merely with a vievi'
to Irritate the Jews. The infult excited their indig-
nation, and occafioned the ftiedding of blood. With-
out this trifling accident, which no human -wifdorti
could forefee even the day before it happened, it is pof-
fible that the pniphecy of Jefus would never have beeii
falnlled. But Florus, who was then procurator of Ju»
dea, converted this private quarrel into public hoftiii-
ties, and compelled the Jewifli nation to rebel contrary
to its wifli and refolution, in order to avoid what thi
Jews had threatened, an impeachment before the Ro-
hian emperor foi: his exceffiVe cruelties. But even afi
ter this rebellion had broken out, the deftruAioH of
the temple was a very improbable event. It was not
the pradice of the Romans to deftroy the magnificent
edihcec
SCR f 135
ecllflces of the nations whlcK they Tu})c!uc3 ; and of aH ahly
the Roman generals, none was more unlikely to de-
molifh fo ancient and augutl a building as Titus Vef-
pafian.
So important then ie the que^l ion, Whether the books
of the New Fe! lament be genuine ? that the arguments
which prove their authenticity, prove alfo the tmth of
the Chri lian religion. Let us now confider tke evi-
dence which proves the authenticity of the New Te-
ftament.
We receive the bocks of the New Teftament as the
genuine works of Matthew, Mark, I.iike, John, and
Paul, for the fame reafon that we receive the writings
of Xenophon, of Polybius, of Plutarch, of Csefar, and
of Livy. We have the uninterrupted teftimony of all
ages, and we have no reafon to fulpecl impofition.
Tlii« argument is much Uronger when applied to the
books of the New Teftament than when applied to any
other writings; for they were addreffed to large focie-
ties, were often read in their prefence, and acknow-
ledgcd by them to be the writiugs of the apoftles. —
Whereas, the moft eminent profane writings which ftill
remain were addrelTed only to individuals, or to no per-
fops at all : and we have no authority to affirm that
they were read in public ; on the contrary, we know
that a liberal education was uncommon ; books were
fcarce, and the knowledge of them was confined to a
few individuals in every nation.
The New Tellament was read over three quarters of
the world, while profane writeis were hmited to one
nation or to one country'. An uninterrupted fuccef-
lion of writers from the apoilolic ages to the prefent time
quote the facred wiitings, or make allufions to them :
and thefe quotations and allufions are made not only by
friends but by enemies. This cannot be afierted of even
the beft claffic authors. And it is highly probable, that
the tranflations of the New Teilament were made fo
early as the fecond century ; and in a century or two
after, they became vei7 numerous. After this period,
it was impoflible to forge new writings, or to corrupt
the facred text, unlefs we can fuppofe that men of dif-
ferent nations, of different fentiments and different lan-
■jrviaffes, and often exceedingly hoitile to one another,
Should all agree in one forgery. This argument is fo
itrong, that if we deny the autliciticity of the New
Tellament, we may with a thoufand times more pro-
priety rejeft all the othfr writings in the world : we
way even throw afide human ttllimony itfdb But as
this fubjeft is;of great importance, we fhall confider it
at more length ; and to enable our readers^ to judge with
the greater accuracy, we lhall ftate, from the valuable
work of Michaclls, as tranfiated by the judicious and
learned Mr Marfh, the reaions which may induce a cri-
tic to fufpeft a work to be fpurious.
I. When doubts have. been <nade from itcfirft appear-
ance in the world, whether it proceeded from the au-
would thor to whom it is afcribed. 2. When the immediate
^ a friends of the pretended author, who wei'e able to de-
I to be ^-jjg ypjjjj ^j^g iubged, ha'fe denied it to be his produc-
tion. 3. Whert a long feries of years has elapfed af-
ter hi» deaUi, in which the book .was unkiiowa, and in
which it muft unavoidably have been mentioned and
quoted, had it really exifted. 4. When the ftyle is dif-
ferent from that ot his other writings, or, in cafe no
«ther remain, different from that which might reafon-
•3
186
SI ivcly
reaf TS
3 SCR
_ ^ be expe^^ed. 5. Wh«o evcnti «w xemtied Scr»,t«i««;
which happen later tbto the time J[ the pretended «r*~"
author. ^. When opiniotis are advanced which opn-
tradift thofe he is known -to ttiaintain in his oiiv^r
writings. Though this latter argument alone leads to
no pofitlve conclufion, fince every man is liable to
change his opinicin, or through forgetfulnefs to vary
in the circuraftancts of the fame relation, of which
Jofephus, in his Airtiquitie« and War of the Jews, af-
fords a ftriking example. ?8
I
But it cannot be fliown that any one doubted ofI^» not ap.
its authenticity in the period in which it firft appeared. ^rewVella-
2. No ancient accounts are on record whence we niay j^^^^
conclude it to be fpurious. 3. No confiderable period
elapfed after the death of the apoftles, ki which the
New Teftament was unknown; but, on the contrary, it
is mentioned by their very contemporaries, and the ac-
counts of it in the fecond century are ftill more nume-
rous. 4. No argument can be brought in its disfavour
from the nature of the ftyle, it being exaftly fuch ^
might be expelled from the apoftles, not Attic but
Jewifti Greek. 5. No fafts are recorded which hap-
pened after their death. 6. No doftrices are main-
tained which contradici the known tenets of the au-
thors, fmce, befide the New Teftament, no writings of
the apoftles exift. But, to the honour of the New Te-
ftament be it fpoken, it contains numerous contradic-
tions to the tenets and dodrines of the fathers in the fe-
cond and thirdcentuiy, whofe morahty was different from
that of the gofpel, w^hich recommends fortitude and
fubmiflion to unavoidable evils, but not that enthufiaftic
ardour for martyrdom for which thofe centuries are dl-
ftinguifned ; it alludes to ceremonies which in the -fol-
lowing ages were either in difufe or totally unknown t
all which circumftances infallibly demonftratc that, the
New Teftament is not ja produftlpn of either of thofe
centuries. ^
We fliall now confider the -pofitiwe evldene* -fpr-6he p^^Q^jy^jy^
authenticity of the New Teftament. T^efe may be ar-
ranged under the three following heads j
1. The impoflibility of a lorgery, arifrng fronftthe
nature of the thing jtfelf. 2. The ancient Ghrlftianr
Jewiih, and Heathen teftlmony ifi its favosur. 3. It*
own internal evidence.
I. 'Jlie impoflibility of a foBgery arifiog from the na-- imj^ibWi,
ture of the thing itfelf is evident. It is impolfible to:y of afor-
eftablifh forged writings as authentic m any place where .^e y arifmg
there are perfcns ftrongly inclined and well qualified to f""'"^^*^^^
deteft the fraud. Now the Jews were the raoft violcHt "^g'tj^ng,
enemies of Ghriftlanity. They put the founder of it to
death ; they perfecuted his dlfciples with in^placable
fury ; and they were anxious to ftifle the new religion
■ in its birth. .If the writings of the New Teftament
had been forged, would not the Jews have dete£ied the
impofture ? Is there a ftngle inftance on record where
a few individuals have impofed a hiftory upon the world
againft the teftimony of a whole nation .> Would the
Inhabitants of Paleftine have received the gofpels, if
they had not had fuf&cient evidence that Jefus GhrHl
really appeared among them, and performed the mira-
cles afcribed to him- ? Or would the churches of Rome
or of Corinth have acknowledged the epiftles addreffed
to them as the genuine works of Paul, if Paul had
never preached among them ? We might as well think
to prove, that the hiftory of the Refoiunation is the in-
ventiuQ
1
SCR
I n6 ]
SCR
9t
From tedi-
e\*r!pture. ventlon of Mftoflans ; and that ho revolution happened
"""^f^ in Great Britain during the laft century.
2. The fec©nd kmd of evidence which we produce
to prove the authenticity of the New Teftament, is the
teftimony of ancient writers, Chriilians, jfews, and Hea*
thens.
In reviewing the evidence of teftimony, it will not
be expefted that we fhould begin at the prefent age,
and trace backwards the authors who have w^ritten on
this fubjeft to the firft ages of Chriftianity. This in-
•deed, though a laborious taflc, could be performed in
the tnoft complete manner ; the whole feries of authors,
Tiumerous in every age, who have quoted from the books
of the New Teftament, written commentaries upon
them, tranflated them into different languages, or who
have drawn up a lift of them, could be exhibited fo as to
form fuch a perfeA body of evidence, that we imagine
even a jury of deifts wo\ild find it impoflible, upon a de-
liberate and candid examination, to rejeft or difbelieve it.
We do not, however, fuppofe that fcepticifm has yet
■arrived at fo great a height as to render (uch a tedi-
ous and circumftantial evidence neceflary. Pafling over
the intermediate fpace, therefore, we (hall afcend at
once to the fourth century, when the evidence for the
authenticity of the New Teftament was fully eftablifti-
ed, and trace it back from that period to the age of
the apoftles. We hope that tl^is method of ftating the
evidence will appear more natural, and wKU aftord more
fatisfaftion, than that which has been ufually adopted.
It is furely more natural, when we inveftigate the
truth of any faft which depends on a feries of teftimo-
ny, to begin with thofe witnelTes wlio lived neareft the
prefent age, and whofe charaders are befl: eftablilhed.
In this way we fhall learn from themfelves the founda-
tion of their belief, and the charafters of thofe from
whom they derived it ; and thus we afcend till we ar-
rive at its origin. This mode of inveftigation will
give more fatisfaftlon to the deifl. than the ufual way ;
and we believe no Chriftlan, who is confident of the
goodnefs of his caufe, will be unwilling to grant any
proper conceffions. The delft will thus have an oppor-
tunity of examining, feparately, what he will confider
as the weakeft parts of the evidence, thofe which are
exhibited by the earlieft^ Chriftlan writers, confifting of
expreffions, and not quotations, taken from the New
Teftament. The Chriftian, on the other hand, ought
to with, that thefe apparently weak parts of the evi-
dence were dlftlnftly examined, for they will afford an
irrefragable proof that the New Teftament was not for-
ged : and fhould the delft rejeft the evidence of thofe
early writers, it will be incumbent on him to account
for the origin of the Chriftian religion, which he will
find more difficult than to admit the common hypo-
thefis.
In the fourth century we could produce the tefti-
monies of numerous witneffes to prove that the books
of the New Teftament exitted at that time ; but it will
be fufficlent to mention their names, the time in which
they wrote, and the fubttance of their evidence. This
we fliall prefent in a concife form in the following
table, which is taken from Jones's New and Full Me-
thod of eilablifliing the canon of the New Teftament,
T/je Namts «/
the IVriUrt.
I.
Athanafius
bifhopof A-
lexandria.
n.
Cyril biftiop
ofjerufalem.
nr.
The bifhops
aft"embled in
the council
of Laodicea.
IV.
Eplphanius
blfhop of Sa-
lanais in Cy-
prus.
V.
Gregory Na-
zlanzen bi-
ftiop of Con-
ftantinople.
VL
Philaftrius
biftiop of
Brixia in
Venice.
VII.
Jerome.
VIII.
Rufiin prcf-
byter of A-
quilegium.
IX.
Auftin bi-
ftiop of Hip-
po in A-
frica.
X.
The XL IV
bifhops af-
fembled in
the third
council of
Carthage.
'Ih'e
times in
'wbioh
tbey
lived.
A. C.
315-
340-
364-
370-
375-
380.
382.
390-
Ths variation or agree-\
mint of their cata- The booh in jvliic/.
logues juitb ovrs novjibcfi catctUgue^ are.
received. \
The fame perfeft
ly with ours
now received.
The fame with
ours, only the
Revelation is
omitted.
The Revelation
is omitted.
394-
StAu.
ft in was
prefent
at it.
3ei
The fame with
ours now re-
ceived.
Omits the Reve-
lation.
The fame with ours
now received; ex-
cept that he men-
tions oaly 13 of St
Paul's epiftles (o-
mitting very pro-
bably the Epiftle
to the Hebrews),
and leaves out the
Revelations.
The fame with ours;
except that he fpeak;
dubioufly of the E
piftle to the He
brews; tho' in otho
parts of his writings
he receives it as ca-
nonical.
It perfeftly agrees
with ours.
Fragment. Epifi.
Tefial. torn, ll
iff in Synopfi
torn. I.
Catech. IV. §
ult. p. 1 01.
Canon, LIX.
,\ . B. The Ca-
nons of this coun-
cil weie not long
afterwards recei-
ved into the bod)
of the canons of
the univerfal
church.
Hceref, 76. cont.
Anom. p. 399
Carm. de veris
Iff genuin.
Scriptur,
Lib. de HereJ.
Numb. 87.
Ep. ad PauUn
83. Traa. 6.
p. 2. Alfocom-
monly prefixed
to the L^tin
vulgar.
Expof. in Symb
Apoflol. ^ 36
int.Ep.Hieron.
Pat. I. Tracl
3. p. 110. $5"
inter Op. Cypr.
P- SIS'
It perfeftly agrees DoSrin.
with ours. \ Chriji, I. 2. c.
8. Tom. Op. I.
p. 25.
It perfeftly agrees
with ourrs.
Vid. Canon .
XL V J I. iff
cap. ult.
We
lure.
to-
rhe
t
iiaiis.
E-
W of
Canity
r
jen,
SCR f ,
We now go back to Eufebius, who wrote about the
year 3 1 5, and whole catalojrue of the books of the New
Teftament we fhall mention at more length. " Let us
ebferve (fays he) the writinos of the apoftle John,
which are uncontradiaed ; and, firft of all, muft be men-
tioned, as acknowledgred of all, the gofpel, according
to him, well known to all the churehes under heaven."
The author then proceeds to relate the occafions of
writing the gofpels, and the reafons for placing St
John's the laft, manifeftly fpeaking of all the four as
equal in their authority, and in the certainty of their
original. The fecond paffage is taken from a chap-
ter, the title of which is, Of the Scriptures univer-
fally acknowledged, and of thofe that are not fuch."
Eufebius begins his enumeration in the following man-
ner : " In the firft place, are to be ranked the facred
four Gofpels, then the book of the Ads of the Apoftles ;
after that are to be reckoned the Epiftles of Paul:
in the next place, that called the firft Epiftle of John
and the Epiftle of Peter are to be efteemed authentic :
after this is to be placed, if it be thought fit, the Re-
wlatiou of John; about which we fhall obferve the dif-
ferent opinions at proper feafons. Of the controvert-
€d, but yet well known or approved by the moft, are
that called the Epiftle of James and that of Jude, the
fecond of Peter, and the fecond and third of John, whe-
ther they were written by the evangelift or by another
of the fame name." He then proceeds to reckon up
rive others, not in our canon, which he calls in one
place ^?/r/owx, in another contrcverted ; evidently mean-
ing the fame thing by thefe two words (s).
^ A. D. 290, ViAorin bifhop of Pettaw in Germany,
in a commentary upon this text of the Revelation,
" The firft was like a lion, the fecond was like a calf,
the third like a man, and the fourth like a flying eagle,"
makes out, that by the four creatures are intended
the four gofpels ; and to fhow the propriety of the
fymbols, he recites the fubjeft with which each evange-
lift opens his hiftory. The explication is fanciful, but
the teftimony pofitive. He alfo exprefsly cites the
Afts of the Apoftles.
A. D. 230, Cyprian bifiiop of Carthage gives the
foDowmg teftimony : « The church (fays this father)
IS watered like Paradife by four rivers, that is, by four
gofpels." The Afts of the Apoftles are alfo frequently
■quoted by Cyprian under that name, and under the
name of the Di-vme Scriptures." In his various wri-
tings are luch frequent and copious citations of Scrip,
ture, as to place this part of the teftimony beyond con-
troverfy. Nor is there, in the works of this eminent
African bifhop, one quotation of a fpurious or apocry-
phal Chriftian writing.
210, Origen is a moft important evidence.
Nothing can be more peremptory upon the fubjea now
under confideration, and, from a writer of his learning
and information, nothing more fatisfaftory, than the de-
claration of Origen, preferved in an extraftof his works
by Eufebius : " That the four gofpels alone are received
without^^difpute by the whole church of God under
heaven :" to which declaration is immediately fubioined
Vol. XVII. Part. I. ^ ^
37 ] SCR
a brief hiftory of the refpc(fli've authors, to whom they Scripture,
were then, as they are now, afcribect. The fentiments — v— ^
expreffed concerning the gofpels in all the works of
Origen which remain, entirely correfpond with the
teftimony here cited. His atteftation to the Ads of
the Apoftles is no lefs pofitive : " And Luke alfo once
more founds the trumpet relating the Afts of the A-
poftles." That the Scriptuies were then univerfally
read, is plainly affirmed by this writer in a pafTage in
which he is repelling the objeftions of Celfus, « That
it is not in private books, or fuch as arc read by
few only, and thofe ftudious perfons, but in books
read by every body> that it is written, the invifible
things of God from the creation of the world are clear-
ly feen, being underftood by things that are made." It
IS to no purpofe to fingle out quotations of Scripture
from fuch a writer as this. We might as well make a
feleftion of the quotations of Scripture in Dr Clarke's
fermons. They are fo thickly fown in the works of
Origen, that Dr Mill fays, " If we had all his works
remaining, we ftiould have before us almoft the whole
text of the Bible."
A. D. 194, TertuUian exhibits the number of the Of Tertul-
gofpels then received, the names of the evangellfts, and^'^'**
their proper defignatlons, in one fhort fentence.—
" Among the apoftles, John and Matthew teach us the
faith ; among apoftollcal men, Luke and Mark refrefh
it." The next paffage to be taken from TertuUian af-
fords as complete an atteftauon to the authenticity of the
gofpels as can be well imagined. After enumerating the
churches which had been founded by Paul at Corinth,
in Galatia, at Philippi, Theflklonica, and Ephefus, the
church of Rome eftabllfhed by Peter and Paul, and other
churches derived from John, he proceeds thus : « I fay
then, that with them, but not with them only which are
apoftolical, but with all who have fellowfliip with them
in the fame faith, is that gofpel of Luke received from
its firft publication, which we fo zealoufly maintain ;"
and prefently afterwards adds, « The fame authortty of
the apoftollcal churches will fupport the other gofpels,
which we have from them, and according to them, I
mean John's and Matthew's, although that likewife
which Mark publifhed may be faid to be Peter's, whofe
interpreter Mark was." In another place TertuUian
affirms, that the three other gofpels, as well as St Luke's,
were in the hands of the churches from the beginning.
This noble teftimony proves inconteftably the antiquity
of the gofpels, and that they were univerfally received ;
that they were in the hands of all, and had been fo from
the firft. And this evidence appears not more than 1 50
years after the publication of the books. Dr Lardner ob-
ferves, " that there are more and larger quotations of
tfie frnall volume of the New Teftament in this one
Chnftian author, than there are of all the works of Ci-
cero, in writers of all charafters, for feveral a-res."^
^- "^\7^'J''^"^"''''^' ^'^°P °f Lyonst and isOfWus.
mentioned by TertuUian, Eufebius, Jerome, and Pho-
tius. In his youth he had been a difclple of Poly-
carp, vvho was a difciple of John. He afferts of him-
kit and his contemporaries, that they were able to rec-
S ton
and fome others he fav. « Th.l .rt Zl ( \ ip^i-ing of the Gofpels of Peter and Thomas, and Matthias
SCR
r 138 1
SCR
Sc»ipttif e. "ton up m all the princtoal churches tlie fucccflton of bi
{hops to their firil inilitution. His teaimony to the four
gofpeUand Aa« of the Apoftles is exprefs and poll
^ve. We have not received," fays Irenjeus, " the
knowIedr!:e of the way of our falvatlon by any others
di-^n thofe by whom the profpel has been brought to
•us. Which gofpel they firil preached, and afterwards,
by the will oF God, committed to writing, that it might
be for time to come the foundation and pillar of our
faith. For after that our Lord rofe from the dead,
and they (the apoftles) were endowed from above with
the power of the Holy Gholt coming down upon them,
they received a perfcA knowledge of all thimrs. They
then went forth to all the ends of the earth, declaring to
men the bleffmg of heavenly peace, having all of them,
and every one alike, the gofpel of God. ^ Matthew
then, among the Jews, wrote a gofpel in their own lan-
guage, while Peter and Paul were preaching the gofpel
at Rome, and founding a church there. And after
their exit, Mark alfo, the difciple and interpreter of
Peter, delivered to us in writing the things that had
been preached by Peter. And Luke, the companion of
Paul, pat down in a book the gofpel preached by him
(.Paul). Afterwards John, the difciple of the Lord,
who alfo leaned upon Iws bread:, likewlle publifhed a
gofpel while he dwelt at Ephefus in Aha." Irenseus
then relates how Matthew begins his gofpel, how
Mark be^jins and ends his, and gives the fuppofed rea-
fons for doing fo. tie enumerates at length all the paf-
fages of Chrill's hiftory in Luke, which are not found
in°any of the other evangeliils. He ftates the particu-
lar defign with which St John compofed his gofpel, and
accounts for the doftrlnal declarations which precede
the narrative. If any modern divine fhould v/rite a book
upon the genulnenefs of the gofpels, he could not aflert
it more exprefsly, or Hate their original more diftinftly,
than Ireneeus hath done within little more than 100
years after they were published.
Refped^ng the book of the Afts of the Apoftles, and
its author, the tefliimony of Irenaaus is no lefs, explicit.
Referring to the account of St Paul's converfion and
vocation, in the ninth chapter of that book, ** Nor
can they (fays he, meaning the parties with whom he ar-
gues ftiow) that he is not to be credited, who has related
to ua the truth with the greatell exaftnefs." Tn ano-
ther place, he has aAually collefted the feveral texts, in
which the writer of the hiftory is reprefented as accom-
panying St Paul, which led him to exliibit a fummary
of almoft the whole of the laft twelve chapters of the
book.
According to Lardner, Irena;u& quotes twelve ot
Paul's epiftl'es, naming their author ; alfo the firft
epiftle of Peter, the two firft epiftles of John, and the
Revelation. The epiftles of Paul which he omits are
thofe addrefled to Philemon and the Hebrews. Eufe-
bius fays, that he quotes the epiftle to the Hebrews,
though he docs not afcribe it to Paul. The work, how-
ever, is loft.
A. D. 172, Tatian, who is fpoken of by Clemens
Alexandiinus, Origen, Eufebius, and Jerome, compo-
fed a harmony of the four gofpels, which he called
Diatejfaron of the four. This title, as well as the
work, is remarkable,, becaufe it ffiows that then as well
as now there were four, and only four, gofpels in ge-
neral ufe among Chrlftians.
A. D. 170, the churches of Lyons and VIcnne in
§9'.
©f 1 atian.
France fent an account of the fulTerings of their martyrs - ' 'P^
to the churches of Afia and Phrygia, which has been
preferred entire by Eufebius. And what carries in
fome meafure the teftimony of thefe churches to a
higher age is, that they had now for their biihop Po«
thinus, vvho was 90 years old, and whofe early lifu
confequently muft have immediately followed the times
of the apollles. In this epiftle are exaft references
to the gofpels of Luke and John, and to the Acts of
the Apoftles. The form of reference is the fame as in
all the preceding articles. That from St John is in thefe
words : *« Then was fulfilled that which was fpoken by
the Lord, that whofoever killeth you, will think that he
doth God fervlce*." ' ^
Diftind references are alfo made to other books, viz.
Afts, Romans, Ephefians, Philippians, i. Timothy,
1 Peter, i John, Revelation. to«
A. D. 140, Jnftin Martyr compofed feveral books, ^U^^"
which are mentioned by his difciple Tatian, by Tertul-' ^' ^
lian, Methodius, Eufebius, Jerome, Epiphaniu^, and
Photius. In his writings between 20 and 30 quota-
tions from the gofpels and Afts of the Apoftles are rec-
koned up, which are clear, diftindl, and copious ; if
each verfe be counted feparately, a much greater num-
ber ; if each expreflfion, ftill more. Jones, in his book,
on the Canon of the New Teftament, ventures to affirmi
that he cites the books of which it confifts, particularly
the four gofpels, above 200 times.
We meet with quotations of three of the gofpels
within the compafs of half a page ; *' and in other
words, he fays. Depart from me into outer darknefs^
which the Father hath prepared for Satan and his An-
gels," (which is from Matthew xxv. 41.) " And agaia
he faid in other words, I give unto you power to tread
upon ferpents and fcorpions, and venomous beafts, and
upon all the power of the enemy." (This from
Luke X. 19.) " And, before he was crucified, he faid.
The fon of man muft faffer many things, and be re-
]e£led of the Scribes and Pharlfees, and be crucified,
and rife again the third day ; (this from Mark viii. 31)
All the references in Juftin are made without men-
tioning the author ; which proves that thefe books were
perfedily well know^n, and that there were no other
accounts of Chrift then extant, or, at leaft, no others
fo received and credited as to make it neceflary to add
any marks of diftinftiom But althouah Juftin men-
tions not the authors names, he calls the books Me-
moirs compofed by. the Apojlles ; Memoirs compofed by the
Apojlles and thdr Companions -y wliich defcriptions, the
latter efpecially, exacftly fuit the titles which the Go-
fpels and Ads of the Apoftles now bear.
He informs us, in his firft apology, that the memoirs
of the Apojlles, or the writings of the prophets, are
read according as the time allows; and, when the reader
has ended, the prefident makes a difcourfe, exhorting
to the imitation of fuch excellent things.
A few fliort obfervations will ftiow the value of thia
teftimony. 1. The Memoirs of the Apoft.ks, Juftin in
another place exprefsly tells us are what are called
gofpels. And that they were the gofpels v/hich. we now
ufe is made certain by Juftin's numerous quotations of
them, and his filence about any otliers.. 2. He de-
fcrfbes the general ufage of the Chriftian church.
3. He does not fpeak of it as recent or newly inlli-
tuted, but in the terms in wliich men fpeak of eftabliih-
ed.culloras*^
^ Juftin
SCR I t
liooks as (laows that he had read them : Romans, i Co-
rinthians, Galatians, EphefiacB, Phihppians, ColoflTians,
2 Theflalonians, Hebrews, 2 Peter ; and he afcribes
t^ie Revelation to John the Apoftle of Chrift,
pias, A, D. 1 1 6, Papiae, a hearer of John, and companion
of Polycarp, as Irenaeus attefts/and of the apoftolical age
as all agree, in a paflage quoted by Eufebius, from a
work now loft, exprefsly afcribes the two firft gofpels
to Matthew and Mark ; and in a manner which proves
'that thefe gofpels^muft have publicly borne the names of
thefe authors at that time, and probably long before ; for
Papias does not fay, that one <i;ofpel was written by
Matthew, and another by Mark ; but, afiiiming this as
perfeftly well known, he tells us from what materials
Mark collefted his account, viz. from Peter's preaching,
and in what language Matthew wrote, viz. in Hebi-ew.
Whether Papias was well informed in this ftatement or
not, to the point for which this teftimony is produced,
namely, that thefe books bore thefe names at this time,
his authority is complete.
Papias himfelf declares that he received his accounts
of Chriftianity from thofe who were acquainted with the
apoftles, and that thoie accoimts which he thus received
from the older Chriftjans, and had committed to memory,
he inferted ia his books. He farther adds, that he was
very felicitous to obtain every poflible information, efpe-
cially to learn what the apoftles faid and preached, va-
luing fuch information more than what was written in
•fat. books * .
"f'"'^ A. D. ic8, Polycaip was the bldiop of Smyrna,
and difciple of John the Apoftle. This teftimony con-
cerning Polycarp is given by Irenaeus, who in his youth
had feen him. *' I can tell the place," faith Irenasus, " in
iy- which the blefled Polycarp fat and taught, and his go-
ing out and coming in, and the manner of his life, and
the form of his perfon, and the difcourfes he made to
the people, and how he related his converfation with
Jehn and others who had feen the Lord, and how he
related their fayings, and what he had heard ctMicern-
ing the Lord, both concerning his miracles and his doc-
trine, as he had received them from the eye-witnefles of
the word of life ; all which Polycarp related agreeable
to the fcriptures."
Of Polycarp, whofe proximity to the age and coun-
try and perfons of the apoftles is thus attefted, we
have one undoubted epiftle remaining ; which, though
a fhort performance, contains nearly 40 clear allufions
to the books of the New Teftament. This is ftrong
evidence of the refpeft which was paid to them by Chri-
Itians of that age. Amongft thefe, although the writings
of St Paul are more frequently ufed by Polycarp than
other parts of fcripture, there are copious allufions to
the gofpel of St Matthew, fome to pafTages found in
the gofpels both of Matthew and Luke, and fome which
more nearly refemble the words in Luke.
He thus fixes the authority of the Lord's Prayer,
and the ufe of it among Chriftians. Tf, therefore, we
pray the Lord to forgive usy tue ought alfo to forg'vve.
And again, With fupplication befeeching the all-feeing
God ml to lead us into temptation.
In another place, he quotes the words of our Lord :
" But remembering what the Lord faid, teaching,
Judge not, that ye be not judged. Forgive, and ye
ihall be forgiven ; be ye merciful, that ye may obtain
mercy ; with what meafurc ye mete, it fhali be meafured
35 1 SCR
to yo\i ftg'ain'*. Sappofmg Polycarp to liav« had thefe Scflptwrt.
words fmm the books in which we now find them, it ^"p^j,. ^'
is manifeft that thefe books were confsdered by him, ^--^ j_ j]
and by his readers, as he thought, as authentic accomit-sv. 7.
of Chrlft's difcourfes ; and that this point was inconteft-
able.
He quotes alfo the following books, the firft, of
which he afcribes to St Paul : c Corinthians, ILphe-
fians, Philippians, i and 2 ThelTalonians ; and makes
evident references to othei s, particularly to A<!ls, Ro-
mans, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, i Timothy, 2 Timo-
thy, I Peter, i John. 103
Ignatius, as it is teftlfied by ancient Chrlftian writers, 9^ 'S"'*
became bifhop of Antioch about 37 years after Chrlft's
afcenfion ; and therefore, from his time, and place, and
ftation, it is probable that he had known and converfed
•with many of the apoftles. Epiftles of Ignatius are re-
feired to by Polycarp his contemporary. Paflages^
found in the epiftles now extant under his name, are
quoted by. Irenceus, A* D. 178, by Origen, A. D.
230 ; and the occafton of writing them is fully ex-
plained by Eufebius and Jerome. What are called the
fmaller epiftles of Ignatius are generally reckoned the
fame which were read by Irenaeus, Origen, and Eule»
bius.
They are admitted as genuine by Voflius, and have
been proved to be fo by bifliop Pearfon with a force
of argument which feems to admit of no reply. In
thefe epiftles are undoubted allufions to Matt. ill. 15.
xi. 16. to John ill. 8. ; and their venerable author, whci
often fpeaks of St Paul in terms of the higheft refpeft,
once quotes his epiftle to the Ephefians by name. 104
Near the conclufion of the epiftle to the Romans,
St Paul, amonoft others, fends the following falutatlon:'"^'
" Salute Afynciltus, Phlegon, Hernias^ Patrobus,
Hermes, and the brethren which are with rhem." Of
Hermas, who appears in this catalogue of Roman
Chriftians as contemporary with St Paul, there is a book
ftill remaining, the authenticity of which cannot be
difputed. It is called the Shepherd, or Pafior of Her~
mas. Its antiquity is inconteftable, from the quotations
of it in Irenaeus, A. D. 178, Clement of Alexandria, ^
A. D. 194, TertuUIaH) A. D. 200, Origen, A D.
230. The notes of time extant in the epiftle itfelf agree
with its title, and with the teftimonies concerning it,
which intimate that it was written during the lifetime
of Clement. In this piece are tacit allufions to St
Matthew's, St Luke's, and St John's gofpels ; that is
to fay, there are applications of thoughts and expref-
fions foimd in thefe gofpels, without citing the place of
writer from which they were taken. In this form ap-
pear in Hermas the confefling and denying (ff Chrift'j' ; |. -^^^^
the parable of the feed fown J the comparlfon of ^2, 33.01:
Chrlft's difclples to little children ; the faying, " he Luke xiU
that putteth away his wife, and marrieth another, com- 8. 9-
mitteth adultery § 5" the lingular expreffion, " having '..^^^'^^^j,
received all power from hi& Father," is probably an allu- ^ukc
fionto Matthew xxviii. 18. and Chrift being the "gate,"viii. 5.
or only way of coming *' to God," is a plain allufion to§ Luke
John xiv. 6. x. 7, 9. There is alfo a probable allufion'^'"'
to Afts v. 3 2.
The Shepherd of Hermas has been confiidered as a
fanciful performance. This, however, is of no impor-
tance in the prefent cafe. We only adduce it as evi-
dence that the books to which it frequently alludes ex-
iAe4 ill the firft century ; and for this purpofe it is fatis-
S 2 iaflory,
105
Of Cle-
mens Ro-
manu».
SCR [ 140 ]
Scripture, faftoty, as its authentichy has never be«n qucftioned. from the epiftle.
^"•'"v^ However abfurd ODinions a man may entertain while he
retains his underftanding, his teftimony to a matter of
fadt will ftill be received in any court of juftice.
A. D. 96, we are in poffeffion of an epiftle written
by Clement bifhop of Rome, whom ancient writers,
without any doubt or fcruple, afTert to have been the
Clement whom St Paul mentions Philippians iv. 3.
*' with Clement alfo, and other my fellow labourers,
whole names are in the book of life." This epiftle is
fpoken of by the ancients as an epiftle acknowledged
by all ; and, as Irenseus well reprefeuts its value, " writ-
ten by Clement, who had feen the blelTed apoftles and
converfed with them, who had the preaching of the
apoftles ftill founding in his ears, and their traditions
before his eyes." It is addrefled to the church of Co-
Tinth ; and what alone may fecm a decifive proof of its
authenticity, Dionyfius biftiop of Corinth, about the
year 170, /. e. about 80 or 90 years after the epiftle
was written, bears witnefs, " that it had been ufually
read in that church from ancient times." This epiftle
affords, amongft others, the following valuable paf-
fages : " Efpecially remembering the words of the
Xiord Jefus, which he fpake, teaching gentlenefs and
long fuffering ; for thus he faid (t), Be ye merciful, that
ye may obtain mercy ; forgive, that it may be forgiven
unto you ; as you do, fo {hall it be done unto you ; as
you give, fo ftiall it be given unto you ; as ye judge, fo
lhall ye be judged ; as ye Ihew kindnefs, fo (hall kind-
nefs be (hewn unto you ; with what raeafure ye mete,
with the fame it lhall be meafured to you. By this
command, and by thefe rules, let us eftablifli ourfelves,
that we may always walk obediently to his holy words."
Again, " Remember the words of the Lord Jefus,
for he faid. Wo to that man by whom offences come ;
it were better for him that he had not been born, than
that he ftiould offend one of my eleft ; it were better
for him that a millftone Ihould be tied about his neck,
and that he Ihould be drowned in the fea, than that he
ihould offend one of my little ones (u)."
He afcribes the firft epiftle to the Corinthians to
Paul, and makes fuch allufions to the following books
as is fufficient to fhew that he had feen and read them :
Afts, Romans, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephefians,
Philippians, Coloffians, i Theffalonians, 1 Timothy,
2 Timothy, Titus, i Peter, 2 Peter.
It may be faid, as Clement has not mentioned the
books by name from which we affert thefe allufions or
references are made, it is uncertain whether he refers to
any books, or whether he received thefe expreflions from
the difcourfes and converfation of the apoftles. Mr
Paley has given a very fatisfaftory anfwer to this objec-
tion: ift, That Clement, in the very fame manner, name-
ly, without any mark of reference, ufes a paffage now
found in the epiftle to the Romans * ; which paffage,
from the peculiarity of the words that compofe it, and
from their order, it is raanifeft that he muft have taken
Chap.
s c
The fame remark may be applied to Scrfpd
feme very fingular fcntiments in the epiftle to the He-
brews. Secondly, That there are many fentences of
St Paul's firft epiftle to the Corinthians to be found in
Clement's epiftle, without any fign of quotation^ which
yet certainly are quotations ; bccaufe it appears that
Clement had St Paul's epiftle before him ; for in one
place he mentions it in terms too exprefs to leave
us in any doubt. *' Take into your hands the epiftle
of the blefled apoftle Paul." Thirdly, That this me-
thod of adopting- words of fcripture, without reference
or acknowledgment, was a method in general ufe amongft
the moft ancient Chriftian writers. Thefe analogies
not only repel the objedlion, but caft the prefumption
on the other fide ; and afford a confiderable degree of
pofitive proof, that the words in queftion have been
borrowed from the places of fcripture in which we now
find them. But take it, if you will, the other way, that
Clement had heard thefe words from the apoftles or lirft
teachers of Chriftianity ; with refpedl to the precife
point of our argument, viz. that the fcriptures contain
what the apoftles taught, this fuppofition may ferve al-
moft as" well.
We have now traced the evidence to the times of the
apoftles ; but we have not been anxious to draw it out
to a great length, by introducing every thing. On the
contrary, we have been careful to render it as concife
as poffible, that its force might be difcerned at a glance.
The evidence which has been ftated is of two kinds.
Till the time of Juftin Martyr and Irenreus it confifts
chiefly of allufions, references, and expreffions, borrow-
ed from the books of the New Teftament, without men-
tioning them by name. After the time of Irenasus it
became ufual to cite the facred books, and mention the
authors from whom the citations were taken.
iO(S
The firft fpecies of evidence will perhaps appear to The allt
fome exceptionable ; but it muft be remembered thatfioiisan
ufual amonsr the ancient Chriftians as well oofefcrenc
It was ulual among — ^
Jews to adopt the expreffions of Scripture without na--^gj^'^^^,
ming the authors. Why they did fo it is not neceffaiyby the i
to inquire. The only point of importance to be deter- Ch-iUia
mined is, whether thofe references are a fufficient proof ^^"^^''^j
of die exiftence of the books to which they allude ?P g^^jj^g,
This, we prefume, will not be denied ; efpecially in the in theie
prefent age, when it is fo common to charge an author time,
with plagiarifm if he happen to fall upon the fame train
of ideas, or exprefs himfelf in afimilar manner with au-
thors who have written before him. We may farther
affirm, that thefe tacit references afford a complete proof
that thofe ancient writers had no intention of impofing
a forgery upon the world. They prove the exiftence
of the Chriltian religion and of the apoftoHcal writings,
without ftiowing any fufpicious earneftnefs that men
Ihould believe them. Had thefe books been forged,
thofe who wifhed to pafs them upon the world would i
have been at more pains than the firft Chriftians were j
to prove their authenticity. They afted the part of
■ honed
(t) " Bkffed are the merciful, for they lhall obtain mercy," Matt. v. 7. « Forgive, and ye (hall be forgiven ;
give, and It fiiall be given unto you," Luke vi. 37, 38." Judge not, that ye be not judged ; for vvith what judge-
ment ye judge, ye (hall be judged, and with what meafure ye mete, it ihall be meafured to you again," Mat. vn. 2.
(u) Matt?xviii. 6. " But whofo ftiall offend one of thefe little ones which believe in me, it were better for him
that a millftone were hanged about his neck, and that he were caft into the fea." The latter part of the paf-
fage In Clement agrees more exaftly with Luke xvii. 2. « It were better for him that a millftone were hanged
about his neck, and he caft into the fea, than that he ftiould ©ffend one of thefe little ones.'*
SCR
SCR
ttire, honeft men'; they believed them themfelvea, and they
never imagined that others would fufpeft their truth.
It is a confideisation of great importance, in review,
nig the evidence which has been now ftated, that the
vitnefTes lived in different countries f Clemens flounfli-
ed at Rome, Polycarp at Smyrna, Juftin Martyr in Sy-
ria, Irenasiis in France, TertuUian at Carthage, Origen
at Alexandria, and Eufebius at Csfarea. This proves
that the books of the New Teflament were equally well
known in diftant countries by men who had no inter-
courfe with one another.
0- The fame thing is proved by teftimonles if poffible
lefs exceptionable. The ancient heretics, whofe opi-
nions were fometiraes grofler and more impious than
thofe which any modern feftary has ventured to broach,
and whofe zeal in the propagation of them equalled that
of the moft flaming enthufiaft of the laft century, never
Galled in queftion the authenticity of the books of the
New Teftament. When they met with any paffage in
the gofpels or epiftles which they could not reconcile
to their own heretical notions, they either erafed it, or
denied that the author was infpired ; but they nowhere
contend that the book in which it flood was not, writ-
ten by the apoftle or evangelift vs^hofe name it bore.
Eufebius relates, that the Ebionites rejefted all the
epiftles of Paul, and called him an apoilate, becaufe he
departed from the Levitical law ; and they adopted as
their rule of faith the gofpel of St Matthew, though in-
deed they greatly corrupted it. This proves therefore
that the gofpel according to Matthew -was then pub-
lifhed, and that St Paul's epiftles were then known.
Of the heretics who erafed or altered paffages to
make the Scriptures agree with their dodlrines, we may
produce Marcion as an inftance, who lived in the be-
ginning of the 2d century. He lived in an age when
he could have eahly difcovered if the writings of the
New Teftament had been forged ; and as he was much
incenfed agalnft the orthodox party, if fuch a forgery
had been committed, unqueftionably he would not have
failed to make the difcov(^ry, as it would have afforded
the moft ample means of revenge and triumph, and en-
abled him to eftablifh his own opinions with lefs diffi-
culty. But his whole conduit fhows clearly, that he
believed the writings of the New T eftament to be au-
thentic. He faid that the goipel according to St Mat-
thew, the epiftle to the Hebrews, with thofe of St Pe-
ter and St James, as well as the Old Teftament in ge-
neral> were writings not for Chriftians but for Jews.
He publilhed a new edition of the gofpel according to
Luke, and the firft ten epiftles of Paul; in which it has
been affirmed by Epiphanius, that he altered every paf-
fage that contradifted his own opinions : but as many
of thefe alterations are what modern critics call various
readings, though we receive the teftimony of Epipha-
nius, we muft not rely upon his opinion (x). Hence
It is evident that the books of the New Teftament
above-mentioned did then exift, and were acknowledged
to be the works of the authors whofe names they bear.
Dr Lardner, in his General Review, fums up this
head of evidence in the following words : " Noetus,
Paul of Samofata, Sabellius, Marcellus, Photinus, the
Novatians^ Donatifts, Manicheans ( y), PrifciUianifts,
• rleathenst
109
befide Artemon, the Audlans, the Arian^ ahrf divert Scr!{>rurrv
others, all received moft or all the fame books of the '
New Teftament which the Catholics received ; and
agreed va a like refpeft for them as writ by apoftles or
their difciples and companions." log
Celfus and Porphyry, both enemies of the Chriftian TeiUmo*
religion, are powerful witnefles for the antiquity of the','""^
New Teftament. Celfus, who lived towards the end of "
the fccond century, not only mentions by name, but
qi)0tes paffages from the books of the New Teftament :
and that the books to which" he refers were no other
than our prefent gofpels, is evident from the allufions
to various paffages ftill found in them. Celfus takes
notice of the genealogies, which fixes two of thefe gof-
pels I of the precepts, Refift not him that injures you,
and, If a man ftrike thee on the one cheek, offer to him
the other alfo ; of the woes denounced by Chrift ; of
his prediftions ; of his faying that it is impoffible to
ferve two mafters ; of the- purple robe, the crown of
thorns, and the reed which was put into the hand of
Jefus ; of the blood that flowed from his body upon
the crofs, a circumftance which is recorded only by
John; and (what is inftar omnium for the purpofe for
which we produce it) of the difference in the account*
given- of the refurredtion by the evangelifts, fome men-
tioning two angels at the fepulchre, others only one.
It is extremely material to remark, that Celfus not
only perpetually referred to the accounts of Chrift con-
tained in the four gofpels, but that he referred to no
other accounts ; that he leunded none of his objedlions
to Chriftianity upon any thing delivered in fpurious
gofpels. no
The teftimony of Porphyry is ftill more important Of i^>ri>h5r^
than that of Celfus. He waa born in the year 213, of '^*
Tyrian origin. Unfortunately for the prefent age,
fays Michaelis, the miftaken zeal of the Chriftian em-
perors has baniihed his writings from the world ; and
every real friend of our religion would gladly give the
works of one ef the pious fathers to refcue thofe of
Porphyry from the flames. But Mr Marfh, the learn-
ed and judicious tranflator of Michaelis, relates, that^
according to the accounts of Ifaac Voflius, a manu-
fcript of the works of Porphyry is preferved in the Me-
dicean library at Florence, but kept fo fto'et that no-
one is permitted to fee it. It is univerfally allowed^,
that Porphyry is the moft fenfibls, as well as the moft
fevere, adverfary of the Chriftian religion that antiqui--
ty can produce. He was verfed not only in hiftory,.
but alfo in philofophy and politics. His acquaintance
with the Chriftians was not confined to a fingle coun-
try ; tor he had converfed with, them in Tyre, in Si-
cily, and in Rome. El^abled by his birth to ftudy the
Syriae as well as the Greek authors, he was of all the
adverfaries to- the Chriftian religion- the beft qualified to-
inquire into the authenticity of the facred writings.
He poffeffed therefore every advantage which naturah-
abilities or a fcientific education could afford to difcovcr
whether the New Teftament was a genuine woik of the
apoftles and evangelifts, or whether it was impofed up-
on the world affee-r the deceafe of its pretended authors*
But no trace of this fufpiciou is anywhere to be found
in his writings. In the fragments which ftill remain,..
mention:
(x) Dr Loeffer has written a learned differtation to prove that Marcion did not corrupt the facred writings,
(y) This muft be with an exception, however, of Fauftus, who lived fo late as th& year 384.
S G R [ 142 ] .SCR
Scripture, mention 5? made of the gofpJ>Is of St Matthew, St Mark, crn manners and modery of tliinkiag from h« ijvfancy,
and St John, the Afts of the Apollles, and the epliUe*' can never imitate with fiieeefs the oriental i\yk, much
tit
■Authenti-
city of the
New Te-
ftanient
} roved
from inter-
nal evi-
dence.
112
From the
Hyle.
td the Gaiatiane ; and it clearly appears from the vers'
objeftions of Porphyry, that the books to which he al*
iudcs were the fame which wc poflefs at prefent. Thus
he objefts to the repetition of a generation in St Mat-
tliew's genealogy ; to Matthew's call ; to the quota-
tion of a text from Ifaiah, which is found in a pfalm
afcribed to Afaph ; to the calling of the lake of Tibe-
rias a fea ; to the exprefiion in St Matthew, *' the abo-
inination of defolation ;" to the variation in Matthew
and Mark upon the text *' the voice of one crying in
the vvildernefs," Matthew citing it from Ifaias, Mark
from the prophets ; to John's ai")plication of the term
Word ; to Chrift's change of intention about going up
to the feaft of taberaacles (John vii. 8.) ; to the judge-
ineut denounced by St Peter upon Ananias and Sap-
phira, which he calk an imprecation of death.
The inftances here alleged ferve in fome meafure to
fhow the nature of Porphyry's objections, and prove
that Porphyry had read the gofpels with that fort of
attention which a writer would employ who regarded
them as the depoli caries of the religion which he at-
tacked. Befide thefe fpecifications, there exifts in the
writings of ancient Chrillians general evidence, that the
places of Scripture, upon which Porphyry had made re-
marks, were very numerous.
The internal evidence to prove the authenticity of
the New Teftament confifts of two parts : The nature
of the ftyle, and the coincidence of the New Teltament
with the hillory of the times.
The ftyle of the New Teftament is fingular, and
differs very widely from the ftyle of claffical authors. It
is full of Hebraifms and Syriafnis ; a circumftance which
pious ignorance has confidered as a fault, and which,
even fo late as the prefent century, it has attempted
to remove ; not knowing that thefe very deviations
from Grecian purity afford the ftrongeft piefumption in
its favour : for they prove, that the Netv Tejlarmnt <was
nvritten by men of Hebreiu origin, and is there/ore a pro-
duction of the Jirfi century. After the death of the firft
Jewifli converts, few of the Jews turned preachers of
the gofpel ; the Chriftians were generally ignorant
of Hebrew, and confequently could not write in the
ftyle of the New Teftament. After the deftriiftion of
Jerufalem and the difperiion of the Jews, their lan-
guage muft have been blended with that of other na-
tions, and their vernacular phrafeology almoft entirely
loft. The language of the early fathers, though not
always the pureft claflic Greek, has no refemblance to
tliat of the New Teftament, not even excepting the
works of the few who had a knowledge of the Hebrew ;
as Origen, Epiphanius, and Juftin Martyr, who being a
native of Paleftine, might have written in a ftyle fimi-
lar to that of the New Teftament, had fuch a ftyle then
prevailed. He that fufpefts the New 'J'ettament to be
the forgery of a more recent period, ought to produce
fome perfon who has employed a fimilar diftion ; but
thofe who are converfant with caftern- writings know
well that a foreigner, who has not been emired to eait-
kfs forge a hiftory or an epiftle which contains a thou-
fand incidental allufions, which nothing but truth could
fuggfft. To imitate clofely the ftyle of the New Tefta-
ment is even more difficult than to imitate that of any
other oriental book $ for there is not a lingle author,
even among the Jews themfelves, fince the deftrudtioa
of Jerufalem, that has compofed in a ftyle in the leaft
degree like it (z).
But though the books of the New Teftament bear fo
dofe a refemblance in idiom, there is a diverlity of ftyle
which ftiows them to be the work of different perfons.
"Whoever reads with attention the epiftles of Paul, muft
be convinced that they were all written by the fame
author. An equal degree of fimilarity is to be found,
between the gofpel and ift epiftle of John, The wH-
tings of Sc John and St Paul exhibit marks of an ori-
ginal genius which no imitation can ever attain. The
character of Paul as a writer is drawn with great judge-
ment by MichaeHs : *' His mind overflows vrith fenti-
ment, yet he never lofes fight of his principal obje^^,
but hurried on by the rapidity of thought, difclofes fre-
quently in the middle a conclufion to be made only at
the end. To a profound knowledge of the Old Tcfta-
m^ent he joins the acutenefs of philofophical wifdom,
which he difplays in applying and expounding the fa-
cred writings ; and his explanations are therefore fome-
times fo new and unexpefted, that fuperficial obfervei-9
might be tempted to fuppofe them erroneous. The fire
of his genius, and his inattention to ftyle, occafion fre-
quently a twotold obfcurity, he being often too concife
to be underftood except by thofe to whom he immedi-
ately wrote, and not feldom on the other hand fo full
of his fubjeft, as to produce long and difficult parenthe-
fes, and a repetition of the fame word even in different
fenfeg. With a talent for irony and fatire, he unites
the moft refined fenfibility, and tempers the feverity of
his cenfures by expreffions of tendernefs and affeftion ;
nor does he ever forget in the vehemence of his zeal
the rules of modefty and decorum. He is a writer, in
fhort, of fo fingular and wonderful a compofition, that
it would be difficult to find a rival. That truly fenft-
ble and fagacious philofopher Locke was of the fame
opinion, and contended that St Paul was without an
equal."
Poems have been forged and afcribed to former ages
with fome fuccefs. Philofophical treatifes might be in-
vented which it would be difficult to dete£f ; but there
is not a fingle inftance on record where an attempt has
been made to forge a hiftory or a long epiftle, where
the fraud has not been either fully proved, or rendered
fo fufpicious that few are weak enough to believe it.
Whoever attempts to forge a hiftory or an epiftle in the
name of an ancient author, will be in great danger of
Gontradifting the hiftory or the manners of that age,
efpecially if he relate events which are not mentiqned in
general hitlory, but fuch as refer to a fingle city, fe<St,
religion, or fchool.
I'he difficulty of forging fuch hiftories as the gofpels,
and
( z ) The ftyle of Clemens Romanus may perhaps be an exception. By many eminent critics it has been
thought io like to that of the epiftle to the Hebrews, as to give room for the opinion that Clement either was
the author of that epiftle, or was the perfon who tranftated it from the Syro-Chaldaic language, in which it was
originally compofed.
SCR
[ M3 1
S G R
ture. »nd fnch epiftles as thofe of Paul, cannot fee overcome
"""" by all the genius, learning, and induftry, of any in-
dividual or fociety of men that ever lived. They con^
tain a purer fyftem of ethics than all the ancient phi}o-
fophers could invent : They difcover a candour and mo-
defty tinexampled : They exhibit an orisinality in the
G-harafter of Jefus, and yet fuch a confiftency as the
imagination of onr beil poets has never reached. Now
it is a very remarkable circumftance, that hiftories writ-
ten by four different men fhould preferve fuch dignity
and confiftency, tboue;h frequently relating different ac-
tio-ns of Jefus, and defcending to the moft minute cir-
cuniftances in his life. The fcene of action is too ex-
tenfive, and the agreement of fafts with the Hate of the
time!5 as reprefentcd by othei* hiftorlans is too clofe,
t» admit the poffibility of forgery.
The fcene of action is not confined to one country,
it is fucceffively laid in the greateft cities of the Roman
empire ; in Rome, in Antioch, in Corinth, in Athen-s,
as well as in Jerufalem and the land o\ Paleftine. In-
mimerable allufions are made to the manners and opi-
nions of the Greeks, the Romans, and the Jews ; and
r«fpe6ling the Jews, they extend even to the trifies and
follies of their fchools. Yet after the ftriftefb examina-
tion, the New Teftament will be found to have a won-
deiful coincidence and harmony with Jofephus, the
principal hiftorian of thefe times, and an enemy of Chri-
2 ftianity.
■from It has been a queflion who the foldiers were wlio are
irkable f^id In the gefpel of Luke to have addreffed John the
(ices of gapi^;{^ {^■^ thcfe words, What Jhall ive do ? An anfwer
to this queftion may be found in Jofephus*. Herod
the tctrarch of Galilee was engaged in a war with his
father-in-law Aretns, a petty king in Arabia Petrssa, at
the very time that John was preaching in the wilder-
ncfs ; and the road from Galilee to Arabia running
through that wildernefs, the foldiers on their march had
this interview with the Baptift. A coincidence like this,
which has been overlooked by all the commentators,
would not probably be attended to in a forger)\
Another inllance of an agreement no lefs remarkable
we fhall quote from the valuable work of Michaelis.
It" has been a queftion of fome difficulty am®ng the
learned, who was the Ananias who commanded St Paul
to be fmitten on the mouth when he was making his de-
fence before the council in Jerufalem *. Kreb'S, in his
remarks taken from Jofephus, has ihown him to have
been the fon of Ncbedeni. But if ib, how can it be
reconciled with chronology, that Ananias was, at that
time, called high prieif, when it is certain from Jofe-
phus that the tim"e of his hoMing that office was much
earlier ? And how comes it to pafs that St Paul fays,
" I wilt not, brethren, that he was the high ptieft V
The faeerdotal garb muft have difcovered who he was :
a jeft would have ill-faited the gravity of a tribunal ;
and a falfehood is inconfiftent with the charafter of St
Paul.
All thefe difficulties vaniih as foon as we examine the
fpecial hii^ory of that period ; " Ananias the fon of Ne-
bedeni was high prieft at the time that Helena queen
of Adiabene fupplied the Jews with corn from Egypt,
during the famine which took place in the fourth year
©f Claudius, mentioned in the eleventh chapter of the
Afts. St Paul therefore, who took a journey to Jeru-
falem at that period, could not have beea ignorant of
[id ei
^hus
the
tnt.
8.
5-
I, %
a— 5
the elevation of Ananias to that dignity. Soon aftef Scripturg}^
the holding of the firft council, as it is called, at Jeru-
falem, Ananias was difpoffeffed of his olfice, in confe-
quence of certain afts of violence between the Samari-
tans an^ the Jews, and fent prifoner to Rome; but being
afterwards releafed, he returned to Jerufalem. Now from
that period he could not be called hlgh-prhjl in the pro-
per fenfe of the word, though Jofephus has fometimea
given him the title of a?;c'-=?'''S taken in the more exten-
/ive meaning of a prieft, who had a feat and voice in
the Sanhedrim ; and Jonathan, though we are not ac-
quainted with the circumftances of his elevation, had
been raifed in the mean time to the fupreme dignity in
the JewIOl church. Between the death of Jonathan,
who was murdered by order of Felix, and the high-
prieilhood of Ifmael, who was invefted with that dignity
by Agrippa, elapfed an interval during which the fa-
eerdotal office was vacant. Now it happened precifely
in this interval that St Paul was apprehended in Jerufa-
lem : and, the Sanhedrim, being deftitute of a prefidcnt,
he undertook of his own authority the difcharge of that
office, which he executed with the greateft tyranny.
It is poffible therefore that St Paul, who had been on-
ly a few days in Jerufalem, might be ignorant that A-
nanias, who had been difpofleffed of the priefthood, had
taken upon himfelf a truft to which he was not intitled;
he might therefore very naturally exclaim, ' I will not,
brethren, that he was the high-prieft !' Admitting hina
on the other hand to have been acquainted with the
faciv the expreffion muil be confidered as an indiredl
reproof, and a tacit refufal to recognize ufurped au«
thority.-'
Could fuch a correfpondence as this fubuft betvvreeri
truth and falfehood, between a forgery and an authen-
tic hiftory \ or i« it credible that thefe events could be
related by any perfon but a contemporary ? ,
Impreffed with the love of truth, and feeling con- There arc
tempt as well as deteftation at pious frauds, we hefitate^^^^^.PP|^j
not to acknowledge, that in fome particular fatfts there ^j^g^^^gj,'
is a difference either real or apparent between Jofephus but thefe
and the writers of the New Teftament.- The objec-proltahly
tions ariitup from thefe differences are of two kinds : f^"''"!
,-,111 11 11 overlieh!:
I. Such as would prove a book not to have been wnt-jj^
ten by the author to whom it is afcribed. 2. Such as^hus;
would prove that the author was miftaken, and there-
fore not divinely infpired. To the (irll clafs belongs
the following obje(Stion : St Paul fays (2 Cor. xi. 32.)
that the governor of Damafcus was under Aretas the
kin<3; : but if we are to judge from' the i8th book of
the Jewifh Antiquities, which, correfponds with the pe-
riod of St Paul's journey to Damafcus, this city mufc .
have belonged at that time to the Romans ; and what
authority could Aretas, a petty king in Arabia Pctrasa,
have in fuch a city ? In anfwer to this queftion, J. G^
Plyne, in a diflertation publlihed in i75 .<;, has ihown it
to be highly probable that Aretasj againft whom the
Romans, not long before the death, of Tiberius, made
a declaration- of war, which they neglefted to put in ex-
ecution, took the opportunity of fciiing Damafcus,
which had onee belonged to his anceftora aa e-^'ent :
omitted by Jofephus, as forming no pa-rt ot the Jewilh
hiftory, and by the Roman hiftorians as being a matter ■■
not flattering in itftlf, and belonging only to a-diftant
province. Secondly, That Aretas wa$ by reli'nuira Jew 5
a ekcumllattce the naore credible, when we refleft that
Judaifia-
"5 .
Or to liis
Want of au
thenric in-
formation
concerning
tf e events
that hap-
pened near
his birth.
SCR I 144 3
Jii^aifm Kad been widely propagated in that country, is their infplratlon,
and that even kino:3 in Arabia Felix had recognized the
law of Mofes. The difficulty then is fo far removed,
that it ceafes to create fufpicion againft an epi'^le
which has fo many evident marks of authenticity ; and
it is only to be reirretted that, in order to place the
fubjeft in the cleareft point of view, we are not fuf-
ficiently acquainted with the particular hiftory of Da-
mafcus.
Examples of the fecond kind are fuch as, if allowed
their full force, might indeed prove a writer not divine-
ly infpired, but could afford no reafon to conclude that
he was not the author of the writings which bear his
name, fince miftakes may be committed by the moft ac-
curate hiftorian. The chief difEculties of this nature
are found in the gefpel according to St Luke, and do
not apply to the writings of Matthew, John, Paul, and
Peter. Laying afide the idea of infpiration altogether,
let us inquire whether Luke or Jofephus be moft iu-
titled to credit in thofe paffages where they differ ;
which of them is moft accurate, and which of them had
the bed opportunitifs of exploring the truth of the
fafts which they relate. Now Jofephus relates the fame
ftory differently in different parts of his works, and is
fometimes equally miilaken in tbem all. We do not
recolleft to have feen fuch inconfiftencies in the wri-
tings of St Luke. Luke knew the charadlers, and
•witneffed many of the fadls, of which he fpeaks ; and he
could receive the beft information refpefting thofe fafts
which were tranfaAed in his abfence. Jofephus was
bom A. D. 37, fome years after our Savieur's afcenlion.
Now it is a very important obfervation of Michaelis,
that the period of hiftory with which mankind are leaft
acquainted is that which includes the time of their
childhood and youth, together with the twenty or thir-
ty years immediately preceding their birth. Concern-
ing the affairs tranfafted during that period, we are
much more liable to fall into miftakes than concerning
thofe of a remoter age. The reafon is, that authentic
hiftory never comes down to the period of our birth ;
our knowledge of the period immediately preceding de-
pends on hearfay ; and the events, which pafs within
the firft eighteen or twenty year% of our lives, we are
too young and heedlefs to obferve with attention. This
muft have been more remarkably the cafe in the time ©f
Jofephus than at prefent, when there were neither daily
papers nor periodical journals to fupply the want of re-
gular annals. Thea-e was no hiftorian from whom Jo-
fephus could derive any knowledge of the times that
immediately preceded his birth. There Is a period then
of forty or fifty years, in which, even with the moft di-
ligent inquiry, he was expofed to error.
When we lind therefore the relations of Luke and
Jofephus fo different as not to be reconciled, it would
be very unfair to determine without any further inquiry
in favour of Jofephus. Let their charafter, and works,
and fituation, be flriftly examined; let their teftlmony
be duly weighed and compared ; and then let the pre-
ference be given to that author who, according to the
ftrlfteft rules of equity and juftice, feems intitled to the
higheft degree of credit. The decifion of a jury, we
^hall venture to fay, would in every inftance turn out in
favour of Luke.
Having thus afcertained the authenticity of the books
of the New Teftament, the next tiling to be confidered
ixi
SCR
It is certainly of fome importance Serif
to know how far the apoftles and evangelifts were gui
ded in their writings by the immediate influence of the r^-^
fpirit of God ; thou gh this knowledge, if attainable, is of the
not equally important with that of the authenticity of TelUi
tbefe writings. Michaelis indeed afferts, that the divi-
nity of the New Teftament may be proved whether we
can evince it to be written by immediate infpiration or
notf. *' The qucftion (fays he), whether the books off" Cha
the New Teftament are infpired ? is not fo important as ^ *
the queftion, whether they are genuine ? The truth of
our religion depends upon the latter, not abfolutely on
the former. Had the Deity infpired not a lingle book
of the New Teftament, but left the apoftles and evan-
gelifts without any other aid than that of natural abili-
ties to commit what they knew to writing, admitting
their works to be authentic, and poffeffed of a fufficient
degree of credibility, the Chriftlan religion would ftill
be well founded. The miracles by which it is con- Not ne
firmed would equally demonftrate its truth, even if the f^^y to
perfons who attcftedthem were not infpired, but fimplv
f ir ! Chnfti
human witnelles ; and their divine authority is never ,.y ^^^.^
prefuppofcd, when we difcufs the queftion of miracles, ing to i
but merely their credibility as human evidence. If the 'jpimor
miracles are true which the evangelifts relate, the doc- '^i^^^'
trines of Chrift recorded in the gofpels are proved to
be the infallible oracles of God ; and, even if we admit
the apoftles to be miftaken in certain not eflential clr-
cumftances, yet as the main points of the religion which
Chrift comraiffioned them to preach are fo frequently
repeated, their epiftles would inftruft us as well in the
tenets of the Chriftian fyftem, as the works of Maclau-
rln in the philofophy of Newton. It is poflible there-
fore to doubt, and even deny, the infpiration of the New
Teftament, and yet be fully perfuaded of the truth of
the Chriftian rehglen ; and many really entertain thefe
fentiments either publicly or in private, to whom we
ftiQuld render great injuftice, if we ranked them in the
clafs of unbelievers.
" Yet the Chriftian religion would be attended with
difficulty, if owr princip'tum cognofcendi refted not on firm-
er ground ; and it might be objected, that fufficient
care had not been taken for thofe whofe confciences
were tender, and who were anxioufly fearful of mifta-
king the fmalleft of the divine commands. The chief
articles indeed of .Chriftianity are fo frequently repeat-
ed, both by Chrift and his apoftles, that even were the
New Teftament not infpired, we could entertain no
doubt of the following doftrines : * Jefus was the Mef-
fias of the Jews, and an infallible meffenger of God : he
died for our Iniquity ; and by the fatisfaAion made by
his death we obtain remiffion of fins, if on our part be
faith and amendment of life : the Levltlcal law Is abo-
lifiied, and moral precepts, with the ceremonies of Bap-
tifm and the Supper of the Lord, are appointed in its
ftead : after the prefent follows an everlafting life, in
which the virtuous ftiall be rewarded and the wicked
punlftied, and where Chrift himfelf (hall be the Judge.*
"To the epiftles indeed (fays Michaelis), infpiration
is of real confequence ; but with refpedl to the hiftorl-
cal books, w'z. the Gofpels and the A6ls of the A-
poftles, we fliould really be no lofers If we abandoned the
fyftem of infpiration, and in fome refpefts have a real
advantage. We ftiould be no lofers, if we confidered
the apoftles In hiftorical fads as merely human witneffes,
6 as
SCR [ ,4
tuFe. as Chrlft himfelf has done in faylnjr, f Ye alfo {hall benr
witnefs, becaufe ye have been with me from the be Mu-
n XV, ning*.' And no one that attempts to convince an un-
believer of the truth of Chi iftianity, would begin his
dtrnonftratiyn by prefuppofing a do^lrine which hh ad-
verfary denies, but would ground his arguments on the
credibiHty of the evangelifts as human hiftorians, for the
truth of the miracles, the death, and the refurreaion of
Chrift. Even thofe v/no examine the grounds of their
faith for their own private conviftion, nuiR treat the
evangelifts as h\unan evidence ; fince it would be argu-
ing in a circle to conclude that the fafts recorded in the
gofpels are true,_ becaufe they are infpired, when we
conclude the Scriptures to be infpired in coiifequence of
their contents. In thefe cafes, then, we are obliged to
confider the evangelifts as human evidence 5 and it would
be no detriment to the Chnfl;ian caufe to confider them
at all times as fuch in matters of hiftorical faft. We
find it nowhere exprefsly recorded that the public tranf-
aftions which the apoftles knew by their own experi-
ence, and of which St Luke informed himfelf by dili-
gent inquiry, Hiould be particular objeAs of divine in-
fpiration. We fhould even be confiderable gainers, in
adjufting the harmony of the gofpels, if we were permit-
ted to fuppofe that fome one of the evangelifts had com-
mitted an im.material error, and that St John has re<£li-
fied fome trifling miftakes in the preceding gofpels.
The moll dangerous objeftions which can be made to
the truth of our religion, and fuch as are mofl: difficult
to anfwer, are thofe drawn from the different relations
of the fo\ir evangelifl:8."
Before any inquiry Is made refpefting the infpiration
SCR
inK^otof the books of the New Teftament, it is neceffary to
Zlon. tlie meaning of the term ; for theologiatis
liave =gfven t-o it a variety of fignifications. Mofl: of the
German divines make it to confift: in an infufion of
■words as well as ideas. Luther, Beza, and Salmafius,
rertria it to ideas alone. Doddridge underllands by it
an intervention of the Deity, by which the natural fa^
ciilties of the mind were direded to the difcovery of
truth. Warburton and Law think it was a negative
intervention to preferve the facred writers from effential
errors. Some believe every circumftauce was diftated
by the Holy Ghoft ; others fuppofe that no' fupernatu-
ral affiftance was granted except in the epiftolary wri-
tings. See Inspiration.
As there is an evident diftinftion between infpiration
and revelation, and as the origin of the Chriftian reli-
gion may be fl:ill proved divine, even though it were de-
nied that thofe who record its fads and doftrincs were
mfpired in the aft of -writing, it will be mofl: judicious
and fafe to employ the A\'ord infpiration in that fenfe
which can be moft eafily defended and fupported. By
doing this much may be gained and nothing loft. It
i« difficult to prove to a deift that the words of Scrip-
ture arc divine, becaufe he fees that every writer has
r.'ords and phrafes peculiar to himfelf. It is difficult
alfo to prove that the ideas were infufed into the mind
(if the authors while they were engaged in the a£l of
writing ; becaufe concerning fafts they appeal not to
divine infpiration, but declare tvhat they have feen and
heard. In reafoning they add their own fentiments to
what they had received from the Lord, and fubjoin, e-
fpeciallym their epiftles, things not conneaed with reli-
;|jon. The definition which Doddridge pives. feems
Voi.XVn. Parti. ^ ^ '
applicable to ordinary gifts or the ufual endowments of Scripinre.
rational creatures, rather than to the extraordinary gifts
(u'^ ^^oly Spirit, which were beftowed on the a-
poftles. Thofe who maintain that every fad or circum-
fiance was fuggefted by divine infpiration, will find it
no eafy matter to prove their pofition. The opinion of
Warburton and Law, with proper explanations, feems
moft probable. The opinion of Grotius, that only the
epilllea were infpired, may be eafily refuted.
The proof of the authenticity of the New Teftament
depends on human teftimony ; The proof of its infpi-
ration is derived from the declaration of infpired per-
fons.
In proving that the New Teftament Is infpired, we The proof
prefuppofe Its authenticity that the fiicred books were of d"^"
written by the apoftles whofe names they bear, andt",^"? ?"
that they have been conveyed to us pure and uncor-Jfonrof
rupted. This we have already attempted to prove, andChrift and
vve hope with filccefs. The evidence of infpiration is his a-
thc teftimony of Chrift and his apoftles, which we re-P''^^^^'-
ceive as credible, becaufe they confirmed their dodrines
by miracles. From the important miffion of Chrift and-
his apoftles, we infer that every power was beftowed
which divine wifdom thought expedient; and from their
condua we conclude, that it is morally impoffible that
they could lay claim to any powers which they did not
poffefs. It is proper therefore to inquire into the de-
clarations of Chrift and his apoftles concerning the na-
ture, degree, and extent, of the infpiration beftowed upon
the writers of the facred books.
. }[ confider Chrift's more immediate promifes of The decla.
inlpiration to the apoftles, we fliall find that he has rations of
given them, in the moft proper fenfe of the word, at*^^"^'
three feveral periods, ift, When he fent the apoftles to
preach the gofpelf; 2dly, In holding a public difcourle fMatt x.
relating to the gofpel, at which were prefent a confi- ^5"
derable multitude ; 3dly, In his prophecy of the de-
ftruaion of Jerufaleml. When he fent the apoftles to t Mark xJii.
preach the gofpel, he thus addrefled them: " When'' ' ^^^^
they deli<?er you up, take no thought how or what ye''"'
fhall fpeak, for it fiiall be given you in that fame hour
What ye ftiall fpreak ; for it is not you that fpeak, but
the fpirit of your Father that fpeakcth in you." The
fame promifc was made almoft in the fame words in the
prefence of an immenfe multitude (Luke xii. 11, 12.)
From thefe paflages it has been urged^ that if the a-
poftles were to be infpired in the prefence of maglftrates
m delivering fpeeches, which were foon to be forgotten,
It is furely reafonable to conclude that they would be
infpired when they were to compofe a ftandard of faith
for the ufe of all future generations of Chriftians. If
this conclufion be fairly deduced, it would follow that
the writings of the New Teftament are the diaates of
infpiration, not only in the doarlnes and precepts, but
in the very words. But it ie a conclufion to which
iincere Chriftians have made objeaions ; for, fay they
though Chrift promifes to affift his apoftles in cafes of
great emergency, where their own prudence and forti-
tude could not be fufficient, it does not follow that he
would diaate to them thofe faas which they knew al-
ready, or thofe reafonings which their own cabn reflec-
tion might fupply. Eefides, fay they, if the New Tef-
tament was diaated by the Holy Spirit, and only pen-
ned by the apoftles, what reafon can be given for the
care with which Chrift fnftruaed them both during his
I* miniftrv
SCR
[ 146 ]
SCR
i6, %G,
Scrlptu'c minlflry and after his crucifixion in tKore things per-
taining to the kin gdom of God ?
iTODe- idei I" anfwer to this, we may obferve, that though it be
ofinfi ira. difficult to prove that the identical words of the New
■ n. Teftai-nent were dilated by the Holy Spirit, or the train
«f ideas infufed into the minds of the faci ed writers,
there is one fpecies of inrpiration to which the New
Teftament has an undoubted claim. It is this, that the
memories of the apoftles were ftrengthened and their
underftandings preferred from falling into e{Tential errors.
This we prove from thefe words oif our Saviour, " and
I will pray the Father, and he will give you another
comforter, that he may abide with you for ever. He
fliall teach you all things, and bring all things to your
John iiv. rememberance whatfoever I have faid unto you *."
This promife was furely not reftrained to the day_ of
Pentecoft : it mud have been a permanent gift enabling
the apoftles at all times to remember with accuracy the
difconrfes of our Saviour, When the apoftles there-
fm-e (Matthew and John) relate thofe precepts of Chrift
which they themfelves had heard, they write indeed
from memory, but under the protedion of the fpirit
who fecures them from the dan ger of iniftake : and we
muft of courfe conclude that their gofpels are infpired.
Were we called upon more particularly to declare
what parts of the New Teftament we believe to be in-
fpired, we would anfwer, The doftrines, the precepts,
and the prophefies, every thing cflential to the Chriftian
leligion. From thefe the idea of infpiratlon is iufepa-
Table. As to the events, the memory of the apoftles
^vas fufficlent to retain them. If this opinion be juft,
it would enable us to account for the diicrepancies be-
tween the facred writers, which are chiefly confined to
the relation of fads and events.
All the books of the New Teftament were originally
»ne iNcw written in Greek, except the gofpel according to Mat-
Teftament thew and the epiftle to the Hebrews, which there is
was com- yeafon to believe were compofed in the Syro-Chaldaic
lanr^uagc, which in the New Teftament is called Hebrew.
Why^thc Various reafons have been afllgned why the greateft
greatelt part of the New Teftament was written in Greek ; but
I art of i^ i» ^^ue reafon is this, It was the language beft under-
■wiitrenin ^^^^ ^^^^ writers and readers. Had St Paul
' written to a community in the Roman province of
Africa, he might have written perhaps in Latm ; but
epiftles to the inhabitants of Corinth, Galatia, Ephefus,
Ph^lippi, and Theffalonica, to Timothy, Titus, and
Philemon, from a native of Tarfus, could hardly be ex-
pefted in any other language than Greek. The fame
may be faid of the epiftles of St Peter, which are ad-
drefiedto the Chriftians of different countries, who had
no other language in common than the Greek ; and
likewife of the epiftles of St James, who wrote to Jews,
that lived at a diftance from Paleftine, and were igno-
rant of Hebrew. The native language of St Luke, as
well as of Theophilus, to whom he addreffed his gofpel, i
and Atls of the apoftles, appears to have been Greek ;
tnd that St John wrote his gofpel in that lanouage,
and not in Hebrew, is by no means a matter of furprife,
fince he wrote at Ephefus.
Mtcb 'ells, With refpeft to the epiftle to the Romans, it may
vol i. chap.^^g ^^i^^j Indeed why St Pciul did not write in Latin ?
^loi Now, whoever propofes this queftion, muft prefuppofe
* ' ^ ^* that St Paul was mafter of the Latin language in fuch
^. degree a& to find no difliculty in writing it ; a niatter
tit
in which
the New
which remains to be proved. It is very probable that 3 r'
St Paul was acquainted with the Latin ; but between
underftanding a languaj'e, and being able to write it,
there is a veiy material difFtrence. As St Paul was a
native of Tarfus, his native language was Greek ; he
had travelled during feveral years through countries in
which no other lanouage was fpoken, and when he ad-
drefled the Roman centurion at Jcrufalem, he fpoke:
not Latin, but Greek. Is it extraordinary, then, that
in writing to the inhe.bitants of Rome he ftiould have
ufed a Istpguage which was there fo generally under-
ftood ? It has'^bcen long remarked, that Greek was at
that time as well knov^al in Rome as French in any
court of modern Europe : that according to Juvenal
even the female fex made ufe of Greek, as the langiiage
of familiarity and paflion ; and that in letters of friend-
•ftiip Greek words and phrafes were introduced with
greater freedom than French exprefTions in German
letters, as appears from Cicero's epiftles to Attieus, and
from i\\ok of Auguftus preferved in the ^ works of
Suetonius. To this muft be added a material circum-
ftance, that a great part of the Roman Chriftians con-
fifted of native Jews, who were better acquainted with
Greek than with Latin, as either they themfelves or
their anceftors had come from Greece, Afia Minor, or
Egypt, in which Greek was the language of the coun-
try. At leaft they read the bible in that language, as
no Latin tranfiation of the Old Teftament at that time
exifted ; and the Chriftian church at that period con-
filling chie9y of Je«'s, the heathen converts in Rome
were of courfe under the necefllty of accuftoming them-
felves to the Greek language. In Ihort, St Paul in hi»
epiflle to the Romans made ufe of a language in which
alone thofe who were ignorant of Hebrew could read
the bible. What has been here advanced refpeding the
eoiftle to the Romans is equally applicable to the Greek
of St Mark, on the fuppofition that it was writtea at,
Rome.
To the above arguments may be added the example
of Jofephus, who, as well as the Apofljes, was by birth
a Jew. He even lived in Rome, which is more than
can be faid of St Paul and St Mark, who refided there
only a certain time : he was likewife younger thaa
either ; he came to Italy at an age which is highly
fuitable to the learning of a language, and previous to
that period had fpent feveral years in the Roman camp.
The Jewifli antiquities, the hiftory of the Jewifk war^
and the account of his own life, he wrote undoubtedly
with a view of their being read by the Romans ; and
yet he compofed all thefe writings in Greek, He ex-
prefles his motive for writing his Greek account of the
Jewifti war in the following terms : " That having writ-
ten in his native language {i. e. the Hebrew dialed at
that time fpoken) a hiftory of the war, in order that
Parthians, Babylonians, Arabians, Adiabenes, and the
Jews beyond the Euphrates, iwight be informed of thofe
events, he was now refolved to write for the Greeks
and Romans, who had not been engaged in the cam-
paigns, a more certain account than had hitherto been
given." The motives which induced Jofephus to
write in Greek are fully as applicable to St Paul and
St Mark. ■ ^
MIchaclis has thus charaderized the ftyle of the New ?
Teftament. *' The New Teftament (fays he) was^^^^'**
written in a language at that time common among the f^.,^.
i
SCR r I
Jews, which may be named Hebraic Greek ; the firll
traces of which we find in the tranllatlon of the LXX.
*' Every m?.n acquainted with the Greek language,
who had never heard of the New Teftan^.ent, mufl im-
mediately perceive, on reading only a few Unes, that
the ftyle is widely diifeient from th?.t of the clafflc au-
thors. We find this character in all the books of the
New Tcftament in a s^t eater or lefs degree, but we
mutt not therefore conclude that they polTefs an uni-
formity of ilyle. The harihe't Hebraifms, which ex-
tend even to grammatical errors in the government of
caie?, are the diiiinguiihing marks of the bo«k of Re-
velation ; but they are accompanied with tokens of
genius and poetical enthufiafm, of which every reader
mutt b& fenfible who has tafte and feeling. There is no
trannaliori of it which is not read with pleafure even
in the days of childhood ; and the very faults of gram-
mar are fo happily placed as to produce air agreeable
elFeft. The golpels of St Matthew and St Mark have
ftrong marks of this Hebraic ttyle ; the former has
haifher Hebraifms. than the latter, the fault of which
may be afcribed to the Gieek tranflator, who has made
too literal a verfion, and yet the gofpel of St Mark is
written in worfe language, and in a manner that is lefs
agreeable. The epiftles of St James and St Jude are
fomewhat better; biit even thefe are fulj of Hebraifms,
and betray in other refpefts a certain Hebrew tone.
St I-iuke has in feveral pafTages written pure and claffic
Greek, of which the four firft verfes of his gofpel may
be given as an iuttance : in the fequel, where he de-
fcribes the aAiohs of Chrift, he has very harfli He-
braifms, yet the ftyle is more agreeable than that of
St Matthew or St Mark. In the Afts of the apoftles
he is not free from Hebraifms, which he feems to have
never ftiidioufly avoided; but his periods are more claf-
fkally turned, and fometimes poffefs beauty devoid of
art. St John has numerous, though not uncouth, He-
braifms both in his gofpel and epiftles ; but he has w^rit-
ten in a fmooth and flowing language, :ind furpafles all
the Jewifh writers in the excellence of narrative. St
Paul again is entirely different from them ^11 ; his ftyle
is indeed negledled and full of Hebraifms, but he has
avoided the concife and verft-like conftruftion of the
Hebrew language, and has upon the whole a confider-
able ftiare of the roundnefb of Grecian compofition. It
is evident that he was as perfedlly acquainted with the
Greek manner of exprcflion as with the Hebrew, and
he has introduced them alternately, as either the one
or the other fuggefted itfelf the tirft, or was the beft
approved.' '
Michaelis has fliown that the New Teftament not
only contains Hebraifms but Rabbinifms, Syriafms,
Chaldaifms, Arabifms, Latinifms, and Perlian words,
of which he has exhibited many fpecimens. To theo-
logians, whofe duty it certainly is to ftudy tlic language
of the New 1 eftament with attention, we would ftre-
noufly recommend the perufal of this work, which in
the Englifh tranllation is one of the moft valuable ac-
cefGons to fcriptural criticHm that has yet appeared.
We fpeak of the Englifh tranflation, which the large
?.nd judicious notes of Mr Marfh has rendered infinitely
fuperior to the original.
To the obfervations which have been made refpe61ing
the language of the New Teftament, a few remarks
may be added coRcerning the peculiarities of the ftyle
47 1 SCR
and manner of the facr^d writers, particularly the Iw'- SciipfU'^^
ftorians. Thefe remarks extertd to the Old I eftament r~^ ~~^
as well as to the New. — '1 he Jifji quality for w^hich ^^'^^l/i'/'lf/^'n.
facred hiftoiy is remarkable is hmpHcity in the UruScmt mi.uity
of the fentences. The firft five yerfcs cf Genefis furnifh Oi/Tc-rtation^
an example, which confift of eleven fentences. i"' 'Iranf.
fubftantives are not attended by adjeftives, nor the verbs '^I'^Qoftidt
by adveibs, no fynonyrnas, no luperlatives, no eftort at
exprefiing things in a bold, emphatical, or uncommon
manner.
2. The fecond quality is fimpllcity of fentiment, par-
ticularly in the Pentateuch^ arifing from the very nature
of the early and uncultivated ftate of f«ciety about
which that book is conveifant.
3. Simphcity of defign. The fubjeft of the narra-
tive fo engroffes the attention of the writer, that he
himfelf is as nobody. He introduces nothing as from
himfelf, no remarks, doubts, conjeftures, or reafonings.
Our Lord's biographers particularly excel in this qua-
lity. This quality of ftyle we meet with in Xenoplion
and Csefar.
The Evangelifts may be ranked next to Genefis for
fimplicity of compofition in the fentences. John and
Matthew are diftinguiftied for it more than Mark and
Luke. But the fentiment is net fo rematkable for
fimplicity in the Evangelilt as the Pentateuch. The
reafons of this difference are, the ftate of the Jews was
totally changed ; their manners, cuftoms, &c. fpHt into
fatftions both in religion and politics. 2. The objetl of
our Lord's miniftry, which is the great fubjetl of the
gofpels, was/o inculcatt a doSlrine and morality with which
none of their fyftems perfectly coincided : befides, being
conftantly oppofed by all the great men, the greater part
of his hiftory confifts of inftruftions and difputes. 3. As
it is occupied with what our. Saviour faid and what he
did, this makes two diftinfticns of ftyle and manner \
that of our Saviour, and the facred penman's. In their
own chara£ler, they neither explain nor command, pro-
mife nor threaten, praife nor blame. They generally
omit the names of our Lord's enemies ; thus direfting
our hatred at the vices they committed, not at the per-
foils. They never mention fuch perions without ne
ceflity ; which is the cafe with the high-prieft, Pilate^
Herod, and Judas : the three firft for the chronology,
the fourth to do juftice to the eieven.
Herodias is indeed mentioned with diftionour but her
crime was a pubhc one. On the other hand, all' perfona
diftinguiflied for any thing virtuous are carelully men-
tioned, Jofeph of Arimathea, Nicodemus, Zaccheus,
Bartimeus, Jairus, La/arus, Mary, and Martha. 1 hey
record their own faults (Peter's, J homas's), nor do
they make any merit of their confeffion. In one uni.
form ftrain tiiey relate the moft fignal miracles and
moft ordinary facts.
From the narrative is excluded that quahty of ftyle
which is called atumatiot!. Nothing that difcovers paf-
fion in the writer or is calculated to excite the paffions
of the reader. Evety thing is directed to mend the
heart.
But in the difcourfes and dialogues of our Saviour
the expreflion, without lofing any thing of its fimplicity,
is often remarkable for fpirit and energy. Reipe£ting
harmony and fmcothnels, qualities which cn)y add an
external polifti to language, they had not the ieaft foli-
citud
T i Ai
Scripture-
117
Prcptr me-
thod of
ftudying
the New
Teftament
by analyfis
&ud induc-
tion.
Ja8
JPr C-mp-
beli's me-
thod. Frel.
DiJ to tie
Coffelu
SCR [ 1
As ts elegance, there is an elegance which refults
from the ufe of fuch words as are moft in ufe with
thofe who are accounted fine writers, and from fuch
arrangements in the words and claufes as have generally-
obtained their approbation, This is drfclaimed by the
facred authors.
But there is an elegance of a fuperior order more
nearly conne(^led with the fentiment ; and in this fort
of elegance they are not deficient. In all the oriental
languages great ufe is made of tropes, efpecially meta-
phors. When the metaphors employed bear a ftrong
refemblanQe, they confer vivacity : if they be borrowed
from objcfts which are naturally agreeable, beautiful,
or attraftive, they add alfo elegance. The Evangelifta
furnifh us with many examples of this kind of vivacity
and elegance. Our Lord borrows tropes from corn-
fields, vineyards, gardens, &c.
As a valuable appendage to this part of our fubjeft,
we (hall fubjoin Dr Campbell's method of ftudying the
books of the New Teftament. This we olfer to our
readers as a beautiful inftance of the judicious applica-
tion of philofophy to facred lludies. It is the fame
method of difcovering truth by analyfis and Indudion,
which was purfucd by Sir Ifaac Newton with fuch afto-
nlfhing fuccefs, which fiace his time has been uniform-
ly pradtifed in natural philofophy, and has been alfo
applied to chemillry, to medicine, to natural hiftory, and
te the philofophy of mind, by the ingenious Dr Reid.
This is the path of found philofophy, which can alone
lead to the difcovery of truth. In following it, our
progrefs may be flow, but it will be fure. If all theolo-
gians would lleadily adhere to It, we might then enter-
tain the pleafant hope of difcarding for ever thofe abfurd
fyftems of religion which are founded on fingle paffages
and detached fragments of fcripture, and of eltabhfhmg
opinions and doftrines on a folid foundation.
" I. To get acquainted with each writer's ftyle ; to ob-
ferve his manner of compofition, both in fenlences and
paragraphs ; to remark the words and phrafes pecuhar
to him, and the peculiar application that he may fome •
times make of ordinary words ; for there are few of thofe
writers who have not their peculiarities in all the re-
fpeds now mentioned. This acquaintance with each
can be attained only by the frequent and attentive read-
ing of his works in his own language.
" 2. To inquire into the character, the fituatlon, and
the office of the writer, the time, the place, and the
occafion of his writing, and the people for whofe im-
mediate ufe he originally intended his work. Every-
one of thefe particulars will fometimes ferve to eluci-
date exprefGons otherwife obfcure or doubtful, 'i his
knowledge may in part be learned from a diligent and
reiterated pcrufal of the book itfelf, and in part be ga-
thered from what authentic, or at leaft probable, ac-
counts have been tranfmitted to us concerning the com-
pilement of the canon.
** 3. The laft general direftion Is, to confider the princi-
pal fcope of the book, and the particulars chiefly obferv-
able in the method by which the writer has purpofed to
execute his dcfign. This dirtdionis particularly appli-
cable to the epiftolary writings, efpecially thofe of
Paul.
"4, If a particular word or phrafe occur, which ap-
pears obfcure, perhaps unintelligible, the firft thing we
♦JUght to do, if fatisfied that the reading is genuine, is
48 ] S G R
to confult the context, to attend to the manrrer where* S<
in the term is introduced, whether in a chain of reafon- ~
ing or in a hiftorical narration, in a defcription, or in-
cluded in an exhortation or commands. As the conclu-r
fion is inferred from the premilTcs, or as from two or
more known truths a third unknown pr unobferved be-
fore may fairly be deduced ; fo from luch attention to,i
the fentence in connedtion, the import of an expreffion,,
hi itfelf obfcure or ambiguous, will fametirnes with mo-
ral certainty be difcovered. This, however, will not-
always anfwcr.
"5. if it do not, let the fecond confideration be, whe-
ther the term or plu-afe be one of the writer's peculiar
ritles. If fo, it comes naturally to be inquired, what
is the acceptation in which he employs it in other places?
If the fenfe cannot be precifely the fame in the paffage
under review, perhaps, by an eafy and natural metaphor
or other trope, the common acceptation may give rife,
to one which perfeftly fuits the paffage In queftion. —
Recourfe to the other places wherein the word or phrafe.;
occurs in the fame author is of confiderable ufe, though;
the term fhould not be peculiar to him.
" 6. But thirdly, if there fhould be nothing in the.
fame writer that can enlighten the place, let recourfe be.
had to the parallel palTages, if there be any fuch. In the
other facred writers. By parallel paffages, I meaii.
thofe places, if the difficulty occur in hiftoiy, wherein,
the fame or a fimilar ftory, miracle, or event, is related ;
If In teaching or reafoning, thofe parts wherein the
fame argument or doftrine is treated, or the fame pa--
rable propoimded ; and in moral leflbns, thofe wherein
the fame clafs of duties is reconimended \ or, if the dif-
ficulty be found In a quotation from the Old Teftament,.
let the parallel paffage in the book referred to, both vx.
the original Hebrew, and in the Greek verfion, be con*
fulted.
" 7. But if in thefe there be found nothing that can
throw light on the expreffion of which we are in doubt,
the fourth recourfe is to all the places wherein the word,
or phrafe occurs In the New Teftan^ent, and in the Sep-
tuagint verfion of the Old, adding to thefe the confider--
ation of the import of the Hebrew or Chaldaic word,.,
v/hole place it occupies, and the extent of fignification,.
of which in different occurrences fuch Hebrew or Chal-
daic term is fufceptible.
*' 8. Perhaps the ter m In queftion is one of thofe which
very rarely occur in the New Teftament, or thofe call-
ed A.syo/tttva, only once read in Scripture, and not
found at all In the trat>flatIon of the Seventy. Several
fuch words there are. There is then a neceffity, in the.
•fifth place, for recurring to the ordinary acceptation of
the term in claflical authors. This is one ot thofe cafia
wherein the interpretation given by the ear heft Greek
fathers deferves particular notice. In this, however, I
limit myfelf to thofe comments wherein they give a li-
teral expofitlon of the facred text, and do not run into '
vifion and allegory."
The manulcripts of the New Teftament are the na- ivijr.uf<
tural fource from which the genuine readings of the<i the J
Greek Teftametrt are to be drawn. The printed edi- I'eft.in}
tions are either copies of more ancient editions, or of
manufcrlpts ; and they have no further authority than as
they conefpond to the manufcripts from which they
were oiiginally taken. By manufcripts of the New Tef-
tament, we mean thofe only which were written before
the
I
SCR
[ 149 ]
SCR
tBe invention of printing. The moil ancient of tbefe
are loft, and there is no nianufcript now extant older than
the fixth century. Few contain the whole New Tefta-
ment ; fome contain the four gofpels ; feme the A£ts
of the Apoftks and Epiftles ; and others the book of
Revelation. The greatell number are thofe which con-
tain the firft part ; thofe which have the fecond, or the
firtt and fecond together, are likewife numerous ; but
thofe of the third are extremely few. It muft be added
alfo, that in many manufcripts thofe epiftles are omitted
wbofe divine authority was formerly doubted.
There are many manufcripts which have been exa-
mined only for a fmgle text, inch as » John v. 7. or at
kail for a very fmall number. Others have been exa-
mined from the beginnmg to the end, but not com-
pletely, and in refpeft of all the readings. A third clafs
confitts of fuch as either have been, or are faid to have
been, completely and accurately collated. But this re-
quires fuch phlegmatic patience, that we can hardly ex-
ped to find in critical catalogues all the various read-
ings which have been only once collated. Wetftein, in
collating many manufcripts anew, made difcoveries
which had entirely efcaped the notice of his predecefTors.
The fourth clafs confifts of fuch as have been com-
pletely and accurately collated more than once ; but
here alfo we are in dangei* of being led into error. —
"When various readings are transferred from one critical
edition to another, as from that of Gregory to Mill's
edition, and from the latter to thofe of Bengel and
"Wetftein, the manufcripts muft fometimes be falfely
named, and various readings muft frequently be omit-
ted.. And as Wetftein has marked by ciphers manu-
fcripts that in former editions had been denoted by their
initial letters, he could hardly avoid fubftituting, in
fome cafes, one figure inftead of another. The fifth
clafs, which is by tar the moft valuable, confifts of fuch
as have been printed word for word, and therefore form
an original edition of the Greek Teftament^ We can
boaft but of a very few manufciipts of this kind.
Hcanie printed at Oxford, in 1715, the A£ls of the
Apoftles in Greek and Latin from the Codex Laudia-
nus 3. ; Knittel has annexed to his edition of Ulphilas,
p. ^2 — I ' 8, a copy of twp very ancient fragments pre-
ferved in the library of Wolfembuttle ; the one of the
four Gofpels in general, the other of St Luke and St
John. Wolde printed in 1786 the Codex Alexandri-
nus, a manufcript of great antiquity, which fhall af-
terwards be more fully defcribed ; and the Univerfi-
ty of Cambridge has refolved to pubiifli, in a fimi-
lar manner, the Cod. Cant. L or, as it is fometimes^
called, the Codex Bezae, the care of which is intrufted
to.Dr Kipling, a publication which W'ill be thankfully
received by every fiiend to facred critiQifm. It was the
intention of the Abbe Spoletti, a few years ago, to
publifti the whole of the celebrated Codex Vaticanus ;
which would likewife have been a moft valuable accef-
fion, fince a more important manufci-ipt is hardly to, be
found in all Europe. He delivered for this purpofe a
memorial to the Pope ; but the defign was not put into
execution, either becaufe the Pope refufed his affent,
or the Abbe abandoned it himfelf. See tie Oriental
Bible, vol. xxii. n* i^^. and vol. xxiii- 548.
" A veiy valuable library," fays Michaelis, " might
be compofed of the irnpreflions of ancient manufcripts,
which, though too expenfive for a private perfon, fhould Scripture,
be admitted into every univerfity coUeftion, efpccially ^''^
the Alexandrine and Cambridge manufcripts, to which Jviichaelis's
1 would add, if it were now poflible to procure it,prapofal
Hearne's edition of the Codex Laudianus 3. A plaii'.'f t^l'^i"ga'»
of this fort could be executed only in England, by 3™?"^'°"
private fubfcription, where a zeal is frequently difplay- manu-
ed in literary undertakings that is unknovvn in other fcnVt*,
countries ; and it were to be wilhed that the projc6lVol. li.
were begun before length of time has rendered the ma-^"
iiuferipts illegible, and the attempt therefore fruitlefs.
Ten thoufand pounds would go a great way toward
the fulfilling of this lequeft, if the learned themfelves
did nyt augment the difficulty of the undertaking, by
adding their own critical remarks, and endeavouring
thereby to recommend their publications, rather than by
prefenting to the public a faithful copy of the original.
Should pofterity be put in poffeflion of faithful impref-
fions of impoitant manufcripts, an acquifition which
would render the hlgheit fervice to facred criticifin, a^
thefe editions of the New Teflament fhould be regulated"
on the lame plan as Hearne's edition of the Ails of
the Apoftles." It muft be highly flattering- to the pa-
triotic fpirit of an Enghfhraan to hear the encomiums-
which learned foreigners have fo profufely beftowed on
our liberality in fupporting works of genius and learn-
ing and public utility. - T'he plan which Michaeli&pro-
pofes to us, in preference to all the other nations in Eu-
rope, is noble and magnificent, and would certainly
confer immortality on thofe men who would give it their
patronage and afliftancc.
There are many ancient manufcripts, efpecially ia
Italy, which have never been collated, but lie Itiil un-
explored. Here is a field where much remains to be*
done. See Marfh's NoteS' to Michaelis, vol ii. p. 643.
Michaelis has given a catalogue of ancient manu-
fcripts, amounting in number to 292, to which he has
added a fhort account of each. In this place we fhall
confine our obfervations to the moft celebrated, the A-
lexandrian and Vatican manufcripts, which we have
chiefly exlradled from MichaeHs. j^i
The /1/exandrine vumufcrtpt confifts of four vo- "Account of?
lumes ; the three firft of which contain tlie Old Tefta-'^?
ment, the fourth the New Teftament, ^o^^^^^'cr with ^ ' V"^-^'"
the firft Epiftle of Clement to the Corinthians, and a
fragment of the fecond. In the New Teftament, which
alone is the objedl of our prefent inquiry, is wanting
the beginning as far as Matthew xxv. 6. » vu^^iif n^x.>^.
'^"S likewife from John vi. 50. to viii. 52. and from
2 Cor. iv. 13. to xii. 7. It muft hkewife be obferved,
that the Pfalms are preceded by the epiftle of Athana-
fius to MarccUinus, and followed by a catalogue, con-
taining thofe which are to be ufed in prayer for each
hour, both of the day and of the night ; alfo by 14.
hymns, partly apocryphal, partly biblical, the 11th of
which is an hymn in praife of the Virgin Mary, entit-
led -nrfocTJiy;!-)) ^a^.ar a-fOTdyu : further, X\it Hypothe/er
Eufebii are annexed to the Pfalms, and his Canones to
the Gofpels. It is true, that this has no immediate^
reference to the New IVftament, but may have influ-
ence in determining the antiquity of the manufcript it-
felf.
It has neither accents nor marks of afpi'ration j it is
written with capital, or, as they arecallcd> uncial letters^,
7 and'
S C Fx [
scripture, and has very few abbreviations. There are no inter-
Vu, y^i^ between the words ; but the fenle of a pafiacre is
fometimes terminated by a point, and foraetimcs by a
vacant fpace. Here ariffs a fiifpicion that the copyill
did not underftand Greek, becaufe thefe marks are
fometimes found even in the middle of a word, for in--
llance Levit. v. 4. a:.5^,.f » foj- grid Numb,
xiii. 29. To-Hc.
This manufcript was prefented to Charles I. in
1628, by CyriUus linearis patriarch of Conftantmople.
Cyrillus himfelf has given the following account : " We
know fo much of this manufcript of the holy writings of
the Old and New Teftament, that Ihecla an Egyptian
lady of dlilinftion [nobilisfamhif} JEgyptia) wrote it with
her own hand i ;^oo years ago (a). She lived foon after
the council of Nicasa. Her name was formerly at the end
«f the book ; but when Chriftianity was fubverted in
Egypt by the errors of Mahomet, the books gf the
Chriftians fuft'eied the fame fate, and the name of The-
cla was expunged. But oral tradition of no very an-
cient date (metfioria et tradit'io recens) has preferved the
remembrance of it."
But the reader will fee that this account is merely
traditional. Dr Semler very properly obferves, that
there is no more reafon to rely on a tradition refpefting
the tranfcriber of an ancient manufcript, than on a tra-
dition which relates to an ancient relic. The aro-u-
ments which have been urged by Wctftein, Semler,
Oudin, and Woide, to 6x the date of this manufcript,
are fo many, that it would be tedious to repeat them.
But, after all, its antiquity cannot be determined with
certainty, though it appears from the formation of the
letters, which refemble thofe of tlie fourth and fifth
centuries, and the want of accents, that it was not writ-
ten fo late as the tenth century. In this century it
was placed by Oudin, while Grabe and Schulze have
referred it to the fpurth, which is the very utmolt pe-
riod that can be allowed, becaufe it contains the epiitles
of Athanafius. Wetflein, with more probability, has
chofcn a mean between thefe two extremes, and referred
it to the fifth century : but we are not juflified in draw-
ing this inference from the formation of the letters
alone, for it is well known that the fame mode of form-
ing the letters was retained longer in fome countries
and in fome monalleries than in others.
We are now in polfeffion of a perfeft impreflion of
this manufcript, which is accompanied with fo complete
and fo critical a coUeftion of various readings, as is
hardly to be expefted from the edition of any other
manulcript. Dr Woidc publifhed it in 1786, with
types caft for that purpofe, line for line, without in-
tervals between the words, as in the manufcript itfelf .
]
SCR
the Copy is fj perfect a refemblance of the original, Scrl
that it may fupply its place. Its title is Novum Tejla- — ~
mentum. Gracum e codlce MS. Alexandnno qiii Londini in
B'lbliotheca Mufei Britann'ici fijftrvatur defcriptum It is a
very fplendid folio ; and the preface of "the learned edi-
tor contains an accurate defcription of the manufcript,
with exad lift of all '\U various readings, that takes
up no lefs than 89 pages ; and each reading is accom-
panied with a remark, in which is civen an account of
what his predecelTors Juninus, Walton, Fell, Mill,
Gr?.be, and Wetftein, had performed or negleftcd. i
The V at'ican mauufiript contained originally the '"^<^co
whole Greek Bible, including both the Old and New"/
Teftarnent; and in this refpeft, as well as in regard to"""
its antiqiiity, it refembles none fo.much as the Codex
Altxnndr'inusy but no two manufcripts are more difli-
milar in their readings, in the New Teftament as well
as in the Old. After the Gofpels, which are placed in
the ufual order, come the Afts of the Apoftles, which
are immediately followed by the fevcn catholic epiftles.
This muft be particularly noted, becaufe fome have con-
tended that the fecoxid Epiiile of St Peter, with the
fecond and third* of St Jehn, wcfc wanting. Profefl'of
Hwiid, in a letter dated Rome, April 12. 1781, afiu-
red Michaelis that he had fecn them with his own eyes,
that the fecond Epiftle of St Peter is placed folio' 1434,
the fecond of St John fol. 1442, the third fwlio 1443 =
then follow the Epiftles of St Paul, but not in the
ufual order ; for the Epiftle to the Hebrews is pla-
ced immediately after thofe to the Thefialonians : and
it IS not improbable, that in the more ancient manu-
fcript, from which the Codex Vat'icnnut was copied, this
Epiftle was even placed before that to the Ephefians,
and immediately after the Epiftle to the Galatians (b) }
for the Epiftles of St Paul are divided into 93 fec-
tions by figures written in the margin with red ink ;
but the Epiftle to the Galatians ends with 59, and that
to the Ephefians begins with 70 ; the Epiftle to the
Hebrews, on the contrary, begins with 60, and ends
with 69. With the words a^a'^'v ra j.^^ Heb. ix. 14.
the manufcript ceafes, the remaining leaves beino- loft<
There is wanting, therefore, not only the latter p'art of
this Epiftle, but the Epiftles to Timothy, Titus, and
Philemon, with the Revelation of St John ; but this
laft book, as well as the latter part of the Epiftle to the
Plebrews, has been fupphed by a modern hand in the
15 th century. In many places the faded letters have
been alio retouched by a modern, but careful hand ;
and when the perfon who made thefe amendments, who
appears to have been a man of learning, found a read-
ing in his own manufcript which differed from that of
the Codex V atkanusy he has noted it in the margin,
and
(a) He wrote this m the year 1628. According to this account, then, the manufcript muft have been writ-
ten in 328 ; a date to which fo many weighty objeftions may be made, that its moft ftrcnuous advocates will hardly
tmdertaKe to defend it. But this error has furuiftied Oudin with an opportunity of producing many arguments
agauift the antiquity of the Codex Alexandnnus, which feem to imply, that Grabe and others, who have referred
:t to the fourth century, fuppofe it to have been written in the above-mentioned year. Now it is probable, that
the inference which has been deduced from the account of Cyrillus is more than he himfelf intended to exprefs
as he relates that Thecla lived after the council of Nicjca. '
(b) Probably becaufe the Epittlc to the Hebrews, as weU afi the Epiftle to the Galatians, relates to the abc
iJtion of the Mefaxc law.
I eek
Tefta
arc
of
SCR [I
and has generally left the text itMf untouched, though
in feme few examples he has ventured to erafe it.
It is certain, that this manufcript is of very high an-
tiquity, though it has been difputed which of the two
in this refpeft is entitled to the preference, the V atica-
mis or Altxandnnui . The editors of the Roman edi-
tion of the Scptuagint, in 1587, referred the date of
the Vatican manufcript to the fourth century, the pe-
riod to which the advocates for its great rival refer the
Ccdex Alexandrinm. More moderate, and perhaps more
accurate, are the fentiments of that great judge of an-
tiquity Moutfaucon, who, in his Bibiiothtca B'tbllothe-
caruniy p. 3, refers it to the fifth or fixth century ; and
adds, that though he had feen other manufcripts of
equal antiquity, he had found nor»e at the fame time fo
Complete.
The Codex Valuanus has a great refemblancc to the
manufcripts noted by Wetftein, C. D. L. i. 15. 33.
69. 102. and to the Latin, Coptic, and Ethioplc ver-
fions ; but it is preferable to moft of them, in being al-
moft entirely free from thofe undeniable interpolations
and arbitrary corre£lions which are very frequently
/ound in the above-mentioned manufcripts, efpecially in
D. 1. and 69. It may be applied, therefore, as a mean
not only of confirming their genuine readings, but of
detefting and correfting thofe that are fpurious. It is
written with great accuracy, and is evidently a faithful
copy of the more ancient manufcript from yvhich it
•was tranfcribed. Peculiar readings, or fuch as are
found neither in other manufcripts nor ancient verfions,
are f<.'ldom difcevered in the Codex V at'uanus ; and of
the few which have been a<Slually found, the grcatcft
part are of little importance. But in proportion as the
number of fuch readings is fmall, the number of thofe
is great; in fupport of which few only, though ancient
authorities, have been hitherto produced. But this
manidfcript has not thioughout the whole New Tefta-
raent the fame uniform text.
As we have now a beautiful printed edition of the
Alexandrine manufcript by Dr Wolde, it is much to
be willied that we had alfo an exaA impreflion of the
Vatican manufcript. From the fuperftiiious fears and
intolerant fpirit of the inquifition at Rome, all accefs
to this manufcript was refufed to the Abbe Spoletti,
who prefented a memorial for that purpofe. Unlefs the
pope interpofe his authority, we mull therefore dcfpair of
having our wifhes gratified ; but from the liberality of
fentim.ent which the prefent pontiff has (hown on fevt-
ral occafions, we hope that the period is not far diftant
when the Vatican library will be open to the karned ;
and when the pope will think it his greateft honour to
encourage their refearches.
The moft valuable editions of the Greek New Ttfta-
ment are thofe of Mill, Bengel, and Wetftein.
The edition of Mill, which was oaly finifhed 14
days before his death, occupied the attention of the au-
thor for 30 years.
The coIle<3:ions of various readings which had been
made before the time of Mill, the Vclefian, the Barbe-
rini, thofe of Stephens, the London Polyglot, and Fell's
edition, with thofe which the Bifhop had left in manu-
fcript, and whatever he was able to procure elfe where,
he brought together into one large colleftion. He
made Kkewife very coniiderable additions to it. He
SCR
collated feveral original editions more accurately than Scr'ptur-Si
had been done before : he procured cxtra6^s from Greek v '
manufcripts, which had never been collated ; and of
fuch as had been before collated, but not with fufficient
attention, he obtained more complete extradls. It is
faid that he has coUefted from manufcripts, fathers, and
verfions, not lefs than 30,000 vai-ious readings. This
colleftion, notwithftanding its many imperfeftions, and
the fuperiotity of that of Wetftein, is ftill abfolutely ne-
ceffary to every critic : for Wetftein has omitted a great
number of readings which are to be found in Mill, ef-
pecially thofe which are either taken from the Vulgate,
or confirm its readings. Mill was indeed too much at-
tached to this verfion ; yet he cannot be accufed of par-,
tiality in producing its evidence, becaufe it is the duty
of a critic to examine the witnefTes on both fides of
the queftion : and Wetftein, by too frequently negleft-
ing the evidence in favour of the Vulgate, has rendered
his colleftion lefs pcrfeft than it would otherwife have
been. He likewife added, as far as he was able, read-,
ings from the ancient verfions ; and is mauch to be com-
mended for the great attention which he paid to the
quotations of the fathers ; the importance of which he
had fagacity enough to difcern.
It cannot, however, be denied, that Mill's Greek Te-
ftament has many imperfeftions, and fome of real im-
portance. His extrafts from manufcripts often are not
only incomplete, but erroneous ; and it is frequently ne-
ceftary to correft his miftakes from tlie edition of Wet-
ftein. His extrafts from the oriental verfions are alfo
imperfedl, becaufe he was unacquainted with thefe lan-
guages ; and in feleding readings from the Syriac, the
Arabic, and Ethiopic, he was obhged to have recourfe
to the Latin tranflations, which are annexed to thofe
verfions in the London Polyglot.
The great diligence which Mill had fliown in collec-
ting fo many various readings, alarmed the clergy as if
the Chriftian rehgion had been in danger of fubverfion.
It gave occafion for a time to the triumphs of the deift,
and expofed the author to many attacks. But it is
now univerfaUy known, that not a fingle article of the
Chriftian rehgion would be altered though a deift were
allowed to feledl out of Mill's 30,000 readings what-
ever he ftiould think moft inimical to the Chriftian
caufe.
In 1734, Bengel abbot of Alpirfpach, in the duchy Of Bengtiy
of Wurtemburg, publifiied a new edition of the Greek
Teftaraent. The fears which Mill had excited began
to fubfide upon this new publication ; for Bengel was
univerfally efteemcd a man of piety. Bengel was not
only diligent in the examination of various readings,
but in the ftridleft fenfe of the word coafcientious ; for
he confidered it as an off'ence againft the Deity, if,
through his own fault, that is, through levity or care-
L-ffnefs, he introduced a falfe reading into the facred
text. His objeft was not merely to miake a colleftion
of readings, and leave the choice of them to the judge-
ment of the reader, but to examine the evidence on both
fides, atjd draw the inference : yet he has not given his
own opinion fo frequently as Mill, whom he refem.bled
in his reverence for the Latin verfion, and in the pre-
ference v.'hich he gave to hatlh and difficult readings,
before thofe which were fmooth and flowing. It m^ay
be obferved in general, that he was a man of profound.
leariaing >
\
Ard of
Wetftein.
SCR I r;
Scripture, learning, and had a cool and found judgment, though
it did not prevent hira from thinking too hl'rhiy of the
I>atin readings, and of the CoJex Altxandr'mus, with
other Latinizing;- manufcripts.
The imperfeftions of Bengel's edition arife chiefly
from his diffidence and caution. He did not venture
to infert into the text any readin r which tiad not al-
ready appeared in fome printed edition, even though
he believed it to be the genuine reading. In the book
of Revelation indeed he took the liberty to infert read-
ings which had never been printed ; becaufe few manu-
fcripts had been ufed in the printing of that book.
'i'he celebrated editiou of John James Wetftein,
which is the meft important of all, and the moft necef-
fary to thofe engaged in facred criticifm, was pabh'(hed
at Amiferdam in 1751 and 1752, in two volumes folio.
No man will deny tliat Wetftein's Prolegomena difcover
profound erudition, crttical penetration, and an intimate
acquaintance with the Greek manufcripts. It is a work
which in many refpefts has given a new turn to facred
criticifm, and no man engaged in that ftudy can dif-
penfe with it. Wherever Wetftein has delivered his
fentiments refpefting a Greek manufcript, which he
has done lefs frequently than Mill, and indeed lefs
frequently than we could have -wifhed, he fliows himfslf
an experienced and fagacious critic. He is llkewlfe
more concife than Mill in delivering his'oplnion, and
does not fupport it by producing fo great a number
of readings from the manufcript in queftion. This
concifenefs is the confcquence of that warmth and hafte
which were peculiar to Wetftein's charafter, and wliich
have fometimes given birth to miftakes. The fire of
his difpofition wasTikewife the caufe of his advancing
conje£lure«, in regard to the hiftory of his manufcripts,
which exceed the bounds of probability. But the cri-
tical rules which he has delivered are perfeAly jnft; and
in this refpe6l there is a remarkable agreement between
him and his eminent predeceftbrs Mill and Bengel.
In regard to the Latin verfion abne they appear to
differ : in Mill and Bengel it has powerful, and per-
haps partial, advocates ; but in Wetftein a fevere and fa-
gacious judge, who fometimes condemns it without a
caufe. The Greek manufcripts which confirm the read-
ings of the Vulgate, and which he fuppofed had been
corrupted from it, he of courfe condemned with equal
feverity : and fome colleAions of various readings which
liad been made by Catholics, he made no fcruple to
pronounce a forgery, faying, " Timeo Danaos^ et dona
ferentes" But in confequence of his antipathy to the
A^'ulgate, his colle6ti©n of various readings is lefs perfeA
than it might have been.
It has been aflccd, i. Whether he has quoted his
manufcripts cither falfely or imperfectly, in order to
eftabhOi his own religious opinions ? or, 2. Whether his
diligence and accuracy has been fuch that we may at
all times depend upon them ? To the firft of thefe que-
flions there can be no other anfwer, than that Wetftein,
i)i his charader of a critic, is perfedly honeft. With
refpeft to the fecond, his diligence and accuracy, Mi-
chaeiis thinks there is lefs reafon to pronounce him
faultlcfs. But Mr Marfti has examined the examples
on which Michaelis founds his aflertion, and declares
diat Michaelis is miftaken in every one of them.
The diligence of Wetftein can fcarcely be queftioned
SCR
by any who are acquainted with his hiftory. He tra- ^'^'^if
veiled into diff'erent countries, and examined with his
own eyes a much greater nnmber of manufcripts than
any of his predeceffors. Plis colleftion of various read-
inus amount t© above a million ; and he has not only
produced a much greater quantity of matter than his
predeceftbrs, -but has likevvife correfted their miftakes.
The extracts from manufcripts, verfions, and printed
editions of the Greek Teftament, which had been
quoted by Mill, are generally quoted by Wetfteiru
Whenever Wetftein had no new extrafts from the ma-
nufcripts quoted by Mill, or had no opportunity of ex-
amining them himfelf, he copied literally from Mift ;
but wherever Mill has quoted from printed edltioijs,
as from the margin of Robert Stephens's for inftance,
or from the London Polyglot, Wetftein did not copy
frona Mill, but went to the original fource, as appears
from his having corrected many miftakes in Mill's quo-
tations. '
In the opinion of Michaelis, there are many defefts
in the edition of Wetftein, which require to be fup-
piled, and many en-ors to be correfted. Yet ftill it
muft be allowed to be a work of immenfe labour, and.
moft valuable to thofe engaged in facred criucinn ; and
it is furprifing, when we conftder the difficulties and la-
bour which W etftein had to encounter, that his errors
and imperfeftions are fo few.
The propofal of Michaelis, however, of a new col-
lation of manufcripts, in order to form a complete col-
ledion of various readings, is worthy the attention of
the learned. In mentioning this propofal, Michaelis
turns a wiftiful eye towards Britain, the only country,
he fays, which poflefles the will and the means to exe-
cute the taflv. Should a rcfolutlon, he adds, be form-
ed in this ifland, fo happily fituated for promoting the
purpofes of general knowledge, to make the underta-
king a public concern, to enter into a fubfcription, and
to employ men of abilities in collatiBg manufcripts both
at home and abroad, they would be able to do more in
ten years than could otherwife be done in a century.
And could this nation direft its attention to any object
more glorious or moie ufeful than in afcertaininsj the
text ot the facred Sciptures, and giving to pofterity an
accurate edition ^' 13(5
As the fenfe of Scripture, as well as all other books,
Is affefted by the punftuation, it is of importance to'^°'^°^
determine whether the ftops or points which we find tameut,
in the facred books were ufed by the facred writers,
or have been inferted by modern tranfcribers. k
We are told by Montfaucon, in his Palaographla |
Gracoy p. 3 1 . that the perfon who firft diftinguifhed
the feveral parts of a period in Greek writing, by the
introduftion of a point, was Ariftophaiies of Byzan-
tium, who lived under Ptolem^us Epiphanes, in the
145th Olympiad. But though points weie not wfed
in books before this period, they were employed in in-
fcriptlons above 400 years before the birth of Chrift.
See Mont. Pal. Grac. p. 135.
Under the article Punctuation we mentioned, on
authority which we reckoned unqueftionable, that the
ancient manufcripts were written without any points.
We have now, however, difcovcred, from Woide's edi-
tion of the Codex Alexandrinus, that points are ufed in
that manufcript, though omitted in the fac Jlmile given
bv
SCR
[
we. ty Montfaweon, That they are found too in the Co-
ilex Fat'tcanuSi though not frequently, is related by
Bh'ch ill his Prolegomena, p. 14.
As the fa6V has not been generally known, that the
ancients pointed their manufcrlpts, and as it is an im-
portant and interefting hSt, we ftiall prefent our read-
ers with the firft fix lines of St John's Gofpel, as they
are pointed in the Alexandrine manufcript :
ENAPXHHN0A0r0SKAI0A0r02HN
nPO^TON©N KAie?HNOAOrOS'
0TT02HNENAPXHnP0ST0N©N'
nANTAAIATTOTErENF.TO-KAIXa
PEIi~ATTOTErENETOOTAEEN'
OrErONENENATTnZflHHN-
Whether any points for marking the fenfe were ufed
fey the apoftles, cannot be determined j but the points
now in u(e have been invented fince.
In the fourth centur)', Jerome began to add the com-
Ria and colon to the Latin veifion ; and they were then
inferted in many more ancient manufcrlpts. In the
iifth century, Euthalius a deacon of Alexandria divided
the New Teftament into lines. This divifion was re-
gulated by the fenfe, fo that each line ended where fome
paufe was to be made in fpeaking. And when a co-
pyift was difpofed to contraA his fpace, and therefore
crowded the lines into each other, he then placed a
point where Euthalius had terminated the hne. In
the eighth century, the ftpke was invented which we
call a comma. In the Latin manufcripts, Jerome's
points were introduced by Paul Warnfried and Alcuin,
at the command of Charlemagne. In the ninth cen-
tury, the Greek note of interrogation (;) was iitft ufcd.
At the invention of printing the editors placed the
points arbitrarily, probably without beflowing the ne-
cefTary attention ; and Stephens, in particular, varied
kis points in every edition (d).
The meaning of many paffagcs in the Scripture has
teen altered by falfe pointing. We fhall produce one
inftance of this : Mat. v. 34. is commonly pointed in
this manner, tyo Se Ktya w^iv, o/u.otrai oXdjf • /u»r( iv ra vpa^ta,
and confequently tranflated, " But I fay unto you,
fwear not at all." But if, inftead of the colon placed
after ox«f, we fubftitute a comma, the tranflation will
be, " But I fay to you that you ought by no means to
fwear, either by heaven, for it is his throne, or by
earth, for it is his footftool." The command of Chrift
therefore applies particularly to the abufe of oaths a-
mong the Pharifees, who on every trivial occafion
fwore by the heaven, the earth, the temple, the head.
Sec. but it implies no prohibition to take an oath in
the name of t]ie Deity on folemn and important occa-
fion s.
_ _ The ancients divided the New Teftament into two
kinds of chapters, fome longer and fome ihorter. This
method appears to be more ancient than St Jerome, for
he expunged a pafPage from the New Teftament which
makes an entire chapter. The longer kind of chap-
ters were called irevej, the {horter capitu/a. St Mat-
VoL.XVn.PartL
53 3 , SCR
thcw contained, according to Jerome, 68 breves ; Mark Scripture,
contained 48 ; Luke 83 ; and John 18. All the cvan- — — v~~^
gelifts together confifted of 217 breves and 1 126 capi-
tula. The inventor of our modern divifion into chap-
ters was Hugo de S. Caro, a French Dominican friar
who lived in the 13th century.
The ancients had two kinds of vcrfes, one of which
they called f^-f't and the other pw^ara. 'f he remata
were lines v/hlch contained a certain number of letters,
like our printed books, and therefore often broke off in
the middle of a word. Jofephus's 20 books of Antiqui-
ties contained 60,000 of them, thou^fh in Ittlquis's
edition there are only 40,000 broken lines.
Stichivf&rt hnes meafured by the fenfe: according to
an ancient written lift mentioned by Father SImin, there
were in the New Teftament 18,612 of thefe.
^ The verfes into which the New Teftament is now Divifion
divided are more modern, and an imitation of the di- '"to vcr-
vifion of the Old Teftament. Robert Stephens, the
firft inventor, introduced them In his edition in the year
1551. He made this divifion on a journey from Ly-
ons to Paris ; and, as his fon Henry tells us In the pre-
face to the Concordance of the New Teftament, he
made it inter equitandum. This phrafe probably means,
that when he was weary of ridings he amufed hirafelf
with this work at his inn.
This Invention of the learned printer was foon Intro- fts di^cf-
duced into all the editions of the New Teftament ; and vantagee.
it muft be confefled, that in confulting and quoting the
Scriptures, and in framing concordances for them, a fub-
divlfion into minute parts is of the greateft utility. But
all the purpofes of utility could furely have been gain-
ed, without adopting the hafty and indigefted divifion
of Stephens, which often breaks the fenfe in pieces,
renders plain paffages obfcure, and difficult paftages un-
intelligible. To the injudicious divifion of Stephens
we may afcribe a great part of the difficulties which at-
tend the interpretation of the New Teftament, and a
great many of thofe abfurd opinions which have dif-
graced the ages of the Reformation. For as feparate
verfes appear to the eyes of the learned, and to the
minds of the unlearned, as fo many detached fentences,
they have been fuppofed to contain complete fenfe, and
they have accordingly been explained without any re-
gard to the context, and often in direft oppofitlon to
it. ^ Were any modern hiftory or continued difcourfe
divided into fragments with as little regard to the fenfeg
we ftiould foon find, that as many oppofite meanings
could be forced upon them as have been forced upon
the books of the New Teftament. The divifion into
verfes has been ftill more injurious to the Epiftles than
to the Gofpels, for there Is a clofe connection between
the different parts of the Epiftles, which the verfes en-
tirely diflolve. It is therefore to be wiftied that this
divifion into verfes were laid afide. The Scriptures
ought to be divided Into paragraphs, according to the
fenfe ; and the figures ought to be thrown into the mar-
gin. In this way, the figures will retain their utility
U without
(d) The reader wIU perceive that the account of tlie origin of points is different fromihat given under Punc
juATiON. But the beft authors differ upon this fubjeft. We ffiall perhaps reconcile the difference, by fuppo-
fing that points were invented at the time here mentioned, but were not in general ufe tiU the tim€ mentioned
under the article Punctuation.
SCR ^1
Scripture, without their difadvantages. Dr Campbell, in his
^ ■ » beautiful tranllation of the Gofpels, has adopted this
method with great judgment and fucccfs ; and he who
will read that tranHation, will perceive that this fintrle
aheration renders the Gofpels much more intelligible,
140 and, we may add, more entertainmg (e).^
Meaning The word ETAT TEAiON fignifies any joyful tidings,
of the word J exaftly correfpond^ to our Engliih word Gospel.
^"JP'l- In the New Teftainent this term is confined to The
glad tidings of the coming of the Mefiiah." Thus, in
Mat. xi. 5. our Lord fays, " The poor have the Go-
~fpel preached that is, The coming of the Meffiah is
preached to the poor. Hence the name of Gofpei was
given to the hiftories of Chrift, in which the good news
of the coming of the Mcfliah, with all its joyful circum-
, j fiances, are recorded.
Goft el ac That the Gofpei according to Matthew was compo-
cording to fed, fays Dr Campbell, by one born a Jew, familiarly
" acquainted with the opinions, ceremonies, and cuftoms
of his countrymen ; that it was compofed by one con-
verfant in the facred writings, and habituated to their
idiom ; a man of plain fenfe, but of little or no learning,
except what he derived from the Scriptures of the Old
Teftament ; and finally, that it was the produftion of
a man who wrote from conviftion, and had attended
clofely to the fafts and fpeeches which he related, but
who in writing entertained not the mod diftant view
of fetting off himfelf— we have as ftroiig internal evi-
dence as the nature of the thing will admit, and much
ftronger than that wherein the mind nlnety-nine cafes
out of a hundred acquiefces.
St Mat
54 V SCR
That th« author of this hiilory of our bleffed Savi- Scfip'.t
our was Matthew, appears from the teftimony of the
early Chrillians. It is attefted by Jerome, Auguftin, ^^jh
Epiphanius, and Chryfoftora, and in fuch a manner asikity.
Ihews that they knew the fad to be uncontroverted,
and judged it to be incontrovertible. Origen, who
flourifhed in the former part of the 3d century, is alfo
rcfpedable authority. He is quoted by Eufebius in a
chapter * wherein he fpecially treats of Origen's account * flr/?.
of the facred canon. " As I have learned (fays Ori-"^' 6. c
gen) ly tradition concerning the four gofpels, wh-ich*-^*
alone are received without difpute by the whole church
of God under heaven ; the firft was written by Mat-
thew, cnce a p\iblican, afterwards an apoftle of Jefus
Chrift, who delivered it to the Jeivt/h believers^ compofed
in the Hehreiu language." In another place he fays,
" Matthew writing for the Hebrews who expeded him
wlio was to defcend from Abraham and David, fays
the lineage of Jefus Chrift, fon of David, fon of Abra-
ham." It muft be obferved, that the Greek word
does not exaftly correfpond to the Englifh
word tradition, which fignifies any thing delivered orally
from age to age. UocpaJoaii properly implies any thing
tranfmitted from former ages, whether by oral or writ-
ten teftimony. In this acceptation we find it ufed in
fcripturef : " Hold the traditians ('^af ^rxfaioai^f) whichf Theflj
ye have been taught, ivhelher by -word or our epljlleJ" ^S-
The next authority to which we ftiall have recourfe
is that of Irengeus bifhop of Lyons, who had been a
difciple of Polycarp. He fays in the only book of his
extant, that " Matthew, among the Hebrews, wrote zEufeh.l
gofpei -ff^'^^' lib
cap 8.
f eV We {hall here fubjoln, as a curiofity, what the anonymous author terms Old and New Tejlament ^#^fjf-
It contains an enumeration of all the books, chapters, verfes, words, and letters, which occur m the i^nghih
Bible and ^ pocrypha. It Is faid to have occupied three years of the author's lite„ and is a imguiar mttance ot tne
trifling employments to which fuperftition has led mankind.
The Old and New Testament diffefted.
Books in the Old
Chapters
Verfes
Words
Lettert
39
929
23,214
592>439
2,728,100
in the New
260
Total
66
1 1 89
773,692
3,566,480
7959
181,253
- - 838,380
The middle Chapter and the Icaft Iti the Bible is Pfalm 117..
The middle Verfe is the 8th of the 1 1 8th Pfalm.
The middle time is the 2d of Chronicles, 4th Chap. 16th Verre.
The word And occurs in the Old Teftament 35,543 timea.
The fame in the New Teftament occurs 10,684 times.
The word Jehovah occurs 6855 times.
Old Testament.
The middle Book is Proverbs.
The middle Chapter is Job 29th. i o.-Ltr _r
The middle Verfe is 2d Chron. 20th Chap, between 17th and 18th Verfes.
The leaft Verfe is 1 Chron. ift Chap, and ift Verfe.
New Testament.
The middle Book is ThefFalonians- 2d.
The middle Chapter is between the 13th and 14th Romans.
The middle Ver& is 17th Chap. Ads, 17th Verfe.
The leaft Verfe is i ith Chap. John, Verfe 35. , 1. t i. u
The 2 ift Verfe of the 7th Chapter of Ezra has all the letters of the alphabet
The 1 9th Chapter of 2d of Kings and' 3 7th of Ifaiah are alike.
Apocrypha.
Chapters 183
Verfes - 608 1
Worda r.52,i&5
SCR [ f
gofpel in their own language, whilft Peter and Paul
were preaching tl^c gofpel at Rome and founding the
church there."
To the teftimony of thefe writers it may be objeAed,
that, except Irenasus, they all lived in the third and
fourth centuries, and confequently their evidence is of
little importance. But there is fuch unanimity in the
teftimony, that it muft have been derived from fome
authentic fource. And is it fair to queftion the veraci-
ty of refpedable men merely becaufe we knew not
from what writings they received their information ?
Many books which were then extant are now loft ; and
how do we know but thefe might have contained fuf-
ficient evidence ? Irenieus at leaft had the beft opportu-
nities of information, having been well acquainted in his
youth with Polycarp, the difciple of John ; no objec-
tion can therefore be made to his evidence. But we
can quote an authority ftill nearer the times of the
apoftles. Papias bifhop of Hierapolis, in Casfarea, who
flouriftied about A. D. 1 16, affirms that Mattliew wrote
his gofpel in the Hebrew tongue, which every owe in-
terpreted as he was able §. Papias was the companion
of Polycarp, and beiides muft have been acquainted with
many perfons who lived in the time of the apoftles.
The faft therefore is fully eftablifhed, that Matthew,
the apoftle of our Saviour, was the author of that gof-
pel which is placed firft in our editions of the New Tef-
tamcnt.
The next fubjeft of inquiry rcfpefts the language in
which it was written. This we are aflured by Papiay,
by Irenseas, and Origen, was the Hebrew; but the
truth of this hit has been difpuied by Erafmus, Whit-
by, and others. Whitby urges the improbability that
Providence would have fuffered the original of this
gofpel to be loft, and nothing to remain but a tranfla-
tion. This is an argument of no force agalnft written
teftimony ; indeed we are always in danger of drawing
falfe conclufions when we argue from our own opinions
-of the condu6l of Providence. For His ivays are not
as our ways, nor His thoughts as our thoughts. But
though we are forced to acknowledge that the gofpel
according to Matthew which we poflefs is a tranflation,
it is evidently a clofe one ; and the veiy circumftance
that it has fuperfedcd the original, is a clear proof that
it was thought equally valuable by the ancient Chrifti-
ans. It is necefiary to remark, that the language in
which the gofpel according to Matthew was original-
ly compofed, and which is called Hebrew by Papias,
Irenaeus, and Origen, is not the fame with the Hebrew
of the Old Teftament : it was what Jerome very pro-
perly terms Syro-Chaldaic, having an affinity to both
languages, but much more to the Chaldean than to the
Syriaij.
The time when this gofpel was compofed has not
been preciftly afcertained by the learned. Irenaeus fays
that " Matthew publiflied his gofpel when Peter and
Paul were preaching at Rome." Now Paul arrived at
Rome A, D. 60 or 61, and it is very probable fuftered
martyrdom in A. D. 65. This may be juftly concluded
from comparing the relation of Tacitus with that of O-
rofius, a writer of the hrth century. Orofius having
given an account of Nero's perfecution of the Chriftians,
and of the death of the twx) apoftles in it. add'?, that it
was followed by a peftiknce in the city, and other di-
fafters. Aiod 'i'acitus rektes -that a pcftilence pevailed
is ]
SCR
in the city, and vioiflnt ftormstook place in Itaiy, iftthtf Scripture,
year of Chrift 65, Matthew's gofpel was therefore writ — — v— — ^
ten between the year 60 and 65. ias
That this hiftory was primarily intended for the ufe ^^.^ df-fign
of the Jews, we have, beiides hiftorical evidence, very'
ftrong prefuraptiorvs from the book itfel'. Every cir^
cumftance is carefully pointed out which might conciliate^'^^''^''^^'^''^'
the faith of that nation ; every unneceflary expreffion Mati&ew't
is avoided, which might in any way fei've to obitruft it. Gojpel.
To Come to particulars, tb^re was no ft:ntimei;t relating
to the Meffiah with wliich the Jews were more ftrongly
pofteffed, than that he muft be of the race of Abraham,
and of the family of David. Matthew, therefore, with
great propriety, begins his narrative with the genealogy
of Jefus. That be Ihonld be born at Bethlehem in
Judea, is another cireumltance in which the learned
among the Jews were univerfally agreed. His birth in
that city, with fome very memorable circumltances that
attended it, this hiftorian has alfo taken the firtt op-
portunity to mention. Thofe paifages in the prophets,
or other facred books, which either foretel any thing
that fhould happen to him, or admit an allufive appella-
tion, or were in that age generally underftood to be
applicable to events which refpedl the Meffiah, are never
paffed over in filence by this Evangehit. 'i he fulbl-
ment of prophecy was always to the Jews, who were
convinced of the infpiration of their facred writings,
ftrong evidence. . Accordingly none of the Evangelilis
has been more careful than Matthew, that nothing of
this kind ftiould be overlooked.
That which chiefly diftinguiflies Matthew's writings Diftjn.
from thofe of the other Evangelifts, is the minute andKuifliing
diftinft manner in which he has related many of our
Lord's difcourfes and moral inftruftions. Of thefe his
fermon on the mount, his charge to the apoftles, his
illuftrations of the nature of his kingdom, and his pro-
phecy on mount Olivet, are examples. He has alfo
wonder-fully united frmplicity and energy in relating the
replies of his maftev to the cavils of his adverfaries.
Being early called to the apoftleJhip, he was an eye
and ear witnefs of moll of the things which he relates.
And there are circumltances which incline Dr Campbell
to think that Matthew has approached as near the pre-
cife order of time in which the events happened as any
of the Evangelifts.
Concerning the life of the apoRle Matthew we have
nothing to add, as the principal circinnftances in his
life have already been mentioned. See Matthew.
The Golpel according to Matthew is cited fevtn times
in the epillle of Barnabas, twice in the ftrft epiitle of
Clemens Ronianus to the Corinthians, eight times in the •
Shepherd of Hernias, fix times in Polycarp's fmall epiftlc
to the Philippians, and feven times in the fmaller epiftle$
of Ignatius. Thefe citations may be feen at full length
in J^ories's A'Vw anj FuU Method of feitling the Cauon^
with the parallel paffages in the gofpel according to
Matthew.
That Mark was the author of the golpel which bears Qoipli ac»
his name, and that it was the fecond in the order of corcHng to
time, is proved by the unanimous teifimony of the an-^' Mark,
cient Chrittians. Many autliorities are therefore "n-j^^g'^^jj
necelTary ; we /hall only mention thofe of Papias andtidty,
Iren«us. Euftbius has preferved trie following paflage
of Papias : " This is what was related by the elder ( that Uift. Ecd.
is, John, not the apolile, but a difciple of Jefus) ; Mark''''- 3- cap.
Uz ^ being
149
And date.
jldv. HcTer
lib. 3 cap.
X.
SCR [15(5
Scripture, being Peter's Interpreter wrote cxaftly whatever he
^ \/ ' ' remembered, not indeed, in the order wherein things
were fpoken and done by the Lord; for he was not
himfelf a hearer or follower of our Lord ; but he after-
wards, as I faid, followed Peter who gave intlruftions
as fuited the occafions, but not as a regular hiftbry of
our Lord's teachinej. Mark, however, committed no
miftake in writing fuch things as occurred to his me-
mory : for of this one thing he was careful, to omit
nothing which he had heard, and to infert no faUehood
into his narrative." Such is the tei^mony of Paplas,
which is the more to be regarded as he afligns his au-
thority. He fpake not from hearl'ay, but from the in-
formation which he had received from a mo't credible
witnefs, John the elder, or preftsyter, a difciple of Jefua,
and a companion of tlie apoiilcs.
Irenseus, after telling us that Matthew publifhed his
gofpel whilft Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome,
adds: " After their departure (^of^v), Mark alfo, the
difciple and interpreter of Peter, delivered to us in
writing the things which had been preached by Peter."
The Greek '^^'h, like the Englifh word departure,
may either denote death, which Is a departure out of
the world, or mean a departure out of the city. It is
probably in the former of thefe fenles it is here ufed.
Yet by the accounts given by fome others, Mark's
gofpel was publifhed in Peter's hfetime, and had his
approbation. The gofpel of Mark is ftippofed to be
but two, years polterior in date to that of Matthew.
The precife year, however, cannot be determined with
certainty ; and it is a matter of no importance, fince we
have afcertained the author and the time in which he
lived.
Mark has generally been fuppofed to be the fame
perfon who is mentioned in the afts and fome of Paul's
cpiftles, who is called John, and was the nephew of Bar-
nabas. But as this perfon was the attendant of Paul
and Barnabas, and is nowhere in fcripture faid to have
accompanied Peter in his apoflolical miflion, which
ancient writers inform us the author of the gofpel did,
Dr Campbell has jniily concluded that thefe were dif-
ferent perfons. The author of the gofpel is certainly
meant by Peter when he fays Marcus my Jon faluteth
you II .
That Mark wrote his gofpelin Greek, is as evident-
J^anguage ly conibrmable to the teftimony of antiquity, as that
in which i; Matthew wrote his in Hebrew or Syro Chaldaic. The
%vas writ- cardinals Baronius and Bellarmine, anxious to exalt the
language in which the vuIgate was written, have main-
tained that this Evangeliil publifhed his work in Latin.
Tl e only appearance of teftimony which has been pro-
duced in fupport of this opinion is the infcripfion lub-
joined to this gofpel in Syriac, and in fome other ori-
ental verfions. But thefe poflfcripts are not the tefli-
monies of the tranllators :. they proceed from the con-
jefture of fome tranfcriber but when written, or by
whom, is equally unknown. Againft pofitive tcliimony
therefore they are entitled to no credit.
From the Hehraifms in the flyle, we fhould readily
conclude that the author was by biitb and education a
Jew. There are alfo expreflions which fliow that he
had livfid for fome time among the Latins, as Ki,Tupia»,
centurion," and o-'«xi'>'aru/:, **-fentinel;" words which
do not occur in the other gofpels. There are other
jnterual evidences that this gofpel was written be-
preface to
Mark.
Pet. V.
H5I ,
Defign of
it.
] SCR
yond the confines of Judea. The firft time the for* Scr!pt»
dan is mentioned, ^«Ta/i;f , « river," is added to the '^^^
name for explanation ; for though no perfon in Judea^ ^^.^
needed to be informed that Jordan was. a river, the C^i^faeito
was different in diflant countries. The word Gehenna, Mari't
which is tranflated Hell in the New Teilament, origi- Goj^eh
nally fignified the. Fal/ey of H'mnom^ where infants had
been facrificed by fire to Moloch, and where a conti-.
nual fire was afterwards kept up to confume the tilth of
Jerulalem. As this word could not have been under-
Itood by a foreigner, the Evangelift adds, by way of
explanation, a^^Aff ^Vj <■<■ the imquenchable fiire."
Inllead of the word Mammon, he ufes the common
term xf^^tJ-a-ra. riches." When he employs the oriental
word Corbon, he fubjoins the interpretation °
that is, " a gifu" Thefe pecuHarfties will corroborate
the hiftorlcal evidence that has been already mentioned,
that Mark intended his gofpel for the ufe of the Gen-
tiles. i5»
It has been«ffirmed that this evangellfl Is the abrldger Mark v
of Matthew. It is true that Mark fometiraes copies ^'^^ ^^"^
the exprefhons ufed by Matthew ; but he is not to he^^^^j^^
confidered as a mere abridger, for he omits altogether
feveral things related by Matthew, viz. our Lord's pe-
digree, his birth, the vifit of the Magians, Jofeph's
flight into Egypt, and the cruelty o? Herod. Dr
Lardner has given a lift of thirty-three paffages, where-
in circumftances are related which are omitted by the
other evangelifts. There is one parable, and an account
of two miracles peculiar to Mark. The parable or fi-
militude is mentioned in chap. iv. 2$. One of thefe mi-
racles was the curing of a deaf and dumb man, chap,
vii. 31, 37. The other was the giving hght to a bhnd
man at Bethfaida, chap. viii. 22, 26. The ftyle of
Mark, inftead of being more concife than that of Mat-
thew, is more diffufe. That he had read Matthew's
gofpel cannot be dofibted, but that he abridged it, is a
miftake.
According to the teftimony which has been already g,,
produced, Mark derived his information from the a^
poftle Peter. It would be improper, therefore, not to re. ^
mark, that this evangellfl has omitted many things ^^^^^
tending to Peter's honour, which are related in the
other gofpels, and has given the moft particular account
of Peter's fall. I'his gofpel is feven times cited by Ire-
nasus, and nine times by Tertullian. ic ^
That the author of the gofpel which is the tliird In Gof]
order was Luke, the companion of the apofllc Paul, is
evident from the teftimonies of Irenaus, Clemens of
Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, and many fucceeding
writers. But it has been difputed whether he was a
Jew or a Gentile, 'I'hat Luke was a Jew by birth, or
at leaft by religion, may be argued from his being, a
conftairt companion of PauL If he had been an un-
circumciled Gentile, exceptions woidd have been made
to him, efpecialiy at Jerufkkm ; but notliing of tliat
kind appears. It is alfo rendered highly probable, from
his mode of computing time by the Jewilh feflivals, ami
from his frequent ufe of the Hebrew idiom. It has been
fuppofed that Luke was one of the 70 difciples ; but he
does not pretend to have been a witnefs of our Lord's
miracles and teaching ; on the contrary, be tells us in
h's introduftion, that he received his information from
others.
The defign of Luke in writing his gofpel was to fu- DeQgj
pericd^it.
J. ^5
.'ed his
ormati
5icl
St Li
sen [ I
perfedc fome Imperfeft and inaccurate hlfforlea of our
Saviour, which had then been pubHlhqd. What theie
were, it is impoflible now to determine, as they are
not mentioned by any contemporary writer, and probab-
ly did not furvive the age in which they were com-
pofed.
It has been fuppofed that Luke chiefly derived his
information from the apoftle Paul, whom he faithfully
attended m his travels ; but, from Luke's own words,
we are kd to conclude, that the principal fource of his
intelligence,' as to the fafts related in the gofpel, was
from thofe who had been eye and ear witneffcs of what
our Lord both did and taught. Now Paul evidently
was not of this number. It was from converling with
forae of the twelve apofWes or difciples of our Lord,
who heard his^ diieourfes and faw his miracles, that he
obtained his information.
As to the time when this gofpel was written, we
have hardly any thing but conjecture to guide us. But
9S Origcn, Lufebius, and Jerome, have ranged it after
thofe of Matthew and Mark, we have no reafon to
d«ubt but they were written in the fame order.
The gofpel by Luke has fupplied us with many intc-
refting particulars which had been omitted both by
Matthew and Mark. It has given a diftinft narration
of the circumftances attending the birth of John the
• Baptift and the nativity of our Saviour. It has given
an account of feveral memorable incidents and cures
which had been overlooked by the reft ; the conver-
fion of Zaccheus the publican ; the cure of the woman
who had been bowed down for 1 8 years ; the cure of
the dropfical man ; the cleanfmg of the ten lepers ; the
inhofpitable treatment of our Saviopr by the Samari-
tans, and the inftruAive rebuke which he gave on that
occasion to two of his difciples for their intemperate
zeal ; alfo the affedling interview v/hich he had after his
refurreftioU' with two of his difciples. Luke has alfo
added many edifying parables to thofe which the other
evangelifts had recorded. Moll of thefe are fpecified
by Irenajus as particularly belonging to this gofpel,
and has thereby Ihown to us, without intending it, that
the gofpel of Luke was the fame in his time that it is
at prefent.
The ftyle of this evangelift abounds as much with
Hebraifms as any of the faci^d writings, but it contains
moi-e of the Grecian idiom than any of them. It is
alfo diftinguilhed by greater variety and copiotifnefs ;
qualities which may be juftly afcribed to the fuperior
learning of the author. His occupation as a phyfician
would naturally induce him to employ fome time in
reading, and give him eafier accefs to the company of
the great than any of the other evangclifts. As an
inltance of Luke's copioufnefs, Dr Campbell has re-
marked that each of the evangdifls has a number of
words which are ufed by none of the reft ; but in Luke's
gofpel the number of fuch peculiarities or wordsj ufcd
in none of the other gofpels, is greater than that of the
peculiar words found in all the three other gofpels put
together; and that the terms peculiar to Luke are for
the moft part long and compound words. The fame
judicious writer has alfo obferved. that there is more of
conipofition in Luke's fentences than is found in the
other three, alfid confequently lefs fimplicity. Of this
the very fiift fentence is an example, which occupies
no lefs than four verfcs. Luke, too, has a greater re-
femblance to ether hlftorians, in giving what may be Sef!ptur««
called his own verditt in the narrative part of this work J """^ ' •
a freedom which the other evangelifts have feldom or
never ventured to ufe. He calls the Pharifees lovers Chap. xvi<
of money : in diftinguifhing Judas Ifcariot from thc^'*'
other JudaSj he ufes the phrafe, he ivho proved a traitory
(of xa< lytv^To TTpoSoTni;). Matthcw and Mark exprefs the
fame fentiment in milder language, " he who delivered
him up." In recording the moral inftrudlions of our
Lord, efpecially his parables, this evangelift has united
an affedling fweetnefa of manner with genuine fimpli-
^^'^y- ... • IS9
This gofpel is frequently cited by Clemens Romanus, Cited by
the contemporary of the Apoftles, by Ignatius, and ancient
Juftin Martyr. Irenaeus has made above a hundred Chnftiais
citations from it. In his lib. 3. adv. H<tref. c. 14. he'^^'
vindicates the authority and perfe6iron of Luke's gof-
pel, and has produced a colleftion of thofe fafts which
arc only recorded by this evangelift. 160
That the gofpel which is placed laft in our editions Gofpel aci-
of the New Teftament was written by John, one of ^*^f^^'"S-'*"'
our Saviour's apoftles, is confirmed by the unanimous'^
teftimony of the ancient Chrittians. He was the fon
of Zebedee, a fiflierman of Bethfaida in Galilee, by
his wife Salome, and the brother of James, furnamed
the elder or greater. He was the beloved difciple of
our Saviour, and was honoured, along with Peter and
James, with inany marks of diftin£lidn V44iich were not
conferred on the other difciples. He poffefTed a high
degree of intrepidity and zeal, a warm and affeftionate
heart, and was ftrongly attached to his mafter. His
brother James and he were honoured with the title of
Boanerges, or Sons of Thunder. He was anxious to-
reftrain whatever he confidered as a mark of difrefpeft
agalnft his mafter, and to punifh his enemies with feve-
rity. He was incenfed againft fome perfons for at-
tempting to caft out demons in the name of Jefus ; and'
required them to defift becaufe they were not his dif-
ciples. James and he propofed to our Saviour to call
down fire from heaven to punilh the inhofpitable Sama-
ritans. Nor was the courage of John lefs ardent than:-
his zeal. Whe-n Peter had difowned his liOrd, and alL
the otlier difciples had fled, John cantinued to attend
his mafter. He was prefent at his trial, and followed
him to the crofs, where he was a fpedlator of his fuf-
ferings and death. The interview between Jefus and
this difciple at Calvary,, though concifely related, is an-
event which will ftrongly afFedl every man of feeling,
while it convinces him of the unalterable affeftiou of"
Jefus to his beloved- difciple, as well as difcovcrs his •
refpetlful tender nefs for his mother. See John.. ^
The ancients inform us, thatthere were two -motives M^.tive*-
which induced John to write his gofpel : the one, that for wrii
he might refute the hcrefles of Cerinthus and the Nico-''''g
laitans, who had attempted to corrupt the Chriftiaii
doArine s tlie other motive was, .that he might' fupply
thofe important events in the life of- our Saviour which
the other evangelifts had omitted. Of the former of
thele motives Irenseus gives U3 the= following account :
" John, defirous to extirpate the errors fown in tfis
minds of metfi by Cerlnthus, and fome time be'bre by '
thofe called Nicolaltans, publlihed his gofpfcl ; wherein ?
he acquaints us that there is one God, who made all -
things by his wor-d, ~ and not, as they fay, one who is-
the Creator of the world, and another who is the father
of-
S G R i 158 ] S
Scripture, of the X.ord ; one the fon of the Creator, and another 4. The Jewifh Scriptures.
"•"-w^ the Chrift, from the fupercekftial abodes who defcend-
ed upon Jefus, the fon of the Creator, but remained
impafiible, and afterwards fied back into his own ple-
loma or fuhiefa.'* As Iremeus is the moll ancient au-
thor who has written upon this fubjeft, many appeals
have been made to his authority. The authority of
i6t
Not to
(Confute
iieretici
C R
Indeed phe conclufion that Scnpu
Jefus was the Meffiah the Son of God, naturally arifes ^
from almoft every miracle which our Saviour is faid ta
have performed and from every difcourfe that he de-
livered. 'I'his declaration is very often made by our
Saviour himfelf ; particularly to the woman of Sama-
ria, to NicodemiiS, and to the bhnd man whom he had
Irenseus is certainly refpefkable, and we have often re- cured. ,
ferred to his teftimony with cojifldence ; but we think It mu'l be evident to every reader, that John ftudi-ls aiuy
it neceffary to make a diftinfilion between receiving his oudy paffes over thofe pafTages in our Lord's hiftory"^ent k
teftimony to a matter of fa£l, and imphcitly adopting and teaching which had been treated at large by the||^^
his opinion. He does not tell us, that he derived his other evangelifts, or if he mentions them at all ke mcn-j ^ij.^ ,
tlons them fllghtly. This confirms the teftimony of
ancient writers, that the firft three gofpels were writ-
ten and publifhed before John compofed his gofpeL
Except the relation of our Saviour's trial, death, and
refurrcftion, almoft every thing which occurs in this
book 13 new. The account of our Saviour's nativity, pr Cm
of his baptifm, and of his temptatioa in the wildernefs, 6^/1'/
have life through his name ; foreskeing thefe blafphemous is omitted ; nor is any notice taken of the calling of/"'^
notions that divide the Lordy Jo far as it is in their the twelve apoftles, or of their miflion during our Sa-^."^"
power." viour's life. It is remarkable, too, that not one pa-
Indeed it feems very improbable tliat an apoft^e rable is mentioned, nor any of the pi-edidlions relating
ihould write a hiftory of our Lord on purpofe to con- to the deftru£lion of Jerufalem. All the miracles re-
information from any preceding writer, or indeed from
any perfon at all. Nay, he feems to have believed that
John wrote againft thefe hercfies by a prophetic fpirit ;
for he fays in another place, chap. xx. 30. " As John
the difciple of our Lord afTures us, faying. But thefe
are written, that ye might believe that Jefus is the
Chriil, the Son of Ood, and that believing ye might
•163
®ut to
prove that
Jefiis was
the Mef-
fiah the
fion of
* John XV.
31.
fute the wild opinions of Cerinthus or any other here-
tic. Had John confidered fuch a confutation necef-
fary, it is more likely that he would introduce it into
an epiftle than blend it with the actions of his vene-
rable Mafter. But were the opinion of Irenasiis well-
founded, we fhould furcly difcover fome traces of it in
the gofpel of John ; yet except in the introduftion,
there is nothing that can with the leaft fhadow of pro-
babUity be applied to the opinions of Cerinthus ; and
;few, we prefume, will affirm, that the gofpel of John was
.compofed merely for the fake of the firft eighteen
verfes.
The intention of John in writing his gofpel was far
more extenfive and important than tp refute the opi-
nions of a few men who were to fink into oblivion in the
courfe of a few centuries. It was evidently (according
to the opinion of Clemens of Alexandria) to fupply the
omiflions of the other evangelifts : It was to exhibit the
■evidences of the Chriftlan religion in a diftinft and per-
fpicuoBS manner : It was, as he himfelf in the conclu-
fion of his gofpel aflures us, to convince his readers,
that Jefus is the Mfftah, the Son of God^ and that be-
lieving they might have life through his name *. Now it
will appear to any perfon who reads this gofpel with
attention, that he has executed his plan with aftonifti-
ing ability, and has given the moft circumftantial and
fatisfacfory evidence that Jefus was the Meffiah the Son
of God. After declaring the pre-exiftence of Jefus,
he proceeds to deliver the teftimony of John the Bap-
tift, and fek£ts fome of the greateft miracles of Jefus
to prove his divine mlffion. In the fifth chapter he
prefcnts us with a difcourfe which our Saviour deliver-
ed in the temple in the prefence of the Jews, wherein
he ftates in a very dirtinCt manner the proofs of hi«
miffion from, i. The teftimony of John; 2. His own mi-
racles ; 3. 1'he declaration of the Father at his baptifm ;
corded by the other evangeUfts are pafled over, except
the miraculous fupply of provifion, by which five thou-
fand were fed : and it is probable that this miracle was"
related for the fake of the difcourfe to which it gave
birth. The other miracles which are mentioned are
few in number, but in general they are minutely de-
tailed. They confift of thefe : the turning of water
into wine at Cana ; the cure of the difeafed man at the
pool of Bethefda ; the cure of the man that had been
blind from his birth ; the reftoring of Lazarus to life ;
and the heaHng of the fervant's ear which Peter had
cut off. But valuable would this gofpel be, thou;j;h it
had only recorded the confolation of Jefus to his difci-
ples previous to his departure ; which exhibits a moft
admirable view of our Saviour's charaAer, of his care
and tender regard for his diiciples. Having opened
every fource of comfort to their defponding minds ;
exhorted them to mutual love, and to the obedience of
his Father's precepts ; having warned them of the Im-
pending dangers and forrow^ — our Saviour conchides
with a prayer, in the true fpirit of piety and benevo-
lence ; ardent without enthufiafm, fobtr and rational
without lukewarmncfs.
The time in which this gofpel was written has not Tim^
been fixed with any precifion. Irenseus informs us, thatwhi h ■
it was written at Ephefus, but leaves us to conjefturc ^^'^
whether it was written before or after John's return'^"*
from Patreos. He was banlfhed to Patmos by Doml-
tian, who reigned 15 years, and according to the beft i
computation died A. D. 96. The perfecution which I
occafioned the exile of John commenced in the J4t]i !
year of Domitian's reign. If John wrote his gofpel
after his return to Ephefus, which is affirmed by Epi-
phanius to have been the cafe, we may fix the date of
it about the year 97 (f). ^^^^
This gofpel is evidently the production of an illite- Styie of
rate
165
(f) It has been argued from a pnffagc in this gofpel, that it muft have been written before the deftruAion of
Jexufalcra. In fpcaking of the pool of Bethfaida> John ufe* the prefent tenfe ; His words are, " There Is at
z Jerufalem.'*
SCR [ I
ture. rate Jew, and its ftyle is remarkable for fimplicity. It
abounds more with Hebraifms than any of the other
gofpels ; and contains fome ftrong oriental figures which
are not^readily under ftood by an European.
. quo- This gofpel is cited once by Clemens Romanus, by
jr in- Barnabas three times, by Ignatius five times, by Juftin
Cbrl- Martyr fix times, by Irenasus, and above forty tinies
?g by Clemens Alexandrinus.
*of the The book which we intitle the Afts of the Apoilles
les. coHne<Sls the gofpels and the epiftles. It is evidently a
continuation of Luke's gofpel, which appears both from
the introduction andfrom the attellations of ancientChri-
ftians. Both are dedicated to Theophilus ; and in the
beginning of the Ads a reference is made to his gofpel,
which he calls a former treaiife, recording the aftions
and difcourfes of Jefus till his afcenfion to heaven,
Luke is mentioned as the author of the Afts of the
Apoftles by Irenaeus, by Tertullian, by Origen, and
Eufebius.
From the frequent ufe of the firft perfon plural, it. is
manifell that Luke the author was prefent at many of
the tranfaftions which he relates. He appears to have
accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi. He attend-
ed him alfo to Jerufalem, and afterwards to Rome,
where he remained for two years. He is mentioned by
Paul in feveral of thofe epillles which were written frpm
Rome, particularly in the 2d epiftle to Timothy, and in
the epiftle to Philemon.
This book contains the hiftory of the Chriftian
church for the fpace of about 28 or 30 years, from the
time of our Saviour's afcenfion to Paul's arrival at Rome
in the year 60 or 61 . As it mforms us that Paul refided
two years in Rome, it muft have been written after the
year 63 ; and as the death of Paul is not mentioned, it
is probable it was compofed before that event, which
happtned A. D. 65.
The AAs of the Apoftles may be divided into feven
parts. I . The account of our Saviour'* afcenfion, and
of the occurrences which happened on the firft Pente-
coft after that event, contained in chap. i. ii. 2 . The
tranfadions of the Chriftians of the circumcifion at Je-
rufalem, in Judea, and Samaria, chap. iii. — ix. xiv
1—21. xii. 3. Tranfaftions in Caefarea, and the admif.
fion of the Gentiles, chap. x. 4. The firft circuit of Bar»
nabas and Paul among the Gentiles, chap. xi. Z2. xiii.
xiv. 5. Embafly to Jerufalem, and the firft council
held in that city, chap. xv. 6. Paul's fecond journey,
chap. xvi. — xxi. 7. His arreftment, trial, appeal to
Ctefar, and journey to Rome, chap. xxi. to the end of
the book.
. The Ads of the Apoftles are cited by Clemens Ro-
be ear-manus, by Polycarp, by Juftin Martyr, thirty times by
lirifti- Irenaeus, and feven times by Clemens Alexandrinus.
All the effential dodrines and precepts of the Chri:-
ftian religion were certainly taught by our Saviour him-
felf, and are contained in the gofpels. The epiiUes may
be confidcred as commentaries on the dodlrines of the
gofpel, addrefied to paiticular focieties, accommodated
to their refpedive fituations; intended to refute the
59 ] SCR
errors and fa. ItJ notions wkich prevailed among them, Scripture,
and to inculcate thofe virtues in which they were moft
deficient.
«59
tents
kat
^ ■ A
n cited
n
eplf-
172
The plan on which thefe Letters are written is,°^^^^'^'*
firft, to decide the controverfy, or refute the erroneous ^j^^^^^^
notions which had arifen in the fociety to which the
epiftle was addreffed : And, fecondly, to recommend
thofe duties which their falfe dodrines might induce
them to negled ; at the fame time inculcating in ge-
neral exhortations the molt important precepts of Chri-
ftian morality. ^ o -d 1
Of the epiftles fourteen were written by St Paul. Arranj^ed
Thefe are not placed according to the order of time in in chrono-
which they were compofed, but according to the fup-^^gl^*"*^
pofed precedence of the focieties or perfons to whom
they were addreffed. It will be proper therefore to
exhibit here their chronological order according to Dr
Lardner.
A Table of St Paul's Epistles, luith the Places where,
and times when, writteriy according to Dr Lardner.
EnWes.
1 TheiTalonians
2 ThefTalonlans
Galatians
I Corinthians
1 Timothy
Titus
2. Corinthians
Romans
Ephefians
2 Timothy
Philippians
Coloffians
Philemon
Hebrews
Places.
Corinth ~
Corinth
, f Corinth or
^ Ephefus
Ephefus
Macedonia
f Macedonia
or near it
Macedonia
Corinth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
CRome or
X Italy
A.
St
52
T near the end of 5 a
J or beginning of 53
the beginning of 5 3
55
1
bef. the end of 56'
about Odober 57
about February 58
about April 61
abont May 6t
bef. the end of 62
bef. the end of 62
bef. the end of 62
p in Spring of 63
ATabls of the Caiholio Episti.es and the RefelA'
Tion, according to Dr Lardner.
Epiftle. Place.
James Judea
The two Epiftles- 1 ^
or beg. of
A. D.
61
62
of Peter
1 John
2d and 3d of
John
Jude
Revelation
_-ome
Ephefus-
P Ephefus
Unknown
f Patmos or
\ Ephefus
al»but
r between
and
I
64
80
80
90
64 or 65
95 or 96
174'
It is more difSGult to underftand the epiftolary wri-Caufe^ of
tings than the gofpele ; the caufe of which is evident, their cbfcu.
Many things are omitted 111 a letter, or flightly menl ionedritj.
becaufe fuppofed to be known by ^he perfon to whom
it is addreffed. To a ilianger this will create much
dilficulty.
Jerufalem." Now if thefe words had been written after the de'lrudion of Jerufalem, it is urged the pad tenfe ■
would have been ufed, and not the prefent. This argument is more fpecious than forclbk. Though Jerufale/n
«(ras demolifhed, does it follow th^ the pool of Betblaida was dried up^
Canks of
t)bl'curity
peculiar to
Paul's
176
%Ar Locke'
plan of llu.
tlying the
^fifties.
SCR [ I
dlfScuItjr.^ The bufinefs about which St Paul wrote
was certainly well known to his correfpondents 5 but at
this diftance of time we can obtain no information con-
cerninqr the occcafion of his writing, of the charafter
and circumftances of thofe perfons for whom his letters
■were intended, except what can be gleaned from the
writings themfelves. It is no wonder, therefore, tho*
many allufions (hould be obfcure. Befides, it is evi-
dent from many paffages that he anfwers letters and
queftions which his correfpondents had fent him. If
thefe had been preferved, they would have thrown
more light upon many things than all the notes and
cohjeAures of the commentators.
^ The caiafes of obfcurity which have been now men-
tioned ai-e common to all the writers of the epifthas }
but there are fome peculiar to St Paul. i. As he had
an acute and fertile mind, he feems to have written
with great rapidity, and without attending much to the
common rules of method and arrangement. To this
caufe we may afcribe his numerous and long parenthe-
fes. In the heat of argument he fometimes breaks off
abruptly to follow out fome new thought ; and when
he has exhaufted it, he returns from his digreffion with-
out informing his readcw ; fo that it requires great at-
tention to retain the conneftion. 2. His frequent change
of perfon, too, creates ambiguity : by the pronoun / he
fometimes means himfelf ; fometimes any Chriftian ;
fometimes a Jew, and fometimes any man. In ufing
the pronoun we he fometimes intends himfelf, fome-
times comprehends his companions^ fometimes the apof.
ties ; at one time he alludes to the converted Jews, at
another time to the converted Gentiles. 3. There is a
third caufe of obfcurity; he frequently propofes ob-
j^eftions, and anfwers them without giving any formal
intimation. There are other difiicultles , which arife
from our uncertainty who are the perfons he is addrcf-
fing, and what are the particular opinions and praAices
to whi«h he refers. To thefe we may add two exter-
nal caufes, which have increafed the difficulty of under-
ftanding the epiftles. i. The dividing them into chap-
ters and verfes, which diffolves the connexion of the
parts, and breaks them into fragments. If Cicero's
epiftles had been fo disjointed, the reading of them
would be attended with lefs pleafure and advantage,
and with a great deal more labotir. 2. We aje accuf-
tomed to the phrafeology of the epiltles from our in-
fancy ; but we have either no idea at all when we ufe
It, or our idea of it is derived from the articles or fyftem
which we have efpoufed. But as different feAs have
arbitrary'- definitions for St Paul's phrafes, we ihall ne-
S'er by following them difcover the meaning of St Paul,
mho certainly did not adjuft his phrafeology to any
man's fyftem.
The beft plan of ftudying the epiftles is that which
was propofed and executed by Mr Locke. This we
fhall prefent to our readers in the words of that acute
and judicious author.
s *' After I had found by long experience, that the
■reading of the text and comments in the ordinary way
proved not fo fuccefsful as I wifhed to the end propo-
fed, I began to fufpeA that in reading a chapter as was
ufual, and thereupon fometimes confulting expolitors
upon fome hard places of it, which at that time moft
affeAed me, as relating to points then under confidera-
iion m my own mind, or in debate amongft others, was
60 ] S C R
not a right; method to get into the true fenfe of thefe Script
epiftles. I faw plainly, after I began once to refleA
on it, that if any one fhould write me a letter as long
as St Paul's to the Romans, coticerning fuch a matter
a« that is, in a ftyle as foreign, and expreffions as du-
bious as his feem to be, if I fhould divide it into fifteen
or fixteen chapters, and read one of them to-day, and
another to-morrow, &c. it is ten to one I fliould ne-
vtr come to a full and clear comprehenfion of it. The
way to underftand the mind of him that writ it, every
one would agree, was to read the whole letter through
from one end to the other all at once, to fee what was
the main fubjeA and tendency of it : or if it had feve-
ral views and purpofes in it, not dependent one of an-
other, nor in a fubordination to one chief aim and end,
to difcover what thofe different matters were, and
where the author concluded one, and began another ;
and if there were any neceffity of dividing the epiftle
into parts, to make the boundaries of them.
"In the profecution of this thought, I concluded it ne-
ceffary, for the underftanding of any one of St Paul's
epiftles, to read it all thro' at one fitting, and to obfeive
as well as I could the drift and defign of his writing it.
If the fir ft reading gave me fome light, the fecond gave
me more ; and fo I perfifted on reading conftantly the
whole epiftle over at once till I came to have a good
general view of the apoftle's main purpofe in writing
the epiftle, the chief branches of his difcourfe wherein
he profecuted it, the arguments he ufed, and the difpo-
fition of the whole.
*' This, I confefs, is not to be obtained by one or
two hafty readings ; it muft be repeated again and again
with a clofe attention' to the tenor of the difcourfe, and
a perfeA neglcA of the divifions into chapters and ver-
fes. On the contrary, the fafeft way is to fuppofc
that the epiftle has but one bufinefs and one aim, till
by a frequent perufal of it you are forced to fee there
are diftinA independent matters in it, which will for-
wardly enough fhow themfelves.
" It requires fo much more pains, judgment, and ap-
plication, to find the coherence of obfcure and abftrufe
writings, and makes them fo much the more unfit to
fcrve prejudice and preoccupation when found ; that it
is not to be wondered that St Paul's epiftles have with
many paffed rather for disjointed, loofe, pious difcourfes,
full of warmth and zeal, and overflows of h'ght, rather
than for calm, ftrong, coherent reafonings, that carried
a thread of argument and confiftency all through
them."
Mr Locke tells us he continued to read the fame
epiftle over and over again till he difcovered the fcope
of the whole, and the difterent fteps and arguments by
which the writer accomphfties his purpofe. For he, was
convinced before reading his epiftles, that Paul wati a
man of learning, of found fenfe, and knew all the doc-
trines of the gofpel by revelation. The fpeeches record-
ed in the AAs of the Apoftles convinced this judicious
critic that Paul was a clofe and accurate reafoner : and
therefore he concluded that his epiftles woidd not be
written in a loofe, confufed, incoherent ftyle. Mr Locke
accordIng[ly|followed the chain of the apoftle's difcourfe,
obferved his inferences, and carefully examined from what
premifes they were drawn, till he obtained a general out-
line of any particular epiftle. If every divine would
follow this method, h,e would foou acquire fuch a know-
J ledge
SCR
ure. Je^ge of Paul's ftyle and manner, that he would perufe
his other Epiftles with much greater eafe.
That the Epiftle to the Romans was written at Co-
.rinth by St Paul, is afcertained by the teftimony of
the ancient Chriftians. It was compofed in the year
58, in the 24th year after Paul's converfic!i, and is the
feventh epiRIe which he wrote. From the Ads of the
ApolHes we learn that it muft have been written with-
in the fpace of three months ; for that was the whole
period of Paul's refidence in Greece, ( Afts xx. I, 2, 3.)
The following analyfis of this epiftle we have taken
from a valuable little treatife, intitled A Key to the
New 'i'eftament, which was written by Dr Percy bi-
fliop of Dromore. It exhibits the intention of the
apoftle, and the arguments which he ufes to prove his
different propofitions, in the moft concife, diftiincl, and
connedled manner, and affords the beil view of this
Epiftle that we have ever feen.
" The Chriftian church at Rome appears not to
Ide-have been planted by any apoftle ; wherefore St Paul,
left it fhould be corrupted by the Jews, who then
fwarmed in Rome, and of whom many were converted
to Chriftianity, fends them an abftraft of the principal
truths of the gofpel, and endeavours to guard them
againft thofe erroneous notions which the Jews had of
juftification, and of the eleftion of their own nation.
^ Now the Jews afligned three grounds for juftifica-
tion. Firft, ♦ The extraordinary piety and merits of
their anccftors, and tlie covenant made by God with
thefe holy men.' They thought God could not hate
the children of fuch meritorious parents : and as he had
made a covenant with the patriarchs to blefs their po-
fterity, he was obh>ed thereby to pardon their fins.
Secondly, ' A perfe^l knowledge and diligent ftudy of
the law of Mofes.' They made this a plea for the re-
niifflon of all their fins and vices. Fhirdly, ' The works
of the Levitical law,' which were te expiate fin, efpe-
cially circumcifion and facrifices. Hence they inferred
that the Gentiles muft receive the whole law of Mofes,
in order to be jutHfied and faved.
" The doftrine of the Jews concerning eleftion was,
*That as God had promifed to Abraham to blefs his feed,
to irive him not only fpiritual bleffings, but alfo the land
of Canaan, to fuffer him to dwell there in profperity, and
to confider him as his church upon earth :' That there-
fore this bieffing extended to their whole nation, and
tfiat God was bound to fuliil thefe promifts to them,
whether they were righteous or wicked, faithful or un-
believing, 'i hey even believed that a prophet ought
not to pronounce againft their nation the prophecies
with which he was inlpired ; but was rather to beg of
Cod to expunge his name out of the book of the living.
" 'J heie previous remarks will ferve as a key to un-
lock this- difficult Epiftle, of which we ftiall now give a
fhort analylis. See Michaelis's LeBures on the New Tejta-
nicnt.
j^ly, I. The Epiftle begins with the ufual falutation with
which the Greeks began their letters, {chap. i. 1 — 7.)
" II. St Paul profeffes his joy at the flouriftiing Itate
of the churcli at Rome, and his defire to come and
preach the gofpel (ver. 8 — 19.) : then he infenfibly
introduces the capital point he intended to prove, vi-z.
"III. The fubjea of the gofpel (ver. 16, 17.), that
it reveals a righteoufnefs unknown before, which is de-
Vol.. XVn. Part 1.
[ 1
SCR
rived folely from faith, and to which Jews and Gentiles Scripture,
have an equal claim. yr— «
... " ' P*"*^^^ ^^ows (chap. i. 18.
iii. 20.) that both Jews and Gentiles are ' undef fin,'
i. e. that God will impute their fins to Jews as well as
to Gentiles.
« His arguments may be reduced to thefe fyllogifma
(ch. ii. I. I 7— 24.) I. * The wrath of God is reveal^
ed againft thofe who hold the truth in unrighteouf-
nefs ; /. e. who acknowledge the truth, and yet fin
againft it. 2. The Gentiles acknowledged truths ;
but, partly by their idolatry, and partly by their other
deteftable vices, they finned againft the truth they ac-
knowledged. 3. Therefore the wrath of God is re-
vealed againft the Gentiles, and puniflicth them. 4, The
Jews have acknowledged more truths than the Gen-
tiles, and yet they fin. 5. Confequently the Jewifti fin-
ners are yet more expofed to the wrath of God (ch. ii.
I — 12.) Having thus proved his point, he anfwers
certain objeftions to it. Obj. i . « The Jews were well
grounded in their knowledge, and ftudied the law.*
He anfwers. If the knowledge of the law, without ob-
ferving it, could juftify them, then God could not have
condemned the Gentiles, who knew the law by nature,
(ch. ii. 13—16.) ^ Obj. 2. * The Jews were circumci-
fed.'^ /inf. That is, ye are admitted by an outward
fign into the covenant with God. This fign will not
avail you when ye violate that covenant (ch. ii. 2 5. to
the end). Oij. 3. « According to this doftrine of St
Paul, the Jews have no advantage before others.* ^nf.
Yes, they ftill have advantages ; for unto them are com-
mitted the oracles of God. But their privileaes do
not_ extend to this, that God fliould overlook their fins,
which, on the contrary, Scripture condemns even in
the Jews (ch. iii. i — 1 9. ) Obj, 4. « They had the Le-
vitical law and facrifices.' ylnf. From hence is no re-
miffion, but only the knowledge of fin, (ch. iii. zo.)
" y. From all this St Paul concludes, that Jews and
Gentiles may be juftified by the fame means, namely,
without the Levitical law, through faith in Chrift i
And in oppolition to the imaginary advantages of the
Jews, he ftates the declaration of Zechariah, that God is
the God of the G^intiles as well as of the Jews, (ch. iii.
21.' to the end.)
VI. As the whole blefling was promifed to the
faithful defcendants of Abraham, whom both Scripture
and the Jews call his children, he proves his former af-
fertion from the example of Abraham ; who was an
idolater before his call, but was declai-ed jaft by God,
on account of his faith, long before his circumcifion.
Hence he takes occafion to explain the nature and
fruits of faith, (ch. iv. i. v. 11.)
"VII. He goes on to prove from God's juftice,
that the Jews had no advantages over the Gentilea
with refpcft to juftification. Both Jews and Gentiles
had forfeited life and immortality, by the means of one
common father of their race, wh®ra they themfelves had
not chofen. Now as God was wiUing to reftore im-
mortality by a new fpiritual head of a covenant, viz.
Chrift, it was juft that both Jews and Gentiles fhould
fhare in this new reprefentative of the whole race (ch. v.
12. to the end). — Chap. v. ver. 15, 16. amounts to thia
negative queftion, * Is it not fitting that the free gift
Ihould extend as far as the offence V
X VIIL
SCR
[ 162
Seth^mr, ti VIII. He fhows that the dodrlne of juftifiication,
as ftated by him, lays us under the ftrongeft obligations
of holincfs, (ch, vi. i. to the end.)
' " IX. He ftiows that the law of Mofes no longer
concerns us at all ; for our juftiikation arifes from our
appearing in God's fight, as if aftually dead, with Chrift
Cn account of our fms ; but the law of Mofes was not
given to the dead. On this occafion he proves at large,
tiiat the eternal power of God over us is not affefted
hy this; and that whilft we are under the law of Mofes
'we perpetually become fubjetl to death, even by fins
of inadvertency, (ch. vii. 1. to the end.)
" X. Hence he concludes, that all thofe, and thofe
only, who are united with Chrift, and for the fake of
his union, do not live according to the fieth, are free
from all condemnation of the law, and have an undoubt-
ed fhare in eternal life, (ch. viii. I — 17 )
" XI. Having defcribed their bleffednefs, he is aware
that the Jews, who expefted a temporal happinefs,
fhould objea to him, that Chrillians notwithltanding
endure much fuflering in this world. He anfwers this
objedion at large, (ch.viii. 18. to the end )
" Xll. He fliows that God is not the lefs true and
faithful, becaufe he doth not juftify, but rather rejefts
and puniflies, thofe Jews who would not believe the
Mefliah, (ch. ix. x. xi. ) In difcuffing this point, we
may obferve the cautious manner in which, on account
of the Jewifh prejudices, he introduces it (ch. ix. I — 5.),
as well as in the diicuffion itfelf.
" He fhows that the promifes of God were never
made to all the pofterity of Abraham, and that God al-
ways referved to himfelf the power of choofing thofe
fon's of Abraham whom, for Abraham's fake, he intend-
ed to blefs, and of punifhing the wicked fons of Abra-
ham ; and that with refpeft to temporal happinefs or
mifery, he was not even determined in his choice by
their works. Thus he rejefted Hhmael, Efau, the If-
raelites in the defert in the time of Mofes, and the great-
er part of that people in the time of Ifaiah, making
them a facrifice to his jullice, (ch. ix. 6 — 29.)
" He then proceeds to fhow that God had reafon to
rejeft moft of the Jews then living, becaufe they would
not believe In the Meffiah, though the gofpel had been
preached to them plainly enough, (ch. ix. 30. x. to the
end). However, that God had not rejeded all his
people, but was ftill fulfiUing his promife upon many
thoufand natural defcendants of Abraham, who believed
in the MelTiah, and would in a future period fulfil
them upon more ; for that all Ifrael would be convert-
ed, (ch.xi. 1—32.) And he concludes with admiring
the wife counfel? of God, (ver. 33. to the end.)
*' XIII. From the doftrine hitherto laid down, and
particularly from this, that God has in mercy accepted
the Gentiles j he argues, that the Romans fhould con-
fecrate and offer themfelves up wholly to God. This
leads him to mention in particular fome Chrillian duties,
(ch. xii.), "viz.
«' XIV. He exhorts them to be fubjed to magi-
ftrates (ch. xiit. 1—7.) ; the Jews at that time being
^ given to feditlon.
«' XV. To love one another heartily (ver. 2 — 10.)
«* XVI. To abftain from thofe vices which were
confidered as things indifferent among the Gentiles,
(vcr. J I. to the end.)
] SCR '
" XVIT. He exhorts the Jews and Gentiles in the Scrip
Chrillian church to brotherly unity, (ch. xlv. xv. ^
•3-)
" XVIII. He concludes his Epiftle with an exciife
for having ventured to admonifh the Romans, whom he
had not con -erted ; with an account of his journey to
Jerufalem ; and with fome falutations to thofe perfons
whom he meant to recommend to the church at Rome."
See Michaelis^s LeSures on the New Tejlament. ^ g
Corinth was a wealthy and luxurious city, built upon pirai
the ifthmus which joins the Merea to the northern to the
parts of Greece. In this city Paul had fpent two*"'"^^'
years founding a Chriftian church, which confifted of j|
a mixture of Jews and Gentiles, but the greater part
Gentiles. _ ,
About three years after the apoftle had left Connth,|tg (
he wrote this Epiitle from Ephefus in the year 56 or
57, and in the beginning of Nero's reign. That it
was written from Ephefus, appears from the falutation
with which the Epiille clofes, (chap. xvi. 19.) " The
churches of Afia falute you. Aquila and Prifcilla fa-
lute you much in the Lord." From thefe words it is
evident, in the ill place, that the Epiille was written
in Afia. 2dly, It appears from Ads xviil. J 8, 19.
that Aquila and Prifcilla accompanied. Paul from Co-
rinth to Ephefus, where they feem to have continued
till Paul's departure.
St Paul had certainly kept up a conftant intercourfe
with the churches which he had founded ; for he was
evidently acquainted with all their revolutions. They
feem to have applied to him for advice in thofe diffi-
cult cafes which their own underllanding could not
folve ; and he was ready on all occafions to corred their
miftakes. j
This Epiille confifts of two parts, i. A reproof Ge(
for thofe vices to which they were mod propenfe ; figt
2. An anfwer to fome queries which they had propo-
fed to him.
The Corinthians, like the other Greeks, had been
accuftomed to fee their philofophers divide themfelves '
into different feds ; and as they brought along with
them into the Chrillian church their former opinion^
and culloms, they wifhed, as before, to arrange them-
felves under different leaders. Jn this Epiftle Paul
condemns thefe divifions as inconfiitent with the fpiritxhi
of Chriilianity, which inculcates benevolence and una-tle
nimity, and as oppofite to the condud of Chriftian teach-
ers, who did not, like the philofophers, afpire after the'^j^l.'
praife of eloquence and wifdom. They laid no claim
to thefe nor to any honour that cometh from men.
The apoftle declares, that the Chriftian truths vi^ere re-
vealed from heaven ; that they were taught with great
plainnefs and fimplicity, and proved by the evidence of
miracles, (chap. i. i ). He diffuades them from their di-
vifions and animofities, by reminding them of the great
trial which every man's work muft undergo ; of the guilt
they incurred by polluting the temple or charch of
God ; of the vanity of human wifdom; and of gloiying
in men. He admonifties them to eftecm the teachers
of the gofpel only as the fervants- of Chrift ; and to re-
member that every fuperior advantage which they enjoy-
ed was to be afcribed to the goodnefs of God, (chap,
iii. 4).
2. In the fifth chapter the apoftle confiders the cafe
of a notorious offender, who had married his ftepmo-
ther i
SCR r I
ther ; and tells them, that he ought to be excommuni'
' cated. He alfo exhorts the Chriftians not to aflbciate
with any perfon who led fuch an openly profane life.
He cenfures the Corinthians for their litigious dif-
pofition, which caufed them to profecute their Chri-
ftian brethren before the Heathen courts. He exprefles
much warmth and furprife that they did not refer their
differences to their brethren ; and concludes his exhor-
tations on this fubje£l, by affuring them that they
ought rather to allow themfelves to be defrauded than
to feek redrefs from Heathens (chap. v. i — 9).
4. He inveighs againft thofe vices to which the Co-
rinthians had been addifted before their converfion, and
efpeclally againft fornication, the criminality of which
they did not fully perceive, as this vice was generally
overlooked in the fyflems of the philofophers, (ch.
^ vi. 10. to the end),
an- Having thus pointed out the pnbhc irregularities
I ^tr- with which they were chargeable, he next replies to per-
fwhich^^"* queftions which the Corinthians had propofed to
j^^^|"^\im by letter. He, I. Determines fome queftions
)lcdro relating to the marriage ftate ; as, ift, Whether it was
good to marry under the exifting circumftances of the
church ? And, 2d, Whether they (hould withdraw frem
their partners if they continued unbelievers ? (ch. vii).
2. He inftrufts them how to a£l with refpeft to idol
offerings. It could not be unlawful in itfelf to eat the
food which had been offered to idols ; for the confecra-
tlon of flefh or wine to an idol did not make it the pro-
perty of the idol, an idol being nothing, and therefore
incapable of property. But fome Corinthians thought
it lawful to go to a feaft in the idol temples, which at
the fame time were places of refort for lewdnefs, and
to eat the facrilices whiKl praifes were fung to the idol.
This was publicly joining in the idolatry. He even
advlfes to abftain from fuch participation as was lawful,
rather than give offence to a weak brother ; which he
enforces by his own example, who had abftained from
many lawful things, rather than prove a Icandal to the
gofpel, (chap. viii. ix. x.)
3. He anfwers a third query concerning the man-
ner in which women fhould deliver any thing in pub-
lic, when called to it by a divine impulfe. And here
he cenfures the unufual drefs of both fexes in prophefy-
ing, which expofed them to the contempt of the Greeks,
among whom the men ufually went uncovered and the
women veiled.
Being thus led to the confideratlon of the abufes
that prevailed in their pubhc worrtiip, he goes on to
cenfure the irregularities which were committed at their
love-fcafts, or, as we term them, the Lord's Supper. It
was a common praftice with the Greeks at their fo-
cial fuppers for every man to bring his own proviiions
along with him, not, however, to (hare them with the
company, but to feaft upon them in a folitary manner.
Thus the rich ate and drank to excefs, while the poor
were totally neglefted. The Corinthians introduced
the fame praAice in the celebration of the Lord's Sup-
per, thus confounding it with their ordinary meals, and
without ever examining into the end of the inftitution.
It was this grofs abufe that Paul reproves in the i ith
chapter. He alfo cenfures their conduft in the cxer-
cife of the extraordinary gifts of the Holy Ghoft ; he
fiiows them they all proceeded from the fame fpirit, and
63 1 SCR
were intended for the inftruftion of Chriftian focieties } Scrl; »urgr^
that all Chriftians ought to be united in mutual love ; — V*^.
and that tendernefs ought to be fhown to the moft in-
conliderable member, as every one is fubfervient to the'
good of the whole (chap. xii). In the 13th chapter
he gives a beautiful defcription of benevolence, which
has been much and juftly admired. He reprefents it
as fuperior to the fupernatural gifts of the fpirit, to the
moft exalted genius, to unlverfal knowledge, and even -
to faith. In the 14th chapter he cautions the Corin-
thians againft oftentatlon in the exercife of the gift of
languages, and gives them proper advices,
4. He afferts the refurreftion of the dead, in oppofi-
tion to fome of the Corinthians who denied it, found-
ing it upon the refurreilion of Jefus Chrift, which he
confiders as one of the moft effential doftrincs of Chri-
fliauity. He then anfwers fome objeftions to the re-
furreftion, drawn from our not being capable of under-
ftanding how it will be accomplifhed, (chap, xv.) He
then concludes with fome dlreftions to the Corinthian
church concerning the manner of coUefllng alms ; pro-
mlfes them a vHit, and falutes fome of the members. xiS
The fecond Epiftle to the Corinthians was written The fecon J
from Macedonia in the year 57, about a year after thc^P'*!^^
r r. /-I • the Conn-
former. See 2 Cor. ix. l — 5. vui. and xm. i. thians.
St Paul's firft Epiftle had wrought different effefts 187
among the Corinthians : many of them examined their State of th«
conduA ; they excommunicated the inceftuous man ; Cornnhiau
requefted St Paul's return with tears ; and vindicated *" ^^'^ '
him and his office againft the falfe teacher and his adhe-
rents. Others of them ft ill adhered to that adverfary
of St Paul, exprefsly denied his apoftoHc office, and
even furnlfhed themfelves with pretended arguments
from that Epiftle. He had formerly promifed to take
a journey from Ephefus to Corinth, thence to vifit the
Macedonians, and return from them to Corinth ( 2 Cor.
i. 15, 16). But the luihappy ftate of the Corinthian
church made him alter his intention (verfe 23 ), fince
he found he muft have treated them with feverity.
Hence his adverfaries partly argued, i. I'hat St Paitl
was irrefolute and unfteady, and therefore could not be
a prophet : 2. The improbability of his ever coming to
Corinth again, fince he was afraid ©f them. Such was
the ftate of the Corinthian church when St Paul, after
his departure from Ephefus, having vifited Macedonia,
(A As XX. I.) received an account of the above parti-
culars from Titus ( 2 Cor. vii. 5, 6.), and therefore wrote
them his fecond Epiftle about the end of the fame
year, or the beginning of 38.
But to give a more diilindl view of the contents o£yi^yf^£
this Epiftle : thecontert*
1 . The apoftle, after a general falutation, expreffes his of f ^^-is fi- .
grateful fenfe of the divine goodnefs; profeffuig his confi- P'^^^^*
dence in God, fupported hy a fenfe of his own integri-
ty ; makes an apology for not having vifited the Corin-
thians as he had intended, and vindicates himfelf from
the charge of ficklenefs, (chap. i).
2. He forgives the inceftuous man, whofe conduft
had made fo deep an impreffioa on the apoftle's mind,
that one reafon why he had deferred his journey to Co-
rinth was, that he might not meet them in grief, nor
till he had received advice of the effedl of his apoftolical
admonitions. He mentions his anxiety to meet Trtus
at Troas, in order to hear of their welfare ; caipreffes
X 2 his
Scfipmre,
190
The date
SCR [
his thankfulnefs to God for the fuccefs attending his
' miniftiy, and fpeaks of the Corinthians as his creden-
tials, written by the Mnrrer of God, (chap ii. iii. i — 6.)
3. He treats of the office committed to him of
preaching the redemption ; and highly prefers it to
preaching the law : to which probably his adverfaries
had made great pretences. They had ridiculed his fuf-
ferings ; which he fhows to be no difj^race to the go-
fpel or its miniilcrs ; and here he gives a (hort abllradt
of the doArine he preaches, (chap. iii. 6. v. to the
end).
He expatiates with great copioufncfs on the temper
with which, in the midit of aifliftions and perfecutions,
he and his brethren executed their important embaffy ;
and with great affcftion.and tendernefs he exhorts them
to avoid the pollution of idolatry, (chap. vi). He en-
deavours to win their confidence, by telling them how
much he rejoiced in their amendment and welfare, and
how forry he had been for the diftrefs which his necef-
fai-y reproofs had occafioned, (chap. vii). He then ex-
horts them to make liberal contributions for the Chri-
ftians in Judasa. He recommends to them the ex-
ample of the Macedonians, and reminds them of the be-
nevolence of the Lord Jefus. He cxprefles his joy for
the readinefs of Titus to affift in making the coUedlion ;
and makes alio honourable mention of other Chriftian
brethren, whom he had joined with Titus in the fame
commiffion, (chap. viii). He then, with admirable ad-
drefs, urges a hberal contribution, and recommends
them to the divine blefllng, (chap. ix).
4. Next he obviates fome refleftions which had been
thrown upon him for the mildnefs of his conduft, as if
it had proceeded from fear. He afferts his apof'.oHcal
power and authority, cautioning his opponents againll
urging him to give too fenfible demonftrations of it,
(chap. x). He vindicates himfelF againft the infinua-
tions of fome of the Corinthians, particularly for having
declined pecuniary fupport from the church ; an atlion
which had been ungeneroufly turned to his difadvan-
tage. To (how his fuperiority over thofe defignlng
Epiftle to
the Gala-
men who had oppofed his preaching, he enumerates his
fufferings ; gives a detail of fome extraordinary revela-
tions which he had received ; and vindicates himfelf from
the charge of boafting, by declaring that he had been
forced to it by the defire of fupporting his apoftolical
chara£ter, (chap xi. xii.) He clofes the Epiftle, by
affuring them with'great tendernefs how much it would
grieve him to demonltrate his divine commiffion by fe-
verer methods
The Galatians were defcended from thofe Gauls who
had formerly invaded Greece, and afterwards fettled in
Lower Afia. St Paul had preached the gofpel among
them in the year 5i,foon after the council held at Jeru-
falem, ( Ads xvi. 6). Afia fwarmed at that time with
zealots for the law of Mofes, who wanted to impofe it
upon the Gentiles, (Afts xv. i). Soon after St Paul
had left the Galatians, thefe falfe teachers had got
among them, and wanted them to be circumcifed, &c.
This occafioned the following Epiftle, which Michaelis
thinks was written in the fame year, before St Paul left
Theffalenica. Dr Lardner dates it about the end of the
year 52, or in the very beginning of 53, before St Paul
fet out to go to Jerufalem by way of Ephefus.
The fubjedk of this Epiftle is much the fame with
164 3 SCR
that of the Epiftl^ to the Romans ; only this quel'on
is more fully eonfidered here, " Whether circumciiun,
and an obfervance of the Levitical law, be necefl'aiy to ^j,^,
the falvation of a Chriftian convert?" It appiars,tei!
thefe Judaizing Chriftians, whofe indireft views St Paul
expofes (A6ts xv, i. Gal.- v. 3, 9.), at firft only re-
prefented circumcifion as neceflary to falvation ; bit af-
terwards they infixed upon the Chriftians receiving the
Jewifti feftivals, (Gal. iv. 10).
As St Paiil had founded the churches of Gaktia,
and inftrufted them in the Chriftian religion, he :ioes
not fet before them its principal doClrines, as he had
done in the Epiftle to the Romans ; but referring them
to what he had already taught (chap. i. 8, 9.), he pro-
ceeds at once to the fubjeft of the Epiftle.
As it appears from feveral paflages of thi-s Ep:lllc,
particularly chap. i. 7, 8, lo. and chap. v. 11. tiiat
the Judaizing Chriftians had endeavoured to perfiade
the Galatians that Paul himfelf had changed his opi-
nion, and now preached up the Levitical law ; he d-iuie-i
that charge, and affirms that the doctrines which he had
taught were true, for he bad received them From God
by immediate revelation. He relates his miraculous
converfion ; aflerts his apoftolical authority, which had
been acknowledged by the difciples of Jefus ; and, as a
proof that he had never inculcated a compliance with
the Mofaic law, he declares that he had oppofed Pe-
ter at Antioch for yielding to the prejudices of the
Jews.
Having now vindicated his charafter from the fufpi- Af
cion of ficklencfs, and fhown that his commiffion was ^7;
divine, he argues that the Galatians ought not to fub- '
mit to the law of Mofes : i. Becaufe they had received ti-,<
the Holy Ghoft and the gifts of miracles, not by the Mi
law, but by the gofpel, (chap. iii. i — 5). z. Becaufe"°
the promifes which God made t© Abraham were not^',^'
reftrifted to his circumcifed defcendants, but extended
to all who are his children by faith, (chap. iii. 6 — 18).
In anfwer to the objeftion, To what then ferveth the
laiv ? he replies, That it was given becaufe of tranf-
greffion ; that is, to preferve them irora idolatry till the
Meffiah himfelf fhould come. 3. Becaufe all men, whether zi
Jews or Gentiles, are made the children of God by faith, ■'^-i
or by receiving the Chriftian religion, and therefore do
not ftand in need of circumcifion, (ch. iii. 26 — 29.)
From the 1 ft verfe of chapter iv. to the 1 1 th, he ar-
gues that the law was temporary, being only fitted far
a ftate of infancy ; but that the world, having attained
a Hate of manhood under the Meffiah, the law was
of no farther ufe. In the remaining part of chap, iv,
he reminds them of their former affetiion to him, and
affiires them that he was ftill their lincere friend. He
exhorts them to ftand faft in the liberty with which
Chrift had made them free ; for the fons of Agar, that
is, thofe under the law given at Mount Sinai, are in
bondage, and to be caft out ; the inheritance being de-
figned for thole only who are the free-born fons of God
under the fpii-itual covenant of the gofpel.
The apoftle next confutes the falfe report which had ^
been fpread abroad among the Galatians, that Paul,
himfelf preached up circumcifion. He had already in- hi'
direftly refuted this calumny by the particular account ch
which he gave of his life ; but he now dii e£lly and open-
ly contradids it in the following manner ; .
3 I. By
SCR [ 1
e- I. By afTuring them, that all who thought circum-
clfion neceffary to falvation Gould receive no benefit
from the Chrlllian religion, (chap. v. 2 — 4).
2. By declaring, that he expelled juftification only
by faith, (ver. 5, 6).
• 3. By teftifying, that they had once received the
truth, and had never been taught fuch falfe doftrines
.by him, (ver. 7, 8).
4. By infinuating that they (hould pafs fome cenfure
on thofe who mifled them (ver. 9, ic), by declaring
that he was perfecuted for oppofiing the circumcifion
ot the Chriftians, (vei*. 11).
5. By exprt-fiing a wifn that thofe perfons fiiould be
cut ofiF who troubled them with his doftrine.
This Epiftle affords a line inftance of Paul's flcill in
managing an argument. The chief objeftion which
the advocates for the Mofaic law had urged againft
him was, that he himfclf preached circumcifion. In
the besjinning of the Epiftle he overturns this flander
by a flatement of fads, without taking any exprefs
notice of it ; but at the end fully refutes it, that it
might leave a ftrong and lafting impreffion upon their
minds.
He next cautions them againft an idea which his ar-
guments for Chriftian liberty might excite, that it con-
fifted in licentioufnefs. He (hows them it does not
confift in gratifyinof vicious defires ; for none are
under ftronger obligations to moral duties than the Chri-
ftian. He recommends gentlenefs and meeknefs to the
weak (chap, vi i — 5 ), and exhorts them to be liberal
to thoii teachers, and unto all men (ver. 6 —10). He
concludes with cxpofing the falfe pretences of the Ju-
daiziri<r teachers, and afferting the integrity ol his own
conduft. f)
Ephefus was the chief city of all Afia on this fide
■ Mount Taurus. St Paul had pafled through it in the
year 54, but without makino any ftay, (Aftsxviii. 19 —
21). The following year he returned to Ephefus
again, and ftaid there three years, (chap, xix.) Du-
ring his abode there he completed a veiy flourifhing
church of Chriftians, the firft foundations of which had
been laid by fome inferior teachers. As Ephelus was
frequented by perfons of diftinftion from all parts of
Afia Minor, St Paul took the opportunity of preach-
ing in the ancient countries (ver. lO.) ; and the other
churches of Afia were confidered as the daughters of
the church of Ephefus ; fo that an EpiSle to the E-
phefians was, in effeft, an epiftle to the other churches
of Afia at the fame time.
Dr Lardner ftiows it to be highly probable that this
Epiftle was written in the year 61, foon after Paul's
arrival at Rome.
As Paul was in a peculiar manner the apoftle gf the
Gentiles, and was now a prifoner at Rome in confe-
quence of having provoked the Jews, by aflerting that
an obfervance of the Mofaic law was not neceffary to
obtain the favour of God, he was afraid left an advan-
tage ftiould be taken of his confinement to unfettle the
minds of thofe whom he had converted. Hearing that
the Ephefians ftood firm in the faith of Chrift, without
fubmitting to the law of Mofes, he writes this Epiftle
to give them more exalted views of the love of God, and
of the excellence and dignity of Chrift. This Epiftle
is pot conipofed in an argumentative or didadlic ityle :
The firft three chapters confift almoft entiiely of thankf-
t')
llufi
elign
65 ] SCR
givini^s and prayers, or glowing dcfcriptions of the Scripftirc.
bleflings of the Chriftian religion. This circumftance ' v-~-^
renders them a httle obfcure ; but by the affiftance of
the two following epiftles, which were written. on the
fame occafion, and with the fame defign, the meaning
of the apoftle may be eafily difcovered. The laft three
chapters contain praftical exhortations. He firft incul-
cates unity, love, and concord, from the confideration
that all Chriftians are merjbers of the fame body, of
which Chtift is the head. He then advifes them to
forfake the vices to which they had been addifted while
they remained heathens. He recommends juftice and
charity ; ftrenuoufly condemns lewdnefs, obfcenity, and
intemperance, vices which feem to have been too com-
mon among the Epehiians. In the 6th chapter he
points out the duties which arife from the relations of
huft)ands and wives, parents and children, matters and
fervants ; and concludes with ftrong exhortations to
fortitude, which he defcribes in an allegorical man-
ner. 197
The church at Philippi had been founded hy Paul, Epiftle to
Silas, and Timothy (Afts xvi.), in the year 51, and had J^^^^^^^'^'P*
continued to fliow a ftrong and manly attachment to^
the Chriftian religion, and a tender affeftion for the
apoftle. Hearing of his imprifonment at Rome, they
fent Epaphroditus, one of their paftois, to lupply him
with money. It appears from this Epiftle that he was
in great want of neceflaries before this contribution ar-
rived ; for as he had not converted the Romans, he did
not confider himfelf as intitled to receive fupplies from
them. Being a prifoner, he could not work as former-
ly ; and it was a maxim of his never to accept any pe-
cuniary affiftance from thofe churches where a latlion
had been raifed againft him. From the Philippians he
was not averfe to receive a prefent in the time of want,
becanfe he confidered it as a mark of their affeftion, and
becaufe he was affured that they had conduced them-
felves as fincere Chriftians. _ j^g
It appears from the apoftle's own words, that this The date
letter was written while he was a prifoner at Rome,
(chap i. 7, T3.iv. 2 2.); and from the expeftation which
he difcovers (chap. ii. 24.) of being foon releafed and
reftored to them, compared with Philemon v. 22. and
pleb. xiii. 13. where he expreftes a like expeftation in
ftroniyer terms, it is probable that this Epiftle was writ-
ten towards the end of his firft imprifonment in the
year 62. _ jgg
The apoftle's defign in this Epiftle, which is quite And deCgo
of the praftical kind, feems to be, "to comfort theofic.
Philippians under the concern they had expreffed at the
news of his imprifonment ; to check a party-fpirit that
appears to have broke out among them, and to pro-
mote, on the contrary, an entire union and harmony
of affeAion ; to guard them againft being feduced from
the purity of the Chriftian faith by judaizing teachers;
to fupport them under the trials with which they ftrug-
gled ; and, above all, to infpire them with a concern to
adorn their profeflion by the moft eminent attainments
in the divine fife." After fome particular admonitions
in the beginning of the 4th chapter, he proceeds in
the 8th verfe to recommend virtue in the moft extenfive
fenfe, mentioning all the different foundations in which
it had been placed by the Grecian philofophers. To-
wards the clofe of the Epiftle, he makes his acknow-
ledgments to the Philippians for the feafonable and libe-
ral
SCR
ferjpttirf.
t t66 1
SCR
100
Bpiftle to
the Colofli-
ati.«. — Date
«rd defign
of it.
To jruard
the Colofli
ans apuinlt
the danger-
ous doc-
trines of
the Jews.
Percy's Key
to the Nezv
10a
The argn-
ments
which the
apoftle em-
ploys.
Tat fttpply wlilch they had fent him, jt was fo con-
vincing a proof of their affcftion for him, and their
concern for the fupport of tl gofpel, which he pre-
ferred far above any private fecular intereft of his own ;
€xprefsly difclalming all felfirti, mercenary views, and
afl'uring them with a noble fimph'city, that he was able
upon all occaGons to accommodate his temper to his cir-
cuniftances ; and had learned, under the teachings of Di-
vine grace, in whatever ftatinn Providence might fee fit
to pl^ce him, therewith to be content. After which,
the apoftle, having encouraged them to expeft a rich
fupply of all their wants from their God and Father,
to whom he devoutly afcribes the honour of all, con-
cludes with falutations from himfelf and his friends at
Rome to the whole church, and a folemn benediction,
(verfe lo. to the end) ; and declares, that he rejoiced in
their liberality chiefly on their own account.
The Epiltle to the Coloffians was written while Paul
was in prifon (chap. iv. 3.), and was therefore probably
compoled in the year 62. The intention of the apoftle,
as far p.s can be gathered from the Epiftle itfelf, was
to fecure the Coloffians from the influence of fome doc-
trines that were fubverfive of Chriftianity, and to ex-
cite them to a temper and behaviour worthy of their fa-
cred character. A new feft had arifen, which had
blended the oriental philofophy with the fuperftitious
opinions of the Jews.
They held, 1. That God was furrounded by demons
or angels, who were mediators with God, and therefore
to be worftiipped. 2. That the foul is defiled by the
body ; that all bodily enjoyments hurt the foul, which
they believed to be immortal, though they feem to
have denied the refurreftion of the body, as it would
only render the foul finful by being reunited to it.
3. That there was a great myftery in numbers, parti-
cularly in the number feven ; they therefore attributed
a natural holinefs to the feventh or Sabbath day, which
they obferved more ftriitly than the other Jews. They
fpent their time moftly in contemplation ; abftained
from marriage, and every gratification of the fenfes ;
ufed wafliings, and thought it finful to touch certain
things ; regarded wine as poifon, &c.
The arguments againft thefe doftrines are managed
with great (kill and addrefs. He begins with exprtfiing
great joy for the favourable character which he had heard
of them, and affures them that he daily prayed for their
farther improvement. Then he makes a fhort digref-
fion, in order to defcribe the dignity of Jefus Chrift ;
declares that he had created all things, whether thrones
or dominions, principalities and powers ; that he alone
was the head of the church, and had reconciled men
to the Father. The inference from this defcription is
evident, that Jefus was fuperior to angels j that they
were created beings, and ought not to be worfhippcd.
Thus he indireAly confutes one dodtrine before he for-
mally oppofes it. Paul now returns from his digrefiion
in the 2 1 ft verfe to the fentiments with which he had
introduced it in the 13th and 14th verfes, and again
expreiTes his joy that the Philipplans remained attach-
ed to the gofpel, which was to be preached to the
Gentiles, without the reftraints of the ceremonial law.
Here again he ftates a general doftrine, which was in-
confiftent with the opinions of thofe who were zealous
for the law of Mofes ; but he leaves the Coloffians to
draw the inference, (chap, i.)
Havinpr again alTurcd them of his tender concern for Se
their welfare, for their advancement in virtue, and that
thty might acknowledge the myftery of God, that is,
that the gofpel was to fuperfede the law of Mofes, he
proceeds diredly to caution them againft the philofqphy
of the new teachers, and their fuperftitious adherence
to the law ; ftiows the fuperiority of Chrift to the an-
gels, and warns Chriitians againft worflupping thenw
Fie cenfures the obfervation of Sabbaths, and rebukes
thofe who required abftinence from certain kinds of
food, and cautions them againft perfons who affume a
great appearance of wifdom and virtue, (chap, ii.)
In the 3d chapter he exhorts ihem, tnat, inftead of E«l
being occupied about external ceremonies, they ought to 'ioi
cultivate pure morality. He particularly guards them
againft impurity, to which they had before their con-
vcrfion been much addlfted,. iie admonifties them
againft indulging the irafcible paffions, and againft
committing falfehood. He exhorts them to cultivate the
benevolent affeftions, and humility, and patience. He
recommends alfo the relative duties between hufbands
and wives, parents and children, mailers and fervants.
He enjoins the duties of prayer and thanklgiving
(ch. iv. 2.), and requefts them to remember him in their
petitions. He enjoins affability and mild behaviour to
the unconverted heathens (verfe 6th) ; and concludes
tiie Epiftle with matters which are all of a private nature,
except the directions for reading this Epiftle in the
church of Laodicea, as well as in the church of Co-
loffe.
This Epiftle is addreffed to the inhabitants of Thefla- Fli
lonica, the capital of Macedonia, a large and populous
city. It appears from the A£ts, chapter xvii. 1. that^*^
the Chriftiau religion jj'as intioduced into this city by
Paul and Silas, foon atter they had left Philippi. At
firft they made many converts; but at length the Jews,
ever jealous of theadmiffion of the Gentiles to the fame
privileges with themfelves, ftiiTed up the rabble, which
aftaultcd the houfe where the apoftle and his friends
lodged ; fo that Paul and Silas were obliged to flee t©
Berea, where their fuccefs was foon interrupted by the
fame rettlefs and implacable enemies. The apoftle
then withdr ew to Athens ; and I'imothy, at his defire,
returned to Theffalonica (i Thefl". iii. 2.) to fee what
were the fentiments and behaviour of the inhabitants
after the perfecution of the Jews. Fr-om Athens Paul
went to Corinth, where he ftayed a year and fix months;
during which, Timothy returned with the joyful tidings,
that the 'J heffalonians remained ftedfa!t to the faith,
and firmly attached to the apoftle, notwithltanding his
flight. Upon this he fent them this Epiftle, A. D. 52,
iu the 1 2th year of Claudius.
This is generally reckoned the firft Epiftle which Paul
wrote ; and we find he was anxious that it Ihoidd be
read to aU the Chiiftians. In chap. v. 27. he uies
thefe words ; " I adjure you by the Lord, that this
Epiftle be read unto all the holy brethren." This di-
redlion is very properly inferted in his firft Epiftle.
The intention of Paul in writing this Epiftle wasevi-^,
dently to encourage the Theffalonians to adhere to theo^
Chriftian religion. This church being flill in its in-
fancy, and oppreffed by the powerful jews, required to
be eftablifhed in the faith. St Paul, therefore, in the
three firft chapters, endeavours to convince the Theflfa-
lonians of the truth and divinity of his gofptl, both by
the
s c R r I
rt. tfie miraculous gifts pf the Holy Oho!l which hacJ hicn
imparted, and by hi§ own conduA when among thtm.
While lie appeals, in the firft chapter, to the mira-
culous gifts ot the Holy Spirit, he is very libeml in
his commendations. He vindicates himfelf from the
charge of timidity, probably to prevent the Theffalo-
pians from forming an unfavourable opinion of his for-
titude, which his flight might have excited. He af-
ferts, that he was not influenced by felfifh or difhonour-
able motives, but that he was anxioufi to pleafe God
and not man. He exprefles a llrong affeilion for them,
and how anxious he was to impart the bleflings of the
gofpfcl. He congratulates himfelf upon his fuccefs ;
mentions it to their honour that they received the gof-,
pel as the word of God and not of man, and tlicre-
fore did not renounce it when perfccution was raifed by
the Jews. He exprefles a fl:rong defire to vifit the
Theffalonians ; and affiires them he had been hitherto
retained againfl: his will.
As a farther proof of his regard, the apostle in-
forms them, that when he came to Athens, he was fo
much concerned, lett, being difcouraged by his fuffer-
ings, they fliould be tempted to cafl: off their profef-
fion, that he could, not forbear fending Timothy to
comfort and flrengthen them ; and exprefles, in very
ftrong terms, the fenfible pleafure he felt, in the midit
of all his affliftions, from the favourable account he re-
ceived of their faith and love ; to which he adds, that
he was continually praying for their farther eltablilhment
in reliifion, and for an opportunity or making them an-
other vlfit, in order to promote their edification, which
lay fo near his heart, (chap. iii.. throughout.)
Having now (hovvn his paternal affeilion for them,
with great addrefs he improves all that influence which
his zeal and fidelity in their fervice muil naturally have
given him to inculcate upon them the precepts of the
gofpel. He recommends chaflity, in o]:ipofition to the
prevailing praftice of the heathens; juftice, in oppofi-
tion to fraud. He praifes their benevolence, and en-
courages them to cultivate higher degrees of it. He
recommends induttry and prudent behaviour to their
heathen neighbours. In order to comfort them under
the lofs of their friends, he aflurcs them that thofe who
■were fallen afleep in Jefus fhould be raifed again at the
laft day, and fhould, together with thofe who remained
alive, be caught up to meet their Lord, and fhare his
triumph, (chap. iv. ) He admonifhes them to prepare
for this folemn event, that it might not come upon them
imawares ; and then concludes the Eplftle with various
exhortations.
The iecond Epiille to the Theffalonians appears to
the have been written foon after the firft, and from the fame
place ; for Silvanus or Silas, and Timothy, are joined
together with the apoftle in the infcriptions of this
Epiftle, as well as of the former,
tsof The apoflle begins with commending the faith and
charity of the Theffalonians, of which he had heard a
favourable report. Fie expreffes great joy on account
©f the patience with which they lupported perfccution ;
and obferves that their periecution was a proof of a
57 T S C R
righteous judgment to come, where their perfccntors Scrptu'-e,
would meet with their proper recompcnfe, and the — -V""^
righteous be delivered out of all their afRIAions. He
aftures them of his conflant prayers for their farther Im-
provement, in order to attain the felicity that was pro.
mi fed, (chap, i.)
From mifundeiftanding a pafTage in his former letter,
it appears that the ThefTalonians believed the day of
judgment was at harid. To redlify this miftake, he
informs them that the day of the Lord will not come
till a great apoftacy has overfpread the Chriftlan world,
the nature of which he defcrlbes (g). Symptoms of this
rayliery of iniquity had then appeared ; but the apoftle
expreffes his thankfulnefs to God that the Theffalo-
nians had efcaped this corruption. He exhorts them
to fledfa inefs, and prays that God would comfort and
flrengthen them, (chap. il. )
He requefts the prayers of tlie Theffalonians for him
and his two affiftants, at the fame time exprefiing his
confidence that they would pay due regard to the in-
flruftions which he had given them. He then pro-
ceeds to correA fome irregularities. Many of the
Theffalonians feem to have led an idle difordcrly life ;
thefe he feverely reproves, and commands the faithful
to fliun their company if they ftill remained incorri-
gible^- _
When the firft Epiftle to Timothy was written, it Firft Epiftle
diflicult to afcc'-taln. I^ardner dates it in 56; Mill, ' ""o^*^y»
Whitby, and Macknight, place It in 64: but the ar-
guments on which each party founds their opinion are
too long to infert here.
Timothy was the intimate friend and companion of [ntention
Paul, and is always mentioned by that apoftle with and con-
much affeftion and eileem. Having appointed him to of it.
fuperintend the church of Ephefus during a journey
which he made to Macedonia, he wrote this letter, in
order to direft him how to difcharge the important
trufl which was committed to him. This was the
more neceffary, as Timothy was young and unexperi-
enced, ( I Tim. iv. 12.) In the beginning of the Epiftle
he reminds him of the charge with which he had in-
trufted him, to wit, to preierve the purity of the gof-
pel againft the pernicious doArines of the Judalzing
teachers, whofe opinions led to frivolous controverfies,
and not to a good life. He fhows the ufe of the law
of Mofes, of which thefe teachers were ignorant. This
account of the law, he affures Timothy, was agreeable
to the reprefentation of it in the gofpel, with the preach-
ing of which he was intrufted. He then makes a di-
gi-efTion, in the fulnefs of his heart, to exprefs the
fenfe which he felt of the goodnefs of God towards
him.
In the fecond chapter the apoftle prefcrlbes the
manner in which the worfhip of God was to be per-
formed In the church of Ephefus ; and in the third ex-
plains the qualifications of the perfons whom he was to
ordain as biftiops and deacons. In the fourth chapter
he foretels the great corruptions of the church which
were to prevail in future times, and inftrufts him how
to fupport the facred charader. In the fifth chapter
he
(g) For an explanation of this prophecy, Dr Hurd's Sermons may be confulted. He appUes it to the papal
power, to which it corrcfponds with aftonilhisg exadncfs.
an
Sec ind E
pi [lie to
I'imothy.
SCR [
ScripMire . teaclies Timothy how to admonJfli the old and young
of both fexes ; mentions the age and charafter of fiich
widows as were to be employed by the fociety in fome
peculiar office ; and fubjoins fome things concerninej the
refpeft due to elders. In the fixth chapter he defcribes
the duties which Timothy was to inculcate on flaves ;
condemns trifling controverfies and pernicious difputes ;
cenfures the exceffive love of moneys and charges the
rich to be rich in good works.
That the fecond Epiftle to Timothy was written
from Rome is univerfally agreed ; but \vhether it was
during his firft or fecond imprifonment has been much
difputed That Timothy was at Ephefus or in Afia
Minor when this Epiftle was fent to him, appears from
iti the frequent mention in It of perfons refiding at Ephe-
Defign and fus. The apoftle feems to have intended to prepare Ti-
contents of p^oj.]^y f^^ thofe fufferings wliich he forefaw he would
be expofed to. He exhorts him to conftancy and pcr-
feverance, and to perform with a good confcience the
duties of the facred funftion.
The falfe teachers, who had before thrown this
church into confufion, grew every day worfe : infomuch
that not only Hymenaeus, but Philetus, another Epbe-
fian heretic, now denied the refurreftion of the dead.
They were led into this error by a difpute about words.
At firft they only annexed various improper fignifica-
tions to the word refurredion, but at laft they denied it
altogether ( H ; ; pretending that the refurreftion oF the
dead was only a refurreftion from the death of fin, and
fo was already paft. This error was probably deri-
ved from the eaftern philofophy, which placed the
origin of fin in the body, (chapter ii.) He then
forewarns him of the fatal apodacy and declenfion that
was beginning to appear in the church ; and at the
fame time animates him, from his own example and
the great motives of Chriftlanlty, to the moil viijorous
and refolute difcharge of every part of the minilterial
office.
This Epiftle is addrefled to Titus, whom Paul had
appointed to prefide over the church of Crete. It is
difficult to determine either its date or the place from
which it was fent. The apoftle begins with reminding
Titus of the reafons for v/hich he had left him at
Defignand Crete ; and direfts him on what principles he was to
contents of aft in ordaining Chriftian paftors : the qualifications of
^t- whom he particularly defcribes. To ffiow him how
cautious he ought to be in feledting men for the facred
office, he reminds him of the arts of the Judaizing
teachers, and the bad charafter of the Cretans, (chap-
ter i).
He advifes him to accommodate his exhortations to
the refpeftive ages, fexes, and circumftanccs, of thofc
whom it was his duty to inftruft ; and to give the
greater weight to his inftruAions, he admonilhes hint
to be an example of what he taught, (chap. ii). He
exhorts him alfo to teach obedience to the civil magi-
ilrate, becaufe the Judaizing Chriftians affirmed that no
obedience was due from the worfliippers of the true
God to magiftrates who were idolaters. He cautions
•SI 3
F.pirtle to
Titus.
Dm
168 ] SCR
againft cenforioufnefa and contention, and recommends ^^i
meeknefs ; for even the beft Chriftians had formerly
been wicked, and all the bleffings which they enjoyed
they derived from the goodncfs of God He then en-
joins Titus ftrenuoufly to inculcate good works, and to
avoid ufelefs controverfies ; and concludes with direft-.
ing him how to proceed with thofe heretics who at-
tempted to fow diffenfion in the church.
*rhe Epiftle to Philemon was written from Rome at Epi
the fame time with the Epiftles to the Coloffians and '•hi
Philippiana, about A. D. 62 or 63. The occafion of^j
the letter was this : Onefimus, Philemon's flave, had "
robbed hie matter and fled to Rome ; where, happily
for him, he met with the apoftle, who was at that time
a prifoner at large, and by his inftruftions and admoni-
tions was converted to Chriftlanlty, and reclaimed to a
fenfe of his duty. St Paul feems to have kept him for
fome confiderable time under his eye, that he might be
fatisfied of the reality of the change ; and, when he had/o/Jj
made a fufficient trial of him, and found that his beha-
viour was entirely agreeable to his proFeffion, he would
not detain him any longer for his own private conveni-
ence, though in a fitwation that rendered fuch an affift-
ant peculiarly defirable (compare ver. 13, 14.), but fent
him back to his mafter ; and, as a mark of his efteem,
entrufted him, together with Tychicus, with the charge
of deUvering his Epiftle to the church at Colofle, and
giving them a particular account oF the ftate of things
at Rome, recommending him to them, at the fame
time, as a faithful and beloved brother, (Col. iv. 9).
And as Philemon might well be fuppofed to be ftrong-
ly prejudiced againft one who had left his fervice in fO:
infamous a manner, he fends him this letter, in which
he employs all his influence to remove his fnfpicions,
and reconcile him to the thoughts of taking Onefimus
into his family again. And whereas St Paul ml-ht
have exerted tliut authority which his charafiler as an
apo le, and the relation in which he ftood to Philemon
as a fpiritual father, would naturally give him, he choo-
fes to Intreat him as a friend ; and with the foftcft and
moif infinnating addrefs urges his fait, conjuring him
by all the ties of Chriiiian filendfhip that he would not
deny him his requeft : and the more tfi"c;£fually to pre-
vail upon him, he reprefents his own peace and happi.
nefs as deeply interciied in the event ; and fpeaks of O-
nefnnus in iuch terms as were beft adapted to folten his
prejudices, and difpofe him to receive one who was fo
dear to hirafelf, not merely as a fervant, but as a fellow
Chvilb'an and a Friend.
It is impoffible to read over this admirable Epiftle, with- Tl
out being touched with the delicacy of ientiment, and the ar
mailerly addrefs that appear in every part of it. We fee
here, in a molt ftriking light, how perfedly confnlent
true politenefs Is, not only with all the warmth and fin- thi
cerity of the friend, but even with the diijnity of the
Chriftian and the apoftle. And if this letter were to
be confidercd in no other view than as a mere human
com.pofition, it muft be allowed a mafter-piece in its
kind. As an illuftration of this remark, it may not be
improper
(h) This is by no means uncommon amongft men ; to begin to difpute about the fignification of words, and
to be led gradually to deny the thing fignified. This appears to have been tiie caufe oi moft difjputes, *nd the
general beginnings of fcepticifm and infidelity. >
ife.
was
:ed
,1.
tgbt
Iff
d as
an-
irri-
n 1(1
ro-
lic
ge.
S C K [ I
jwjjropcr Xjo compare it with an epiUle of Plmy, that
feems to have been written upon a fimilar occafion, [lib.
IX. let. ti.) ; which, though penned by one that was
reckoned to excel in the epiftokry ftyle, and though it
has undoubtedly many beauties, yet muft be acknow-
ledged, by every impartial reader, vallly inferior to this
animated compofition of the apoftle.
The EpifUe to the Hebrews has been generally a-
fcribed to Paul ; but the truth of this opinion has been
fufpe<S:ed by others, for three reafons : i. The name of
the writer is nowhere mentioned, neither in the begin-
ning nor in any other part of the Epiftle. 2. The ftyle
is faid to be more elegant than Paul's. 3. There are
exprcffions in the EpilUe which have been thought un-
fuitable to an apoftle's charafter. i. In anfwer to the
firft objection, Clemens Alexandrinus has afligned a
very good reafon : " Writing to the Hebrews (fays he),
who had conceived a prejudice againft him, and were
fufpicious of him, he wifely declined fetting his name
at the beginning, left he fltould offend them." 2. Ori-
gen and Jeronre admired the elegance of the ftyle, and
reckoned it fuperior to that which Paul has exhibited
in his Epiftles : but as ancient teftimony had afligned it
to Paul, they endeavoured to anfwer the obje£tion, by
fuppofing that the fentiments were the apoftle's, but
the language and coropofition the work of fome other
perfoH. If the Epiftle, however, be a t'ranflation,
which we believe it to be, the elegance of the language
tnay belong to the tranflator. As to the compofition
and arrangement, it cannot be denied that there are
many fpecimcns in the writings of this apoftle not in-
ferior in thefe qualities to the Epiftle to the Hebrews.
3. It Is objefted, that in Heb. ii. 3. the writer of this
Epiftle joins himfelf with thofe who had received the
gofpel from Chrift's apoftles. Now Paul had it from
Chrift himfelf. But Paul often appeals to the leftlmo-
ny of the apoftles in fupport of thofe truths which he
had received from Revelation : We may inftance i Cor.
XV. 5, 6, 7, 8. ; 2 Tim. ii. 2.
This Epiftle is not quoted till the end of the fecond
century, and even then does not feem to have been uni-
verfally received. This filence might be owing to the
Hebrews themfelves, who fuppofing this letter had no
relation to the Gentiles, might be at no pains to diff"ufe
copies of it. 7'he authors, however, on whofe teftimo-
ny we receive it as authentic, are entitled to credit ;
for they lived fo near the age of the apoftles, that they
were in no danger of being impofed on ; and from the
numerous Hft of books which they rejected as fpurlous,
we are afTured that they were very careful to guard
againft impofition. It Is often quoted as Paul's by Cle-
mens Alexandrinus, about the year 1 94. It is recei-
ved and quoted as Paul's by Origen, about 230 ; by
DIonyfius bifhop of Alexandria in 247 ; and by a nu-
merous lift of fucceeding writers.
The Epiftle to the Hebrews was originally written
in Hebrew, or rather Syro-Chaldaic ; a fa£l which we
beheve on the teftimony of Clemens Alexandrinus, Je-
rome, and Eufeblus To this it has been objefted,
that as thefe writers have not referred to any authority,
we ought to confider what they fay on this fubjeft mere-
ly as an opinion. But a« they Hate no reafons for
adopting this opinion, but only mention as a fa£t that
Paul wrote to the Hebrews in their native language,
we muft allow that it is their teftimony vrhich they
Vol. XVII. Part I.
69 3 SCR
produce, and tiOt their opinion. Eufeblus informs ui. Scripture*
that fome fuppofed Luke the Evangehft, and others """v-'—^
Clemens Romanus, to have been the tranflator.
According to the opinion' of ancient writers, parti,
cularly Clemens Alexandrinus, Jerome, and Euthalius,
this Epiftle was addrefTed to the Jews in Paleftine, —
The fcope of the Epiftle confirms this opinion.
Having now given fufficlent evidence that this E-Oat? of if,
piftle was written by Paul, the time when it was writ-
ten may be eafily determined : For the falutation from
the faints of Italy (chap. iv. 24.), together with the
apoftle's promife to fee the Hebrews (ver. 23.), plain-
ly intimate, that his confinement was then either ended
or on the eve of being ended. It muft therefore have*
been written foon after the Epiftles to the Colofllans,
Ephefians, and Philemon, and not long before Paul left
Italy, that is, in the year 61 or 62,
As the zealous defenders of the Mofaic law would Percy's JCef
naturally infift on the divine authority of Mofes, on the'"
majefty and glory attending its promulgation by the
miniftry of angels, and the great privileges it afforded
thofe who adhered to it ; the apoftle ftiiOws,
I. That in all thefe feveral articles Chriftlanity had
an infinite fuperlority to the law.
This topic he purfues from chap. i. to xi. wherein P®%"
he reminds the believing Hebrews of the extraordinary ||^'^1^P'?J* ,
favour ftiown them by God, in fending them a revela- /he truth**
tlon by his own fon, whofe glory was far fuperior toaf the
that of angels (chap. i. throughout) ; very naturally ^-^^^^iftian
inferring from hence the danger of defpifing Chrift ^" and*'its"fu
account of his humiliation, which, in perfeA confift- pei^grity'
cnce with his dominion over the world to come, was to the lave '
voluntarily fubmitted to by him for wife and important of Mofes;
reafons ; particularly to deliver us from the fear of
death, and to encourage the freedom of our accefs to
God (chap. ii. throughout). With the fame view he
magniiies Chrift as fuperior to Mofes, their great legif-
lator ; and from the puniftiment inflicted on thofe who
rebelled againft the authority of Mofes, infers the dan-
ger of contemning the promifes of the gofpel (chap,
ili. 2 — 13). And as It was an eafy tranfition to call to
mind on this occafion that reft in Canaan to wlilch the
authority inveftcd in Mofes was intended to lead them ;
the apoftle hence cautions them againft unbelief, as
what would prevent their entering into a fuperior ftate
of reft to what the Jews ever enjoyed (chap. Hi. 14.
iv. 11). This caution is ftill farther enforced by aw-
ful views of God's omnifcience, and a hvely reprefenta-
tion of the high-priefthood of Chrift (chap. iv. to the
end ; and Chap. v. throughout). In the next place, he
intimates the very hopelefs fituation of thofe who apo«
flatife from Chriftlanity (chap, vi, i — 9.); and then,
for the comfort and confirmation of fincere believers,
difplays to them the goodiiefs of God, and his faithful
adherence to his holy engagements ; the performance of
which is fealed by the entrance of Chrift into heaven ae
our forerunner (chap. vi. 9. to the end). Still far-
ther to illuftrate the charafter of our Lord, he entere
into a parallel between him and Melchlzedec as to
their title and defcent ; and, from inftances wherein the
priefthood of Melchlzedec excelled the Levitical, infersj
that the glory of the priefthood of Chrift furpaifed that
under the law (chap. vii. i — 17). From thefe premifes
the apoftle argues, that the Aaronlcal priefthood was
not only excelled, but confummated by that of Chrift,
Y td
Scripture.
And to a-
nimate
them to
bear per-
fecutiion
wirh forti-
tade.
The feven
Catholic
epillks.
SCR [ T
te which it !Vas only introduftory and fubfervlent ; and
of courfe, that the obligation of the law was henceforth
diflblved (chap. vii. i8. to the end). Then recapitu-
lating what he had already demonftrated concerning the
ftiperior dignity of Chrift's prieflhood, he thence illu-
ftrates the diftinguiflied excellence of the new cove-
nant, ae not only foretold by Jeremiah, but evidently
enriched with much better promifes thar the old (ch.
viii. throughout) : Explaining farther the doftrine of
the priefthood and intercefllon of Chrift, by comparing
it with what the Jewifh high-priefts did on the great
day of atonement (chap, ix, i - -14) Afterwards he
enlarges on the neceffity of ilieddin.^ Chrift's blood, and
the fufficitncy of the atonement made by it (chap ix.
15, to the end) ; and proves that the legal ceremonies
could not by any means purify the confcience : whence
he infers the infufficiency of the Mwfaic law, and the
neceffity of looking beyond it chap. x. I — 15.; He
then urges the Hebrews to improve the privileges which
fuch an high-prieft and covenant conferred on them, to
the purpofcs of approaching God with confidence, to
a conftant attendance on his worflrip, and molt benevo-
lent regards to each other (chap x 15 — 25).
The apo'-le having thus obviated the infinuations and-
objeftions of the Jews, for the fatisfadion and eliablilh-
ment of the believing Hebrews, proceeds,
II. To prepare and fortify their minds againfi the
ftorm of perfecution which in pait had already befallen
them, which was likely to continue and be often renewed,
he reminds them of thofe extremities they had endu-
red, and of the fatal efFefts which would attend their
apoftacy (chap x. 26, to the end); calling to their
remembrance the eminent examples of faith and forti-
tude exhibited by holy men, and recorded in the Old
Teftament (chap. xi. 1—29). He concludes his dif-
courfe with glancing at many other illuftrious wor-
thies ; and, befides thofe recorded in Scripture, refers
to the cafe of feveral who fuffered under the perfecu-
tion of Ahtioehus Epiphanes (2 Maccab. chap. viii.
&c. chap. xi. 30. xii. 2).
Having thus finifhed the argumentative part of the
Epiftle, the apollle proceeds to a general application ;
in which he exhorts the Hebrew Chriftians to patience,
peace, and holinefs (Chap. xii. 3 — 14.) : cautions them
againll fecular views and fenfual gratificatiojis, by lay-
ing before them the incomparable excellence of the
bleffings introduced by the gofpel, which even the Jew-
ifh economy, glorious and magnificent as it was, did by
no means equal ; exhorts them to brotherly affeftion,
purity, compaffion, dependence on the divine care, fted-
faftnefs in the profeflion of truth, a life of thankfulnefs
to God, and benevolence to man : and concludes the
whole with recommending their pious minifters to their
particular regatd, intreating their prayers, fahiting and
granting them his ufual bcnediftion.
The feven follawing Epiftles, one of James, two of
Peter, three of John, and one of Jude, have been di-
ftinguiflied by the appellation of cathoUr or general epif-
tles, becaufe moft of them are infcribed, not to parti-
cular churches or perfons, but to the body of Jewilh
or Gentile converts over the world. The authenticity
©f fome of thefe has been frequently queftioned, viz.
the Epiftle of James, the fecond of Peter, the Epiftle of
Jude, and the fecond and third of John. The ancient
70 ] SCR
Chriftians were very cautious in admitting any book? ''cri
into their canon whofe authenticity they had any vccfon
to fufpe£l:. They rejefted all' the writings forged by
heretics in the name of the apoftles, and certainly, there- " '■^
fore, would not receive any without firft fubjeiling l\tvaJ^^"'
to a fevere fcratiny. Now, though thefe five epiUes
were not immediately acknowledged as the writings of
the apoftles, this only ftiows that the perfons vht>
doubted had not received complete and inconteftablc
evidence of thtir authenticity. But as they were af-
terwards univerfally received, we have every reafoa tO'
conclude, that upon a ftriA examination they were
found to be. the genuine pvoduftions of the apoftles.^
The truth is, fo good an opportunity had the ancient
Chriftians of examining this matter, fo careful vrere:
they to guard againft impofition, and fo well founded
was their judgment concerning the books of the New
Teftament, that, as Dr Lardner obferves, no writing
which they pronounced genuine has yet been proved
fpurious, nor have we at this day the leaff reafon ta
believe any. book genuine which they rejedled.
That the Epiftle of James wac written in the apofto-Epi
lical age is proved by the quotations of ancient authors.; J^^"
Clemens Romanus' and Ignatius feem to have made ^
references to it. Origen quotes- it once or twice. r —
There arc feveral reafons why it was not more generally
quoted by the firft Chriftian writers. Being written to
Gorreft the errors and vices which prevailed among the
Jews, the Gentiles might think it of lefs importance to:
them, and therefore take no pains to procure copies of
It. As the author was fometimes denominated James;
the Juft, and often called bifhop of Jerufalem, it might
be doubted whether he was one of the apoftles. But
its authenticity does not feem to have been fufpefted on
account of the doftrines which it contains. In modern
times, indeed, Luther called it a ftrawy epiftle ( epijlola
Jlraminea J, and excluded it from the facred writings, on
account of its apparent oppofition to the apoftle Paul
concerning juftification by faith.
This Epiftle could not be written by James the Elder,
the fon of Zebedee, and brother of John, who was be-
headed by Herod in the year 44, for it contains paflages
which refer to a later period. It muft, therefore, have ~
been the compofition of Janaes the Lefs, the fon of
Alpheus, who was called the Lord's brother^ becaufe
he was the fon of Mary,, the fifter of our Lord's moi
ther. As to the date of this Epiftle, Lardner fixes it Th(
in the year 61 or 62.
James the Lefs ftatedly refided at Jerufalem, whence
he hath been ftyled by fome ancient fathers biftiop of
that city, though without fufficient foundation. Now Do
James being one of the apoftles of the circumcifion,
while he confined his perfonal labours to the inhabitants /"S^
of Judea, it was very natural for him to endeavour by
his writings to extend his fervices to the Jewifti Chrif-
tians who were difperfed abroad in more diftant re- A
gions. For this purpofe, there are two points which \ nJ
the apoftle feems to have principally aimed at, though * it.
he hath not purfued them in an orderly and logical me-
thod, but in the free epiftolary manner, handling them
jointly or diftinflly as occafions naturally offered. And
thefe were, " to correA thofe errors both in doftrine
and practice into which the Jewifh Chriftians had fallen,
which might otherwife have produced fatal copfequen-
ces I
SCR [ I
• ces } and then to cftablifh the faith ant! animate the
hope of fineere believers, both under their prefent and
-their approaching fuiFerings."
The opinions which he is moft anxious to refute are
thefe, that God is the author of fin, (ch. i. 13.) ; that
the beHef of the dodrines of the gofpel was fufficient
to procure the favour of God for them, however defi-
cient they were in good works, (ch. ii.) He difTuades
the Jews from afpiring to the office of teachers in the
third chapter, becaufe their prejudices in favour of the
law of Mofes might induce them to pervert the doftrines
ef the gofpel. He therefore guards them againft the
fins of the tongue, by reprefenting their pernicious ef-
feds ; and as they thought themfelves wife and intelli-
gent, and were ambitious of becoming teachers, he ad-
vifes them to make good their pretenfions, by fhowing
themfelves poffefTed of that wifdom which is from above,
(ch. iii.)
The deftrudion of Jerufalem was now approaching ;
the Jews were fplit into fadions, and often flaughtered
one another ; the apoftle, therefore, in the fourth chap-
ter, admonifiies them to purify themfelves from thofe
vices which produced tumults and bloodfhed. To roufe
them to repentance, he foretels the miferies that were
coming upon them. Laftly, he checks an irreligious
fpirit that fcems to have prevailed, and concludes the
Epiftle with feveral exhortations.
The authenticity of the firft Epillle of Peter has
never been denied. It is referred to by Clemens
Romanus, by Polycarp, and is quoted by Papias, Ire-
naeus, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Tertullian. It is
addreffed to the ftrangers fcattered through Pontus, &c.
who are evidently Chriftians in general, as appears from
chap. ii. 10. " In time paft they were not a people,
but are now the people of God." From Peter's fend-
ing the falutation of the church at Babylon to the
Chriftians in Pontus, &c. it is generally beheved that
he wrote it in Babylon. There whs a Babylon in
Egypt and another in Affyria. It could not be the
former, for it was an obfcure place, which feems to
have had no church for the four firft centuries. We
have no authority to affirm that Peter ever was in Af •
fyria. The moft probable opinion is that of Grotius,
Whitby, Lardner, as well as of Eufebius, Jerome, and
others, that by Babylon Peter figuratively means Rome.
Lardner dates it in 63 or 64, or at the lateft 65.
St Peter's chief defign is to confirm the dodrinc of
St Paul, which the falfe teachers pretended he was op-
pofing ; and to affiire the prcfelytes that they ftood in
the true grace of God, (ch. v. 12.) With this view he
calls them eled ; and mentions, that they had been
declared fuch by the efFufion of the Holy Ghoft upon
them, (ch. i. 1,2.) He afTures them that they were re-
generate without circumcifion, merely through the gof-
pel and refurredion of Chrift, (ver. 3, 4. 21 — 25.) ;
and that their fuffierings were no argument of their be-
ing under the difpleafure of God, as the Jews imagined,
(ver. 6 — 12.) He recommends it to them to hope
for grace to the end, (ver. 13.) He teftifies, that
tliey were not redeemed by the Pafchal lamb, but
through Chrift, whom God had preordained for this
pjipofe before the foundation of the world, (ver.
18 --20,)
'I he fecond Epiftle of Peter is not mentioned by any
ancient writer extant till the fourth century, from which
71 I S d R
time it has been received by all Chriftians excq)t the Sy- Scn*ptur<r,
rians. Jerome acquaints us, that its authenticity was
■v—
430
difputed, on account of a remarkable difference be-ggj.y^j
tween the ftyle of it and the former Epiftle. But this gpiftie of
remarkable difference in ftyle is confined to the 2d chap- Peter. The
ter of the 2d Epiftle. No objedion, however, can be authentici-
drawn from this circumftance ; for the fubjed of that ^ j
chapter is different from the reft of Peter's writings,
and nothing is fo well known than that different fubjeds
fuggeft different ftyles. Peter, in defcribing the cha-
rader of fome flagitious impoftors, feels an indignation
which he cannot fupprefs ; it breaks out, therefore, in
the bold and animated figures of an oriental writer.
Such a diverfity of ftyle is not uncommon in the beft
writers, efpecially when warmed with their fubjed. X3r
This objedion being removed, we contend that this From in-
Epiftle was written by Peter, from the infcription. Si-
mon Peter, a feriiant and an apojile of Jefus Chrijl. It
appears from chap. i. 16, 17, i 8, that the writer was
one of the difciples who faw the transfiguration of our
Saviour. Since it has never been afcribcd to James or
John, it muft therefore have been Peter. It is evident,
from chap. iii. i . that the author had written an Epiftle
before to the fame perfons, which is another circum-
ftance that proves Peter to be the author.
It is acknowledged, hov/ever, that all this evidence is
merely internal ; for we have not been able to find any
external evidence upon the fubjed. If, therefore, the
credit which we give to any fad is to be in proportion
to the degree of evidence with which it is accompanied,
we fliall allow more authority due to the gofpels than
to the epiftles ; more to thofe epiftles which have been
generally acknov/lcdged than to thofe which have been
controverted ; and therefore no dodrine of Chriftianity
ought to be founded folely upon them. It may alfo be
added, that perhaps the beft way of determining what
are the effential dodrines of Chriftianity would be to
examine what are the dodrines which occur ofteneft
in the gofpels ; for the gofpels are the plaineft parts of
the New Tcftament ; and their authenticity is moft
completely proved. They are therefore beft fitted for
common readers. Nor will it be denied, we prefume,
that our Saviour taught all the dodrines of the Chrif-
tian religion himfelf ; that he repeated them on different
occafions, and inculcated them with an earneftnefs pro-
portionable to their importance. The Epiftles are to be
confidered as a commentary on the effential dodrines of
the gofpel, adapted to the fituation and circumftances of
particular churches, and perhaps fometimes explaining
dodrines of inferior importance, i. The effential doc-
trines are therefore firft to be fought for in the gofpels,
and to be determined by the number of times they occur.
2. They are to be fought for, in the next place, in the un-
controverted Epiftles, in the fame manner. 3. No effential
dodrine ought to be founded on a fingle paffage, nor
on the authority of a controverted Epiftle.
That Peter was old, and near his end, when he
wrote this Epiftle, may be inferred from chap. i. 14.
" Knowing that ihortly I muft put off this tabernacle,
even as our Lord Jefus has fhewn me." Lardner thinks
it was written foon after the former. Others, perhaps
with more accuracy^, date it in 67.
The general defign of this Epiftle is, to confirm the Defign of
dodrines and inftrudions delivered in the former ; " to it,
excite the Chriftian converts to adorn, and ftedfallly ad-
Y 2 here
Its authen
Jicity and
'34
Befign of
it.
SCR [17
Scripture, here to their holy religion, as a religion proceeding
" » ' ' from God, notwlthftanding the artificer of falfe teach-
ers, whofc charafter is at large defcribed ; or the per-
fecution of their bitter and inveterate enemies."
Fira £pi- The firft Epiftle of John is afcribed by the unanimous
ftleof John, fuffrage of the ancients to the beloved difciple of our
c ,.,.1,.^. j^^j,^^ referred to by Polycarp, is qiioted by
Papias, by Irenaeus, and was received as genuine by
Clemens Alexandrinus, by Dionyfius of Alexandria,
by Cyprian, by Origen, and Eufebius. There is fuch
a refemblance between the ftyle and fentiments ©f this
Epiftle and thofe of the gofpel according to John, as
to afford the higheft dtgree of internal evidence that
they are the compofition of the fame author. Ti* the
ftyle of this apoftle there is a remarkable peculiarity,
and efpecially in this Epiftle. His fentences, confidered
feparately, are exceeding clear and inteUigible ; but
when we fearch for their conneftion, we frequently
meet with greater difficulties than we do even in the
Epiftles of St Paul. The principal fignature and cha-
rafteriftic of his manner is an artlefs and amiable lim-
plicity, and a fingular modefty and candour, in conjunc-
tion with a wonderful fiiblimity of fentiment. His con-
ceptions are appareruly delivered to us in the order in
which they arofe to his own mind, and are not the pro-
duft of artihcial reafoning or laboured inveftigation.
It is impoflible to fix with any precifton the date of
this Epiftle, nor can we determine to what perfens it
was addreffed.
The leading defign of the apoftle is to fliow the in-
fufBciency of faith, and the external profeflion of reli-
gion, feparate from morality ; to guard the Chrillians
to whom he writes againft the delufive aits of the cor-
rupters of Chriftianity, whom he calls Antichrift ; and
to inculcate univerfal benevolence. His admonitions
concerning the neceffity of good morals, and the inef-
ficacy of external profeflions, are fcattered over the
Epiftle, but are moft frequent in the ift, 2d, and 3d
chapters. The enemies or corrupters of Chriftianity,
againft whom he contends, feem to have denied that
jcfus was the Mefliah, the Son of God (chap. ii. 22.
V. I.), and had aftually come into the world in a human
form, (chap. iv. 2, 3.) The earneftnefs and frequency
with which this apoftle recommends the duty of bene-
volence is remarkable. He makes it the diftinguifhing
charafteriftic of the difciples of Jefus, the only fure
jpledge of our love to God, and the only affurance of
eternal life, (chap. iii. 14, 15.) Benevolence was his
favourite theme, which he affedionately preffed upon
others, and conftantly pra£lifed himfelf. It was con-
fpicuous in his conduft to his great Mafter, and in the
reciprocal affe£tion which it infpired in his facred breaft.
He continued to recommend it in his laft words. When
his extreme age and infirmities had fo wafted his ftrength
that he was incapable to exercife the duties of his of-
fice, the venerable old man, anxious to exert in the fer-
vicc of his Mafter the little ftrength which ftill remain-
ed, caufed himfelf to be carried to church, and, in the
midft of the congregation, he repeated thcfe words,
*' Little children, love one another.'*
Second and ^^^^ obferved by Dr Mill that the fecond and
third Epi. third Epiftles of John are fo ftiort, andrefemble the firft
ftle of fo much in fentiment and ftyle, that it is not worth
while to contend about them. The fecond Epiftle con-
a35
John.
2 1 S C E
fifts only ©f 1 3 verfes } and of thcfc eight may be found Scr
in the ift Epiftle, in which the fenfe or language is pre*
cifely the fame.
The fecond Epiftle it quoted by lrenseu», and wa«
received by Clemens Alexandrinua. Both were ad«
mitted by Athanafms, by Cyril of Jerufalem, and b^
Jerome. The fecond is addreffed to s woman of du
ftindion whofc name is by fome fuppofed to be Cyria
(taking for apropername),byothers JSc/fiSt;. The
third is infcribcd to Gaius, or Caius according to the
Latin orthography, who, in the opinion of Lardner, was
an eminent Chriftian, that hved in fome city of Afia
not far from Ephefus, where St John chiefly refided
after his leaving Judea. The time of writing theft;
two Epiftles cannot be determined with any certainty.
They are fo ftiort that an analylis of them is not necef-
fary.
The Epiftle of Jude is cited by no ancient Chriftian Epi
writer extant before Clemens Alexandrinus about the Jud|
year 194 ; but this author has tranfcribed eight, or ten^"'^
verfes in his Stromata and Pedagogue. It is quoted ''^^
once by TertuUian about the year 200 ; by OriiJen fre-
quently about 230. It was not however received by
many of the ancient Chriftians, on account of a fuppo-
fed quotation from a book of Enoch. But it is not
certain that Jude quotes any book. He only fays that
Enoch prophejiedy faymg^ The Lord comeih nv'ith ten thoU'
/and of his faints. Thefe might be words of a prophecy
preserved by tradition, and inferted occafionally in dif-
ferent writings. Nor is there any evidence that there
was fuch a book as Enoch's prophefies in the time of
Jude, though a book of that name was extant ia the
fecond and third centuries. As to the date of this
Epiftle nothing beyond conjefture can be produced. 3
The defign of it is, by defcribing the charader of Anc
the falfe teachers, and the puniihments to which they'itjn
were liable, to caution Cllriftians againft liftening to
their fuggeftions, and being thereby perverted from the
faith and purity of the gofpeh ,
The Apocalypfe or Revelation has not always been Th<
unanimoufly received as the genuine produdlion of the ' ^'y
apoftle John. Its authenticity is proved, however, by
the teftimony of many refpeAable authors of the firft ^^^^
centuries. It is referred to by the martyrs of Lyons :
it was admitted by Juftin Martyr as the work of the
apoftle John. It is often quoted by Irenaeus, by The-
ophilus blftiop of Antioch, by Clement of Alexandria,
by Tertullian, by Origen, and by Cyprian of Carthage.
It was alfo received by Heretics, by Novatus and his fol-
lowers, by the Donatifts, and by theArians. For the firft^
two centuries no part of the New Teftaraent was mort
univerfally acknowledged, or mentioned with higher re-
fpect. But a difpute having arifen about the millen-
nium, Caius with fome others, about the year 212, to
end the controverfy as fpeedlly and eftetlually as pof-
fible, ventured to deny the authority of the book
which had given occafion to it.
The book of Revelation, as we learn from Rev. i. 9. Th
was written in the ifle of Patmps. According to the"fl
general teftimony of ancient authors, John was banifned
into Patmos in the reign of Domitian, aivd reftored by
his fucceflbr Nerva. But the book could not be pu-
bliflied till after John's releafe, when he returned to E-
phefus. As Domitian died in 96, and his perfec-ution
5
s e R
i-
in ol
»-
r
havs
[rea-
|»m-
did not commence till near the end of his reign, the Re-
velation might therefore be publifhed in 96 or 97.
Here we fhould conclude j but as the curious reader
may; deftre to be informed how the predidlions revealed
in this book of St John have ufually been interpreted
and applied, we (hall confiflently with our fubjeft
fubjoin fl key to the prophecies contained in the Revela-
tion. Thia 18 extra^^ed from the learned differtations of
Dr Newton, bifhop of Briflol (i) : to which the reader
is referred for a moie full illuftration of the feveral parts,
as the concifenefs of our plan only admits a fhort analy-
fis or abridgment of them.
Nothing of a prophetical ' nature occurs in the firft
three chapters, except, i. What is faid concerning the
church of Ephefus, that her candkftick lhall be re-
moved; out its place," which is now verified, not
only in this, but in all the other Afiatic churches which
exirted at that time ; the light of the gofpel having
been taken from tkem, not only by their herefies and'
divifions from within, but by the arms of the Saracens
from without : And, 2. Concerning the church of
Smyrna, that (he {hall: " have tribulation ten days
that is, in prophetic language, " ten years referring
to the perfecutioa of Dioclelian, which alone of all the
general perfecutions laftcd fo long.
The next five capters relate to the opening of the
Seven Seals ; and by thefe feals are intimated fo many
dift'erent periods of the prophecy. Six . of thefe feals
are opened in the fixth and feventh chapters*
The Jir/l feal or period is memorable for cenquefts.
It commences with Vefpafian, and terminates ia Nerva;
and during this time Judea was fubj>igated. They^-
condfeal is noted for war and flaughten It commences
with Trajan, and. continues through his reign, and that
of his fucceffors. In this period, the Jews were entire-
ly routed and difperfed |. and great was the flaughter
and devaftatlon occafioned by the contending parties,
'i he third Jeal is charafterifed by a rigorous execution
of juftice, and an abundant provilion of corn, wine, and
ail.. It commences with Septimius Severus. He and
Alexander Severus were juft and fcvere emperors, and
at the fame time highly celebrated for the regard
they paid to the felicity of their people, by procu-
ring them plenty of every thing, and particularly
corn, wine, and oil. This period lalted during the
reigns of the Septimian family. The fourth Jeal is dif-
tinguifhed by a concurrence of evils, fuch as war, fa-
mine, peftilence, and wild beafts ; by all which the Ro-
man empire was remarkably infelted from the reign of
Maximin to that of Dioclefian. The fifth feal begins
at Dioclefian, and is fignalized by the great perfecution,
from whence arofe that memorable era, the Era of
Martyrs. With Conitantine begins the fixth feaU a
period ot revolutions, piftured forth by great commo-
tions in earth and in heaven, alluding to the fubverfion
of Paganifm and the eltablifhment of Chrillianity. This
period lafted from the reign of Conftantine the Great
to that of Theodofiusthe firft. The feventh y^a/ includes
sinder it the remaining parts of the prophecy, and com-
73 3 s c R
prehends feven periods diftlnguilhedby the founding of Scripture,
feven trumpets.
As the feals foretold the ftate of the Roman em-
pire before and till it became Ghriftian, fo the trum-
pets forefhow the fate of it afterwards ; each trumpet
being an alarm to one nation or other, roufing them up
to overthrow that empire.
Four of thefe trumpets are founded in the eighth
chapter.
At the founding of the firft, Alaric and his Gothg-
invade the Roman empire, befiege Rome twice, and fet
it OH fire in feveral places. At the founding of the fe-
cond, Attila and his Huns wafte the Roman provinces,
and compel the eaftern emperor Theodofius the fecond,
and the weftern em.peror Yalentinian the third, to fub-
mit to lhameful terms. A t the founding of the third,
Genferic and his Vandals arrive from Africa ; fpoil and
pluader Rome, and fet fail again with immenfe wealth,
and innumerable captives. At the founding of the
fourth, Odoacer and the Heridi put an end to the very-
name of the weftern empire ; Theodoric founds the
kingdom of the Oftrogoths in Italy ; and at laft Italy-
becomes a province of the eaftern empire, Rome being
governed by a duke under the exarch of Ravenna..
As the foregoing, trumpets relate chiefly to the down-
fal of the weftern empire, fo do the two following t» -
that of the eaftern. They are founded in. the ninth, ,
tenth, and part of the eleventh chapters. At the found*
ing of the fifth trumpet, Mahomet, that blazing ftar, ap-
pears, opens the bottomlefs pit, and with his locufts the
Arabians darkens the fun and air. And at the founding
of the fixth, a period not yet finilhed, the four angels, ,
that is, the four fultanes, or leaders of the Turks and. :
Othmans, are loofed from the river Eupkratesv The
Greek or Eaftern empire was cruelly " hurt and tor-
mented" under the fifth trumpet ; but under the fixth, ,
it waa " flain," and utterly deftroyed.
The Latin or- Weftern Church not being reclaim-
ed by the ruin of the Greek or Eaftern, but ftiH.
perfiliing ia xheir idolatry and wickednefs ; at the be-.>
giiming of the tenth chapter, and under the found of
this fixth trumpet, is introduced a vifion preparative to
the prophecies refpeding the Weftern Church, wherein •
an angel is reprefented, having in his hand a little book, ;
or. codicil, defcribing the calamities that fhould overtake
that church. The meafuring of the temple fhows, that:
during all this period there will be fome true Chriftians,
who will conform themfelves to the rule of God's word, .
even whilft the outer court, that is, the external and +
more extenfive part of this temple or church, is trodden ;
under foot by Gentiles, i. e. fuch Chriftians as, in their
idolatrous, worffiip and perfecuting pradiice, refcmble.
and outdo the Gentiles themfelves. Yet againft thefe
corrupters of religion there will always be fome true
witneffes to protelt, who, however they may be over-
borne at times, and In appearance reduced to death,-yet
will arife ag^in from time to time, till at laft they tri-
umph and glorloully afcend. The eleventh chapter
concludes with the founding of the feventh trumpet.
In T
(i) Differtations on the prophecies which have remarkably been fulfilled? and at thia time are fulfilling, in the
world, vol. iii. 8vo.
S C R
r 174 3
SCR
Scripture, In the twelfth chapter, by the woman bearing a man-
Ssrivener. ^jjjy jg underftood the Chriilian church ; by the
*" " * ' great red dragon, the heathen Roman empire ; by the
man-child whom the woman bore, Conftantine the
Great ; and by the war in heaven, the contefts between
the Chriftian and Heathen religiolis.
In the thirteenth chapter, by the beaft with feven
heads and ten horns, unto whom the dragon gave his
power, feat, and great authority, is to be underftood,
net Pagan but Chriftian, not imperial but papal Rome;
in fubmitting .to :whofc religion, the world did in effect
fubmit again to the religion of the dragon. The ten-
horned beaft ^therefore reprefents the Romifh church
and ftate in general : but the beaft with two horns like
a lamb -is the Roman clergy; and that image of the
ten-horned beaft, which the two-horned beaft caufed to
be made, and inCpired with life, is the pope ; whofe
number is 666, according to the numerical powers of
the letters conftituting the Roman name ^"■'ii'>">i>Latinus,
or its equivalent in Hel'reiu, n^an Romiith.
A 30
'200 -1
A I
6 1
T 300
.40 a
■E 5
' lO "
I 10
10 *
'W 50
40o.n
0 70
2 200
666
665
•Chapter xiv. By the lamb on mount Sion is meant
Jefus ; by the hundred forty and four thoufand, his
church and followers ; by the angel preaching the ever-
Jaiting gofpel, the firft principal effort made towards a
reformation by that public oppofition formed againft the
worfhip of faints and images by emperors and bifhops in
the eighth and ninth centuries ; by the angel crying,
" Babylon is fallen," the Waldenfes and Albigenfes,
who pronounced the church of Rome to be the A-
pocalyptic Babylon, and denounced her deftruftion ;
and by the third angel, Martin Luther and his fellow
reformers, who protefted againft aU the corruptions of
the church of Rome, as deftruftive to falvation. For
an account of the dodlrines and precepts contained ip
the Scriptures, fee Theology. For proofs of their
divine origin, fee Religion, Prophecy, and Mi-
racles.
SCRIVENER, one who draws contracts, or whofe
bufinefs it is to place money at intereft. If a fcrivener
is entrufted with a bond, he may receive the intereft ;
and if he fails, the obligee fhall bear the lofs : and fo
it is if he receive the principal and deliver up the bond^
for being entrufled with the fecurity itfclf, it muft be
prefumed that he is trufted with power to receive inte-
reft or principal ; and the giving up the bond on pay-
ment of the money flaall be a difcharge thereof. But
if a fcrivener ftiall be entrufted with a mortgage-deed,
he hath only authority t© receive the intereft, not the
principal ; the giving up the deed in this cafe not being
f ufhcient to rcltore the cflate, but there muff be a re-
conveyance, &c. It is held, where a fcrivener puts out
his client's money on a bad fecurity, -which upon in-
quiry might have been eafily fousd fo, yet he cannot in
-etiuity be charged to anfwer for the money ; for it is
here fald, no one would venture to put out money of Scrol
another wpon a fecurity, if he were obliged to warrant
and make it good in cafe a lofs fhould happen, without ^.
any fraud in him. J|
SCROBICULUS CORDIS, the fame as Anticar-
muM.
SCROFANELLO, in ichthyology, a name by
which fome have called a fmall fifh of the Mediterra-
nean, more ufually known by the name of the fcor-
p<cna.
SCROLL, inHERALDRY. See that article, chap. iv.
fedl. 9. When the motto relates to the creft, the fcroll
is properly placed above the atchievement ; otherwife it
fhould be annexed to the efcutcheon. Thofe of the
order of knighthood are generally placed round fhields.
SCROPHULA, the king's evil. See Medicine,
349-
SCROPHULARIA, Figwort, in botany : A ge-
nus of the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didy-
namia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank-
ing under the 40th older, Perjonatit. The calyx is
quinquefid ; the corolla almoft globofe, and refupinated ;
the capfule bilocular. There are feveral fpecies, of
which the moft remarkable are, i. Nodo/a, or the com-
mon figwort, which grows in woods and hedges. The
root is tuberous ; the ftalks are four or five feet high,
and branched towards the top ; the leaves are heart-
fhaped, ferrated, and acute. The flowers are of a dark
red colour, fhaped like a cap or helmet ; the lower lip
greenifh : they grow in loofe dichotomous fpikes or ra -
cemi^aX the top of the branches. The leaves have a fe-
tid fmell and bitter tafte, A decoftion of them is faid
to cure hogs of the meafles. An ointment made of the
root was formerly ufed to cure the piles and fcrophu-
lous fores, but is at prefent out of praftice. 2. Aqua-
tica, water-figwort, or betony. The root is fibrous ;
ftem ereft, fquare, about four feet high. The leaves
are oppofite, elliptical, pointed, flightly fcalloped, on
decurrent footftalks. Flowers purple, in loefe naked
fpikes. It grows on the fides of rivulets and other
wet places, and has a fetid fmell, though not fo ftrong
as the preceding. The leaves are ufed in medicine as a
corre£lor of fena, and in powder to promote frieezing.
3. Scorodon'ta^ or balm-leaved figwort. The ftem is
ereft, fquare, about two feet high. The leaves are
oppofite, doubly ferrated. The flowers are duflcy pur-
ple, in compofite bunches. It grows on the banks of
rivulets, &c. in Cornwall. 4. Fernalts, or yellow fig-
wort. The ftalks are fquare, hairy, brown, about two
feet high. The leaves are heart- fliaped, roundifh, hai-
ry, indented, oppofite. The flowers are yellow, on
fingle f^arked footftalks from the alae of the leaves. It
grows in hedges in Surry.
SCROTUM. See Anatomy, 107.
SCRUPI, in natural hiftory, the name of a clafs of
foflils, formed in detached maffes, without any crufts ;
of no determinate figure or regular ftrudture ; and com-
poied of a cryftalline or fparry matter, debafed by an
admixture of earth in various proportions. Under this
clafs are comprehended, 1. The telaugia. 2. The/ie/r/-
dia. 3. 7'he /ithozugia. 4. The jafpides or jafpers.
SCRUPLE, ScRUPULUs, or Scrupulutn, the leafl
of the weights ufed by the ancients, which amongll
the Romans v/as the 24th part of an ounce, or the 3d
part of a dram. The fcruple is ftill a weight among
us.
S C R [ r75 1 S C U
us, containrng the 3d part of a dram, or 20 grains. SCRUTORE, or Scrutoir (from the French ep Scnifore
Among goldfmiths it is 24 grains. critoirej, a kind of cabinet, with a door or Hd opening, II
Scruple, in Chaldean chronolo.^y, is y-sr^ part of downwards, for conveniency of writing on, &c. jcu ponea
an hour, called by the Hebrews' ^^^/^ii/w. Thefe fcruples SCRY, in falconry, denotes a large flock of fowl,
are nnuch ufed by the Jews, Arabs, and other eafteru SCUDDING, the movement by which a fhip is car-
people, in computations of time. ried precipitately before a tempeft. As a fliip flies with
ScRc7Pi.ES of half Duration, an arch of the moon's or- amazing rapidity through the water whenever this ex-
bit, which the moon's centre defcribes from the begin- pedient is put in praftice, it is never attempted in a
ning of an eclipl'e to its middle. contrary wind, unlefs when her condition renders her
ScRuPLRS of Immerfion or Incidence,, an arch of the incapable of fuftaining the mutual effort of the wind
moon's orbit, which her centre defcribes from the be- and waves any longer on her fide, without being ex>-
ginning of the eclipfe to the time when its centre falls pofed to the moft imminent danger of being overfet.
into the fliadow. A Ihip either feuds with a fail extended on her fore-
■ScRuPLSS of Eme>-Jton., an arch of the moon's otbit, maft, or, if the ftorm is exceffive, v/ithout any fail:
which her centre defcribes in the time from the firll which, in the fea-phrafe, \% cd^Hit^ fcuddtng underbade
cmerfion of the moon's limb to the end of the eclipfe. poles. In floops and fchooners, and other fmall vefTelsi
SCRUTINY, (Scrutinxum)^ in the primitive churchj the fail employed for this purpofe is called the fquare-
an examination ©r probation pradlifed in the laft v/eek fat/. In large fliips, it is either the forefail at largej
of Lent, on the catechumens, who were to receive bap- reefed, or with its goofe-wings - extended, according
tifm on the Eafter-day. The fcrutiny was performed to the degree of the tempeft ; or it is. the fore-top fail,
with a great many ceremonies. Exorcifms and prayers clofe reefed, and lowered on the cap-; which laft is
weye made over the heads of the catechumens ; and on particularly ufed when the fea runs i'o high as to be-
Palt^ Sunday, the Lord's Prayer and Creed were given calm the forefail occafionally, a circumftance which ex-
ther]ti, which they were afterwards made to rehearle. pofes the fhip to the danger of broaching-to. The prin-
This cuft.om was more '\n ufe in the church of Rome cipal hazards incident to fcudding are generally, a poop-
than anywhere elfe ; though it appears, by fome miffals, ing fea ; the difficulty of fleering, which expofes the
to have been^ likewife ufed, though much later, in the veffel perpetually to the rifle of broaching-to and the
Gallican church. It is fuppofed to have ceafed about want of fufficient fea-room. A fea ftriking the fhip
the year 860. Some traces of this praftice ftill re- violently on the' flxrn may- dafh it inwards, by which
main at Vienne, in Dauphine, and at Liage. flie muft inevitably founder. In broaching-to (that is,
ScRUTiNV is alfo ufed, in the canon law, for a tick' inclining fuddenly to windward), fhe' is threatened with
et or little paper billet, wherein at elections the eleftors being immediately overturned j and, for want of fea-
write their votes privately, fo as it may not be known room, ftie is endangered by fhipwreck on a lee-fliore, a
for whom they vote. Among us the term fcrutiny is circumftance too dreadful to require explanation,
chiefly ufed for a ftrift perufal and examination of the SCULPONEiE,' among the Romans, a kind of
feveraJ votes haftily taken at an cledlion ; in order to flioes worn by flaves of both fexes. Thefe fhoes werg
find out any irregularities committed therein, by un- only blocks of wood made hollow, like the French fa-
i^ualified voters, &c. bots. .
S GULP
Is the art of carving wood or hewing ftone into ima-
ges. It is an art of the moft remote antiquity,
being praftifcd, as there is reafon to believe, before the
general deluge. We are induced to aifign to it this
early origin, by confidering the expedients by which,
in the firft ftages of fociety, men have everywhere fup-
plied the place of alphabetic charaAers. Thefe, it is
univerfally known, have been pidlure-writing, fuch as
that of the Mexicans, which, in the progrefs of refine-
ment and knowledge, was gradually improved into the
hieroglyphics of the Egyptians and other ancient na-
tions. See Hieroglyphics.
That mankind fhould have lived near 1 700 years^
from the creation of the world to the flood of Noah,-
without falling upon any method to make their concep-
tions permanent, or to communicate them to a diftance,
is extremely improbable ; efpecially when we call to
mind that fuch methods of writing have been found, in
modern times, among people much lefs enlightened than
thofe muft have been who were capable of building
T U R E,
fuch a veflel as the ark. But if the antediluvi.ir.s were
acquainted witL any kind of writing, there can be little
doubt of its being hieroglyphical writing. Mr Bryant
has proved that the Chaldeans were pofl'efled of that art
before the Egyptians; and Berofus * informs us, th^t * ApuJ '
a dehneation of all the monilrous forms which inhabit- Syncellum,
ed the chaos, when this eaith was in that ftate, was to P" 37-
be feen in the temple of Belus in Babylon. I'his deli-
neation, as he defcribes it, muft have been a hiftory in
hieroglyphical charaiSkers ; for it confifted of human fi-
gures with wings, with two heads, and fome with the
horns and legs of goats. This is exaftly fimilar to the
hieroglyphical writing of tlie Egyptians ; and it was
pjeferved, our author fays, both in ckawings and engra-
vings in the temple of the. god of Babylon. As Chal-
dee was the firft peopled region of the earth after the
flood, and as it appears from Pliny j-, as well as from . jj-a
Berofus, that the art of engraving upon bricks baked Mirt. lib.
in the fun was there carried to a confiderable dei^ree of tap. ^6.
perfedlion at a very early period, the probabihty cer-
6 tainly
S G U L P
tainly Is, that the Chaldeans derived the ttt of hierogly-
phical writing, and confequently the rudiments of the
a art of fculpture, from their antediluvian anceftors.
Not folcly It is generally thought that fculpture had its origin
from ido- from idolatry, as it vs^aa found neceflary to place before
U^^y- ^i^g people the images of their gods to enliven the fer-
vour of their devotion ; but this is probably a miftake.
The worfhip of the heavenly bodies, as the only gods
of the heathen nations, prevailed fo long before the dei-
fication of dead men ^ffas thought of (fee Polytheism),
that we cannot fuppofc mankind to have been, during
all that time, ignorant of the art of hieroglyphical wri-
ting. But the deification of departed heroes undoubt-
edly gave rife to the almoft univerfal pra&ice of reprc-
fenting the gods by images of a human form ; and
therefore we muA conclude, that the elements of fculp-
ture were known before that art was employed to en-
liven the devotion of idolatrous worfhippers. The py-
ramids and obeliiks of Egypt, which were probably
temples, or rather altars, -dedicated to the fun (fee Pv-
ramtd), were covered from top to bottom with hiero-
glyphical emblems of men, beafts, birds, fifties, and rep-
tiles, at a period prior to that in which there is any un-
exceptionable evidence that mere ftatue-worftiip pre-
3 vailed even in that nurfery of idolatry.
'Though it gut though it appears thus evident that pifture-
c'ntribu •'Writing was the firft employment of the fculptor, we
ted to car- -S** fromimagining that idolatrous worfhip did not
ry the art contribute to .carry his art to that perfeftioa which it
to perfec- :;attained in fome of the nations of antiquity. Even in
the dark ages of Europe, when the other fine arts were
; almoft txtinguiftied, the mummery of the church of
Rome, and the veneration which fhe taught for her
faints and martyrs, preferved among the Italians fome
veftiges of the lifter-arts of fculpture and. painting ; and
therefore, as human nature Is ever^-where the fame, it
is reafonable to believe that a fimilar veneration for he-
roes and demigods v/ould, among the ancient nations,
have a fimilar effeft. But if this be fo, the prefump-
tion is, that the Chaldeans were the firft who invented
the art of hewing blocks >of wood and ttone into the fi-
gures of men and other animals; for the Chaldeans were
unqueftionably the firft idolaters, and their early pro-
grefs in fculpture is confirmed by the united tellimonies
of Berofus, Alexander Polyhiftor, Apolloderus, and
Pliny ; not to mention the eaftern tradition, that the
father of Abraham was a ftatuary.
Mrljrom- Againft this conclulion Mr Bromley, in his late Hi-
ley's thto- ftory of the Fine Arts, has urged fome plaufible argu-
ry, that jnciits. In ftating thefe he profeffes not to be original,
fculpture to -derive his information from the 'fountain- head of
.cdV"the*" ^"^'^"'^y* He adopts, as he tells us, the theory of a
Scythians. Ercnch writer, who maintains, that in the year of the
world i9-t9> about 300 years after the deluge, the
Scythians under Brouma, a defcendant of Magog the
fon of Japhct, extended their conquefts over the greater
part of Afia. According to this fyftem, Brouma was
not only the civihzer of India, and the author of the
braminical dodlrines, but alfo diffufed the principles of
the Scythian mythology over Egypt, Phcenicia, Greece,
.and the continent of Afia.
Of ihefc principles Mr Bromley has given us no di-
-ftinfl enumeration : the account which he gives of them
is not to be found in one place, but to be colle^led from
a variety of diftant paffages. In attempting therefore
T V R E.
to prefent the fubftance of his fcatta-ed hints In one
view, we will not be confident that we have omitted
none of them. The ox, fays he, was the Scythian em-
blem of the generator of animal -Hfe, and hence it be-
came the principal divinity of the Arabians. The fer-
pent was the fymbol of the fource of intelligent nature.
Thefe were the common points of' union in all the firil
religions of the earth. From Egypt the Ifraehtes car-
ried with them a religious veneration for the ox and the
ferpent. Their veneration for the ox appeared foon af-
ter drey marched into the wildernefs, when in the ab-
fence of Mofes they called upon Aaron to make them
gods which fhould go before tliera. The idea of ha-
ving an idol to go before them, fays our author, was
completely Scythian ; for fo the Scythians adled in all
their prog refs through Afia, with this difference, that
their idol was a living animal. The Ifraelites having
gained their favourite god, which was an ox (not a calf
as it is rendered in the book of Exodus), next pro-
ceeded to hold a feftlv^, which was to be accompa-
nied with danpifig ; a<fpecies of gaiety common in the
feftivals which were held in adoration of the emblematic
Urotal or ox In that very part of Arabia near Mount
Sinai where this event took place. It is mentioned
too as a curious and Important faft, that the ox which
was revered in Arabia was called yldonai. According-
ly Aaron announcing the feaft to the ox or golden calf,
fpeaks thus, to-morroiu is a feaft to jidona'tj which is in
our tranflation rendered to the Lord. In the time of
Jeroboam we read of the golden Calves let up as objefts
of worftup at Bethel and Dan. Nor was the reverence
pakl to the ox confined to Scythia, to Egypt, and to
Afia ; it extended much farther. The ancient Cimbri,
as the Scythians did, carried an ox of bronze before
them on all their expeditions. Mr Bromley alfo in-
forms us, that as great refpeft was paid to the living
ox among the Greeks as was offered to Its fymbol
among other nations.
The emblem of the ferpent, continues Mr Bromley,
was marked yet more decidedly by the exprefs direc-
tion of the Almighty. That animal had ever been
confidered as emblematic of the fupreme generating-
power of intelligent life : And was that idea, fays he,
difcouraged, fo far as It went to be a fign or fymbol of
life, when God faid to Mofes, ** Make thee a brazen
ferpent, and fet it upon a pole, and It fhall dome to pafs
that every one who is bitten, when he lookcth upon it»
(hall live." In Egypt the ferpent furrounded their Ifia
and Ofiris, the diadems of their princes, and the bon-
nets of their priefts. The ferpent made a diftinguiflied
figure in Grecian fculpture. The fable of Echidne,
the mother of the Scythians, gave her figure termina-
ting as a ferpent to all the founders of ftates in Greece;
from which their earlieft fculptors reprefented In that
form the Titan princes, Cecrops, Draco, and even Eric-
thonius. Befides the fpear of the imaofe of Minerva,
which Phidias made for the citadel of Athens, he pla-
ced a ferpent, which was fuppofed to guard that god-
defs.
The ferpent was cemblned with many other figures.
It fometimes was coiled round an egg as an emblem of
the creation ; fometimes round a trident, to (how Its
power over the fea ; fometimes it encircled a flambeau,
to reprefent hfe and death.
In Egypt, as well as ia Scythia and India, the di-
vinity
SCULP
vhiity waa reprcfested or the leaves of the tamara or
lotus. Pan was worfhipped as a god in that country,
as well as over the call. Their fphinxen, and all their
combined figures of animal creation, took their origin
from the mother of the Scythians, who broiight forth
an offsprin;^ that v/as half a woman and half a ferpent.
Their pyramids and obeliflcs arofe from the idea of
flame ; the firft emblem of the iupreme principle, in-
troduced by the Scythians, and which even the influ-
tnce of Zoroafter and the Magi could not remove.
We are told that the Bacchus of the Greeks is de-
rived from the Brouma of the Indians ; that both are
reprefented as fcated on a fwan fwimming over the
waves, to indicate that each was the god of humid na-
ture, not the god of wine, but the god of waters. The
mitre of Bacchus was fhaped like half an egg ; an em-
blem taken from this circumftance, that at the creation
the egg from which all things fprung was divided in
the middle. Pan alfo was revered among the Scythians;
and fi-om that peoj^e were derived all the emblems by
which the Greeks reprefented this divmity.
It would be tedious to follow our author through
the whole of this fubjefl ; and were we to fubmit to
the labour of collefting and arranging his fcattered ma-
terials, we (hould Hill view his fyftem with fome degree
of fufpicion. It is drawn, as he informs us, from the
work of M. D^Ancarville, intitled, Recherches fur i'Oru
gine, I'Efprit^ et les ProgreSy des Arts de la Grece.
foundecl form conclufions concerning the origin of nations,
the rife and progrefs of the arts and fciences, without
the aid of hlftorical evidence, by analogies which are
fometimes accidental, and often fanciful, is a mode
of reafoning which cannot readily be admitted. There
may indeed, we acknowledge, be refemblances in the re-
ligion, language, manners, and cuitoms, of different na-
tions, fo ftriking and fo numerous, that to doubt of
their being defcended from the fame ftock would favour
of fcepticifm. But hiftorical theories muft not be a-
dopted rafhly. We muft be certain that the evidence
is credible and fatisfaftory before we proceed to deduce
any conclufions. We muft firft know whether the
Scythian hiftory itfelf be authentic, before we make
any comparifon with the hiftory of other nations. But
what is called the Scythian hiftory, every man of learn-
ing knows to be a colleftion of fables. Herodotus and
Juftin are the two ancient writers from whom we have
the fuUeft account of that warlike nation ; but thefe two
hiftorians contradift each other, and both write what
cannot be believed of the fame people at the fame pe-
riod of their progrefs. Juftin tells us, that there was a
long and violent conteft between the Scythians and E-
gyptians about the antiquity of their refpeftive nations}
and after ftating the arguments on each fide of the que-
lib. a. ftion, which, as he gives them*, are nothing to the pur-
• ^' pofe, he decides in favour of the claim of the Scy-
thians. Herodotus was too partial to the Egyptian?,
not to give them the palm of antiquity : and he was
probably in the right ; for Juftin defcribes his moft
ancient of nations, even in the time of Darius Hyf-
tafpes, as ignorant of all the arts of civil life. They
occupied their land in common (fays he), and cultiva-
ted none of it. They had no houfes nor fettled habi-
tations, but wandered with their cattle from defert to
defert. In thefe rambles they carried their wives and
ciiildren in tumbrels covered with the fldns of beafts,
. Vol. XVIL Part i.
T U R I
which fcrved as houfes to protei£l them from th« flormg
of-" winter. They were without laws, • governed by the '
didates of natural equity. They coveted not gold or
filver like the reft of mankind, and lived upon milk and
honey. Though they were expofcd to extreme cold,
and had abundance of flocks, they knew not how to
make garments of wool, but clothed themfelves in the
flcins of wild beads This is the moft favourable t *
account which any ancient writer gives of the Scythi- '^''^•**
ans. By Strabo^ and Herodotus || they are reprefented § T
as the moft favage of mortals, delighting in war and jj^^'^j*
bloodftied, cutting the throats of all ftrangers who came
among them, eating their fielh, and making cups and
pots of their flculls. Is it conceivable that fuch fava-
ges could be fculptdrs ; or that, even fuppofing their
manners to have been fuch as Juftin reprefents them, a
people fo fimple and ignorant could have impofed their
mythology upon the Chaldeans, Phenicians, and Egyp-
tians, whom we know by the moft incontrovertible evi-
dence to have been great and poliflied nations fo early
as in the days of Abraham? No I W^e could as foon
admit other novelties of more importance, with which
the French of the prefent age pretend to enlighten the
world, as this origin afligncd by Mr Bromley to the art
of fculpture, unlefs fupported by better authority than
that of D'Ancarville.
The inference of our author from the name of the
facred ox in Arabia, and from the dancing and gaiety
which were common in the religious feftivals of thtf
Arabians, appears to us to be very haftlly drawn. At
the early period of the departure of the Ifraelites from
Egypt, the language of the Hebrews, Egyptians, and
Arabians, differed not more from each other than do
the different dialefts of the Greek tongue which are
found in the poems of Homer (fee Philology, Seft.
III.) ; and it is certain, that for many years after the
formation of the golden-calf, the Hebrews were ftran-
gers to every fpecies of idolatry but that which they
had brought with them from their houfe of bondage.
See Remphan.
Takifig for granted therefore that the Scythians did
not impofe their mythology upon the eaftern nations,
and that the art of fculpture, as well as hieroglyphic
writing and idolatrous worlhlp, prevailed firft among
the Chaldeans, we fliall endeavour to trace the progrefs
of this art through fome other nations of antiquity, till
we bring it to Greece, where it was carried to the high-
eft perfeftlon to which it has yet attained.
The firft intimation that we have of the art of fculp-
ture is in the book of Genefis, where we are Informed,
that when Jacob, by the divine command, was return-
ing to Canaan, his wife Rachel carried along with her
the teraphim or idols of her father. Thefe we are af-
fured weie fmall, fince Rachel foiind it fo eafy to con-
ceal them from her father, notwithftanding his anxious
fcarch. We are- ignorant, however, how thefe images
were made, or of what materials they were compofed.
The firft perfon mentioned as an artift of eminence is
Bezaleel, who formed the cherubims which covered the
mercy-feat.
1 he Egyptians alfo cultivated the art of fculpture ; ^ ^.
but there were two circumftances that obftrufted its ftufpiurs
progrefs, i. The perfons of the Egyptians were not
poiTeffed of the graces of form, of elegance, or of fym-
metrv; and of confequence they had no perfect ftandard
Z • ta
178 SCULPTURE.
tp mo^el their tafte. They refembled the Chlnefe in fonje little folds. It is tied under the breall, and c<?.
the caft of their face, in their great bellies, and in the vered by the mantle, the two buttons of which are
clumfy roundinsT of their contours. 2. They v^ere re- placed under the epaulet.
ilrained by their laws to the principles anrf practices of The Antinous of the Capitol Is compofed of two
their anceftors, and were not permitted to introduce any pieces, which are joined under the haunches. But as
innovations. Their ftatues were always formed in the all the Egyptian ftatues which now remain have been
fame llifF attitude, with the arras hanging perpendicular hewn out of one block, we mud believe that Diodorus,
ly down tlie fides. What perfeftion were they capable of in faying the ftone was divided, and each half finifhed
who knew no other attitude than that of chairmen ? by a feparate artizan, fpoke only of a cololfus. The
So far were they fiom attempting any Improvements, fame author informs us, that the Ei^^yptlans divided the
that in the time of Adrian the art continued in the human body into 24^ parts ; but it is to be regretted
fame rude ftaie as at firft ; and when their flavi{h adu- that he has not given a more minute detail of that di-
lation for that emperor induced them to place the fta- vifion.
tue of his favourite Antinous among the obje£ls of 1 he Egyptian ftatues v/ere not only formed by the
their worfhip, the fame inanimate lllffnefs In the atti- chifel, they were alfo polifhed with great care. Even
tude of the body and pofitlon of the arms was obferved. thofe on the fummit of an obeHik, which could only be
We believe it will fcarccly be neceffary to inform our viewed at a dittance, were finifhed with as much labour
readers that the Egyptian ftatue juft now mentioned is and care as if they had admitted a clofe infpeftion. A*
very diffei-ent from the celebrated ftatue of Antinous, they are generally executed In granite or bafaltes, ftones
©f which fo many moulds have been taken that imita- of a very hard texture, it is impoliible not to admire
tions of it are now to be met with almoft in every cabi- the indefatigable patience of the artlfts.
jaet in Europe. The eye was often of different materials from the reft :
Notwithftanding the attachment of the Egyptians to of the ftatue ; fornetimes it was compofed of a precious
ancient ufages, Winkelman thinks he has difcovered two ftone or metal. We are affured that the valuable dia-
different ftyles of fculpture which prevailed at different mond of the emprefs of Ruflia, the largeft and moll
periods. The firft of thefe ends with the conqueft of beautiful hitherto known, formed one of the eyes of the [
Egypt by Cambyfes. '1 he fecond begins at that time, famous ftatue of Scheringham in the temple of Bra-
'/ and extends beyond the reign of Alexander the Gi"eat. ma.
Ju-fl. ftyle. In tlie firft ftyle, the lines which form the contour are Thofe Egyptian ftatues which ftill remain are com-
ftralght and projefting a little ; the pofitlon Is ftiff and pofed of wood or baked earth : and the ftatues of earth
unnatural : In fitting figures the legs are parallel, the are covered w-Ith green enamel. ^
feet fqueezed together, and the arms fixed to the fides; The Pheniclans- poffeffed both a character and fitua- Pheniciai
but in the figures of women the left arm Is folded a- tlon highly favourable to the cultivation of ftatuary. fculpture
«rofs the breaft ; the bones and mufcles are faintly dif- They had beautiful models in their own perfons, and
cernlble ; tlie eyes are flat and looking obliquely, and their induftrious charaAer qualified them to attain per-
the eyebrows funk; features which deftroy entirely the feftion every art for which they had atafte. Their
beauty of the head ; the cheek-bones are high, the chin fituatlon ralfed a fpirit of commerce, and commerce in-
fmall and piked ; the ears are generally placed higher duced them to cultivate the arts. Their temples (hone
than in nature, and the feet are too large and flat. In with ftatues and columns of gold, and a profufion of
fliort, if we are to look for any model in the ftatues of emeralds was everywhere fcattered. All the great works
Egypt, it is not for the model of beauty but of defor- ' of the Pheniclans have been unfortunately deftroyed ;
mity. The ftatues of men are naked, only they have but many of the Carthaginian medals are illll preferved,
a fliort apron, and a few folds of drapery furrounding ten of which are depofited in the cabinet of the grand
their waift : The veftments of women are only dlftln- duke of Florence. But though the Carthaginians were
gulfhable by the border, which rifes a little above the a colony of Pheniclans, we cannot from their works
furface of the ftatue. In this age it is evident the E- judge of the merit of their anceftors. ,g
i gyptlans knew little of drapery. The Perfians made no diftinguifhed figure in the arts This art
Sceot d Of the fecond ftyle of fculpture pradllfed among the of defign. They were indeed fenlible to the charms of*^^^'^'^^e
Egyptians, Winkelman thinks he has found fpecimens beauty, but they did not ftudy to imitate them. Their ^^^^^p^^
in the two figures of bafaltes in the Capitol, and in an- drefs, which confifted of long flowing robea conceal- fianj.
other figure at Villa Albani, the head of which has iug the whole perfon, prevented them from attending to
fecen renewed. The two firft of thefe, he remarks, bear the beauties of form. Their religion, too, which taught
■vifiblc traces of the former ftyle, which appear efpecially them to worfiiip the divinity in the emblem of fire, and
in the form of the mouth and ftiortnefs of the chin, that it was impious to reprefent him under a human
The hands poffefs more elegance ; and the feet are form, feemed almoft to prohibit the exttrcife of this art,
placed at a greater diftance from one another, than was by taking away thofe motives which alone could give it
cuftomary in more ancieiit times. In the firft and third ditjnhy and value ; and as it was not cuftomary among
figures the arms hang down clofe to the fides. In the them to raife ftatues to great men, it was impoflible
fecond they hang more freely. Winkelman fufpeds that ftatuary could flourlih in Perfia.
that thefe three ftatues have been made after the con- The Etrurians or ancient Tufcans, in the opinion ofE rurian,
queft of Egypt by the Greeks. They are clothed with Winkelman, carried this art to fome degree of perfec-^^culptust
a tunic, a r obe, and a mantle. The tunic, which is tlon at an earlier period than the Greeks. It is faid to
puckered into many folds, defcends from the neck to have been introduced before the fiege of Troy by De-
the ground. The robe in the firft and third ftatues dalus, who, in order to efcape the refentment of Minos
^EeBifr ciofe to the body, and is only perceptible by king of Crete, took r€fuge in Sicily, from whence he
palled
S C U L
puffed into Italy, wliere he left many monuments of his
art. Paufanias and DIodorus Siculus inform us, that
fome works afcribtd to him were to be fcen when they
wrote, and that thefe pofTcffed that charafter of majef-
ty which afterwards diilfnguifhed the labours of Etru-
ria.
A charafter ftrongly marked forms the chief diftinc-
tion in thofe pfoduftions of Etruria which have defcend-
'ed to us. Their Uyle was indeed harfh and overchar-
ged ; a fault alfo committed by Michael An;':eIo the ce-
lebrated painter of modern Etruria ; for it is not to be
fuppofed tliat a people of fuch rude manners as the E-
trurians could communicate to their wotks that vivid-
nefs and beauty which the elegance of Grecian manners
infpired. On the other hand, there are many of the
Tufcan ftatues which bear fo clofe a refemblartce to
thofe of Greece, that antiquarians have thought it pro-
bable that they were conveyed from that country or
Magna Graecia into Etruria about the time of the Ro-
man conqueft, when Italy was adorned with the fpoils
of Greece.
Among the monuments of Etrurian art two different
ftyles have been obferved. In the firft the lines are
ftraight, the attitude ftiff, and no idea of beauty ap-
pears in the Formation of the head. The contour is not
well rounded, and the figure is too flendcr. The head
18 oval, the chin piked, the eyes flat, and looking
afquint.
Thefe are the dtfcfts of an art in a ftate of infancy,
which an accomplilhed mafter could never fall into, and
are equally confpicuous in Gothic ftatues a,s in the pro-
duftions of the ancient natives of Florence. They re-
femble the ftyle of the Egyptians fo much, that one is
almoil induced to fuppofe that there had once been a
communication between thefe two nations ; but others
think that this ftyle was introduced by Dedalus.
Winkelman fuppofes that the fecond epoch' of this
art commenced in Etruria, about the time at which it
had reached its greateft perleftion in Greece, in the
age of Phidias ; but this conjefture is not fupported by
any proofs. To defcribe the fecond ftyle of fculpture
among the Etrurians, is almoft the fame as to defcribe
the ftyle of Michael Angelo and his numerous imita-
torsi The joints are ftrongly marked, the mufcles
raifed, the bones diftinguifliable ; but the whole mien
harfti. In dehgning the bone of the leg, and the fepa-
ration of the mufcles of the calf, there is an elevation
and ftrength above life. The ftatues of the gods are de-
figned with more delicacy. In forming them, the artifts
were anxious to ftiow that they could exercife their
power without that violent diftenlion of the mufcles
which is neceffary in the exertions of beings merely
human ; but in general their attitudes are unnatural, and
the actions ftrained. If a ftatue, for inftance, hold any
thing with its fore-fingers, the reft are ftretched out in
a ftiff pofition, *
According to ancient hiftory, the Greeks did not
rmerge from the favage ftate till a long time after the
Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Indians, had arrived at a
confiderable degree of civilization. The original rude
inhabitants of Greece were civilized by cc^onies which
arrived among them, at different times, from Egypt
and Phenicia. Thefe brought along with them the re.
ligioxij th<^ letters, and the arts of their parent coun.
tries : and if fculpture had its otigih frotti the worihi'ti
ef idols, there is reafon to believe that it was one of
the artb which were thus imported ; for that the god;,
of Greece were of Egyptian and Phenician extradiioa
is a faft incontrovertible ; (fee Mystitries, Mytho-
tOGY, PHiLOLOGY, fcift. 7. PHILOSOPHY, n'^ 19, and
Titan.) The original ftatues of the godsj however,
were very rude. The tarlieft objcfts of idolatrous wor-
fhip have everywhere been the heavenly bodies.^ and the
fyrnbols confecrated to them were generally pillars of a
conical or pyramidal figure. It was not till hero-wor-
fhip was engrafted on the planetary, that the fculptov
thought of giving to the facred ftatue any part of the
human form (fee Polytheism, n* ig, 2-^) ; and it
appears to have been about the era of their revolution
in idolatry that the art of fculpture was introduced
among the Greeks. The firft reprefentations of their
gods were round ftones placed upon cubes or pilars ;
and thefe ftones they afterwards formed roughly, fo as
to give them fomething of the appearance of a head.
Agreeable to this defcription was a Jupiter, which Pau-
fanias faw in Tegeum, in Arcadia. Thefe reprefenta-
tions were called Hermes ; not that they reprefented
Mercury, but from the word hermay which fignified a
rough itone. It is the name which Homer gives to
the ftones which were ufed to fix veffels to the fhore.
Paufanias faw at Pheres 30 deities made of unformed
blocks or cubical ftones. The Lacedemonians repre-
fented Caftor and Pollux by two parallel pofts ; and
a tranfverfe beam was added, to exprefs tlieir rautual af-
fe£tion.
If the Greeks derived from foreign nations the rudi-
ments of the arts, it muft redound much to their ho-
nour, that in a few centuries they carried them to fuch
wonderful perfedlion as entirely to eclipfe the fame of
their mafters. It is by tracing the progrefs of fculpture
among them that we are to ftudy the hiftory of this
art ; and we fliall fee its origin and fucceffive improve-
ments correfpond with nature, which always operates
flowly and gradually.
View of Grecian Sculpture.
The great fuperiority of the Greeks in the art of Canfcs
fculpture may be afcribed to a variety of caufes. The which pra-
influence of chmate over the human body is fo ftriking, mo'^d the
that it muft have fixed the attention of every thinkiufr "'^ ^"^"'f*
1 1 n n 1 1 r , • ^ , . . , " tiire m
man who has reflected on the fubjeft. ] he violent Greece.
heats of the torrid zone, and the exceffive cold of the
polar regions, arc unfavourable to beauty. It is only
in the mild climates of the temperate regions tliat it
appears in its moft attraftive charms, perhaps no
country in the world enjoys a more ferene air, lefs taint-
ed with mifts and vapours, or poffefTes in a higher de-
gree that mild and genial warmth which can unfold and
expand the human body into all the fymmetry of muf-
cular ftrength, and all the delicacies of female beauty in
greater perfedlion, than the happy climate of Greece;
and never was there any people that had a greater tafte.
for beauty, or were more anxious to improve it. Of
the four wilhes of §irnonitlt"s, the fecond was to have
a handlome figure. The love of beauty was fo great
among the Lacedemonian women, that they kept in
their chambers the ftatues of Nereus, of NarcifTus, of
Z 3 Hya.
SCULP
Hyacinthus, and of Caflor and Pollux ; hoping that by
often contemplating them they might have beautiful
children.
There was a variety of circumftances in the noble and
virtuous freedom of the Grecian manners that rendered
thefe models of beauty peculiarly iubfervient to the
cultivation of the fine ;irts. There were no tyrannical
laws, as among the Egyptians, to check, their progrefs.
They had the bell opportunities to iludy them in the
public places, where the youth, who needed no other vail
than chaftity and purity of manners, performed their
various exercifes quite naked. They had the ftrongeft
motives to cultivate fculpture, for a ftatue was the
higheft honour which public merit could attain. It was
an honour ambitioufly fought, and granted only to
thofe who had diftin^iuifhed themfclves in the eyes of
tlieir fellow citizens. As the Greeks-preferred natural
qualities to acquired accomplifhments, they decreed the
Jirft rewards to thofe who excelled in agility and ftrength
of body. Statues were often raifed to wreftlers. Even
the moft eminent men of Greece, in their youth, fought
renown in gymnallic exercifes. Chryfippus and Cle-
anthes diftinguifhed themfelves in the public games
before they were known as philofophers. Plato appear-
ed as a wrelller both at the Ifthmian and Pythian games;
and Pythagoras carried off the prize at Elis, (fee Py-
thagoras.) 'I'he paflion by which they were Infpired
was the ambition of. having their ftatues erefted in the
moil facred place of Greece, to be feen and admired by
the whole people. The number of ftatues ere<9:ed on
different occafions was immenfe ; of courfe the number
of artifls muft have been gieat, their emulation ardent,
and their progrefs rapid.
As molt of their Itatues were decreed for thofe who
■vanquifhed in the pubhc games, the artifts had the op-
portunity of feeing excellent models ; for thofe who
furpaffed in running, boxing, and wreiUing, muft in ge-
neral have been well formed, yet would exhibit different
kinds of beauty.
The high eftimation in which fculptors were held
was very favourable to their art. Socrates declared the
artifts the only wile men. An artift could be a legifla-
tor, a commander of armies, and might hope to have
his ftatue placed befide thofe of Miltiades and Themif-
toclep, or thofe of the gods themfelves. Befides, the
honour and fuccefs of an artift did not depend on the
caprice of pride or of ignorance. The produ<ftions of
art were eftimated and rewarded by the greateft fages
in the general affcmbly of Greece, and the fculptor who
had executed his work with ability and tafte was con-
fident of obtaining immortality.
It was the opinion of Winkelman, that liberty was
highly favourable to this art ; but, though liberty is
abfolutely neceffary to the advancement of fcience, it
may be doubted whether the fine arts owe their im-
provement to it. Sculpture fiourlfhed moft in Greece,
when Pericles exeicifed the power of a king ; and in
the reign of Alexander, when Greece was conquered.
It attained no perfe^iion in Rome till Auguftus had en-
Haved the Romans. It revived in Italy under the pa-
tronage of the family of Medici, and in France under
the defpotic rule of Louis XIV. It is the love of
beauty, luxury, wealth, or the patronage of a powerful
individual, that promotes the progrefs of this art.
It will now be proper to give a particular account of
T U R E.
the ideas which the Greeks entertained concerning the iv''
ftandard of beauty in the different parts of the human '^'"^
body. And with refped to the head, the _ profile
which they chiefly admired is peculiar to dignified
beauty. It confifts in a line ahnoft ftraight, or marked ^^^^^^ g
by fuch flight and gentle inflexions as are fcarcely di- ^
ftinguifhabie from a ftraight line. In the figures of wo-
men and young perfons, the forehead and noie form a
Hue approaching to a perpendicular.
Ancient writers, as well as artiils, affure us that -ph/flps*
Greeks reckoned a fmall forehead a mark of beaHty,hcad.
and a high forehead a deformity. From the fame idea,
the Circaihans wore their hair hanging down over their
foreheads alraoft to their eyebrows. To give an oval '
form to the countenance, it is neceffary that the hair
should cover the forehead, and thus make a curve about
the temples; otherwife the face, which terminates in an
oval form in the inferior part, will be angular in the
higher part, and the proportion will be deftroyed. This
rounding of the forehead may be feen in all handfome
perfons, in all the heads of ideal beauty in ancient ila-
tues, and efpecially in thofe of youth. It has been ;
overlooked, iiowever, by modern ftatuaries, Bernini,
who modelled a ftatue of Louis XIV. in his youth,
turned back the hair from the forehead.
It is generally agreed that large eyes are beautiful ; The cyq
but their fize is of lefs importance in fculpture than
their form, and the manner in which they are enchafed.
In ideal beauty, the eyes are always funk deeper than
they are in nature, and confequently the eyebrow*
have a greater projeftion. But in large ftatues, placed
at a certain diftance, the eyes, which are of the fame
colour with the reft of the head, would have little effedl
if they were not funk. By deepening the cavity of llie
eye, the ftatuary increafes the light and fliade, and thus
gives the head more life and expreffion, I'he fame prac-
tice is ufed in fmall ftatues. The eye is a charailerif-
tic feature in the heads of the different deities. In the
ftatues of Apollo, Jupiter, and Juno, the eye is large and
round. In thofe ot Pallas they are alfo large ; but by
lowering the eyeHds, the virgin air and expreffion of mo-
defty are delicately marked. Venus has fmall eyes, and
the lower eyelid being raifed a little, gives them a Ian-
guifhing look and an enchanting fweetnefs. It is only
neceffary to fee the Venus de Medicis to be convinced
that large eyes are not effential to beauty, efpecially if
we compare her fmall eyes with thofe which refemble
them in nature. The beauty of the eyebrows confifts
in the finenefs of the hair, and in the fharpnefs of the
bone which covers them ; and mafters of the art con-
fidered the joining of the eyebrows as a deformity,
though it is fometimes to be met with in ancient fta-
tues. _
The beauty of the mouth is pecuharly neceffary to^j^^ ^^^^
conftitute a fine face. The lower lip muft be fuller
than the upper, in order to give an elegant rounding
to the chin. The teeth feldom appear, except in laugh-
ing fatyrs. In human figures the lips are generally
clofe, and a httle opened in the figures of the gods.
The lips of Venus are half open.
In figures of ideal beauty, the Grecian artifts never
interrupted the rounding of the chin by introducing a
dimple : for this they confidered not as a mark of beau-
ty, and only to be admitted to diftinguifh individualsa
"ihe dimple indeed appears in fome ancient ftatues, but
aa.
SCULPTURE.
i8r
%0
ears.
ie hair.
antiquaries fUfpeft it to be tKe work of a modern hand.
It is fufpefted alfo, that the dimple which is fome-
times found on the cheeks of ancient ftatues is a mo-
dern innovation.
No part of the head was executed by the ancients
with mare care than the ears, though little attention
has been given to them by modern artifts. I'his cha-
rafter is fo decifive, that if we obferve in any ftatue
that the ears are not highly finifhed, but only roughly
marked, we may conclude with certainty that wc are
examining a modern produftiou. The ancients were
very attentive to copy the precife form oFthe ear in
taking liken efies. Thus, where we meet with a head
the ears of which have a very large interior opening,
wc know it to be the head of Marcus Aurelius.
The manner in which the ancient artiils formed the
hair alfo enables us to diftinguifh their works from
thofe of the moderns. On hard and coarfe ftones the hair
was ihort, and appeared as if it had been combed with a
wide comb ; for that kind of ftone was diflBcult to work,
and could not without immenfe labour be formed into
curled and flowing hair. But the figures executed in
marble in the moft flourifhing period of the art have
the hair curled and flowing ; at leaft where the head
was not intended to be an exaft refemblance, for then
the artift conformed to his model. In the heads of
women, the hair was thrown back, and tied behind in a
waving manner, leaving confiderable intervals; which
gives the agreeable variety of light and (hade, and pro-
duces the effefts of the claro-obfcuro. The hair of the
Amazons is difpofed in this manner. Apollo and Bac-
chus have their hair falling down their (houlders ; and
young perfons, till they arrived at manhood, wore their
hair lon r. The colo,ur of the hair which was reckon-
ed mofl: beautiful, was fair ; and this they gave without
diilinftion to the mofl: beautiful of their gods, Apollo
and Bacchus, and likewife to their moft. illuftrious he-
IX roes.
ie hands. Although the ravages of time have preferved but
few of the hands or feet of ancient fliatues, it is evident
from what remains how anxious the Grecian artilta
were to give every perfeftion to thefe parts. The
hands of young perfons were moderately plump, with
little cavities or dimples at the joints of the fingers.
The fingers tapered very gently from the root to the
point, like well-proportioned columns, and the joints
were fcarcely perceptible. The terminating joint wSs
not bent, as it commonly appears in modern itatues.
In the figures of young men the joints of the knee
are faintly marked. The knee unites the leg to the
thigh without making any remarkable projeftions or
caviries. The moft beautiful legs and befl:-turned
knees, according to Winkelman, are preferved in the
Apollo Saurofthones, in the Villa Borghefe ; in the
Apolio which has a fwan at its feet ; and in the Bacchus
of Villa Medicis. The fame able connoilFeur ren.arks,
it is rare to meet with beautiful knees in young per-
fons, or in the elegant reprefentations of art. As the
ancients did not cover the feet as we do, they gave to
them the moft beautiful turning, and ftudied the form
cf them with the moft fcvup ulcus attention.
54
»3
le legs
d feet.
The breafts of men were large and elevated. The
breafts of women did not poffefs much amplitude. The '"'^^j^^"^
figures of the deities have always the breafts of a virgin, ^^j.^ Qf
the beauty of which the ancients made to confift in a body,
gentle elevation So anxious were the women to re.
femble this ftandard, that they ufed feveral arts to re-
Hrain the growth of their breafts. The breafts of the
nymphs and goddeflcs were never reprefented fwelling,
becaufc that is peculiar to thofe women who fuckle.
The paps of Venus contrail and end in a point, this
being confidered as an eflential charafleriftic oir perfecl
beauty. Some of the moderns have tranfgrefl'ed thefc
rules, and have fallen into great improprieties.
The lower part of the body in the ftatues of men
was formed like that of the living body after a profound
fleep and good digeftion. The navel was conliderably
funk, efpecially in female ftatues. ^5
As beauty never appears in equal perfeftion In every Weal be**^
part of the fame individual, perfect or ideal beauty can/^*
only be produced by felefting the moft beautiful parts
from different models ; but this muft be done with fuch
judgment and care, that thefe detached beauties when
united may form the moft exa£l fymmetry. Yet the
ancients fometimes confined themfelves to Qne indivi-
dual, even in the moft flouriftiing age Theodorus^
whom Socra'tes and his difclples vifited, ferved as a mo-
del to the artifts of his time. Phryne alfo appears to
have been a model to the painters and fculptors But
Socratef, in his converfation with Parrhafius, fays, that
when a perfed: beauty was to be produced, the artifts
joined together the moft flriking beauties which could
be coUedcd from the fineft figures. We know that
Zeuxis, when he was going to paint Helen, united in
one pidure all the beauties of the mofthandfome women
of Crotona.
Th e Grecian fculptors, who reprefented with fuch o[*^a^
fuccefs the moft perfedl beauty of the human form,
were not regardlefs of the drapery of their ftatues.
l''hey clothed their figures in the moft pioper ftuff,
which they wrought into that fhape which was bell
calculated to give effed to their deftgn.
'i'he veftments of women in Greece generally con-
fifted of linen cloth, or fome other light ftuff, and in
latter times of filk and fometimes of woollen cloth.
They had alfo garments embroidered with gold. la
the works of fculpture, as well as in thofe of paintiag, .
one may diftinguifh the linen by its tran^fparency and
fmall united folds. The other light ftuffs which were
worn by the women (a) were generally of cotton pro-
duced in the ifte of Cos ; and thefe the art of ftatuary-
was able to diftinguifh from the linen veftments. 'i'he
cotton cloth was fometimes ftriped, and fometimes em-
bellifhed with a profufion of flowers. Silk was alfo
employed ; but whether it was known in Greece before
the time of the Roman emperors cannot eafily be deter-
mined. In paintings, it is diftinguifhable by changing
its colour in different lights to red, violet, and flcy-blue.
There were two forts of purple; that which the Greeks-
called the io/our of the fea, and Tyrlan purple, which
refembled lac. Woollen garments are eafily known by
the
(a) Men fometimes wore cotton, but all wht) did fo were reckoned cfFeralnate.
iB2 S C U L P
the amplitude of their folds. Befidea thefe, cloth of
gold fometimes coinpofed their drapery : but it was
not like the modenv fabric, confifting of a thread of
gold or of hlvcr fpun with a thread of lilk ; it was com-
pofed of gold or fdver alone, widiout any mixture.
I'he veftnients or the Greeks, which deferve pavtica-
lar attention, are the tunic, the robe, and the mantle.
The tunic. 'i'he tunic was that part oF the drefs which was next
to the body. It may be feen in fleeping ligures, or in
thofe in difhab'lle ; as in the Flora Farnefe, and in the
ilatues of the Amazons in the Capitol. The youngeil
of the damjhters of Niobc, who throws herfelf at fcer
mother's fide, is clothed only with a tunic. It was of
linen, or fome other hght ftuff, without ileeves, fixed
to the Ihoulders by a button, fo as to cover the whole
breaft. None but the tunics ©f the goddefs Ceres and
,g comedians have long ft raight ileeves.
tTho robe. , I'he robes of women commonly confifted of two long
pi'eces of woollen cloth, without any paiticular form, at-
tached to the (houlders by a great many buttons, an^d
fometimes by a clafp. They had ftraight fleeves which
came down to the wTifts. The young girls, as well as
the women, fattened their robe to their fide by a cinc-
ture, in the fame way as the high-prieil of the Jews fa-
ttened his, as it is ftiJl done in many parts of Greece.
The cinfture formed on the fide a knot of ribbons
fometimes refembling a rofe in fhape, which has been
particularly remarked in the two beautiful daughters of
Niobe. In the younger of thefe the cindture is feen
paffing over the flioulders and the back. Venus has
two cindures, the one pafling over the ihouldcr, and
the other furrounding the waill. The latter is called
cejlus by the poets.
The^man- The mantle wa? called peplon by the Greeks, which
tic. fignifies properly the mantle of Pallas. The name was
afterwards apphed to the mantles of the other gods, as
well as to thofe of men. This part of the drefs was not
fquare, as fome have imagined, but of a roundifh form.
'I he ancients indeed fpeak in general of fquare mantles,
but they received this fhape from four taffeU which
were a£5xed to them ; two of thefe were vifible, and
two were concealed under the mantle. The mantle
.. .was., brought under the right arm, and over the left
ihoulder ; fometimes it was attached to the fhoulder by
two buttons, as may be feen in the beautiful ftatue of
.JO Leucothoe at Villa Albani.
The colour The colour of veftnients peculiar to certain ftatues
of the veft too curious t© be omitted. To begin with the fi-
gures of the gods, -'i he drapery of Jupiter was red,
that of Neptune is fuppofed by Winkelman to have been
fea-green. The fame colour alfo belonged to the Ne-
reids and Nymphs. 1 he mantle of Apollo was blue
or violet, iiacchus was drefled in white. Martianus
Capella affigns green to Cybele. Juno's veftmentswcre
fky-bhic, but flie fometimes had a white veil. Pallas
was robed in a flame-coloured mantle. In a painting
of Herculaneum, Venus is in flowing drapery of a gol-
den yellow. Kings were arrayed in purple ; priefts in
white ; and conquerors fometimes in fea-green.
Diencs.
T R E.
With refpeft to tbe head, women generally wow fid
covering but their hair ; when they wifhed to cover
their head, they ufed tlie corner of their mantle. —
Sometimes we meet with veils of a fine tranfparent tex.
ture. Old women wore a kind of bonnet upon theii'
head, an example of which may be fee?! in a flatue in
the Capitol, called the Prjf,ca ; but Winkelm.an thinks
it is a ftatue of Hecuba.
The covering of the feet conffted of fhoes or fan-
dais. The fandals were generally an inch thick, and
compofed of more than one lole of cork. Thofe of
Pallas in Villa Albani has two loles, and other ftatues
had no lefs than five.
Winkelman has affigned four different ftyles to this 3»
art. The ancient ftyle, which continued until the timeo7"h;!'j
of Phidias ; the grand %le, formed by that celebrated amoitl
ftatuary; the beautiful, introduced by Praxiteles, A-Orecl
pellcs, and Lyfippus ; and the imitative ftyle, pvatlifed
by thofe artifts who copied the works of the ancient
xnafters.
The moft; authentic monuments of the ancient ftyle phe'-'
are medals, containing an infcription, which leads us cunt Uj
back to very diftant times. The writing is from right
to left in the Hebrew manner ; a ufage which was aban-
doned before the time ©f Herodotus. The ftatue of
Agamemnon at Elis, which was made by Ornatas, has
an infcription fr om right to left. This artifan flourifti-
ed 50 years before Phidias ; it is in the intervening pe-
riod therefore between thefe two artifts, that wc are to
look for the ceffatioh of this praftice. The ftatues
formed in the ancient ftyle were neither diftinguiflied
by beauty of lhape nor by proportion, but bore a clofe
reftmblance to thofe of the Egyptians and Etruriana
(b) ; the yes were long and flat; the feaion of the
mouth no\ hori/lontal ; the chin was pointed ; the curls
of the hair were ranged in little rings,, and refembled
grains inclofed^ in a heap of raifms. What was ftill
worfe, it was impoifible by infpe<aing the head to di-
ftinguifli the fex.
The charafters of this ancient ftyle were thefe : The
defigning was energetic, but harfti ; it was animated,
but without gracefulnefs ; and the violence of the ex-
prelTion deprived the whole figure of beauty.
_ The grand ftyle was brought t« perfection by Phi- The gri
dias, Polycletus, Scopas, Alcamenes, Myron, and other ftyle,
illuftrious artifts. It is probable, from fome pafi'ages
of ancient writers, that in this ftyle were preferved fome
characters of the ancient manner, fuch as the ft:raight
lines, the fquares and angles. The ancient maftets,
fuch as Polycletus, being the legiflators of propor-
tions, fays Winkelman, and of confequence thinking
they had a right to diftribute the meafures and di-
menfions of the parts of the human body, have un-
doubtedly facrificed fome degree of the form of beauty
to a grandeur which is harfti, in comparifon of the flow-
ing contours and graceful forms of their fucceffors.
'I he moft confiderable monuments of the grand ftylg
are the ftatues of Niobe and her daughters, and a fi-
eure
,Jr 7v " " " "dditional to thofe that will be found in the articles to which we have referred, that
14
SCULP
pure of Pallas, to be feen in Villa Albani ; which, how-
ever, muft not be confounded with the ftatue which is
modetled accoxding to the firft ftyle, and is alfo found
in the fame place. The head poffefies all tlie chaiac-
ters of dignified beauty, at the fame time exhibiting the
rigidnefs of the ancient ftyle. The face is defeftive in
gracefulnefs ; yet it is evident how eafy it would have
been to give the features more roundnefs and grace.
The fissures of Niobe acd her daughters have not, in
the opinion of Winkelman, that aufterity of appear-
ance which marks the age of the ftatue of Pallas. They
are charafkerized by grandeur and fimphcity ; fo fimple
are the forms, that they do not appear to be the tedious
produdlions of art, but to have been created by an in-
ftantaneous effort of nature,
grace. The third ftyle was the graceful or beautiful. Lyfip-
|r!e. pus was perhaps the artift who introduced this ftyle.
Being more converfant than his predecefTors with the
fweet, the pure, the flowing, and the beautiful lines of
nature, he avoided the fquare forms which the mafters
of the fccond ftyle had too much employed. He was
of opinion that the ufe of the art was rather to pleafe
than to aftonifti, and that the aim of the aitift fhould
be to raife admiration by gfiving delight. The artifts
■who cultivated this ftyle did not, however, negleft to
ftudy the fublime works of their predeceflbrs. They
knew that grace is confiftent with the moft dignified
beauty, and that it poffeffes charms which muft ever
pleafe : they knew alfo that thefe charms are enhanced
by dignity. Grace is in^^uled into all the movements
and attitudes of their ftatues, and it appears in the de-
licate turns of the hair, and even in the adj lifting of the
drapery. Every fort of grace w^s well known to the
ancients ; and great as the ravages of time have been
amongft the woi'ks of art, fpecimens arc ftill preferved,
in which can be diftinguiihed dignified beauty, altrad'tve
beauty, and a beauty peculiar to infants. A fpecimen
of dignified beauty may be feen in the ftatue of one of
the mufes in the palace of Barberini at Rome ; and in
the garden of the pope, on the Quirinal is a ftatue of an-
other mufe, which affords a fine inftance of attraftive
beauty. Winkelman fays that the moft excellent mo-
del of infant beauty which antiquity has tranfmitied to
118 is a fatyr of a year old, which is preferved, though
a Ultle mutilated, in Villa Albani.
The great reputation of Praxiteles and Apelles raifed
iy!e. an ardent emulation rn their fucceffors, who defpairing
to furpafs fuch iiluftrious mafters, were fatisfied with
imitating their works. But it ia well known that a
mere imitator is always inferior to the mafter whom
he attempts to copy. When no original genius appears,
the art muft therefore decline.
Ills
Kevin
Clay was the firft material which was employed in
ftatuary. An inftance of this may be feen in a figure
of Alcamenes in bas-relief in Villa Albani. The an-
cients ufed their fingers, and efpecially their nails, to ren-
der certain parts more delicate and lively: hence arofe the
and phrafe ad un^^uem fa£Ius homo, ** an accomplifiied man."
It was the opinion of count Caylus that the ancients
did not ufe models in forming their ftatues. But to dif-
prove this, it is only neceflary to mention an engraving
on a ftone in the cabinet of Stofch, which reprefents
Prometheus engraving the figure of a man, with a
plaruBict ia his hand, to meafure the proportions of his
T U R E. iSj
model. The ancients as well as the moderns made
works in plafter ; but no fpecimens remain except fome
figures in bas-relief, of which the moft beautiful were
found at Baia.
38
The works made of ivory and filver were generally ^vory, fil«
of a fmall fize. Sometimes, however, ftatues of a pro- '^^f ,
digious fize were formed of gold and ivory. The co-^"
loffal Minerva of Phidias, which was compofed of thefe
materials, was .6 cubits high. It is indeed fcarcely
poffible to believe that ftatues of fuch a fize could en-
tirely confift of gold and ivory. The quantity of ivory
neceffary to a coloffal ftatue is beyond conception. M.
de Pauw calculates that the ftatue of Jupiter Olympus,
which was 54 feet high, would coufume the teeth of
300 elephants.
The Greeks generally hewed their marble ftatues out Marblg;^.
of one block, thougJh they after worked the heads fepa-
rately, and fometimes the arms. The heads of the
famous group of Niobe and her daughters have been
adapted to their bodies after being feparately riuiflied. It
is proved by a large figure reprcfcnting a river, which
is preferved in Villa Albani, that tfie ancients firft
hewed their iliatues roughly before they attempted to
finifh any part. When the ftatue had received its per-
feft figure, they next proceeded to polifh it with pumice-
ftone, and again carefully retouched every part with
the chifel.
The ancients, when they employed porphyry, ufuaUy Perf hyr^,^
made the head and extremities of marble. It is true,
that at Venice there are four figures entirely compofed
of porph)T)' ;. but thefe are the produdions of the Greeks
of the middle age. 'I'hey alio made ftatues of bafaltes
and alabafter.
Without expreflion, gefture, and attitude, no fi- Expreflloa-
gure can be beautiful, becaufe in thefe the graces al-^""^
v/ays refide It was for this rcafon that the graces are^*^*^*^'
always reprefented as the companions of Venus.
The expreflion of tranquillity was fi-equent in Gre-
cian ftatues, becaufe, according to Plato, that was con-
fidered as the middle ftate of the foul between pleafure
and pain. Experience too ftiows that in general the
moft beautiful perfons are endowed with the fweeteft
and moft engaging manner. Without a fedatCj tran-
quillity dignified beauty cotild not exift. It is in this
tranquillity, therefore, that we muft look for the com-
plete difplay of genius.
The moft elevated fpecies of tranquillity and repofein the f^a-
was ftudied in the figures of the gods. The father of tues of the-
the gods, and even inferior divinities, are reprefented S'^'^'*
without emotion or refentment. It is thus that Homer
paints Jupiter fhaking Olympus by the motion; of hi«
hair audhis eyebrows.
Shakes his-ambrofial curls, and gives the nod,
The ftamp of fate and fanftion of the god.
Jupiter is not always e^jhibited in this tranquil ftate. In
a bas-relief belo;iging to the Marquis Rondini he ap-
pears feated on an arm-chair with a melancholy afpeft.
The Apollo of the Vatican reprefents the god in a fit of
rage agalnft the ferpent Python, which he kills at a
blow. The artift, adopting the opinion of the poets,
has made the nofe the feat of anger, and the lips the
feat of difdain. th^ft
Toexprefsthe adlon of a hero, tlie Grecian fculptors ^^gg
44
In the fta-
tues i f
'Women.
S G U L
:^fjj!lnef\tecl tlie eountepHnee of a noble virtuous charafter
repreiTing.his groans, and altewing no expreffion of pain
to appear. In defcribing the aftions of a hero the
poet has much more liberty than the artift. The poet
can paint them fuch as they were before men were
taueht to fuftdue their paflions by the rellraints of Liw,
or the refined cuftoms of focial liFe. But the artift,
cbltged to feleft the moft beautiful forms, is reduced to
the neceffity of giving fuch an expreffion of the paffions
as may not Ihock our feelings and difguft us with his
produftioR. The truth of thefe remarks will be ac-
knowledged by thofe who have feen two of the moft beau-
tiful monuments of antiquity ; one of which reprefents
the fear of death, the other the moft violent pains and
fufferings. The daughters of Niobe, againft whom Diana
has difcharged her fatal arrows, are exhibited in that
ftate of ftupefaftion which we imagine muft take place
when the certain profpe6f of death deprives the foul of
all fenfibility. The fable prefents us an image ot that
ftiipor which Efchylus defcribes as feizing the Niobe
when they were transformed into a rock. The other
monument referred to is the image of Laocoon, which
■exhibits the moft agonizing pain that can affeft the
mufcles, the nerves, and the veins. The fufferings of
the body and the elevation of the foul are exprefled in
every member with equal energy, and form the moft
fublime contraft imaginable. Laocoon appears to fuf-
fer with fuch fortitude, that, whilft his lamentable fitu-
atlon pierces the heart, the whole figure fills us with an
ambitious defire of imitating his conftancy and magna-
nimity in the pains and fufferings that may fall to our
lot.
Philoftetes is Introduced by the poets fhedding tears,
uttering complaints, and rending the air with his groans
and cries ; but the artift exhibits him filent and bear-
ing his pains with dignity. The Ajax of the celebra-
ted painter Timomachus is not drawn in the aft of de-
ftroying the fiieep which he took for the Grecian chiefs,
but in the moments of refleflion which fucceeded that
frenzy. So far did the Greeks carry their love of
calmnefs and flow movements, that they thought a
quick ftep always announced rufticity of manners. De-
ir.ofthenes reproaches NIcobulus for this very thing ;
and from the words he makes ufe of, it appears, that to
fpeak with infolence and to walk haftily were reckoned
fynonymous.
In the figures of women, the artlfts have conformed
to the principle obferved in aU the ancient tragedies, and
recommended by Ariftotle, never to make women fliow
too muck intrepidity or exceffive cruelty. Conforma-
ble to this maxim, Clytemneftra is reprefented at a little
diftance from the fatal fpot, watching the murderer, but
without taking any part with him. In a painting of
Timomachus reprefenting Medea and her children,
when Medea lifts up the dagger they fraile in her face,
and her fury is Immediately melted into compaffion for
the innocent vlftims. In another reprefentation of the
fame fubjeft, Medea appears hefitatiu^ and Indeclfive.
Guided by the fame maxims, the artlfts of moft refined
tafte were careful to avoid all deformity, choofing rather
to recede from truth than from their accuflomed refpeft
for beauty, as may be feen in feveral figures of Hecuba.
Sometimes, however, fiae appears in the decrepitude of
age, her face furrowed with wrinkles, and her breafts
•hanging down.
ma
rs
P T U R E.
IlluftriQus men, and thofe invfftefl with ^Wiem f>P
dignity, are reprefented with a noble affurance and finn ''^ '
afpeft. The ftatues of the Roman emperors refemble j^^^^^*'
thofe of heroes, and are far removed from every fpecies^cro
of flattery, in the gefture, in the attitude, and adion.
They never appear with haughty looks, or with the
fplendor of royalty ; no figure is ever feen prefencing
any thing to them with bended knee, except captives ;
and none addreffes them with aa inclination of the head.
In modern works too little attention has been paid to
the ancient cojlume. Winkelman menllons a bas-relief,
which was lately executed at Rome for the fountain of
Trevi, reprefenting an archlteft in the aft of prefenting
the plan of an aqueduft to Marcus Agrippa. The
modern fculptor, not content with giving a long beard
to that illuftrious Roman, contrary to all the ancient
marble ftatues as vvtll as medals which remain, exhibits
the architeft on his knees.
In general, it was an eftabllfhed principle to banllh all
violent paffions from public monuments. This will
ferve as a decifive mark to diftinguilh the true antique
from fuppofititious works. A medal has been found
exhibiting two Affyrians, a man and woman tearing
their hair, with this infcription, Assyria, et. palaes-
TiNA. IN. POTEST. P. R. REDAC, s. c. The forgery of
this medal is manifeft from the word Pa/aejiina, which
is not to be found in any ancient Roman medal with a
Latin Infcription. Befides, the violent aftion of tearing
the hair docs not fuit any fymbolical figure. This ex-
travagant ftyle, which was called by the ancients /arew-
thyrjts, has been imitated by moft of the modern artlfts.
Their figures refemble comedians on the ancient theatres,
who, in order to fuit the diftant fpeftators, put on paint-
ed maflcs, employed exaggerated geftures, and far over-
leaped the bounds of nature. This ftyle has been re-
duced into a theory in a trcatife on the paffions compo-
fed by Le Brun. The defigns which accompany that
work exhibit the paffions in the very higheft degree,
approaching even to frenzy : but thefe are calculated to
vitiate the tafte, efpecially of the young ; for the ardour
of youth prompts them rather to feizc the extremity
than the middle ; and it will be difficult for that artift I
who has formed his tafte from fuch empaffioned models '
ever to acquire that noble fimplicity and fedate gran-
deurVhich diftinguifhed the works of ancient tafte.
Proportmn is the bafis of beauty, and there can be Of jn o
no beauty without it; on the contrary, proportion mayt'ons
exift where there is little beauty. Experience every
day teaches us that knowledge is diftlnft from tafte ; and i
proportion, therefore, which is founded on knowledge, |
may be ftriftly obferved in any figure, and yet the figure ;
have no pretdnfions to beauty. The ancients confider- i
ing ideal beauty as the moft perfeft, have frequently i
employed it in preference to the beauty of nature. |
The body confifts of three parts as well as the mem- j
bers. The three parts of the body are the trunk, the
thighs, and the legs. The inferior part of the body
are the thighs, the legs, and the feet. The arms alfo
confift of three parts. Thefe three parts muft bear a
certain proportion to the whole as well as to one an-
other. In a well formed man the head and body muft
be proportioned to the thighs, the legs, and the feet, in
the fame manner as the thighs are proportioned to the
legs and the feet, or the arms to the hands. The face
7 alfo
S C U L 1
«lfo confifts of three parts, that is, three times the length
of the nofe ; but the head is not four tunes the length of
the nofe, as fome writers have afferted. From the place
where the hair begins to the crown of the head are
only three- fourths of the length of the nofe, or that
part is to the nofe as 9 to 12.
It is probable that the Grecian, as well as Egyptian
artifts, have determined the great and fmall proportions
by fixed rules ; that they have eftablifhed a pofitive
meafure for the dimenfions of length, breadth, and cir-
cumference. This fuppofition alone can enable us to
account for the great conformity which we meet with
in ancient ftatues. Winkelman thinks that the foot was
the meafure which the ancients ufed in all their great
dimenfions, and that it was by the length of it that
they regulated the meafure of their figures, by giving
to them fix times that length. This in faft is the
length which Vitruvius affigns, Pes vero a/titudints cor-
poris fexttty I. 3. cap. I. That celebrated antiquary
thinks the foot is a nwre determinate meafure than
the head or the face, the parts from which modern
painters and fculptors too often take their propertions.
This proportion of the foot to the body, which has ap-
peared ftrange and incomprehenfible to the learned
Huetius, and has been entirely tejefted by Perrault, is
however founded upon experience. After meafuring
with great care a vaft number of figures, Winkelman
found this proportion obferved not only in Egyptian
ftatues,^ but alfo in thofe of Greece. This fad may be
determined by an infpeftion of thofe ftatues the feet
of which are perfeft. One may be fully convinced of
it by examining fome divine figures, in which the
artifts have made fome parts beyond their natural di-
menfions. In the Apollo Belvidere, which is a little
more than feven heads high, the foot is three Roman
inches longer than the head. The head of the Venus
de Medicis is very fmall, and the height of the ftatue is
feven heads and a half : the foot is three inches and a
half longer than the head, or precifely the fixth part of
the length of the whole ftatue.
Practice of Sculpture.
We have been thus minute in our account of the
Grecian fculpture, becaufeitis the opinion of the ableft
critics that modern artifts have been more or lefs emi-
nent as they have ftudied with the greater or lefs atten-
tion the models left us by that ingenious people :
Winkelman goes fo far as to contend that the moft fi-
niftied works of the Grecian matters ought to be ftudied
in preference even to the works of nature. This ap-
pears to be paradoxical ; but the reafon afllgned by the
Abbe for his opinion is, that the faireft lines of beauty
are more eafily difcovered, and make a more ftriking
and powerful impreffion, by their reunion in thefe fulT-
lime copies, than when they are fcattered far and wide
in the original. Allowing, therefore, the ftudy of na-
ture the high degree of merit it fo juftly claims, it muft
neverthelefs be granted, that it leads to true beauty by
a much more tedious, laborious, and difficult path, than
the ftudy of the antique^ which prefents immediately to
t^ie artift's view the objca of his refearches, and com-
bines in a clear and ftrong point of light the various
rays of beauty that are difperfed through the wide do-
main of natiite.
As foon as the artift has laid this excellent founda-
VoL. XVII. Part I.
TURE. 185
tion, acquired an intimate degree of familiarity with
the beauties of the Grecian ftatues, and formed his tafte
after the admirable models they exhibit, he may then
proceed with advantage and afTurance to the imitation
of nature. The ideas he has already formed of the per-
fefllon of nature, by obferving her difperfed beauties
combined and coUedied in the compofitions of the an-
cient artifts, will enable him to acquire with facility,
and to employ with advantage, the detached and partial
ideas of beauty which will be exhibited to his view in a
furvey of nature in her adual ftate. When he difcovers
thefe partial beauties, he will be capable of combining
them with thofe perfeCl forms of beauty with which
he is already acquainted. In a word, by having always
prefent to his mind the noble models already mention-
ed, he will be in fome meafure his own oracle, and will
draw rules from his own mind.
There are, however, two ways of imitating nature. Tw!^ ways
In the one a fingle object occupies the artift, who en- of imita-
deavours to reprefent it with preclfion and truth ; in ^"^S
the other, certain lines and features are taken from a
variety of objedls, and combined and blended into one
regular whole. All kinds of copies belong to the firft
kind of imitation; and produdlions of this kind muft
be executed neceffarily in the Dutch manner, that is to
fay, with high finifhing, and httle or no invention. But
the fecond kind of imitation leads diredly to the Invefti-
gation and difcovcry of true beauty, of that beauty
whofe idea Is connate with the human mind, and Is only
to be_ found there jn its highcft perfeftlon. This is
the kind of imitation In which the Greeks excelled, and
in which men of genius excite the young artifts to ex-
cel after their example, u/z. by ftudying nature as they
did.
^ After having ftudied in the produdllons of the Gre-
cian mafters their choice and exprefiion of feled na-
ture, their fublime and graceful contours, their noble
draperies, together with that fedate grandeur and ad-
mirable fimplicity that conftitute their chief merit, the
curious artifts will do well to ftudy the manual and me-
chanical part of their operations, as this is abfolutely
ncceffary to the fuccefsful imitation of their excellent
manner.
It is certain that the ancients almoft always formed Models of
their firft models in wax: to this modern artifts havefiatues.
fubftituted clay, or fome fuch compofitlon : they prefer
clay before wax in the carnations, on account of the
yielding nature of the latter, and its ftlcking in fome
meafure to every thing it touches. We muft not, how-
ever, imagine from hence that the method of forming
models of wet clay was either unknown or negledled
among the Greeks ; on the contrary. It was in Greece
that models of this kind were invented. Their author
was pibutades of Sicyon ; and it is well known that
Arcefilas, the friend of LucuUus, obtained a higher de-
gree of reputation by his clay models than by all his
other produ6lions. Indeed, if clay could be made to
preferve its original moifture, it would undoubtedly be
the fitteft fubftance for the models of the fculptor ; but
when it is placed either in the fire or left to dry im-
perceptibly in the air, its folld parts grow more com-
patl, and the figure lofing thus a part of its dimenfions,
is necelfarily reduced to a fmaller volume. This dimi-
nution would be of no confequence did it. equally affed
the whole figure, fo as to preferve its proportions en-
A a tire.
j;86 S U L P
tire. But this is not the cafe : for the fmaller parts
of the figure dry fooner than the larger ; and thus lofing
more of their dimenfions in the fame fpace of time than
the latter do, the fymmetry and proportions of the figure
inevitably fuffer. This inconveniency does not take
place in thofe models that are made in wax. It is in-
deed extremely difficult, in the ordinary method of
working the wax, to give it that degree of fmoothnefs
that is necelTary to reprefent the foftnefs of the carna-
tions or flelhy parts of the body. This inconvenience
may, however, be remedied, by forming the model firft
in clay, then moulding it in plafter, and laftly calling it
in wax:. And, indeed, clay is feldom ufed but as a mould
in which to cad a figure of plafter, ftucco, or wax, to
ferve henceforth for a model by which the meafures and
proportions of the ftatue are to be adjufted. 'In ma-
king waxen models, it is common to put half a pound
of colophony to a pound of wax ; and fame add turpen-
tine, melting the whole with oil of olives.
Method of So much for the firft or preparatory fteps in this
vrorking procedure. It remains to confiderthe manner ot work-
the mar- marble after the model fo prepared ; and the me-
' and ^^^^ ^^^^ followed by the Greeks feems to have been
extremely different from that which is generally obfer-
ved by modern artifts. In the ancient ftatues we
find the moft ftriking proofs of the freedom and bold-
nefs that accompanied each ftroke of the chifel, and
which refulted from the artift's being perfedly fure of
the accuracy of his idea, and the precifion and fteadi-
nefs of his hand: the moft minute parts of the figure
carry thefe marks of afTurance and freedom ; no indica-
tion of timoroufnefs or diffidence appear ; nothinf^ that
can induce us to fancy that the artift had occafion to
correa any of his ftrokes. It is difficult to find, even
in the fecond-rate produftions of the Grecian artifts,
any mark of a falfe ftroke or a random touch. This
firmnefs and precifion of the Grecian chifel were cer-
tainly derived from a more determined and perfe6t fet
of rules than thofe which are obferved in modern times.
The method generally obferved by the modern fculp-
tor is as follows : Firft, out of a great block of marble
he faws another of the fize required, which is_ perform-
ed with a fmooth fteel faw, without teeth, cafting water
and fand thereon from time to time ; then he fafhions
it, by taking ofF what is fuperfluous with a fteel point
and a heavy'haramer of foft iron ; after this, bringing
it near the meafure required, he reduces it ftill nearer
with another finer point ; he then ufes a flat cutting
inftrument, having notches in its edge ; and then a
chifel to take off the fcratches which the former has
left ; till, at length, taking rafps of different degrees^ of
finenefs, by degrees he brings his work into a condition
for polifhintr. . n rr i
After this, having ftudied his model with all polfible
attention, he draws upon this model horizontal and per-
pendicular lines which interfeft each other at right
angles. He afterwards copies thefe lines upon his
marble, as the painter makes ufe of fuch traniverfal
lines to copy a pifture, or to reduce it to a finaller fize.
Thefe traniverfal lines or fquares, drawn in an equal
number upon the marble and upon the modelyin a man-
ner proportioned to their refpeftive dimenfions, exhibit
accurate meafures of the furfaces upon which the artiffc
Is to work ; but cannot determine, with equal precifion,
the depths that are proportioned to thefe furfaces. —
T U R E.
The fculptor, indeed, may determine thefe depths by
obferving the relation they bear to his model ; but as
his eye is the only guide he has to follow in this efti-
mate, he is always more or lefs expofed to error, or at
leaft to doubt. He is never fure that the cavities made
by his chifel are exaft ; a degree of uncertainty accom-
panies each ftroke; nor can he be affured that it has
earned away neither too much nor too little of his mar-
ble. It is equally difficult to determine, by fuch lines
as have already been mentioiied, the external and inter-
nal contours of the figure, or to transfer them from the
model to the marble. By the internal contour is un-
derftood that which is defcribed by the parts which ap-
proach towards the centre, and which are not marked
in a ftriking manner.
It is farther to be noticed, that in a complicated and
laborious work, which an artift cannot execute without
affiftance, he is often obHged to make ufe of foreign
hands, that have not the talents or dexterity that are
neceffary to finiih his plan. A fingle ftroke of the chifel
that goes too deep is a defeft not to be repaired ; and
fuch a ftroke may eafily happen, where the depths are
fo imperfeftly determined. Defers of this kind are m-
evitable, if the fculptor, in chipping his marble, begins
by forming the depths that are requifite in the figure he
defigns to reprefent. Nothing is more liable to error
than this manner of proceeding. The cautious artift
ought, on the contrary, to form thefe depths gradually,
by little and Httle, with the utmoft circumfpe£tion and
care ; and the determining of them with precifion ought
to be confidered as the kft part of his work, and as the
finifhing touches of his chifel. ^ . ^ ^
The various inconveniences attending this method of
determined feveral eminent artifts to look out for onein,^^
that would be liable to Icfs uncertainty, and produftlve
of fewer errors. The French academy of painting at
Rome hit upon a method of copying the ancient fta-
tues, which fome fciilptors have employed with fuccefs,
even in the figures which they finifhed after models in clay
or wax. This method is as follows. The ftatue that is
to be copied is inclofed in a fmme that fits it exadtly.
The upper part of this frame is divided into a certain
number of equal parts, and to each of thefe parts a
thread is fixed with a piece of lead at the end of it.
Thefe threads, which hang freely, fhow what parts of
the ftatue are moft removed from the centre with much
more perfpicuity and precifion than the lines which are
drawn upon its furface, and which pafs equally over the
higher and hollow parts of the block : they alfo give
the artift a tolerable rule to meafure the more ftriking
variations of height and depth, and thus render him
more bold and determined in the execution of his plan.
But even this method is not without Its defers : for
as it is impoffible, by the means of a ftraight line, to
determine with precifion the procedure of a curve, the
artift has, in this method, no certain rule to guide him
in his contours ; and as often as the line which he is to
defcribe deviates from the direftion of the plumb line,
which is hia main guide, he muft neceffarily find himfelf
at a lofs, and be obliged to have recourfe to conjedure.
It is alfo evident, that this method affords no certain
rule to determine exadlly the proportion which the va-
rious parts of the figure ought to bear to each other,
confidered in their mutual relation and connexions.
The artift, indeed^ endeavours to fupply this defed by
inter-
S C U L 1
'Interfering tht pliimh-lines by horizontal ones. This
recourfe has, neverthtlefs, its inconveniences, lince the
fquares formed by tranfverfal Hnes, that are at a diftance
from the figure (though they be exaflly equal), yet
reprefent the parts of the figure as greater or Imaller,
according as they are more or lefs removed from our
pofition or point of view. But, notwithflanding thefe
inconveniences, the method now under confideration is
certainly the bell that has hitherto been employed : it is
T U R E. 187
more prafricable and fure than any other we know,
thou;T,h it appears, from the remarks we have now been
making, that it does not exhibit a lure and univerfal cri-
terion to a fculptor who executes after a model. 5%
To polifli the ftatue, or make the parts of it fmooth Of poiillv-
and fleek, they ufe pumice-flone and fmelt ; then tripoli ; ^^^^Jg ^
and when a flill greater lullre is required, tliey ufe
burnt ftraw. For the Cajling of Statues^ lee Foundery,
and PiASTFR of Paris.
s c u
SCUM, properly denotes the impurities which a li-
quor, by boiling, cafts up to the furface. The term
Jcum is alfo iifed for what is more properly called, the
fcoria of metals.
SCUPPERS, in a (hip, are certain channels cut
through the water-ways and fides of a fhip, at proper
diftances, and lined with plated lead, in order to carry
the water off from the deck into the fea. The fcup-
pers of the lower deck of a fliip of war are ufually fur-
nifhed with a leathern pipe, called the fciipper-hoft, which
liangs downward from the mouth or opening of the
fcupper. The intent of this is to prevent the water
from entering when the fhip inclines under a weight of
fail.
SCURVY, in medicine, fee that article, 351,
where we have given an account of the fymptoms,
caufes, and modes of prevention and cure, according to
fome of the moll eminent writers in medicine- We have
here only to add, that, in the opinion ot Dr Beddoes,
the mlnefal acids, efpecially the nitric and vitriolic, may
be employed in the prevention or cure of this dreadful
difeafe with as much fuccefs as the vegetable acids. —
But of all the fubftances that can at once be cheaply
procured and long preferved, he thinks the concrete
acid of tartar by far the moft promifing. It is very
grateful, and comes near to the citric acid. In tropi-
cal countries the fcurvy is feldom known.
ScuRyr-grafsf in botany. See Cochlearea.
The officinalis, or common officinal fcurvy-grafs,
j:^rows upon rocks on tlie fea coalt, and on the High-
land mountains, abundantly. It has an acrid, bitter,
and acid talle, and is highly recommended for the fcur-
vy. There are inftances ot a whole fhip's crew having
been cured of that diiiemper by it ; and as it abounds
with acid falts, there can be no doubt but that it is a
great refifler of putreh'.Aion. The beft way of taking
it is raw in a falad. It is alfo diuretic, and ufeful in
dropfies. 1 he Highlanders eileem it as a good lio-
machic.
The coronopus, another fpecies, was fome years ago
rendered famous, the afhes of it being an ingredient in
Mrs Joanna Stephens's celebrated medicine for the ftonc
and gravel ; but, unfortunately for thofe afflifted with
that excruciating complaint, it has not been able to
fupport its credit. It is acrid, and talles like garden
crels.
SCUT AGE (fcutagium, Szx. fcf /ripening), was a tax
or contribution raifcd by thofe that held lands by
knights fervice, towards furniffiing the kinp/s army, at
one, tvvo, or three merks for every knight's fee. Hen-
ry III. for his voyage to the Holy Land, had a tenth
granted by the clergy, and /outage three merks of every
S C Y
knight's fee by the laity. This was alfo levied by Scute
Henry II. Richard I. and King John. See Knight' II
Service. , , '^Tj'^' ^
SCUTE {fcutvm), a French gold coin of 3s. 4d. *
in the reign of king Henry V. Catharine queen of
England had an affurance made her of lundry caftles,
manors, lands, Sec. valued at the fum of 40,000 fcutes^
every two whereof were worth a noble. Rot. Pari. \,
Hen. VI.
SCUTELLARIA, Skull-cap, in botany: A ge-
nus of the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didy-
namia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank-
ing under the 40th order, Perfmata. The calyx is fhort,
tubulated, has the mouth entire, and dole after flower-
ing. There are two fpecies in Britain, t\ie gakricu/ata and
minor. 1. The Galericulata, Blue Skull-cap, or Hooded
Willonu-herb. The ftems are weak, branched, and above
a foot high ; the leaves are heart-fhaped, narrow-point-
ed, on fhoit foot-ftalks, and fcalloped ; the flowers are
blue, in pairs, on pedicles from the alae of the leaves,
and pendulous. It grows on the banks of rivers and
lakes, is bitter, and has a garlic fmell. 2. Minor., little
red Skull-cap, or IVilloiu-hert. The ftalks are about
eight inches high; the leaves are heart-fhaped, oval;
the flowers are purple. It grows in fens, and on the
fides of lakes.
SCUTTLES, in a fhip, fquare holes cut in the
deck, big enough to let down the body of a man, and
which ferve upon fome occafions to let the people
down into any room below, or from one deck to ano-
ther.
SCYLAX, a celebrated mathematician and geo-
grapher of Caria, flourifl-ied under the reign of Darius
Hyllafpes, about 558 B.'C. Some have attributed to
him the invention of geographical tables. We have
under his name a geooiaphical work publifhed by Hoef- .
chelius; but it is wiitten by a much later author, and
is perhaps only an abridgment of Scylax's Ancient Geo-
graphy.
SCYLLA (anc. geog. ), a rock in the Fretnm Si-
culum, near the coaft of Italy, dangerous to fiiipping, .
oppofite to Charybdis, a whirlpool on the coatl of Si- .
cily ; both of them famous in mythology.
Scylla and Charybdis have been almoft fubdued by Sutlerland't
the repeated convulfions of tliis pait of the earth, and '^<""' "P
by the violence of the current, vviiich is continually in- ^^^^"^'f^'^.^
crealing the breadth of the Straits. If proper allow-
ance be made for thefe circumllancefi, we fliall acquit
the ancients of any exaggeration, notwitliftanding the
very dreadful colours in which they have painted this
pafl'age. It is formed by a low peninfula, called Caps
Pekrusj ftretching to the eaflward on the Sicilian fide,
Aa 2 iramc-
S C Y
C 1^8 ]
S C Y
immediately within which lies the famous whirlpool of
Charybdis, and by the rocks of Scylla, which a few
miles below on the Calabrian fhore projeft towards the
weft. The current runs with fui-prifing force from one
to the other alternately in the direftion of the tide, and
the tides themfc4ves are very irregalar. Thus veffels,
by fliynning the one, were in the utmoft danger of be-
ing fwallowed up by the other.
At prefent, in moderate weather, when the tide is
either at ebb or flood, boats pafs all over the whirl-
pool: but, in'general, it is like the meeting oF two con-
tending currents, with a number of eddies all around j
and, even now, there is fcarcely a winter in which there
are n6t fome wrecks.
" At the time when we paffed the Straits (fays Cap-
tain Sutherland, from whom we have obtained this ac-
curate 'information) the weather was as favourable as
we could wifh ^ and yet, in fpite of a llrong breeze and
the current, which hurried us on with furprifing velo-
city, the (hip's head was fuddenly whirled round near
three points ; but the wind blowing frefh, in a few fe-
conds fhe dafhed through the eddy that had caught her;
for, to avoid Scylla, and feeure Meflina, we had kept
pretty clofe to Charybdis."
SCYROS, an ifland in the ^gean fea, at the diftance
of about 28 miles north-caft from Eubcea. It is 60
miles in circumference. It was originally in the poffef-
^on of the Pelafgians and Cari^ns. Achilles retired
there to avoid going to the Trojan war, and became
father of Neoptolerous by Deidamia the daughter of
king Lycomedes. Scyros was conquered by the Athe-
nians under Cimon. It was very rocky and barren.
Now Sciro. E. Long. 25. O. N. Lat. 38. 15.
SCYT 'iLA LACONIC A, in antiquity, a ftratagem
or device of the Lacedemonians, for the fecret writing
of letters to their eorrefpondents, fo that if they fliould
chance t© be intercepted, nobody might be able to
read them. — To this end they had two wooden rollers
or cylinders, perfectly alike and equal ; one whereof
was kept in the city, the other by the perfon to whom
the letter was dire^ed. For the letter, a flcin of very
thin parchment was wrapped round the roller, and
thereon was the matter written ; which done, it was
taken off, and fent away to the party, who, upon put-
ting it in the fame manner upon his roller, found the
lines and words in the very fame difpofition as when
they were firft written. This expedient they fet a very
high value on j though, in truth, artlefs and grofs
enough : the moderns have improved vaftly on this me-
thod of writing. See Cipher.
SCYTALIA, in botany : A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the oftandria clcifs of plants- ;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe that are
doubtful.. The calyx is very fhort, monophyllous, and
fomewhat quinquedentated ; tlie corolla pentapetalous ;
the filaments hairy at the bafe ; the berry unilocular,
with one feed of a foft pulpy confiftence. There is on-
ly one fpecies, viz. the Sineri/ii, a native of the Eaft In-
dies.
SCYTHIA, an ancient name far the northern parts
of Afia, now known by the name of Tartary ; alio for
fome of the north-eaftern parts of Europe.
This vaft territory, which extends itfelf from the Ifter
«r Danubcj the boundary of the Celts, that is, from
about the 25th to almoft the ucth degree of eaft lon^ ScTt!
gitude, v/as divided into Scythia in Europe and Scy-
thia in Afia, including, however, the two Sarmatias ;
or, as they are called by the Greeks, Sauromaiias, now
the Circaflian Tartary, which lay between and fevered
the two Scythias from each other. Sauromatia was
alfo diftinguifhed into European and Afiatic ; and was
divided from the European Scythia by the river Don
or Tanais, which falls into the Palus Meotis ; and frona
the Afiatic by the Rha, now Volga, which empties it-
ftlf into the Cafpian fea.
1. The Afiatic Scythia comprehended, in gene*
ral, great Tartary, and Ruflia in Afia ; and, in par»
ticular, the Scythia beyond or without Imaus, contain-
ed the regions of Bogdoi or Oftiacoi, and Tanguti,
That within, or on this fide Imaus, had I urkeftan and
Mongal, the Ulbeck or Zagatai, Kalmuc and Nagaian
Tartars ; befides Siberia, the land of the Samoiedes, and
Nova Zembla, Thefe three laft not being fo foon in-
habited as the former, as may be reafonably fuppofed,
were wholly unknown to the ancients ; and the former
were peopled by the Ba<?trians, Sogdians, Gandarij
Sacks, and Maifagetes. A s for Sarmatia, it contained
Albania, Iberia, and Colchis ; which makes now the
CircalTian Tartary, and the province of Georgia.
2. Scythia in Europe reached (towards the fouth-
weft) to the Po and the Alps, by which it was divided
from Celto-Gallia. It was bounded on the fouth by the
Ifter or Danube and the Euxine fea. Its northern li-
mits have been fuppofed to ftretch to the fpring-heads of
the Borifthenes or Nieper, and the Rha or Volga, and<
fo to that of the Tanais — The ancients divided this
country into Scythia Arimafpaea, which lay eaftward,
joining to Scythia in Afia; and Sarmatia Europeana
on the weft. In Scythia, properly fo called, were the
Arimafpaei oh the north ; the Getae or Dacians along
the Danube, on the fouth ; and the Neuri between
thefe two. So that it contained the European Ruflia
or Mufcovy, and the Lefler Crim '1 artary eaftward; and,
on the weft, Lithuania, Poland, part of Hungary^
Tranfilvania, Walachia, Bulgaria, and Moldavia. Sar-
matia is fuppofed to have reached northward to that
part of Swedeland called Feningia^ now Finland; in
which they placed the Ocenes, Panoti, and Hippopodes.
This part they divided from northern Germany, now
the weft part of Sweden acd Norway, by the Mare
Sarmaticum or Scythicuviy which they fuppofed ran up
into the northern ocean, and,, dividing Lapland into
two parts, formed the weftern part of Sweden, with
Norway, into one ifland, and Finland into another j;
fuppofing this alfo to be cut off from the continent by
the gulph of that name.
Although the ancient Scythians were celebrated as;
a warhke people, yet their hiftory is too uncertain and
obfcure to enable us to give any detail which wouhl not
prove equally tirefome and uninterefting to;the readen
Mr Pinkert©n,in a diflertationon their origin, endeavours
to prove that they were the moft ancient o\ nations ;
and he afligns for the place of their firft habitation the
country known by the name of Perfia; From Perfia,
he thinks, they proceeded in numerous hordes weft ward j
furrounded the Euxine, peopled Germany, Italy, Gaulj,
the countries bordering on the Baltic, with part o£
BxititiD and L-eland» Ihat the Scythians were of Afi-
atic
SEA
[ 189 1
SEA
rth'an atic origin cannot, we think, be queftiened ; and as
11 Perfia was peopled at a very early period, it may not
'^■^^ irnprobably have been their parent country : but when
our author contends that their empire had fubfifted for
more than 1500 years before Ninus the Founder ot the
Afl'yrian monarchy, and that it extended from Egypt to
the Ganges, and from the Perfian gulf and Indian fea to
the Cafpian, we cannot help thinking that his pteju-
dices againft the Celts, and his defire to do honour to
his favourite Goths, have made him advance a paradox
inconfiftent with the moft authentic records of antiqui-
ty. His differtation however is ingenious, and replete
with a variety of curious learning.
ScrTHiAN Lambf in natural hiftory. See Scyihian
Lamb.
SCYTHROPS, a generical name given by Mr La-
tham to a bird of which hitherto but one fpecies has been
obferved. It is about the fize of a crow, and two feet
three inches in length. The bill is large, convex, fur-
rowed on the fides, and bent at the tip ; the noftrils are
placed at the bafe of it, and the tongue is cloven at the
end. The general colour ©f the plumage is a brownifii
afli, but the tip of each feather of the back, wings, and
tail, is black. The tail has each feather banded with
black at the end, and the tip itfelf white ; but the inner
webs of the feather are marked with black and white
bands. The toes are placed two forwards and two
backwards, as in the parrot genus. This curious biid
is a native of New Holland, and we beheve in that part
of the world is not uncommon, but its manners are as
yet quite unknown. We are happy in being able to pre-
fent our readers with an engravings of it from an ex-
cellent drawing with which we were lately favoured. See
plate CCCCXLIX.
SEA, in a ftrift fenfe, fignifies a large portion of
water almoft furrounded by land, as the Baltic and
Mediterranean feas ; but it is frequently ufed for that vail
body of water which encompaffes the whole earth.
What proportion the fuperficies of the fea bears to
tionthe that of the land cannot eafily be afcertained. BufFon has
ace of fiippofed that the furface of our globe is equally divided
*s to between land and water, and has accordingly calculated
onhe the fuperficies of the fea to be 85,490,506 fquare miles.
But it is now well known that the ocean covers much
more than the half of the earth's furface. _ Buffon be-
lieved the exiftence of a vaft fouthern continent, which
Captain Cook has fhown to be vifionary. It was this
circumftance which milled him. According to the
moft accurate obfervations hitherto made, the furface of
the fea is to the land as three to one; the ocean therefore
extends over ' 28,735,759 fquare miles, (uppofing the
4 fuperficies of the whole globe to be 1 70,98 1 ,0 1 2 fquare
miles. To afcertain the depth of the fea is ftill moie
difficult than its fuperficies, both on account of the
numerous experiments which it would be necefiary to
make, and the want of proper inftruments for that pur-
pofe. Beyond a certain depth the fea has hitherto
been found unfathomable ; and though feveral methods
have been contrived to obviate this difficulty, none of
them has completely anfwered the purpofe. We know
in general that the depth of the fea increafes gradually
as we leave the fhore ; but if this continued beyond a
certain diftance, the deptli in the middle of the ocean
would be piedisnous. Indeed the numeious iflands
€verywhei-e fcaUered in the fea dmoniUate the cou^
X
at pro
)th of
lea.
trary, by ffiowing us that the bottom of the water I's ^"t.
unequal like the land, and that fo far from_ uniformly » •
finking, it fometimes rifes into lofty mountains. If the
depth of the fea be in proportion to the elevation of
the land, as has generally been fuppofed, its greateft
depth will not exceed five or fix miles, for there is no
mountain fix miles perpendicular above the level ot the
fea. The fea has never been aftually founded to a
greater depth than a mile and 66 feet ; every thing be-
yond that therefore refts entirely upon conjefture and
analogical reafoning, which ought never to be admitted
to determine a fingle point that can be afcertained by
experiment, becaufe, when admitted, they have too oftea
led to falle conclufions. Along the coafts, where the
depth of the fea is in general well known, it has always
been found proportioned to the height of the fhore ;
when the coaft is high and mountainous, the fea that
wafties it is deep ; when, on the contrary, the coaft ia
low, the water is (hallow. Whether this analogy holds,
at a diftance from the (hore, experiments alone can de-
termine. _ ^ J
To calculate the quantity of water contaiaed in the Quanrity
fea, while its depth is unknown, is impoflible. But if Y^^'^''
we fuppofe with BufFon that its medium depth is the ^o^j'^jj^
fourth part of a mile, the ocean, if its fuperficies be
128,235,759 fquare miles, will contain 32,058,939.75
cubic miles of water.
Let us now endeavour to compute the quantity of
water which is conftantly difchaiged into the fea. For
this purpofe let us take a river whofe velocity and quan- ,^
tity of water is known, the Po, for inftance, which ac^ 7^^°"^
cording to Riccioh is 1000 feet (or 100 perches oi the Earthy
Boulogne) broad, 10 feet deep, and runs at the rate of art. 10.
four miles in an hour eonfequently that river dif-
charges into the fea 200,000 cubic perches of water in
an hour, or 4,800,000 in a day. A cubic mile con-
tains 125,000,000 cubic perches; the Po therefore
will take 26 daf s to difcharge a cubic mile of water'
into the fea. Let us now fuppofe, what is perhaps not
very far from the truth, that the quantity of water
V hich the fea receives from the rivers in any country is-
proportioned to the extent of that country. The Po-
from its origin to its mouth traverfes a country 380
miles long, and the rivers which fall into it on every
fide rife from fources about fixty miles diftant from it..
The Po, therefore, and the rivers which it receives, wa-
ter a country of 43,600 fquare miles. Now fince the
whole fuperficies of the dry land is about 42,745,253.
fquare miles,, it Follows, from our fuppofition, that the
quantity of water difcharged by all the rivers in the
world, in one day,, is 36 cubic miles, and in a year
13,140. If therefore the fea contains 32,058,939 cubic
miles of water, it would take all the rivers in the world
24^:9 years to difcharge an equal quantity. ^ ^
it may fcem furprifing that the fea, fince it is con..y^/'j,y
tinually receiving iuch an immenfe fupply ot water, does d. eb noe
not vifibly increafe, and at laft cover the whole earth, increafe.
But our furprife will ceaCe, if we confider that the ri-
vers themftlves are fupplied from the fea, and that they
do nothing more than carry back thofe waters which
the ocean is continually lavilhing upon the sarth, Lr
Halley has dcmcnftrated that the vapours raiftd frcnx
the lea and tranfported upon land are lufficient to main-
tain all the rivers in the world The fimplicity oF thiV
great grocefs is afi.oniflung ; tlie £ea not only conn<j,<£t3i
SEA
[
Sea,
5.
Theories
«>f phil.fa.
phers on
this fub-
diftant countries., and renders it eafy to tranfport the
commodities of one nation to anotl^r, but its waters
rlfinj^ in the air defcend in fhowers to fertilife the earth
and nourifh the vegetable kingdom, and colledting into
rivers flow onwards, bringing fertility and wealth and
commerce along with them, and again return to the fea
to repeat the fame round.
The knowledge of this procefs of nature might, one
would think, have convinced philofophers thar the pro-
portion between fea and land continued always nearly
the fame. Philofophers however have formed difTerent
theories about this as well as moft other fubje£ls, main-
taining on the one hand that the fea is continually
encroaching on the land, and on the other that the land
is conftantly gaining on the fea. Both fides have fup-
ported their theories by arguments, demonftrations, and
6 uncontrovertible fafts!
Arguments I'he height of the mountains, fay the philofophers
Jit thofe ^^j^jj fuppsrt the encroachments of the fea, is continual-
that the fea'Y di^nniinmg ; expoled to the violence or every itorm,
j& j'ncroach. the hardetl rocks mull at laft give way and tumble
:ij?on the down. The rivers are continually fweeping along with
them particles of earth which they depofite in the bot-
tom or the fea. Both the depth of the ocean then and
the height of the dry land muft be always decreafing ;
the waters therefore mult, unlcfs a part of them were
annihilated, fpread over a greater extent of furface in
proportion as thefe caufes operate. This reafoning,
convincing as it is, might be confirmed by a great
number of fadts : it will be fufficient however to men-
tion one or two. In the reign of Auguftus the ifle of
"Wight made a part of Britain, fo that the Englifh
croffed over to it at low water with cart loads of tin ;
yet that ifland is at prefent feparated from Britain by a
channel half a mile wide. The Godwin fands on the
eaftern {hore of England were formerly the fertile eftate
of earl Godwin. Nor are the encroachments of the
fea confined to Britain. In the bay of Baia» near Na-
ples there are remains of houfes and llreets flill vifiblc
below the prefent level of the fea. The fea therefore
is making continued encroachments upon the land; and
the time will come, fay they, whert the waters will again
cover the furface of the earth.
Such are the arguments of thofe philofophers who
maintain the continual encroachments of the fea. Thofe
who maintain the oppofite theory, that the land is gra-
dually gaining on the fea, thongh they pretend not to
gairing on deny the fadls advanced by their opponents, affirm that
«he fea. ^.}jgy altogether infufhcient to eflablilh the hypo-
thefis which they were brought forward to fupport.
Thovigh the rivers carry down particles of earth into
the fea, thefe;, fay they, are either accumulated on other
fhorcs, or, colledting in the bottom of the ocean, harden
into ftone, which being poffelTed of a vegetative power
vifes by degrees above the furface of the fea and form
rocks, and mountains, and iflands'. The vegetative na-
ture of itone indeed \i fufficient, of itfelf, to convince
us that the quantity of earth muft be daily accumula-
ting, and confequently that the furface of the fea is di-
minifhing in extent. CeUius, a Swedifh philofopher
(for this difpute has been carried on in Sweden with
the greatell keennefs), has endeavoured to build this
thofe
who affirm
that the
lar d is
90 1 SEA
theory with more folid materials than vegetable ftone.
In a curious memoir, pubiifiied in 1743, he aflerts that
the Baltic and the x'^.tlantic, at leaft that part of it which
waflres Norway, is conftantly diminifhing; and Ke proves
this by the teftimony of a great many aged pilots and
fifhermen, who affirmed that the fea was become much
fhallower in many places than it had been during their
youth : fhat rrany rocks formerly covered with water
were now feveral feet above the furface of the fea : that
loaded veffels ufcd formerly to ride in many places where
pinnaces and barks could now with difficulty fwim.
He produces inftances of ancient fea-port towns now
feveral leagues from the fhore, and of anchors and
wrecks "of veffels found far within the country. He
m.entions a particular rock which 168 years before was
at the bottom of the fea, but was then raifed eight feet
above its furface. In another place where the water
50 years before had reached to the knee there was then
none. Several rocks, too, which during the infancy of
fome old pilots had been two feet under water, were
then three feet above it. From all thefe obfervations
M. Celfius concludes, that the water of the Baltic de-
creafes in height 4I lines in a year, 4 inches 5 lines in
1 8 years, 4 feet 5 inches in a hundred years, and in a
thoufand years 45 feet. Confcious, however, that thefe
fafts, how conclufive foever as far as relates to the Bal-
tic, can never determine the general queftion, M. Celfius
advances another argument in fupport of his theory.
All that quantity of moifture, fays he, which is imbibed
by plants is loft to the general mafs of water, being
converted into earth by the putrefaction of vegetables.
This notion had been mentioned by Newton, and was
adopted by Van tlelmunt ; if granted, it follows as a
confequence that the earth is continually increafing
and the water dimlniftiing Jn a very rapid degree.
Such are the arguments advanced in fupport of both The
theories ; for it is needlefs to mention a notion of Lin-g«f
nteus that the whole earth was formerly covered with^^^''
water except a fingle mountain. When fairly weighed,
they amount to nothing more than this, that the fea
has encroached upon the land in fome places, and reti-
red in others ; a conclufion which we are very willing
to allow. What was atlvanced by thofe philofophers,
who maintain that the lea is coHtinually encroaching
on the land, about the depth of the fea conftantly di-
m.inifhing, muft remain a mere affertion till they prove
by experiments, either that this is really the cafe, or
that nature has no way of reftoring thofe particles of
earth which are wafhed down by the rivers. Nor have
they any good reafon - to affirm that the height of the
moimtains is decreafing. Can a frngle uncontrovertible
inftance be produced of this? Are the Alps or the Apen-
nines, or Taurus, or Caucafus, lefs lofiy now than they
were a tlioufand years ago ? We mean not to deny that
tlie rain aftually wafties down particles of earth from
the mountains, nor to affirm that the hardeft rocks are
able to refift continual ftorms, nor that many mountains
have fuffered, and continue to fuffer daily, from a thou-
fand accidents. But the effefts produced by all thefe
caufes are fo trifling as to be altogether impercepti-
ble (a). Nature has affiduoufly guarded againft fuch ac-
cidcntg J Are has loinitdthe niauntaint, of the moft dura-
bk
(a) M. Genfanne pretends that the Pyreftean mountains become an inch lower every ten years. But even ac
cording
SEA
blc materials ; and where they are covered with earth,
fhe has bound it together by a thick and ftrm matting of
grafs, and thus fecured it fnra the rains ; andfhould ac-
cident deprive it of this covering;, {he takes care imme-
diately to lupply the defed. Even ihonld the earth be
fwept away together with its covering, nature has ftiU
fuch rcfources left as frequently rcftore thinsrs to their
former ftate. Many kinds of mofs, one would be tempted
to think, have been created for this very purpofe : they
take root and fiourifh almoft upon the bare rock, and
furififh as they decay a fufficient bed for feveral of the
hardy Alpine plants. Thefe perifh in their turn, and
others fucceed them. The roots of the plants bind
fall the earth as it accumulates, more plants fpring up
and fpread wider, till by degrees the whole furface is
covered with a firm coat of grafs. Even the ram,
which always contains in it a good deal of earth, con-
tributes fomething to haften the procefs.
As the vegetation of Hone, an argument advanced
by the philofophers who fupport the oppofite^ theory,
is now, we believe, given up by all parties, it is need-
lefs to take any farther notice of it here, (fee Stone).
The hypothefis of M. Celfius, that water is converted
into earth, has alfo (hared the fame fate, becaufe it was
unfupported by experiment, and contrary to every thing
tliat we know either about earth or v/ater. It is a
little extraordinary that philofophers have been fo lavifh
of water as to convert it in this manner into ftone and
earth, when they had given it, one would think, fuffi-
cient employment before in making new worlds and in
confuting Mofes.
As the fea covers fo great a portion of the globe, we
fliould, no doubt, by exploring its bottom, difcover a
vaft number of interefting particulars. Unfortunately
in the greater part of the ocean this has hitherto been
impoffible. Part, however, has been examined ; and the
difcoveries which this examination has produced may
enable us to form fome idea at lealt of the whole. The
bottom of the fea^ as might have been conjeaured in-
deed beforehand, bears a^great refemblance to the fur-
face of the dry land, being, like it, full of plains, rocks,
c^iverns, and mountains ; fome of which are abrupt and
almoft perpendicular, while others rife with a gentle de-
clivity, and fometimes tower above the v/ater and form
iflands. Neither do the materials diifer which compofe
the bottom of the fea and the bafis of the dry land. If
we dig to a confiderable depth in any part of the earth,
we uniformly meet with rock ; the fame thing holds in
the fea. The ftrata, too, are of the fame kind, difpo-
fed in the fame manner, and foijp indeed but one whole.
The fame kind of mineral and bituminous fubftances
are alfo found interfperfed with thefe ftrata ; and it is
to them probably that the fea is indebted for its bitter
tafte. Over thefe natural and original ftrata an artili-
cial bed has pretty generally been lormed, compofed of
different materials in diffeient places. It confifts ire-
qutndy of muddy tartareous fubftances firmly cemented
[ i9> J
SEA
Sea.
together, fometimes of fhells, or coral reduced to pow-
der, and near the mouths of rivers it is'g,enerally com-
pofed of fine fand or gravel. The bottom of the fea
refembles the land likewife in another particular : many
frefti fprings and even rivers rife out of it, which, dif-
placing the fait water, render the lower part of the fea
wherever they abound quite frefti. An inftance of this
kind occurs near Goa on the weftern coaft of Indo-
ftan *, and another § in the Mediterranean fea not far * Boyle de
from Marfeilles. Thefe fafts occafioned a notion, which
later experiments have exploded, that the fea beyond a § Marftgll
certain depth was always frefti. Hifioire
Subftances of a very beautiful appearance are fre- ^hyftque de
quently brought up by the founding line from the bot-^'' ^'"'^
torn of the fea. The plummet is hollowed below, and^^^''^ ^°
this cavity filled with tallow, to which fome of the fub-
ftances adhere which form the bed of the ocean. Thefe
are geaerally fand, gravel, or mud ; but they are fome-
times of the brighteft fcarlet, vermilion, purple, and
yellow ; and fometimes, though lefs frequently, they are
blue, green, or white. Thefe colours are owing to a
kind of jelly which envelopes the fubftances, and va-
nifli entirely as foon as this jelly dries. At times, how-
ever, they aftume the appearance of tartareous crufts,
and are then fo permanent, that they can be received
into white wax melted and poured round them, and
perhaps by proper care might be converted into valu-
able paints,
Sea- water is really, as any one may convince himfclfby Cojo^t- of '
pouring it into a glafs, as clear and tranfparent as river the fea.
water. The various appearances therefore which it af-
fumes are owing to accidental eaufes^^ and not to any
change in the water itfelf. The depth, or the materials
wliich compofe the bottom of the fea, occafions it to
aff'ume diff'erent colours in different places. The Ara-
bian gulph, for inftance, is faid to be red from the co-
lour of the fands which form its bed. The appearance
of the fea is affefled too by the winds and the fun,
while the clouds that pafsover it coinmunicate all their
various and fleeting colour's. When the fun ftiines it
is green ; wh^n the fun gleams through a fog it is yel-
\ow ; near the north pole it appears black ; while in
the torrid zone its colour is often brown. Sometimes
the fea aft^umes a luminous appearance. See Light,
n° ^7- . . . II
The fea contains the greateft quantity of fait in th^ Saltnefs tf
torrid zone, where otherwife from the exceffive heat'^'^^^"*
it would be in danger of putfefa£tion : as we advance
northward this quantity diminifhes, till at thfe pole it
nearly vanifties altogether. Under the line Lucas found
that the fea contained a fcventh part of foiid contents,
confifting chiefly of fea-falt. At Harwich he found it
yielded -^jxh of fea-falt. At Carlfcroon in Sweden it
contains yV^l^ P^J^^ (^)> ^""^ ^^'^ coaft' of Greenland
a great deal lefs. This deficiency of fait near the poles
probably contributes a good deal towards the prodigi-
ous quiiutities of ice which are met with in thefe feas ;
for
coroing to his own calculation, it would require a million of years to level thefe mountains with the plain,
though they continued to decreafe at the fame rate ; and philofophers tell us that this rate is conftantly d:-
liiinifhing ! , . , • i • i
(b) This gradual diminution of fakncfs from the equator to the pole is not, however, without particular ex-
cepiieus. The Mediterranean fea concaihs ^S-th of Ica-falt, which is lefs than Uie German fea coatair.s.
SEA
SEA
Sea. foj. faJt water requires a much greater degree of cold
*' ' ^ " ' to freeze it than frefh water. It was this circumftance,
probably, together with its conftant motion, which in-,
duced the ancients to believe that the fea never froze.
Even among the moderns it has been a generally re-
ceived opinion, that fea-ice is originally formed in ri-
vers. BufFon has made the great quantities of ice
with which the South fea abounds an argument for the
exigence of a continent near the Antarftic pole. But
it is now well known that great quantities of ice are
formed at a diftance from land. Sea-ice is of two kinds ;
field ice, which extends along the Ihore, and is only two
or three feet thick ; and mountain ice, which abounds
in the middle of the ocean. The fize of thefe moun-
tains is fometimes prodigious. The fea-ice is always
frefh, and has been often of great ufe to navigators.
The weight of fea-water is to that of river-water as 73
to- 70 ; that is, a cubic foot of fea-water weighs 73 lb.
while the fame quantity of river-water weighs only 7olb. ;
but this proportion varies in different places. It is
worthy of our attention, too, that the water at the fur-
face of the fea contains lefs fait .than near the bottom ;
the difference indeed is inconfiderable, but Hill it is
fomething. The Compte de Marfigli found the fame
quantity of water, when taken from the bottom of the
Mediterranean, to weigh one ounce three pennyweights
51 grains; whereas from the furface it weighed only one
ounce three pennyweights 49 grains. He repeated
J 2 the experiment frequently with nearly the fame refult.
Tempera- The fea, with refpe6l to temperatwre, may be divided
turc of the into two regions : The firft begins at the furface of the
water, and defcends as far as the influence of the fun's
rays ; the feeond reaches from thence to the bottom of
£oyle </tf fea. In fumraer the lower region is conliderably
'lemperie ^.gijjgj. ^j^^n the upper : but it is probable that durinqr
Jievtonum . . ri i ini/-i
Submarinw wmter the very reverie takes place ; at lealt the Compte
rum. de Marfigli found it fo repeatedly in the Mediterranean.
This naturally refults from the fituation of the water
near the bottom of the fea. Uninfluenced by the chan-
ges in the atmofphere, it retains always nearly the fame
degree of temperature : and this is confiderably above
congelation ; for the lower region of the fea, at leall in
the temperate parts of the world, was never known to
Phil. Tian/. freeze. Captain Ellis let down a fea-gage (fee Gage)
for 1751, in latitude 25*^ 13' north, and longitude 2 5° 12' weft,
^ to take the degrees of temperature and faltnefs of the
fea at different depths. It defeended 5346 feet, which
is a mile and eleven fathoms. He found the fea falter
and colder in proportion to its depth till the gage had
defeended 3900 feet, when the mercury in the thermo-
meter came up at 53; but the water never grew colder,
though he let down the gage 2446 feet lower. At the
,j furface the thermometer ftood at 84.
Thefe* The fea has three kinds of motion : i. The firft is
has three that undulation which is occalioned by the wind. This
Motion "motion is entirely confined tojthe furface ; the bottom
occafioned during the moft violent ftorms remains perfectly
by the calm. Mr Boyle has remarked, from the teftimony of
wind feveral divers, that the fea is affefted by the winds
only to the depth of fix feet. It would follow from
this, that the height of the waves above the furface does
not exceed fix feet ; and that this holds in the Mediter-
ranean at leaft, we are informed by the Compte de Mar-
figli, though he alfo fometimes obfervcd them, during
gi very violent tjempeft; rife two feet higher. It is af-
firmed by Pllny, and feveral other ancient wnt^SPs, that
oil calms the waves of the fea ; and that divers were ac-
cuftomed to carry forae of it for that purpofe in their stii' d
mouths. This account was always confidcred by the oiL '
moderns as a fable, and treated with fiich contempt, that
they did not even deign to put it to the teft of experl-
riment, till Dr Franklin accidentally difcovered its
truth. Happening in 1757 to be in the middle of a
large fleet, he obferved that the water round one or two
veffels was quite calm and fmooth, while everywhere
elfe it was very much agitated by the winds. He ap-
plied to the captain for an explanation of this phenome-
non, who replied, that the cooks, he fuppofed, had
thrown their greafy water out at the fcupper-holes, and
by that means oiled the fides of the veffels in queftion.
This anfwer did not fatisfy the Doftor at firft ; but re-
coUefting what Pliny had faid on the fubjeft, he refol-
yed at leaft to try the experiment. He did fo accord-
ingly in 1762, and found that oil aftually calmed the
waves of the fea. He repeated the experiment upon
lake Clapham : the oil fpread itfelf with great rapidity
upon the furface, but did not produce the defired ef.
fe£t, becaufe, having been thrown in upon the fide op-
pofite to the wind, it was immediately driven to the
edge of the water. But upon throwing in a like quan-
tity upon the other fide of the lake, it calmed in an in-
ftant feveral yards of the furface ; and gradually fpread-
ing, rendered all that part of the lake, to the extent of
at leaft half an acre, as fmooth as glafs. The curioug
effeft produced by this liquid may be accounted for by
the repulfion which exifts between oil and water, and
between oil and air, which prevents all immediate con-
taft, all rubbing of the one upon the other.
2. The fecond kind of motion is that continual ten- ^ .
dency which the whole water in the fea has towards the waTds ,
weft. It is greater near the equator than about the wea-l.i
poles ; and indeed cannot be faid to take place at all In rents,
the northern hemifphere beyond the tropic. It begins
OH the weft fide of America, where it is moderate :
hence that part of the ocean has been called Pacijic.
As the waters advance weftward their motion is accele-
rated ; fo that, after having traverfed the globe, they
ftrike with great violence on the eattern ftiore of Ame-
rica. Being ftopped by that continent, they turn north-
ward, and run with confiderable impetuofity into the
gulph of Mexico ; from thence they proceed along the
coaft of North America, till they come to the fouth
fide of the great bank at Newfoundland, when they
turn off, and run down through the Weftern Ifles.
This current is called the Gulpl Stream. It was firft:
accurately defcribed by Dr Franklin, who remarked
alfo, that the water in it having been originally heated
in the torrid zone, cools fo gradually in its paffage
northward, that even the latitude might be found in
any part of the ftream by means of a thermometer. —
This motion of the fea weftward has never been ex-
plained : it feems to have fome connexion with the
trade-winds and the diurnal revolution of the earth on
its axis.
3. The third and moft remarkable motion of the feaMotior
is the tide, which is a regular fwell of the ocean once
every 1 2 hours, owing, as Newton has demonftrated,
to the attradtlon of the moon. In the middle of the
fea the tide feldom rifes higher than one or two feet,
but on the coaft it frequently reaches the height of 45
J feet,
15
Morion
SEA
feet, tn<! in fome places even more. The tide gene-
rally rifes higher in the evening than in the nwrning i
on the coaft of Britain this holds in winter, but in fum-
mcr the morning tides are higheft. In fome feas it is
faid that there are no tides. This cannot be ovv'ing to
their being furrounded by land, becaufe there is a tide
in the lakes of North America. For an explanation of
thefe and other phenomena we refer to the article Tide.
Sea- Air, that part of the atmofphere which is above
the fea.
Sea-air has been found falubrious and remarkably
beneficial in fome dillempers. This may be owing to
its containing a greater portion of oxigenous gas or vi-
tal air, and being lefs impregnated with noxious vapoars
than the land. Dr Ingenhoufz made feveral experi-
ments to afcertain the falubrity of fea-air. By mixing
equal meafnres of common air and nitrous air, he
found, that at Gravefend, they occupied about 104, or
one meafure, and -rg^o ^'^ ^ meafure: whereas on fea,
about three miles from the mouth of the Thames, two
meafures of air (one of common and one of nitrous
air) occupied from 0.91 to 0.94. He attempted a fi-
milar experiment on the middle of the channel between
the Engliih coaft and Oftend ; but the motion of the
fliip rendered it impra£iicable. He found that in rainy
and windy weather the fea-air contained a fmaller quan-
tity of vital air than when the weather was calm. On
the fea-fhore at Oftend it occupied from 94 ^ to 97 ;
at Bruges he found it at T05 ; and at Antwerp 1091-.
Dr Ingenhoufz thus concludes his paper :
„„y: It appears, from thefe experiments, that the air at
fea and clofe to it is in general purer and fitter for ani-
mal life than the air on the land, though it feems to be
fubje<S to the fame inconftancy in its degree of purity
with that of the land ; fo that we may now with more
confidence fend our patients, labouring under confurijp-
tive diforders, to the fea, or at leaft to places fituat^d
clofe to the fea, which have no marfhes in their neigh-
bourhood. It feems alfo probable, that the air will be
found in general much purer far from the land tban near
the ftore, the former being never fubje£t to be mixed
with land air.
Dr Damman, an eminent phyfician and profeffor
royal of midwifery at Ghent, told Dr Ingenhoufz, that
when he was formerly a praAitioner at Oftend, during
feven yearF, he found the people there remarkably heal-
thy ; that nothing was rarer there than to fee a patient
labouring under a confumption or afthma, a malignant,
putrid, or fpotted fever ; that the difeafe to which they
are the moil fubjecft, is a regular intermittent fever
in autumn, when fudden tranfitions from hot to cold
weather happen.
People are in general very healthy at Gibraltar,
though there are very few trees near that place ; which
Dr Ingenhoufz thinks is owing to the purity of the
air, arifing from the neighbourhood of the fea.
Moft imall iflands are very healthy.
At? Malta people are little fubjeft to difeafesj and live
to a very advanced age.
SEA-Anemony, See ANiuAi'Floiuer^
SsA-Bear. ? o r>
SEA-Calf. 5
Sea-Coiv. See Trichecus.
SsA-Cro<w, MiKE-Crowy or Peivit. Sec Larus.
Vol. XVII. Part I.
r 193 1
SEA
SsA'Dead. ^ct Asvhaltites.
SsA-Devii. See Lo p h i u s .
Sp.A-Dragon, a monfter of a very fitlgular nature. In
the Gentleman's Magazine for the year t 749, we have
the account of a fea- dragon which was faid to be taken
between Orford and Southwould, on the coaft of Suf-
folk, and afterwards carried round the country as a cu-
riofity by the filherman who caught it.
" Its head and tail (fay* the writer) refemble thofeof
an alligator ; it has two large fins, which ferve it both
to fwim and to fly ; and though they were fo dried that
I could not extend thenfi, yet they appear, by the folds,
to be fhaped like thofe which painters have given to
dragons and other winged monfters that ferve as fnp«
porters to coats of arms. Its body is covered with im-
penetrable fcales ; its legs have two joints, and its feet
are hoofed like thofe of an afs : it has five rows of very
white and fiiarp teeth in each jaw> aad is in length
about four feet, though it was longer when alive, it
having fhrunk as it became dry.
" It was caught in a net with mackerel ; and b^ing
dragged on fhore, was knocked down with a ftretcher
or boat-hook. The net being opened, it fuddenly
fprung up, and flew above 50 yards : the rnan who firft
leized it had feveral of his fingers bitten off ; and the
wound mortifying, he died. It afterwards faftened on
the man's arm who fliows it, and lacerated it fo much,
that the mufcles are flirunk, and the hand and finger*
diftorted ; the wound is not yet healed, and is thought
to be incurable. It is faid by fome to have been
dcfcribed by naturaHfts under the name of the Sea^
dragon." See Plate GCCCXLIX.
SsA-Gage. See Sea-GAGE. <
Sea Hare. See Laplysia.
SiA-Horfe, in ichthyology, the Englifh name of th'e
Hippocamm. See S Y N G N A t h u s .
SRA-Lemon^ See Doris.
SsA-Lion, See Phoca.
SK.i'Mall, or SsA-Meiv. See LaruS.
SsA-Man. See Mermaid.
SsA-Maris. The eredtion of beacons, light-houfel,
and fea- marks, is a branch of the royal prerogative.
By 8 Eliz. 13. the corporation of the Trinity-houfe
are empowered to fet up any beacons or fea-marks
wherever they (hall think them neceflary ; and if the
owner of the land or any other perfon fhall deftroy
them, or take down any fteeple, tree, or other known
fea- mark, he fhall forfeit 100 1. Sterling ; or, in cafe
of inability to. pay it, he (hall be tpfo /ado outhwcd.
SEA-Needie, Gdrjijh. See Esox.
SsA-Nettie. See ANiMAE-F/oiver.
SeA-Pte, or Oyjier-Catcher. See Hi^MAropOS.
Sea- Plants, are thofe vegetables that grow in falt-wS-
ter within the fhores of the fea. The old botanifts di-
vided thefe into three clafles. i. The firft clafs, accord-
ing to their arrangement, contained the A/ga;, the /u-
ei, the fea-mcjes or confervas, and the different fpe-
cies of fponges. 2 . The fecond contained fubftancefe of
a- hard texture, like ftone or horn, which feem to hav^
been of the fame nature with what we call zoophyta,
with this difference, that we refer fponges to this clafs
and not to the firft. The thiid clafs was the fame with
our I'tthophytay comprehending- coralt, rhandrepora, &c.
It is new well known that the genera belonging to the
b ~ fecond
Set,
SEA
SEA
Se%. fecond and third of thefe clafies, and even fome refer*
red to the firft, are not vegetables, but animals, or the
produftions of animals. See Corallina, Madrepora,
Spongia. Sea-plants, then, properly fpeaking, belong
to the clafs of cryptogamia, and the order of algae ;
and, according to Bomare, are all comprehended under
the genus of fucus. We may alfo add feveral fpecies
oF the ulva and conferva and the fargazo. The fuci
and marine ulvae are immerfed in the fea, are feflile, and
•without root. The marine confervae are either felfile
or floating. The fargazo grows beyond foundings.
As fome fpecies of the fucus, when dried and pre-
ferved, are extermely beautiful, the curious, and efpeci-
ally thofe who profecute the ftudy of botany, muft be
anxious to know the beft method of preferring them,
without deftroying their colour and beauty. The fol-
lowing method is recommended by M. Mauduyt. Take
a flieet of paper, or rather of pafteboard, and cover it
with varnifli on beth fides ; and having, rowed in a boat
to the rock where the fucus abounds, plunge your var-
niflied paper into the water, and, detaching the fucus,
receive it upon the paper. Agitate the paper gently in
the water, that the plant may be properly fpread over
it ; and lift them up together foftly out of the water :
then fix down with pins the ftrong ftalks, that they
may not be difplaced, and leave the plant lying upon
the varniflied paper to dry in the open air. When it is
fully dry, the different parts will retain their pofition,
and the plant may be preferved within the leaves of a
book. If you wifti to free it from the flime and fait
which adheres to it, it may be wafhed gently in frefh wa-
ter, after being removed from the rock on which it
SEA-Serpentj a monftrous creature, faid to inhabit the
Borthern feas about Greenland and the coafts of
Norway. The following marvellous account of this
monfter is given by Guthrie. " In 1756, one of them
was fliot by a mafter of a fhip : its head refembled that
of a horfc ; the mouth was large and black, as were the
eyes, a white mane hanging from its neck: it floated on
the furface of the water, and held its head at leaft two
feet out of the fea : between the head and neck were fe-
ven or eight folds, which were very thick ; and the
length of this fnake was more than 100 yards, fome fay
fathoms. They have a remarkable averfion to the fmell
of caftor ; for which reafon, fhip, boat, and bark matters
provide themfelves with quantities of that drug, to pre-
vent being overfet, the ferpent's olfaAory nerves being
remarkably exquifite. The particularities related of this
animal would be incredible, were they not attefted upon
©ath Egede, a very reputable author, fays, that on the
6th day of July 1734, a large and frightful fea-mon er
laifed itfelf fo high out of the water, that its head
leached above the main-top-mall of the fhip ; that k
T
D
had a long lharp fnout, broad paws, and fpouted water
like a whale ; that the body feemed to be covered with
fcales ; the fkin was uneven and wrinkled, and the lower
part was formed like a fnake. The body of this monff er
is faid to be as thick as a hogfhead ; his {\un is varie-
gated like a tortoife ffiell ; and his excrement, which
floats upon the furface of the v/ater, is corrofive." Not-
withftanding the belief of Guthrie, and the tef'imony
which he produces, we cannot help doubting of the ex-
iftence of the fea-ferpent. Its bulk is faid to be fo dif-
proportionate to all the known animals of our globt,
that it requires more than ordinary evidence to render it
credible ; but the evidence which is offered is fo very
feeble and unfatisfaftory, that no man of found judge-
ment woiJd think it fufRcient to eflablifh the truth of
an extraordinary fa£t,
Ss^-Sicinefsf a diforder incident to mod perfons on
their firlt going to fea, occafioned by the agitation of
the veffel. In voyages, fea-fickne'fs, though it continues
in general only for the firft day or two, is extremely ^'
haraffing to fome people at intervals, efpeclally on any
increafed motion of the vefTel. Sometimes, by long con-
tinuance, it caufes fever, headach, quick pulfe, thirft,
white tongue, and a total deprivation of the retention
of the fl:omach ; evils which are always difficult to re-
move, and frequently terminate only with the voyage.
This indifpofition is confiderably alleviated by a fmall
tea fpoonful of ether, taken now and then in a glafs of
water, and applying fome of it to the temples and nof-
trils. The ancient writers recommend acid fruits, bread
and vegetables foaked in vinegar, after the ftomach has
been cleanfed by vomiting ; but not to attempt to fup-
prefs the vomiting until that end was obtained. An old
remedy for fea-ficknefs, and a very common one among
failors, is a draught or two of fea water ; which, though,
a difgufting medicine at fuch a time, yet where the hrft
paflages are foul and loaded, generally produces the de-
fired efFeft when the perturbation it occafions ceafes.
Sea- Star. SccAsterjas.
SEA-Urchine. See Echinus.
Ss A- Watery the fait water of the fea. The principal
falts contained in fea- water are, ift, Common marine or
culinary fait, compounded of fofiil alkali or foda and
marine acid ; zdly, A fait formed by the union of the
fame acid with magnefian earth ; and, laftly, A fmall.
quantity of felenite. The quantity of faline matter con-
tained in a pint of fea- water, in the Britifh feas, is, ac-
cording to Neumann, about one ounce in each pint (a).
The faltnefa of this water is judged to arife from
great multitudes both of mines and mountains of fait
difperfed here and there In the depths of the fea. Dr
Halley fuppofes that it is probable the greateft part of
the fea-falt, and of all fait lakes, as the Cafpian Sea,
the Dead Sea, the Lake of Mexico, and the Titicaca
(a^ In Sir Torbem Bergman's analyfis of fea-water taken up in the beginning of June 1776, about the la-
titude of the Canaries, from the depth of 60 fathoms,, the folid contents of a pint of the water were,.
Grs.
Of common fait
Salited magnefia
Gypfum
Total
253
69iTT
3.
or 5
9.
I
Gi-s.
SEA I V
in Peru, Is derived from the water of the rivers which
they receive : and fince this fort of lakes has no exit or
difcharge but by the exhalation of vapourg, and alfo
fince thefe vapours are entirely frefh or devoid of fuch
particles, it is certain that the faltnefs of the fea and of
fucii lakes mufl from time to time increafe; and therefore
the faltnefs at this time muft be greater than at any time
heretofore. He further adds, that if, by experiments
made in different ages, we could find the different quan-
tity of fait which the fame quantity of water (taken
up in the fame place, and in all other the fame cir-
cumftances) would afford, it would be eafy from thence,
by rules of proportion, to find the age of the world
very nearly, or the time wherein it has been acquiring
its prefent faltnefs.
'L'his opinion of Dr Halley is fo improbable, that it
is furprifing fo acute a philpfopher could have adopted
it. That frefli water rivers fhould in the courfe of
many thoufand years produce faltnefs in the fea, is
quite incredible. If this were the cafe, every fea or
great body of water which receives rivers mull be fait,
and muft poffefs a degree of faltnefs in proportion to
the quantity of water which the rivers difcharge. But
fo far is this from being true, that the Palus Meotis
and the great lakes in America do not contain fait but
frefh water. It may indeed be objefted, that the quan-
tity of fait which the rivers carry along with them and
depofit in the fea, muft depend on the nature of the foil
through which they flow, which may in fome places
contain no fak at all : and this may be the reafon why
the great lakes in America and the Palus Meotis are
frefh. But to this opinion, which is merely hypotheti-
cal, there are infurmountable objeftions. It is a curious
fad that the faltnefs of the fea is greateft under the line,
and diminifhes gradually as we advance to the poles :
We muft therefore fuppofe, if Dr Halley's theory be
true, that the earth contains more fait in the tropical
regions than in the temperate zones, and more in the
temperate zones than in the frigid; and confequently
that the rivers in thefe different regions contain a quan-
tity of fait proportionable to their diftance from the
equator. This, however, muft firft be proved by ex-
periment, and cannot be affumed as an eftablifhed fatt.
But there is another circumftance that entirely deftroys
this theory. If we allow that the fea receives its falt-
nefs from the rivers, it muft be equally fait or nearly , fo
in every part of the earth. For, according to a fimple
and well known principle in chemiftry, when any fub'
Jlance is d'tffolved in water with the ajfxflance of agitation,
at whatever part of the water it is introduced^ it will be
equally dijfufed through the whole liquid. Now though it
were true that a greater quantity of fait were introdu-
ced into the fea under the Hne than towards the poles,
from the conftant agitation occafioned by the wind and
tide, the fait muft foon pervade the whole mafs of water.
To fay that the fuperior degree of heat in the tropical
regions may diffolve a greater quantity of fait, will not
tleftroy our argument ; for it is an eftablifhed principle
in chemiftry, that cold water will diffolve nearly as great
a quantity of fait as hot water can diffolve.
The faltnefs of the fea has alfo been afcribed to
the folution of fubterraneous mines of fait which is
fuppofed to abound in the bottom of the fea and along
itg ihores. But this hypothefis cannot be fupported.
)5 ] .S E A
If the fea were conftantly diffolving fait, it wott!d foon
become faturated ; for it cannot be faid that it is de-
prived of any part of its fait by evaporation, fince rain-
water is frefh. If the fea were to become faturated,
neither fifiies nor vegetables could live in it. We muft
therefore defpair of being able to account for the falt-
nefs of the fea by fecond caufes ; and muft fuppofe that
it has been fait from the creation. It is impoflible in-
deed to fuppofe that the waters of the fea were at any
period frefh fince the formation of fifhes and fca-plants :
for as thefe will not live in water faturated with fait,
neither will they live in water that Is frefh ; we therefore
conclude that the faltnefs of the fea has been nearly the
fame in all ages. This is the fimpleft hypothefis of the
three that has been mentioned. It explains beft the
various phenomena, and is involved in feweft difficulties.
We fhall, however, allow that there may be fome ex-
ceptions ; that the faltnefs of fome feas, or of particu-
lar parts of the fame fea, may be increafed by mines of
rock-falt difperfed near its fiiores.
With regard to the ufe of this fait property of fea-
water, it is obferved, that the faltnefs of the fea pre-
ferves its waters pure and fweet, which otherwife would
corrupt and ftink like a filthy lake, and confequently
that none of the myriads of creatures which now live
therein could then have a being. From thence alfo the
fea- water becomes much heavier, and therefore fliips of
greater fize and quantity may be ufed thereon. Salt-
water alfo doth not freeze fo foon as frefh-water, whence
the feas are more free for navigation. We have a dif-
fertation, by Dr Ruffel, concerning the medical ufes of
fea-water in difeafes of the glands, &c. wherein the au^
thor premifes fome obfervations upon the nature of fea-
water, confidered as impregnated with particles of all
the bodies it paffes over, fuch as fubmarine plants, fifh,
falts, minerals, &c. and faturated with their feveral ef-
fluvia, to enrich it and keep it from putrefadlion : whence
this fluid is fuppofed to contraft a foapinefs ; and the
whole colleftion, being pervaded by the fulphureons
fteams palling through it, to conftitute what we call
fea-water ; the confeffed diftinguifhing charaderiftics of
which are faltnefs, bitternefs, nitrofity, and unftuofity :
whence the author concludes, that it may be juftly ex-
pefted to contribute fignally to the improvement of
phyfic. The cafes in which our author informs us we
are to expeft advantage from fea-water are, i. In aH
recent obftrudions of the glands of theinteflines and
mefentery. 2. All recent obftruAions of the pulmo-
nary glands, and thofe of the vifcera, which frequently
produce confumptiens. 3. All recent glandular fwel-
lings ef the neck, or other parts. 4. Rccest tumors
of the joints, if they are not fuppurated, or become
fchirrous or ■cancerous, and have not carious bones for
their caufe. 5. Recent defluxions Upon the glands of
the eyelids. 6. All defoedations of the fliin, from an
eryfipelas to a lepra. 7. Difeafes of the glands of the
nofe, with their ufual companion a thicknefs of the lip.
8. Obftrudions of the kidneys, where there is no in-
flammation, and the ftone not large. 9. In recent ob-
ftru<3;ions of the liver, this method will be proper,
where it prevents conftipations of the belly, and aflifts
other medicines direfted in iderical cafes. The fame
remedy is faid to be of fignal.fervice in the bronchocele;
and is likewife recommended for the prevention of
B b-a _ , .. . thofe
SEA
[ 196 ]
SEA
Se». .^ofe bilious colics that fo frequetitly affcd our jnari-
""-f^ ners.
Prefervat'ton of SsA-Waier from PutrefaBlon. As it
IS fometimes neceflary to preferve fea water In caflcs for
-bathinjT and other purpofes, it Is of importance to know
how to keep it from putrefaction. Many experiments
were made to determine this point by Mr Henry, and
are recorded in the firll volume of the Memoirs of the
Literary and Philofophical Society of Manchefter. His
iirft experiment we (hall here prefent to our readers.
*' To one quart of fea-water were added two fcruples
of frefh quicklime ; to another, half an ounce of com-
mon culinary fait ; and a third was kept as a ftandard
without any addition. The mouths of the bottles be-
ing loofely covered with paper, they were expofed to
tlie a£tion of the fun in fome of the hotted weather
in fummer. In about a week the ^andard became
very ofFenfive ; and the water, with the additional
quantity of fait, did not continue fweet many hours
longer ; whereas that with lime continued many months
without ever exhibiting the leall marks of putridity."
When he added a dram more of quicklime, the whole
of the magnefia contained in the water was feparated ;
^nd when a further addition was made, a lime-water
was immediately formed. He therefore concluded, that
two fcruples of quicklime are fufiicient to prefer»e a
quart of fea-water. The proportions, however, may
vary a little, according to the ftrength of the quick-
I lime employed.
Frejhening of SsA-Water. The method of making
fea-water freih was long a defideratum in navigation.
Many methods have been propofed for this purpofe. Mr
Appleby publifhed an account of a procefs which he
}Bllitvited iri the year 1734. He diftllkd fea-water
yvijth a qijantlty of lapis infernaUs and calcined bones j
but this procefs was foon laid afide, as it was not enly
iHMcuIt in itfelf, but rendered the water unpalatable.
Pr Butler propofed foap-leys in place of Mr Appleby's
ingredients ; but the water was ilill liable to the
fame objection. Dr Stephen Hales recommended
powdered chalk ; but his method was ex.penlive, and
^Id ijot improve the tafte of the water. Dr Liud
of Portfmouth diftilled fea-water without any it>gre-
^ients ; but as the experiment he made was per-
formed in a veflel containing only two quarts, with a
glaft receiver in his ttudy, nothing coiiclufive can be
1 drawn fiom It for the ufe of fallors. At length Dr
Jpr living's Irving brought the procefs to a very high degree of (xxnr
pUcity and perfeftion^ by which the water is obtained
pure, withoutt much expence of fuel or a complicated
apparatus. For this valuable difcovery he received a
Ifcward of L.500C. The advantages of his method- re-
inain to be ftated, which may be reduced to the follow-
ing : I. The abolifhing all ftilLs, ftill heads, worm-pipes,
(ind their tubes, which occupy fo much fpace as to ren-
der them totally incompatible with the neceffary bufmefs
pf the (hip ; apd ufing in the room of thefe the fhip's
kettle or boiler, to the top whereof may ocealionally be
applied a fimple tube, which cao be eaiily made on board
^ veffel at fea, of iron plate, ftove fannel, or tin ijieet ;
fo tliat no fituation can prevent a fhip from being Gorar
pletely fupplicd with the means of diftUling fea-water.
In confequence of the principles of diftillation being
Different
methods cf
frefhening
fe»- water.
of obtaining the greateft quantity of difUUed wnter, fey
making the tube fxifficlently large to receive the whole
column of vapour, and placing it nearly in a horizontal
dlreftion, to prevent any compreffion of the fluid, which
takes place fo much with the common v/orm. 3. The
adopthig of thefanpleiland moil efficacious means of con-^
denling vapour 5 for nothing more is required in the di-
ftillation but keeping the furface of the tube always wet,,
which is done by having fome fea-water at hand, and %
perfon to dip a mop or fvvab into this water, and pafs it
along the upper furface of the tube. By this operation
the vapour contained in the tube will be entirely con<-
denfed with the greateft rapidity Imaginable ; for by th*
application ot the wet mop thiij flieets of water are unii.
formly fpread, and mechanically preffcd upon the fur-
face of the hot tube ; which being convetted into va-
pour make way for a fuccefTion of frclh fheets ; and
thus, both by the evaporation and clofe contact of the
cold water conftantly repeated, the heat is carried off
more effeftually than by any other method yet known*
4. The carrying on the diftillation without any addi-
tion, a eorredl chemical analyiis of fea-water having
evinced the futility of mixing ingredients with it, either
to prevent an acid from rifing with the vapour, or to de.
ftroy any bituminous oil fuppofed to exift in fea-water^
and to contaminate the diftilled water, giving it that;
fiery unpalatable tafte infeparable from the former pro,,
ceffcs. 5. The afcertaining the proper quantity of fea
water that ought to be diftilled, whereby the trtfh wa-r
ter is prevented from contrafting a noxious impregna*
tlon of metallic falts, and the veffel from being corrodecj'
and othervvife damaged by the falts caking on the bot»
torn of it. 6. The producing a quantity of fweet aiuj
wholefome water, perfectly agreeable to the tafte, an4
fufiicient for all the purpofes of ibipping. 7. The ta-
king advantage of the dreffing the fliip's provifions, fa
as to diftil a very confiderable quantity of water from the
vapour, which would otherwiie be loft, without any ad-
dition of fuel. To fum up the merits of this method ir*
a few words : The ufe of a fjmple tube, of the moft
eafy conftru<ftion, applicable to any (hip's kettle, i he
rejefting all ingredients ; afcertaining the proportion of
water to be dlihlled, with every advantage of quality,,
faving of fuel, and prefervation of boilers. The ob-
taining frefh water, wholefome, palatable, and in fulfil
cient quantities. Taking advantage of the vapour
which afcends in the kettle while the fhlp'S' provilions
are boIKng. All thefe advantages are obtained by the
above-mentioned (imple addition to the common flup's
kettks. But Dr Irving propofes to introduce two fur:
thcr improveinents. The (irft is a hearth, or Hove, fo'
Gonftruited that the fire which is kept up the whole
day for the common bufinefs of the (hip fervea likewife
for diftillation ; whereby a fufiicient quantity of water
for all the ecojwmical purpofes of the fhip may be ob-
tained, vi'ith a very inconikierable addition to the expence
of fuel. The other improvement Is that-of fubftituting,
even in the largeft (hips, caft-iron boilers, of a new con^
ftru&Ion, in the place of coppers.
As foon as fea-water is put into the boiler, the tube Di
18 to be fitted either into the top or Ud, round which, if [01
neceflary, a bit of wet linen may be applied, to make it '"s
^it clofe to the mouth of the veffel ; there will be no ^'^^'^
oceafion for lutlDg> as the tube a'fts like a funoel in car-
4 ^y"'s
1
E A r 197 1 ^
When the -water begins to boil, ture, made by mixing three parts of ponndi.'d hce- with
two parts of common fah, was quite fiinicieat to freez.e
'I'he coid produced by this mixture is equal to about
rying off the vapour.
the vHpoyr {hould be allowed to pafs freely for a minute,
which Will eft'edually clean the tube and upper part of
the boiler. The tube is afterwards to be kept con-
ftantly wet, by palling a mop or fw^b, dipped in fea
water, along its vpper furface. The wafte water run-
ning from the mop may be carried off by m«ans of a
board made like a Ipout, and placed beneath the tube.
.The diftillatiojT may be continued till three-fourths of
the water be drawn off, and no further. This may be
afcertained either by a gauge-rod put into the boiler, or
by meafuring the water diflilled. The brine is then to
be let out. Water may be diflilled in the fame manner
while the provifions are boiling. When the tube is
made on fliorc, the belt fuhttance for the purpofe is
thin copper well tinned, this beiug more durable in long
voyages than tin-plates. Inftead of mopping, the tube,
if required, may have a cafe made alfo of copper, fo
much larger in diameter as to admit a thin fiieet of wa-
ter to circulate between them by means of a fpiral cop-
per thread, with a pipe of aj> inch diameter at each end
of the cafe ; the lower for receiving cold water, and the
tipper for carrying it off when heated.
When only a very fmall portion of room can be con-
veniently allowed for diftjllation, the machine (n° 2.),
' which is only 27 inches long, may be fubftitutcd, as
was done in this voyage. The principal intention
of this machine, liowever, is to diltil rum and other
liquors J for which purpofe it has been employed with
£xtiaordinary fuccefs, in preventing an empyreumoj or
fiery tafte.
Figure I. reprefcnts In perfpeftive a feftion of the
two boilers taken out of the frame. In the back part
at D, E, are feen openings for the cocks. On the top
is a diftilling tube A, B, C, five inches diameter at A,
and decreafitrg in fize to three inches at C ; the lentjth
from B to C is five feet. Near C is a ring to prevent
the water which is applied to the furface from mixing
with the didilled water. In the infide of the tube, below
B, is a fmall lip or ledginsi;, to hinder the diftilled water
from returning into the boiler by the rolling of the fhip.
In figure 2. A, B, C, D, reprefent a vertical fedlion
of a copper box, 27 inches lone^, feven inches wide, and
1 1 in height, tinned on the infido. In the bottom F is
an aperture about fix inches in diameter, having a ring to
fit on the dill or boiler. The dotted lines which run nearly
horizontal, are veflelsofthin copper, tinned on the out-
fide, two feet long, feven inches wide, and three quarters
of an inch deep. At G Is a funnel to receive cold water,
which is conveyed into the vefTcls by communicating
pipes, contrived in fuch a manner as to form a complete
and quick circulation of the water through their whole
extent. When the water is become hot by the aftion
of the Iteam, it is difcharged by the horizontal pipe at
A. E is a pipe from which the diftilled water or fpirits
run, and is bent in fuch a form that the liquor running
from it a£ts as a valve, and hinders any fteam from efca-
ping that way. On the top of the box, at H, is a fafcty-
valve, which prevents any danger from a great accu-
mulation of vapour not condenfcd for want of a, pro-
per fupply of cold water.
We fhall now mention a diflTerent method, difcovered
by the Chevaher Lorgna, by congelation of fea-water.
^ Sea water requires a -very great degree of cold in order
to become ice, Ouf author f9U»d that a freezing mix-
tt.
4« below nought of Fahrenheit's thermometer.
A quantity of fea-water is never entirely congealed,
a portion of it always remaining fluid \ and, what is very
remarkable, this fluid part is incomparably more full of
fait and more naufeous than the reft : hence, if this be
Separated from the congealed part,, the latter on being
melted will be found to contain much lefs fah than it
did before congelation. This we ihall call the water of
the jirjl purificutlon.
If the water of the firft purification be a^aln congeal-
ed, a part of it will remain fluid as in the firft opera-
tion. This fluid portion will contain a greater propor"
tion of fait than the reft, which is of courfe more pure»
and, being melted, fo-rms the water of the fecond puri-
fication. Thus, by repeatedly freezing the fame fea-wa-
ter, and feparating the fluid from the congealed part in
every operation, it is at tail perfectly {nn-Ified, io as to
be entirely divefted of fak, and as fit for diiak and other
purpofes J^s the pureft water that is ufed.
At firll the fea-water, in order to be congealed, re-
quires a very great degree of cold, a& mentioned above*
the ice formed In it confifts rather of fcales or filaments
than of a compaA body, and the quantity of the fluid
parts bears a confiderable proportion to. the quantity of
ice. Bat a« the water, by undergoing the fuccelhve
congelations, becx>mes more and more pure, fo it be-
comes capable of being congealed by a fmaller and
fmaller degree of cold ; the ice is at the fame time more
compad, and in greater quantity ; the fluid part at laik
becoming very int:onfidera:ble.
SEA-Weed^ or Algn Marina^ is commonly ufed as a
manure on the fea-coaif, wlrere it can be procured ia
abundance. " The beft fort grows on rocks, and is that
from which kelp is made. The nevt to this is called
the peafy fea-nveed and the worfl is that with a long
ftalk. In the neighbourhood of Berwick, the farmers,
mix it with itable-dung and earth, and thus obtain a
great quantity of excellent manure. Sea-weed is tound
alfo to be a very fit manure for gardens, as it not only
enriches them, but deftroys the vennin by which they
are ufually infelfed.
Sea-WoIJ. See Anarrhica.s.
Sahnefs of the Sea. Ssc SxA-lVater.
Soul/j Sea. See Pacific Ocean, and South Sea,
SEAL, a puncheon, piece of metal, or other mat-
ter., ufually either round or oval ; whereon are engra-
ven the arms, device, &c. of fome prince, ftate, com-
munity, raagiftrate, 01 private perfon, often with a le-
gend or infcription ; the impreflion whereof in wax.
lerves to make afts, inltruments, &c. authentic.
The ufe of feals, as a mai'k of authenticity to letters
and other luftrumenta in writing, is extremely ancient.
We read of it among the Jews and Perfians io the ear-
Heft and mofl facred records of hiftory. And in the
"book af Jeremiah there is a very remarkable inftance^
not only of an atteftation by feal, but alfa of the other
ufual formalities attending a Jewifh purchafe. In the
civil law alfo, feals were the evidence oi truth, and
were required, on the part of the vvltnelfes at leaft, at
the atteftation of every teftament; But in the times of
our Saxon anceftors, they were not much in ufe in
England. For though Sir Edward Coke relies on ao
inftance
Sea'
SEA r X
inftancc of king Edwyn's making ufe of a feal about
100 years before the conqueft, yet it does not follow
that this was the ufage among the whole nation : and
perhaps the charter he mentions may be of doubtful
authority, from this very circumftance of its being feal-
ed ; fince we are aflured by all our ancient hiftorians
that fealing was not then in common ufe. The method
of the Saxons was, for fuch as could write to fubfcribe
their names, and, whether they could write or not, to
affix the fign of the crofs ; which cuftom our illiterate
vulgar do for the moll part to this day keep up, by
figning a crofs for their mark when unable to write
their names. And indeed this inability to write, and
therefore making a crofs in Its Head, is honeftly avowed
by Casdwalla, a Saxon king, at the end of one of his
-charters. In like manner, and for the fame unfurmount-
ablc reafon, the Normans, a brave but illiterate nation,
at their firft fettlement in France ufed the praAice of
fealing only, without writing their names ; which cullom
continued when learning made its way among them,
though the reafon for doing it had ccafed ; and hence
the charter of Edward the ConfefTor to Weftminfter-
abbey, himfelf being brought up in Normandy, was
witnefled only by his feal, and is generally thought to
fee the oldeft fealed charter of any authenticity in Eng-
land. At the Conqueft, the Norman lords brought
over into this kingdom their own fafliions ; and intro-
duced waxen feals only, inftead of the Enghfh method
of writing their names, and figning with the fign of the
crpfs. The impreffions of thefe feals were fometimes a
knight on horfeback, fometimes other devices ; but
■coats of arms were not introduced into feals, nor in-
deed ufed at all till about the reign of Richard I.
who brought them from the croifade in the Holy Land,
where they were firft invented and painted on the ftiields
of the knights, to diftinguifll the variety of perfons of
every Chriftian nation who reforted thither, and who
could not, when clad in complete fteel, be otherwife
known or afcertained.
This negleft of figning, and refting only upon the
authenticity of feals, remained very long among us ; for
k was held in all our books, that fealing alone was fuf-
iiclent to authenticate a deed : and fo the common form
of attefting deeds, *» fealed and delivered," continues to
9B ] ^ S E A
this day ; notwithftanding the ftatute 29 Car. II, c. 3. Se
revives the Saxon cuftom, and exprefsly direds the fign- II
ing in all grants of lands and many other fpecies of ^'^^"^
deeds : in which, therefore, figning feems to be now as *
neceffary as fealing, though it hath been fometimes held
that the one includes the other.
• 'i'he king's great feal is that whereby all patents, cora-
miffions, warrants, &c. coming down from the king are
fealed ; the keeping whereof is in the hands of the lord
chancellor. The king's prmy-feal is a feal that is ufually
firft fct to grants that arc to pafs the great feal.
Seal. See Kerper of the Privy-Seal.
Seal is alfo ufed for the wax or lead, and the Ira-
preffion thereon affixed to the thing fealed.
An amalgam of mercuiy with gold, reduced to the
confiftence of butter, by ftraining off part of the mer-
cury throuoh leather, has been recommended as a pro-
per material for taking off the impreflion of feals in wax.
In this ftate, the compound fcarcely contains one part
of mercujy to two of gold ; yet is of a filver whitenefs,
as if there was jione of the precious metal in it. In
this ftate it grows foft on being warmed or worked be-
tween the fingers; and is therefore proper for the purpofe
above-mentioned, but is not fuperior to fome amalgama
made with the inferior metals, as is well known to fome
impoftors, who have fold for this ufe amalgams of the
bafe metals as curious preparations of gold.
Seal, in zoology. See Phoca.
SEALER, an officer in chancery appointed by the
lord chancellor or keeper of the great feal to feal the
writs and inftruments there made in his prefence.
SEALING, in architefturc, the fixing a piece of
wood or iron in a wall with plafter, mortar, cement,
lead, or other folid binding. For ftaplcs, hinges, and
joints, plafter is very proper.
SEAZiNG'Wax. See Wax.
SEAM, or Seme of corn, is a mcafure of eight bu«
ihels.
Seam of Glafsy the quantity of 1 20 pounds, or 24.
ftones, each five pounds weight. The feam of wood i«
an horfe-load.
Seam, in mines, the fame with a vein or ftratum of
metal.
S E A M A
Definition. TC^^ vrord. we exprefs that noble art, or, more
XJ purely, the qualifications which enable a man
to exercife the noble art of working a fhlp. A sea-
>iAN, in the language of the profeffion, is not mere-
ly a mariner or labourer on board a fllip, but a man
who underftands the ftrufture of this wonderful machine,
and every fubordinate part of its mechanifm, fo as to
enable him to employ it to thebeft advantage for pufti.
ing her forward in a particular direftion, and for avoid-
ing the numbcrlefs dangers to which file is expofed by
the violence of the winds and waves. He alfo knows
what courfes can be held by the fiiip, according to the
wind that blows, and what cannot, and which of thefe
is moft conducive to her progrefs in her intended voy-
age : and he muft be able to perform every part of the
N s H I P.
neceffary operation with his own hands. As the fea-
mcn exprefs it, he muft be able " to hand, reef, and
ileer."
We are juftified in calling it a noble artf not only by Tmpor
its importance, which it is quite needlefs to amplify or
embelliftl, but by its immenfe extent and difficulty, and
the prodigious number and variety of principles on
which it is founded — all of which muft be poffeffed in
fuch a manner that they ftiall offer themfelves without
refle£lioH in an inftant, otherwife the pretended feaman
is but a lubber, and cannot be trufted on his watch.
The art is praitlfed by perfons without what we call
education, and in the humbler walks of life, and there-
fore it fuffers in the ettimation of the carelefs fpedla-
toro It is thought little of, becaufe little attention is
paid
S E A M A
paM to it. But if multiplicity, variety, and intricacy
of principles, and a fyftematic knowledge of thefe prin-
ciples, intitle any art to the appellation of fckut'tfic and
liberal, feamanfhip claims thefe epithets in an eminent
degree. We are amufed with the pedantry of the fea-
man, which appears in his whole language. Indeed it
is the only pedantry that amufes. A fcholar, a foldier,
a lawyer, nay, even the elegant courtier, would difguft
us, were he to make the thoufandth part of the allufions
to his profefTion that is well received from the jolly fea-
man ; and wc do the feaman no more than jullice. His
profeffion mii/l engrofs his whole mind, otherwife he can
3 never learn It. He poffefies a prodigious deal of know-
[iculty ledge ; but the honeft tar cannot tell what he knows, or
he art, rather what he feels, for his fcience is really at his fin-
gers ends. We can fay with confidence, that if a per-
fon of education, verfed in mechanics, and acquainted
with the ftrufture of a fhip, were to obferve with atten-
tion the movements which are made on board a firft or
fecond rate fhip ot war during a (hifting ftorm, under
the direftion ef an intelligent officer, he would be rapt
in admiration.
What a pity it is that an art fo important, fo diffi-
cult, and fo intimately conneAed with the invariable
laws of mechanical nature, (hould be fo held by its pof-
felfors, that it cannot improve, but mud die with each
individual. Having no advantages of previous educa-
tion, they cannot arrange their thoughts ; they can
hardly be fald to think. They can far lefs exprefs or
communicate to others the intuitive knowledge which
they poffefs ; and their art, acquired by habit alone, is
little different from an inftindl. We are as little in-
titled to expeft improvement here as in the architec-
ture of the bee or the beaver. The fpecies (pardon
the allufion ye generous hearts of oak) cannot improve.
Yet a fhip is a machine. We know the forces which
aft on it, and we know the refults of its conftruftion— ■
all thefe are as fixed as the laws of motion. What hin-
ders this to be reduced to a fet of praftical tT!axims, as
well founded and as logically deduced as the working
of a fteam engine or a cotton mill. The lloker or the
fpinner ails only with his hands, and may *' whiftle as
he works for want of thought ;" but the mechanift, the
engineer, thinks for him, improves his machine, and di-
redts him to a better praftice. May not the rough fea-
man look for the fame afliftance ; and may not the inge-
nious fpeculatift in his clofet unravel the intricate thread
of mechanlfm* which connefts all the manual operations
with the unchani^eable laws of nature, and both furnifh
the feaman with a better machine and diredl him to a
more dexterous ufe of it ?
We cannot help thinking that much may be done ;
n^eal- ^ay, we may fay that much has been done. We think
e^iby'^" ^'S^^Y ofth^ prog reffive labours of Renaud, Pitot, Bou-
French gucr, Du Hamel, Groignard, Bernoulli, Euler, Romme,
lofo- and others ; aiid are both furprlfed and forry that Bri-
f • tain has contributed fo little in thefe attempts. Gor-
don is the only one of our countrymen who has given a
profeffedly fclentific treatife on a fiuall branch of tlie
fubjedl. The government of France has always been
ftronpjy impreffed with the notion of great improve-
ments being attainable by fyflematic ftudy of this art ;
.and wc are indebted to the endeavours ot that ingenious
Bation for any thing of pradical importance that has
^ 4
fiich has
N S H I P. ' 19 9
been obtained. M. Bouguer was profeffbr of hydro-
logy at one of the marine academies of France, and
was enjoined, as part of his duty, to compofe differta-
tlons both on the conftrudlion and the working of fhlpa.
His Tra'itS du Navire, and his Manceuvre des Vaijjeaux^
are undoubtedly very valuable performances : So are
thofe of Euler and bernoulli, confidered as mathemati-
cal differtations, and they are wonderful works- of ge-
nius, confidered as the pioduftlons of perfons who hard-
ly ever faw a fhip, and were totally unacquainted with
the profeffion of a feaman. Tn this refpeft Bouguer
had great fuperlority, having always lived at a fea-port,
and having made many very long voyages. His trea-
tifes therefore are infinitely better accommodated to the
demands of the feaman, and more direftly inflrudlive ;
but ftill the author is more a mathematician than an ar-
tifl, and his performance is intelligible only to mathe-
maticians. It is true, the academical education of the
young gentlemen of the French navy Is fuch, that a
great number of them may acquire the preparatory
knowledge that is neceffary ; and we are well informed
that, in this refpedt, the officers of the Britifh navy are
greatly inferior to them. ^
But this very circumflance has furnifhed to many Argument
perfons an argument againfl the utility of thofe per- againft the
formances. It is faid that, « notwithflanding this fu- "^'l*':'' ,
perior mathematical education, and the pdlfefCon o'i'^^^^^y^"''
thofe boafted performances of M. Bouguer,,the French
are greatly inferior, in point of feamanfhip^ to our coun-
trymen, who have not a page in their language to in-
ftruft them, and who could not perufe it if they had it.'*^'
Nay, fo little do the French themfelves feem fenfible oi
the advantage of thefe publications, that no perfon a»
mong them has attempted to make a familiar abridge-
ment of them, written in a way fitted to attraft atten-
tion ; and they ftill remain negledted in their original
abftrufe and unlnterefling form.
We wifh that we could give a fatisfaftory anfwer to-
this obfervation. It is jufl, and it is important. Thefs
very ingienious and learned differtations are by no means
fo ufef ul as we fhould expeft. They are large books,
and appear to contain much ; and as their plan is logical,
it feems to occupy the whole fubjeft, and therefore to
have done almofl all that can be done. But, alas! they
have only opened the fubjeft, and the fludy is yet in its
infancy. The whole fcience of the art muft proceed
on the knowledge of the impulfions of the wind and
water. Thefe are the forces which ad on the machine
and its motions, which are the ultimatum of our re^-
fearch, whether as an end to be obtained or as a thing
to be prevented, muft depend on thefe forces. Now it
is withrefpeft to this fundamental point .that we are as jj
yet almofl totally in the dark. And, in the performT Which are
ances of M. Bouguer, as alfo in thofe of the other au- coi'lefftdly
thors we have named, the theory of thefe forces, by fn'^'helr"'
which their quantity and the dircdion of their adion fun-iamea^
are afcertained, is altogether erroneous ; and its refults tai princi-
deviate fo enormoufly from what, is obferved in the mo- P^^**^
tions of a, fhip, that the perfon who fhould dired the
operations on fhipboard, in conformity to the maxims^
deducible from M. Bouguer's propofitions, would be
baffied in mofl of his attempts, and be in danger of lo-
fing the fhip. The whole proceeds on the fuppofed
truth of that theory which ftates the irapulfe of a fiuid^
% to
S E A M A
to fee >n the propertion of the fquare of the fine of the
angle of incidex^ce ; and that its aftion on any fmall
portion, fuch as a fquare foot of the falls or hull, is the
fame as if that portion were detached from the reft, and
were expofed, fingle and alone, to the wind or water in
the fame angle. But w€ have ihown, in the article
Rrs! STANCE of Fltitdt, botli from theory and experience,
that both of thefe principles are erroneous, and this to
a very preat degree, in cafes v/hich occur moft fre-
quently in pra(ftice, that is, in tlie fmall ajipjles of in-
elination. V7hen the wind falls nearly perpendicular on
the fails, theory is not very erroneous ; but in thefe
cafes, the circumllances of the (hip's fituation are o;ene-
rally fuch that the praftice is eafy, occurring aimoft
without thought ; and in this cafe, too, even confider-
abie deviations from the very beft praftice are of no
preat moment. The intereftin^ cafes, where the in-
tended movement requires or depends upon very ob-
lique aftions of the wind on the fails, and its praAi'ca-
biiity or imprafticability depends on a very fmall varia-
tion of this obliquity ; a miftake of the force, either as
to iiitenfity or direftion, produces a mighty effeft on
the refulting motion. This is the cafe in failing to
windward ; the meft important of all the general pro-
blems of feamanfhip. The trim of the fails, and the
co\irfe of the fhip, fo as to gain moll on the wind, are
very nice things ; that is, they are confined within very
narrow limits, and a fmall miftake produces a very con-
fiderable effeft. The fame thing obtains in many of
the nice problems of tacking, box-hauling, wearing af-
ter lying-to in a ftorm, &c.
The error in the fecond alTertion of the theory is ftill
greater, and the action on one part of the fail or hull is fo
greatly modified by its aftion on another adjoining part,
that a ftay-fail is often feen hanging like a loofe rag, al-
tho' there is nothing between it and the wind ; and this
merely becaufe a great fail in its neighbourhood fends
oflF a lateral ftream of wind, which completely hinders
the wind from getting at it. Till the theory of the
action of fluids be eftabliftied, therefore, we cannot tell
what are the forces which are atfting on every point of
the fail and hull : Therefore we cannot tell either the
mean intenfity or direftion of the whole force which
afts on any particular fail, nov the intenfity and mean
direftion of the refiftance to the hull ; circumftances
abfolutely neceflary for enabling us to fay what will be
their energy in producing a rotation round any particu-
lar axis. In like manner, we cannot, by fuch a com-
putation, find the fpontaneous axis of converfion (fee
RotaYion), or the velocity of fuch converfion. In
fhort, we cannot pronounce with tolefable confidence
a priori what will be the motions in any cafe, or what
difpofitions of the fails will produce the movement we
wifh to perform. The experienced feaman learns by
habit the general efFefts of every difpofition of the fails;
and though his knowledge is far from being accurate,
it feldom leads him into any very bluifdering operation.
Perhaps he feldom makes the beft adjuftment poffible,
but feldomer ftill does he deviate very far from it ; and
in the moft general and important problema, fuch as
working to windward, the refult of much experience
and many coVreAions has fettled a trim of the fails,
which is certainly not far from the truth, but (it muft
fee acknowledged) deviates widely and unifornily from
N S H I F.
the theories of the mathematician's clofet. The honeft-
tar, therefore, muft be indulged in his joke on the ufc-
lefs labours of the mathematician, who can neither
hand, reef, nor fteer.
After this account of the theoretical performances
in the art of feamanftiip, and what we have faid in an*
other place on the fmall hopes we entertain of feeing a
perfeft theory of the impulfe of fluids, it will not be ex*
peeled that we enter very minutely on the fubjeA in
this place ; nor is it our intention. But let it be ob-
ferved, that the theory is defettive In ore point only ; ,
and although this is a moft important point, and the er- may^fg
rcrs in it dcftroy the conclufions of the chief propofi- made of
tions, the reafonings remain in full force, and the modus them.
operandi is precifely fuch as is ftated in the theory. The
principles of the art are therefore to be found in thefe
treatifes ; but falfe infcrenses have been drawn, by com-
puting from erroneous quantities. The rules and the
pra£lice of the computation, however, are ftill beyond
controverfy : Nay, fince the procefs of in'veftigation is
legitimate, we may make ufe of it in order to difcover
the very circumftance in which we are at prefent mif-
taken ; for by converting the propofition, inftead of
finding the motions by means of the fuppofed forces,
combined with the known mechanifm, wt; may difcover
the forces by means of this mechanlfm and the obferved
motions. ^
We fhall therefore in this place give a very general Defign q.
view of the movements of a Ihip under fail, fhowing this artid
how they are produced and modified by the aftion of
the wind on her fails, the water on her rudder and on
her bows. We ftiall not attempt a precife determina-
tion of any of thefe movements ; but we ftiall fay enough
to enable the carious landfman to imderftand how this
mighty machine is managed amidil the fury of the winds
and waves ; and, what is more to our wifti, we hope to
enable the uninftruAed but thinking feaman to genera-
life that knowledge which he polTefl'es ; to clafs his ideas,
and give them a fort of rational fyftem ; and even to
improve his pradllce, by making him fenfible of the im-
mediate operation of every thing he does, and in what
manner it contributes to produce the movement which
he has in view.
A fliip may be confidered at prefent as a mafs of in- {^jp <.
ert matter in free fpace, at liberty to move in every di- fidered a
reftion, according to the forces which impel or refift f^eefpac*
her : and when ihe is in actual metion, in the dite(?lion
of her courfe, we may ftill confider her as at reft in ab- opp^l
fohite fpace, but expofed to the impulfe of a current offerees,
water moving equally faft in the oppofite diredlion :
for in both cafes the prefTure of the water on her bows
is the fame ; and we know that it is poffible, and fre-
quently happens in currents, that the impulfe of the !
wind on her fails, and that of the water on her bows, ■
balance each other fo precifely, that (he not only does
not ftir from the place, but alfo remains fteadily in the
fame pofition, with her head direfted to the fame point
of the compafs. This ftate of things is eafily conceived
by any perfon accuftomcd to eonfider mechanical fub-
je£ls,. and every feaman of experience has obferved it.
It i« of importance' to confider it in this point of view,
becaufe it gives us thd moft familiar notion of the man-
ner in which- thtfc forces of the wind and vrater arc fet
im o^pofifiiani. atodf matfe to ticdance or not to balaDce
each
Ifeof
iiid
on
)W8,
eacK other by the Intervention of the flilp, in the fame
manner as the goods and the weights balance each other
in the fcales by the intervention of a beam or fteel-
yard.
When a fhip proceeds lleadily in her courfe, without
e fails changing her rate of failing, or varying the direftion of
Ite to her head, we mud in the firft place conceive the accu-
)f the fnulated impulfes of the wind on all her fails as precife-
ly equal and direftly oppofite to the impulfe of the wa-
ter on her bows. In the next place, becaufe the fhip
does not change the direftion of her keel, (he refembles
the balanced fteelyard, in which the energies of the two
weights, which tend to produce rotations in pppolite
directions, and thus to change the pofition of the beam,
mutually balance each other round the fulcrum ; fo the
energies of the aflions of the wind on the different fails
balance the energies of the water on the different parts
of the hull.
The feaman has two principal tafks to perform. The
firft is to keep the fhip fteadily in that courfe which
will bring her fartheft on in the line of her intended
voyage. This is frequently very different from that
line, and the choice of the befl courfe is fometimes a
of the matter of confiderable difhculty. It is fometimes pof.
in dil. fihlc to fhape the courfe precifely along the line of the
^ "^^^ voyage ; and yet the intelligent feaman knows that he
If will arrive fooner, or with greater fafety, at his port,
by taking a different courfe ; becaufe he will gain more
by increafmg his fpeed than he lofes by increafmg the
diftance. Some principle muft diredt him in the Telec-
tlon of this courfe. This we muft attempt to lay be-
fore the reader.
Having chofen fuch a courfe as he thinks mofl ad-
vantageous, he muft fet fuch a quantity of fail as the
ftrength of the wind will allow him to carry with fafe-
ty and effefl:, and muft trim the fails properly, or fo ad-
juft their pofitions to the direftion of the wind, that
they may have the greateft poffible tendency to impel
the fhip in the line of her courfe, and to keep her ftea-
dily in that direftion.
His other tafk is to produce any deviations which he
fees proper from the prefent courfe of the fhip ; and to
produce thefe in the moft certain, the fafeft, and the
moft expeditious manner. It is chiefly in this move-
ment that the mechanical nature of a fhip comes into
view, and it is here that the fuperior addrefs and re-
fource of an expert feaman is to be perceived.
Under the article Sailing fome notice has been
taken of the firft taflc of the feaman, and it was there
fhown how a fliip, after having taken up her anchor and
fitted her fails, accelerates her motion, by degrees which
continually diminifh, till the increafing refiftance of the
water becomes precifely equal to the diminifhed impulfe
of the wind, and then the motion continues uniformly
the fame fo long as the wind continues to blow with the
fame force and in the fame direction.
It is perfeftly confonant to experience that the im-
pulfe of fluids is in the duplicate ratio of the relative ve-
locity. Let it be fuppofed. diat when water moves one
foot per fecond its perpendicular preffure or impulfe on
a fquare foot is m pounds. Then, if it be moving with
the velocity V eftimated in feet per fecond, its perpen-
dicular impulfe on a furf- ce S, containing any number
of fquare feet, muft be m S V^.
In like manner, the impulfe of air on the fame fur-
Vox.. XVII. Part. I.
SEAMA NSHIP.
face may be reprefentcd by « S V* ; and the proportion
of the impulfe of thefe two fluids will be that of m to n.
We may exprefs this by the ratio of 7 to i, making
fior
M. Bouguer's computations and tables are on the Impulfe of
fuppofition that the impulfe of fea-water moving one water
foot per fecond is 23 ounces on a fquare foot, and thatf"'"''"^^**
the impulfe of the wind is the fame when it blows atg" "^e^*^^
the rate of 24 feet per fecond. Thefe meafures are all fquare foot,
French. They by no means agree with the experi-
ments of others ; and what we have already faid, when
treating of the Resistance of Fluidsy is enough to
[how us that nothing like precife meafures can be ex-
pected. It was fhown as the refult of a rational invef-
tigation, and confirmed by the experiments of Buat
and others, that the impulfions and refiftances at the
fame furface, with the fame obliquity of incidence and
the fame velocity of motion, are different according to
the form and fituation of the adjoining parts. Thus
the total refiftance of a thin board is greater than that
of a long prifm, having this board for its front or bow,
&c.
We are greatly at a lofs what to give as abfolute mea-
fures of thefe impulfions.
1 . With refpeft to water. The experiments of the
French academy on a prifm two feet broad and deep
and four feet long, indicate a refiftance of 0,973 pounds
avoirdupois to a fquare foot, moving vfith the velocity
of one foot per fecond at the furface of ftill water.
Mr Buat's experiments on a fquare foot wholly im-
merfed in a ftream were as follow :
A fquare foot as a thin plate - j,8i pounds.
Ditto as the front of a box one foot
long - - . 1,42
Ditto as the front of a box three feet
long . . . 1,29
The refiftance of fea-water is about t'j- greater.
2. With refpeft to air, the varieties are as great. — •
The refiftance of a fquare foot to air moving with the
velocity of one foot per fecond appears from Mr Ro-
bins's experiments on 16 fquare inches to be on a
fquare foot - 0,001596 pounds,
Chevalier Borda's on 16 inches 0,001757
on 81 inches 0,002042
Mr Roufe's on large furfaces 0,002291
Precife meafures are not to be expefted, nor are they
neceffary in this inquiry. Here we are chiefly intereft-
ed in their proportions, as they may be varied by theip
mode of aftion in the different gircumftances of obliqui-
ty and velocity.
We begin by recurring to the fundamental propofi-
tion concerning the impulfe of fluids, viz. that the abfo-
lute preffure is always in a direftion perpendicular to
the impelled furface, whatever may be the diredtion of xi
the ftream of fluid. We muft therefore illuftrate theDiredl Im.
doftrine, by always fuppofing a flat furface of failP^'^'^ ""^
ft retched on a yard, which can be braced about in any ^'^^
direaion, and giving this fail fuch a pofition and fuch J^fjf j^^'
an extent of furface that the impulfe on it may be the the yard,
fame both as to direftion and intenfity with that on
the real fails. Thus the confideration is greatly fimpli-
fled. The diredlion of the impulfe is therefore perpen-
dicular to the yard. Its intenfity depends on the ve-
C c locity
202
SEAMANSHIP.
A Ihip
compared
to an ob-
ICDg box,
t5
Makes lee-
way when
not failing
direcftly be.
fore the
wind.
locity with which the wind meets the fail, and the obh'-
qulty of its ftroke. We (hall adopt the confiruftions
founded on the common do£lrinc, that the imputfe is
as the fqiiare of the line of the inch'nation, becaufe they
arc ilmple ; whereas, if we were to introduce the values
of the oblique impulfes, fuch as they have been obfer-
ved in the excellent experiments of the Academy of
J*aris, the conftruftioos would be complicated in the
extreme, and we could hardly draw any confequences
'which would be intelligible to any but expert mathe-
matidans. The conclufions will be erroneous, not in
kind but in quantity only ; and we (hall point out the
neceflary coi reft ions, fo that the final refults will be
found not very different from real obfervation.
If a fbip were a round cylindrical body like a flat
tub, floatin;r on its bottom, and fitted with a maft and
fail in the centre, fhe would always fail in a direftion
perpendicular to the yard. This is e/ident. But fhe
is an oblong body, and may be compared to a chel^,
whofe length greatly exceeds its breadth. She is fo
fliaped, that a moderate force will pufh her through
the water with the head or ftern foremoft ; but it re-
quires a very great force to pufh her fidewife with the
fame velocity. A fine failing (hip of war will require
about 12 times as much force to pufh her fidewife as
to pufh her head foremoft. In this refpeft therefore
jhe will very much refemble a cheft whofe length is 12
times its breadth j and whatever be the proportion
of thefe refiftances in different (hips, we may always
fubftitute a box which fhall have the fame reliftances
headwife and fidewife.
Let EFGH (fig. i.) be the horizontal feftlon of
fuch a box, and AB its middle line, and C its centre.
In whatever direftion this box may chance to move, the
direftion of the whole refiftance on its two fides will
pafs through C. For as the whole flream has one incli-
nation to the fide EF, the equivalent of the equal im-
pulfes on every part will be in a line perpendicular to
the middk of EF. For the fame reafon, it will be in a
line perpendicular to the middle of FG. Thefe per-
pendiculars muft crofs in C. Suppofe a mail erefted
at C, and YCy to be a yard hoilted on it carrying a
fail. Let the yard be firft conceived as braced right
athwart at right angles to the keel, as reprefented by
Y'y. Then, whatever be the direftion of the wind
abaft this fail, it will impel the veffel in the direftion
CB. But if the fail has the oblique pofition Y y, the
impulfe will be in the direftion CD perpendicular toCY,
and will both pufh the veffel ahead and fidev/iie : For
the impulfe CD is equivalent to the two impulfes CK
and CI (the fides of a reftangle of which CD is
the diagonal). The force CI pufhes the veffel ahead,
and CK pufhes her fidewife. She muft therefore take
fome intermediate diredion a by fuch that the refiftance
of the water to the plane FG is to its refiftance to the
plane EF as CI to CK.
The angle 3 CB between the real courfe and the di-
reftion of the head is called the Leeway ; and in the
courfe of this differtation we fhall exprefa it by the
fymbol X. It evidently depends on the fhape of the
veffel and on the pofition of the yard. An accurate
knowledge of the quantity of leeway, correfponding to
different circumftances of obliquity of impulfe, extent of
furface, 5cc. is of the utmoft importance in the pradice
of navigation ; and even an approximation is valuable.
The fubje<ft is fo very difficult that this muft content
us for the prefent.
Let V be the velocity of the fhip in the direftion How
C b, and let the furfaces FG and FE be called A' and ^
B'. Then the refiftance to the lateral motion hT^'
w V * X B' X fine S A C B, and that to the direft motion
is ffj V * X A' X fiiic % <5C K, or m V» x A' X cof.'3 CB.
Therefore thefe refiftances are in the proportion of
B' X fine % X to A' X cof. x (reprefenting the angle
of leeway 3CB by the fymbol x).
Therefore we have CI : CK, or CI : ID = A'"
cof.^ X : B'- fine * », = A' : B'- ^ - = A : B • tan-
gent ' .v.
Let the angle YCB, to which the yard is braced
op, be called the Trim of the fails, and expreifed by
the fymbol 3. This is the complement of the angle
DCI. Now CI : ID =: rad. : tan. DCI, = . : tan.
DCI, =: I : cotan. 6. Therefore we have finally 1 : co-
tan, * = A : B'- tan. » x, and A'* cotan. b = B'- tan-
gent ^ v, and tan. * x = cot. This equation evi-
dently afcertains the mutual relation between the trim ■
of the fails and the leeway in eveiy cafe where we can
tell the proportion between the refiftances to the dIreA
and broadfide motions of the fhip, and where this pro-
portion does not change by the obliquity of the courfe.
Thus, fuppofe the yard braced up to an angle of 30^
with the keel. Then cotan. 30° = i>732 very nearly,
Suppofe alfo that the refiftance fidewife is 12 times
greater than the refiftance headwife. This gives
A'= I and B'= 12. Therefore 1,732 = 12 X tan-
gent ' Xy and tangent ' x = , = o, 14434, and tan.
^ = o>3799> an<^ * = 20" 48', very nearly two points
of leeway.
This computation, or rather the equation which give*
room for it, fuppofes the refiftances proportional to the
fquares of the fines of incidence. The experiments of
the Academy of Paris, of which an abftraft is given ia
the article Resistance of Flutdsy (how that this fup-
pofition is not far from the truth when the angle of in-
cidence is great. In this prefent cafe the angle of in-
cidence on thz front FG is about 70°, and the experi-
ments juft now mentioned fhow that the real refiftances-
exceed the theoretical ones only T-g-o* But the angle
of incidence on EF is only 20° 48'. Experiment
ftiows that in this inclination the refiftance is almoft
quadruple of the theoretical refiftances. Therefore the
lateral refiftance is affumed much too fmall in the pre-
fent inftance. Therefore a much fmaller leeway will
fufiice for producing a lateral refiftance which will ba-
lance the lateral impulfe CK, arifing from the obliquity
of the fail, viz. 30°. The matter of faft is, that a pret-
ty good failing fhip, with her fails braced to this angle
at a medium, will not make above five or fix degree*
leeway in fmooth water and eafy weather ; and yet in
this fituatlon the hull and rigging prefent a very great
furface to the wind, in the moft improper pofitions, fo
as to have a very great eff"e6l in increafing her leeway.
And if we compute the refiftances for this leeway of
fix degrees by the aftual experiments of the French A-
cademy on that angk, we ftiall find the refult not far
from
S E. A M A
frtJtn the truth ; that is, the direR and lateral refiftanccs
will be nearly in the proportion of CI to ID.
It refults from this view of the matter, that the lee-
way is in geneta-lmuch fmaUer than what the ufual theo-
ry affign«.
h dc- We alfo fee, that according to whatever law the re-
son fiftances change by a change of inclination, the leeway
bni of remains the fame while the trim of the fails is the fame.
The leeway depends only on the dire€tion of the im-
pulfe of the wind ; arid this depends folely «a the pofi-
tion of the fails with refpeft to the keel, whatever may
be the dirt^tion of the wind. This is a very important
obfervation, and will be frequently referred to in the
progrefs of the prefent inveftigation. Note, however,
that we are here confideringonly the action on the fails,
and on the fame fails We are not confidering the ac-
tion of the wind on the hull and rigging. This may
be very confiderable ; and it is always in a lee direAion,
and augments the leeway ; and its influence mutt be fo
much the more fenfible as it bears a greater proportion
to the impulfe on the fails. A (hip under courfes, or
clofe-reefed topfails and courfes, mutt make more lee-
way than when under all her canvas trimmed to the
fame angle. But to introduce this additional caufe of
deviation here would render the inveftigation too com-
plicated to be of any ufe.
ration This doctrine will be confiderably illuftrated by at-
is doc- tending to the manner in which a lighter is tracked a-
j*'^ ■ long a canal, or fwings to its anchor in a ftream. The
track rope is made fall to fome ftaple or bolt E on the
deck (fig. 2.)» and is paffed between two of the timber-
heads of the bow at D, and laid hold of at F on ftiore.
The men or cattle walk along the path FG, the rope
keeps extended in the direAion DF, and the lighter ar-
ranges itfelf in an oblique pofition AB, and is thus
dragged along in the diredlion a b, parallel to the fide
of the canal. Or, if the canal has a current in the op-
pofite direi3.ion b «, the lighter may be kept fteady in
its place by the rope DF made faft to a poft at F. In
this cafe, it is always obferved that the lighter fwings
in a pofition AB, which is obliqiie to the ftream a b.
Now the force which retains it in this pofition, and
which precifely balances the action of the llream, is cer-
tainly exerted in the direftion DF ; and the lighter
would be held ia the fame manner if the rope were
made faft at C amidfhip, without any dependence on
■the timberheads at D ; and it would llill be held in
the fame pofition, if, inftead of the fmgle rope CF, it
were riding by two ropes CG and CH, of which CH
'is in a direftion right ahead, but oblique to the ftream,
and the other CG i« perpendicular to CH or AB.
And, drawing DI and DK perpendicular to AB and
CG, the ftrain on the rope CH is to that on the rope
CG as CI to CK. The adion of the rope in thefe
cafes is precifely analogous to that of the fail y Y ; and
the obhquity of the keel to the direftion of the mo-
tion, or to the direction of the ftream, is analogous to
the leeway. Ail this muft be evident to any perfon ac-
cuftomed to mechanical difquifitions.
'udels A moft important ufe may be made of this illuftra-
tion. If an accurate model be made of a ftiip, and if
it be placed in a ftream of water, and ridden in this
manner by a rope made faft at any point D of the bow,
it will arrange itfelf in fome determined pofition AB.
There will be a certain obliquity to the ftream, mea.
N S H r P.
furcd by the angle B o ^ ; and there will be a corre-
fponding obliquity of the rope, meafured by the angle
FCB. Let y CY be perpendicular to CF. Then CY
will be the pofition of the yard, or trim of the fails cor-
lefponding to the leeway b CB. Then, if we ftiift the
rope to a point of the bow diftant from D by a fmall
quantity, we fliall obtain a new pofition of the (hip,
both with refpeft to the ftream and the rope 5 and in this
way may be obtained the relation between the pofition
of the fails and the leeway, independent of all theory,
and fufceptible of great accuracy; and this may be
done with a variety of models fuited to the moft ufual
fornw of fiiips.
In farther thinking on this fubjed, we are perfuaded On fhipso
that thefe experiments, inftead of being made on mo-
dels, may with equal eafe be made on a fhip of any fize.
Let the ftiip ride in a ftream at a mooring D (fig. 3.)
by means of a fliort hawfer BCD from her bow, ha-
ving a fpring AC on it carried out from her quarter.
She will fwing to her moorings, till fiie ranges herfelf
in a certain pofition AB with refpeft to the direftion
ab ol the ftream ; and the diredtion of the hawfer DC
will point to fome point E of the line of the keel. Now,
it is plain to any perfon acquainted with mechanical dif-
quifitions, that the deviation BE b is precifely the lee-
way that the ftilp will make when the average pofition
of the fails is that of the line GEH perpendicular to
ED ; at leaft this will give the leeway which is produ-
ced by the fails alone. By heaving on the fpring, the
knot Cmay be brought intoany other pofition we pleafe ;
and for every new pofition of the knot the fhip will
take a new pofition with retped to the ftream and to
the hawfer. And we perfift in faying, that more in-
formation will be got by this train of experiments than
from any mathematical theory : for all theories of the
impulfes of fluids muft proceed on phyfical poftulatea
with refpedt to the motions of the filaments, which are
exceedingly conjedlural. <xt
And it muft now be farther obferved, that the fub- The com-
ftltution which we have made of an oblong pafallelopi- I'^Pf"""
ped for a ftxip, although well fuited to give us clear no- ob ong
tions of the fubjedt, is of fmall ufe in praAice : for it is body is
next to impofiible (even granting the theory of oblique ""'y "f^-
impuHions) to make this fubftitution> A fliip is of
form which is not reducible to equations; and therefore t.'^ns 'on*
the aAion of the water on her bow or broadfide can the fubjeft,
only be had by a moft laborious and intricate calcula-
tion for almoft every fquare foot of its furface. (See
Bezout's Cours de Mathem^ vol. 5. p. 72, &c.) And
this muft be different for every (hip. 13«t, which is
more unlucky, when we have got a parallelopiped which
will have the fame proportion of direft and latei-al re-
fiftance for a particular angle of leeway, it vviU not an-
fwer for another leeway of the fame fliip ; for when the
leeway changes, the figure adually expofed to the ac-
tion ot the water changes alfo. When the leeway is
increafed, more of the lee-quartei is afted on by the
water, and a part of the weather-bow is now removed
from its adion. Another parallelopiped muft therefore
be difcovered, whofe refiftanccs ftiall fuit this new pofition
of the keel with refpeft to tlie real courfe of the /hip.
We therefore beg leave to recommend this train of expe-
riments to the notice of the Association for the Im-
PROVEMEKTOF Naval ARCHITECTURE as a very pro-
onifing method forafcertaining this importantpoint. An«[
C c 2 we
304
S EAMANSHIP.
we proceed, in the next place, to afccrtatn the relation
between the velocity of the fliip and that of the wind,
modihed as they nnay be by the trim of the fails and the
aa obliquity oF the impulfe.
The rela- Let AB (fig. 4, 5, and 6.) reprefent the horizontal
tion ^^-^^ fedilion of a llu'p. In place of all the drawing fails, that
velocity of ^^^^ ^^'^^ which are really filled, we can always lubili-
the (hip tute one fail of equal extent, trimmed to the fame angle
and w-nd with the keel. This being fuppofed attached to the
afcertained. y^^^ DCD, let this yard be firll of all at right angles
to the keel, as reprefented in Hg. 4. Let the wind
blow in the direction WC, and let CE (in the direftion
WC continued) reprefent the velocity V of the wind.
Let CF be the velocity v of the fhip. It mufl. alfo be
in the direftion of the fliip's motion, becaufe when the
fail is at right angles to the keel, the abfolute impulfe
on the fail is in the direftion of the keel, and there is
no lateral impulfe, and confequently no leeway. Draw
E F, and complete the parallelogram CFE e, producing
e C through the centre of the yard to 10. 'I hen iv C
will be the relative or apparent direftion of the wind,
and C <' or FE will be its apparent or relative velocity ;
For if the hne C e be carried along CF, keeping always
parallel to its firft polition, and if a particle of air move
uniformly along CE (a fixed line in abfolute fpace) in
the fame time, this particle will always be found in that
point of CE where it is interfefted at that inftant by
the moving line C f ; fo that if C .? were a tube, the
particle ot air, which really moves in the line CE, would
always be found in the tube C e. While CE is the
real direftion of the wind, C 6" will be the pofition of
the vane at the maft head, which will therefore mark
the apparent direftion of the wind, or its motion rela-
tive to the moving fliip.
We may conceive this in another way. Suppofe a
cannon-fhot fired in the direftion CE at the pafling
ihip, and that it paffes through the maft at C with the
velocity of the wind. It will not pafs through the off-
fide of the fliip at P, in the line CE : for while the fliot
moves from C to P, the point P has gone forward, and
the point p is now in the place where P was when
the Ihot pafTed through the maft. The fhot will there-
fore pafs through the fhip's fide in the point p, and a
perfon on board feeing it pafs through C and p will fay
that its motion was in the line C />.
When a Thus it happens, that when a ftilp is In motion the
Ihip is in apparent direftion of the wind is always ahead of its
motion the ^.^^j direftion. The line w C is always found within
d^redUon of ^"8^^ WCB. It is eafy to fee from the conftruc-
the wind tion, that the difference between the real and apparent
is always direftions of the wind is fo much the more remarkable
f '^'^the velocity of the fhip is greater : For the angle
rcaUJirec- ""^ ^ depends on the magnitude of E ^ or
tion. CF, in proportion to CE. Perfons not much accuf-
tomed to attend to thefe matters are apt to think all
attention to this difference to be nothing but affeftation
of nicety. They have no notion that the velocity of a
fhip can have any fenfible proportion to that of the
wind. *' Swift as the wind" is a proverbial expref-
fion ; yet the velocity of a fhip always bears a very fen-
fible proportion to that of the wiad, and even very fre-
quently exceeds it. We may form a pretty exaft no-
tion of the velocity of the wind by obferving the fha-
dows of the fummer clouds flying along the face of a
countiy, and it may be very well meafured by this me-
thod. I'he motion of fuch clouds caimot be very diffe-
rent from that of the air below; and when the preffurc
ot the wind on a flat furface, while blowing with a ve-
locity meafured in this way, is compared with its prcf-
fure when its velocity is meafured by more unexcep-
tionable methods, they are found to aj^ree with all de-
lirable accuracy. Now obfervations of this kind fre-
quently repeated, fliow that what we call a pleafant
briflc gale blows at the rate of about 10 miles an hour,
or about 15 feet in a fecund, and exerts a preffure of
half a pound on a fquare foot Mr Smeaton has fre-
quently obferved the fails of a windmill, driven by fuch
a wind, moving fafter,, nay much fafter, towards their
extremities, fo that the fail, iuftead of being preffed ta
the frames on the arms, was taken aback, and flutter-
ing on them. Nay, we know that a good (hip, with
all her fails fet and the wind on the beam, will in fuch
a fituation fail above 10 knots "an hour in fraooth wa-
ter. There is an obfervation made by every experienced
feaman, which fhows this difference between the real and
apparent direftions of the wind very diftinftly. "\Vhen
a fhip that is failing briflcly with the wind on the beam
tacks about, and then fails equally well on the other
tack, the wind always appears to have fhifted and come
more ahead. This is ^amiliar to all feamen. The fea-
man judges of the direftion of the wind by the pofition
of the (hip's vanes. Suppofe the fhip failing due weft on
the ftarboard tack, with the wind apparently N. N. W.
the vane pointing 8. S. E. If the fhip puts about, and
ftands due eaft on the larboard tack, the vane will be
found no longer to point S. S. E. but perhaps S. S.W. thti
wind appearing N. N.E. an^ the fhip rriuit be nearly clofe-
hauled in order to make an eaft courfe. The wind ap-
pears to have fhifted four points. If the fhip tacks
again, the wind returns to its old quarter. We have z.
often obferved a greater difference than this. The ce- Obfeit
lebratcd aftronomer Dr Bradley, takin f the amuiemeat
of failing in a pinnace on the river Thames, obferved (^jj^
this, and was furprifed at it, imagining that the change
of wind was owing to the approaching to or retiring
from the fhore. The boatmen told him that it always
happened at fea, and explained it to him in the heft
manner they were able. The explanation ftruck him,
and fet him a mufing on an aftrononfical phenomenon
which he had been puzzled by for fome years, and
which he called the aberration of the fixed
STARS. Every ftar changes its place a fmall matter
for half a year, and returns to it at the completion of
the year. He compared the ftream of light from the
ftar to the wind, and the telefcope of the aftronomer to
the (hip's vane, while the earth w:as like the fhip, mo-
ving in oppofite direftions when in iht oppofite points
ot itSjOrbit. The telefcope muft always be pointed a-
head of the real direftion of the ftar, in the fame man-
ner as the vane is always in a direftion ahead of the
wind ; and thus he afcertained the progreflive motion
of light, and difcovered the proportion of its velocity
to the velocity of the earth in its orbit, by obferving
the deviation which was neceffarily given to the tele-
fcope. Obferving that the light fhifted its direftion
about 40", he concluded its velocity to be about 1 1 ,000
times greater than that of the earth ; juft as the intelli-
gent feaman would conclude from this apparent fhifting
of the wind, that the velocity of the wind is about
triple that of the Ihip. This is indeed the beft method
for
of
at
SEA
hf dUeoverifig the velocity of the wind. Let the di-
rection of the vane at the maft-head be very accurately
noticed on both tacks, and let the velocity of the fhip
be alfo accurately n:\eafiired. The angle between the
direftions of the fbip's head on thefe different tacks be-
ing halved, will give the real dirtftion of the wind»
which mull be compared with the pofition of the vane
in order to determine the angle contained between the
real and apparent dire£tions oF the wind or the angle
EC e; or half of the obferved fhifting of the wind will
Ihow the inclination of its trne and apparent direftions.
This being found, the proportion of EC to FC (fig. 6.)
is eafily meafured.
We have been very particular on this point, beeaufe
fince the mutual actions of bodies depend on their rela-
tive motions only, we fhould make prodigious miltakes
if we eftimated the aftion of the wind by its real direc-
tion and velocity, when they differ fo much from the
relative or apparent.
We now refume the inveftigation of the velocity of
the Mp (fig. 4.), having its fail at right angles to the
keel, and the wind blowing in the direction and witK
the velocity CE, while the (hip proceeds in the direc-
tion of the keel with the velocity CF. Produce E
which Is parallel to BC, till it meet the yard in g, and
draw FG perpendicular to E^. Let a rcprefent the
angle WCD, contained between the fail and the real
direftion of the wind, and let b be the angle of trim
DCB. CE the velocity of the wind was expreffed by
V, and CF the velocity of the fliip by u.
The abfolute impulfe on the fail is (by the ufual
theory ) proportional to the fquare of the relative velo-
city, and to the fquare of the fine of the angle of inci-
dence ; that is, to F E* X fin.* wCD. Now the
angle GFE = w C D, and E G is equal to F E X fin.
G F E ; and E G is equal to E^^-^ G. But E^=:
EC X fin. EC^, =: V X fin. a ; and g G — C F, = v.
Therefore E G = V X fin. a — v, and the impulfe is
proportional to V X fin. a — v^' If S reprefent the fur-
face of the fail, the impulfe, in pounds, wiU be « S ( VX
fin. a — 'J')*.
Let A be the furface which, when it meets the wa-
ter perpendicularly with the velocity will fuftain the
fame preffure or refiftance which the bows of the Ihip
adlually meets with, 'f his impulfe, in pounds, will be
ctA-u*. Therefore, beeaufe we are confidering the
fhip's motion as in a fiate of uniformity, the twa pref-
fures balance each other; and therefore mAv^ — n S(V
m
X fm. a—vYy and — A-y" = S (V X fin. a—vy ;
M A N S H I P.
26 S
V
and then the fhip's velocity is
Note, that the denominator of this fraftion Is a com^
mon number ; for m and « are numbers, and A and S
A ,
being quantities of one kind, -g- is alfo a number.
It muft alfo be carefully attended to, that S expreffes
a quantity of fail adually receiving wind with the in-
clination a. It will not always -be true, therefore, that
the velocity will increafe as the wind Is more abaft, be-
eaufe iome fails will then becalm others. This obferva-
tion is not, however, of great importance ; for it is very
unufual to put a (hip in the fituation confidered hither-
to ; that is, with the yards fquare, unlefs (he be right
before the wind.
If we would difcover the relation between the velo-
city and the quantity of fail in this fimple cafe of the
wind right aft, obferve that the equation v = ^^/^^
therefore
and V =
V A X V = -v/ •'i X V X fin. a—v S,
S X-y X fin. a V_X
fin.
V'x fin. a
+ I
A
S
+ 1
gives
and '
A .^4..^ = V, and /^J^ vzz V —
TS" « s
n 1
; and beeaufe
A. J
——■u -_V V
I b
and ——-zz--—
mA (V — f)'
We fee, in the firft place, that the velocity of the
fhip is [aeteris paribus) proportional to the velocity of
the wind, and to the fine of its incidence on the fail
jointly ; for while the furface of the fail S and the
equivalent furface for the bows remains the fame, v in-;,
creafes or diminifhes at the fame rate with V* fin. a-^
When the wind is right aftern, the- fine of a is unity,
n and m and A are conftant quantities, S is propor-
tional to ~ or the furface of fail is proportional
(V— r')^*
to the fquare of the fhip's velocity diredly, and to the
fquare of the relative velocity inverfely. Thus, if a Ihip
be failing with \ of the velocity of the wind, and we
would have her fail with ^ of it, we muft quadruple
the fails. This is more eafily feen in another viray. The
velocity of the {hip is proportional to the velocity of the
wind ; and therefore the relative velocity is alfo propor-
tional to that of the wind, and the impulfe of the wind
is as the fquare of the relative velocity. Therefore, in
order to inereafe the relative velocity by an Increafe of
fail only, we mufl make this increafe of fail in the du-
plicate proportion of the increafe of velocity.
Let us, in the next place, confider the motion of a
fhip whole fails Hand oblique to the keel. ^
. The eonftrudion for this purpofe differs a Httle from Us velociry
the former, beeaufe, when the lails are trimmed to any .^jJ'jj^'^J
oblique pofition DCB (fig. 5. and 6;), there muil be a^;'^,^^^^"^
deviation from the diiedion of the keel, or a leeway keel.
EC 3. Call this X. Let CF be the velocity of the fliip.
Draw, as before, ¥.g perpendicular to the yard, and
FG perpendicular to E-^' ; alfo draw FH perpendicu-
lar to the yard : then, as before, E G, which is in the
fubduplicate ratio of the impulfe on the fail, is equal to
E^ — G^. Now E g is, as before, = V X fin. a, and
G^ is ec^ual to F H, which is r= C F X fin. F C H, or
= -u X fin. {.b ->rx). Therefore we have the impulfe —
n S ^V* fin. a — v fin. {b -{- " •
'I'his exprefflon of the impulie is perfedly fimllar to
that in the former cafe, its only difference confifting in
the fubdudive part, which is here X fin. ^ -f a- inflead
/ of v. But it expreffes the fame thing as before, vizr,
the diminution of the impulfe. The impulfe being rea-
soned folely in the diredion perpendicular to the failj
2o6 S E "A M A
It IS diminlfliec! folely by the fail withdrawing kfelf in
that direaion from the wind } -and as ^ E may be confi-
dercd as the real itnpullive motion of the wind, G E
mull be confidered as the relative and fcffeftive inipuKive
. -motion. The impulfe would have been the fame had
the flu'p been at relt, and had the wind met it perpeu-
If dicularly with the velocity G E.
Connec- We niuft now fnow the conneftion between this inl-
tweenthc P"Jf«= and the motion of the fhip. The fail, and con-
impulfe fequently the fhip, is preffed by the wind in the direc-
auci mot on tion CI perpendicular to the fail or yard with the force
of the (hip. which we have juft now detefmtned. This (in tlie ftate
of uniform motion) muft be equal and oppofite to the
adtion of the water. Draw I L at riirht angles to the
keel. The impulfe in the direftton CI (which we may
meafure by CI) is equivalent to the impulfes C L arid
LI. By the firft the rtlip is impelled fight fbrtvard,
and by the fecond fhe is driven fidewife. Therefore
we rauft have a leeway, and a lateral as well as adired
lefiftance. We fuppafe the form of the Ihip to be
• known, and therefore the proportion is known, or dif-
• coverablci between the dired and lateral refiftance* cor-
refponding to every angle x of leeway. Let A be the
furface whofe perpendicular refiftance is equal to the di-
reft refiitance of the'fhip correfpondin? to the leeway
af, that is, whofe refiftance is equal to the refiftance real-
ly felt by the fhip's bows in the diredion of the keel
when {he is failing with this leeway ; and let B in like
manner be the furface whofe perpendicular refiftance is
equal to the adual refiftance to the fhip s motion in the
direftion LI, perpendicular to the keel. (A^. B. This
is not equivalent to A' and B' adapted to the re^angular
box, but to A'- Gof. * X and B'- fin.* x.) We have
therefore A : B=rCL : LI, and Ll = £ii?. Alfo,
A
N S H I P,
tccaufe CI= v'CL^+LP, we have A t y/ A^+B*
= CL:CI,andCI==^iC^^^L±ir. The refift.
A
ance in the direftion LC is properly meafured by
m A v*, as has been already obferved. Therefore the
refiftance in the direction I C muft be expreffed by m
VA* ■+• B 'I 5* ; or (making C the furface which is
equal to v'A'-f B*, and which will therefore have the
' fame peipendicular refiftance to the water having the ve-
locity v) it may be expreffed by m C 71*.
Therefore, becaufe there is an equilibrium betwecft
the impuUe and refiftance, we have mCv^:=inS {Y'
— ' — tn
fin. a — v' fin. ^ jc) * and C v*. or a Cv* zz
' n *
S (V- fin. a—v fin. ^-fy)% ztidA/q^Cvzz^B
(V' fin. a — v fin. ^-f x),
v'S*V"fin. a
Therefore v
V- fin. a
Vg r7-Q- + fin
fin. d + x'
Sin. a
= V
V'C ,
^ g -r i'"- ^ -j- « -7-g +fm.
Obferve that the quantity which is the coefScient
of V in this equation is a cortimon number ; for fin. a
is a number, being a decimal fradlion of the radius i.
■Sin. ^ 4- * is alfo a numberj for the fame reafon. And
iince ffj and B were numbers of pounds, or q is a
common number. And becaufe C and S are futfacefi^
— is ^fo a xjommon num^
or quaiatlties of one kind,
ber.
This is the firtipleft ekprelTion that we can think of
iot the velocity acquired by the fhfp, though it muft
be acknowledged to be too complex to be of very
prompt ufe. Ita complication arifes from the neceffity
of introducing the leeway x. This affefts the whole of
the denominator ; for the furface C depends on it, be.
•<$aufeC is = i/A*-i-BS and A and B arc analogous
to A'cof. ^ X and B' fin. * jc.
But we can deduce forae important eonfequence« '^"^P"''
from this theorem. confeq
While the furface S of the fail adually fiUed by the wind ced fri
remains the fame, and the angle DCB, which in future the for
we fiiall call the Trim of the fuils, alfo remains theS»'"S
fame, both the leeway x and the fubftituted furface C
remains the fame. The denominator is therefore con-
ftant ; and the velocity of the Ihip is proportional to
\/ S' V- fin. o; that is, diredtly as the velocity of the
wind, direilly as the abfokite inclination of the wind
to the yard, and direftly as the fquare ro«t of the fur-
face of the fails.
We alfo learn from the conftrudion of the figure that
FG parallel to the yard cuts CE in a given ratio. For
CF is in a conftant ratio to Ej^, as has been juft now
demonftrated. And the angle DCFis conftant. There-
fore CF - fin. by or FH or G/, is proportional to E^,
and OC to EC, 6r EC is cut in one proportion, what-
ever may be the an^rle ECD, fo long as the angk DCF
is conftant.
We alfo fee that it is very polfiblc for the velocity
of the (hip OR an oblique courfe to exceed that of
the vrtnd. This will be the cafe when the number
fin. a
y/ 7 ~+fm. b-^x
exceeds unity, or when fin. a is
greater than ^ q ^+fin.*+x. New thisrtiay eafily
be by fufficiently enlafgirtg S atld diminilhing b-\-x.
It is indeed frequently feeri in rine failers with aU their
fails fet and not hauled too near the -wind.
We remarked above that the angle of leeway * affeds
the whole denominator of the fradioa which expreffes
the velocity. Let it be obferved that the angle ICL
is the complement of L C D> or of b. Therefore CL;
L I>or A : B=: 1 ; tan. I C L, = 1 : cot. and B^A*
cotan. b. Now A is equivalent to A' - Cof.* and thus
b becomes a funAion of C is evidently fo, bein^
=:V'A^-HB\ Thei<cforc before the value of this frac-
tion can be obtained, we muft be able to compute, by
our knowledge of the form of the fliip, the value • f A
fbr every angle x of leeway. 1 his can be done only by
refolving her bows into a great number ot^ elementary
|jlanes, aird computuig the impitlfes on each and adding
them into one fum. 1 he computation is of immtnfe
labour, as may be feen by one example given by Bou-
gTier. When the leeway is but Imafi, not exceeding
ten degrees, the fubftitution of the reftangular prifm of
one determined form is abundantly exaft for all leeways
contained within thishmitj and we (hall fooa fee rea-
the
)ofi-
f the
or
inj?
given
SEA M A
fon for being contented with this approximation. We
may now make ufe of the formula exprefiing the ve.
locity for folvtng the chief preblfems in this part of the
feaman's tafl<.
And firft kt it required la determine the beft
poiition of th€ fail for ftaadinp on a given courfe a f>,
when C E the diredion and velocity of the wind, and its
angle with the courfe W C F, are given. This problem
has exercifed the talents of the matheraaticians ever fmce
the days of Newton. In- the article Pubumatics we
gcfve the folution of one very nearly related to it, name-
ly, to determine the pofition of the fail which would
produce the greatefl impulfe in the direAion of the
courfe. The folution was to place the yard C D in fuch
a pofition that the tangent of the -angle F C D may be
one half of the tangent of the angle i> G W. This will
indeed be tl>€ beft 'pofition of the fail for beginning the
motioFt ; but as foon as the (hip begins to move In the
dirc6tion CF, the effedive impulfe of the wind is di-
mtniflied, and alfo its inclination to the fail. The
angle DG^w dimlnifhesT contiiuially as the fhip accele^
rates ; for CF is now accompanied by its equal e E,
and by an angle EC e or WC w . CF increafes, and
the impulfe on the fall dimlnlfiies, till an equilibrium
obtains between the refiftance of the water and the im--
pulfe of the wind. The- impulfe is now meafured by
C^^ X fin. e CD inftead of CE^ X fm.^. ECD> that,
is, by EG^ inftead of E g^.
This introduftion of the relative motion of the wind
renders the aftual folution of the problem extremely
diflRcult. It is very eafily" expreffed geometrically:
Divide the angle'wCF in- fuch a manner that the tan-
gent of DCF may be half of the tangent of DCw, and
the problem may be conftruded geometrically as fol-
lows.
Let WCF '(fig- 7-) be tlie angle between the fall
atKl courfe. Round the centre C defcribe the circle
WDFY; produce WC to Q_, fo that C Q=|W C, and
draw QY parallel to CF cutting the circle in Y; bifeft
the arch WY in D, and draw DC. DC is the proper
pofition of the yard.
Draw the chord WY, cutting CD in V and CF in
T ; draw the tangent PD cutting CF In S and CY
in R.
It Is evident that WY, PR, are both perpendicular'
to CD, and are blfefted in V and D ; therefore (by
reafon of the parallels QY, CF) 4 : 3 = Q}V : CW,
= YW : TW, ^ RP : SP. Therefore PD : PS=2 :3,
and PD : DS = 2 : I. ^ E. D. But thisdivifion
cannot be made to the beft. advantage till the ftilp has
attained its greateft velocity, and the angle -zi/CF has
been produced.
We muft confider all the three angles, a-, b, and x as
variable in the equation which exprelfes the value of d,
and we muft make the fiuxicn of this equatIon = o ;
then, by means of the equation B=r A* cotan. b, we
muft obtain the value of .;^ and of b In terms of x and x.
With refpe£t to obierve, that if we make the angle
WCF= /, we have a -\-b-\- x ; p being a con-
ftant quantity, we have«-|-^-}-».=:o. Subftlttiting for
(7, b, a, and b, their values in terms of x and in the
fluxionary equation =0, we readily obtain x, and then
a and b, which folves the problem.
Let it be required, in the next place, to deternaine
N SHI P. 207
the courfe and the" trlci of -the falls mofl proper for ply-
ing to windward. - 30
In fig". 6. draw FP perpendicular to WC. CF is f roWem [I.
the motion of the' (hip ; but it is only by the motion
CP that fhe gains to windward. Now CP is = CFXjourfe and
cofin. WGF, or v cofin. (a-^^-fx). This muft be ren-trim of the
dered a maximum, as follows. nioft -
By means of the equation which expreffes the value Pj'^.P^'"^^'
of D and the equation B=:A' cotan. b, we exterminate ^jnj^j^pj^ .
the quantities v andi ; we then take the fluxion of the
quantity into which the expreflion v' cof. {a-\-b-{-x)
is changed by this operation. Making this fluxion =0,
we get the equation which muft folve the problem.
This equation will contain the two variable quantities
a and x with their fluxions s then make the coefficient '
of^c equal to 0, alfo the coefiicient of a equal to 0. This
will give two equations which will determine a and
and from this we get b-=zp — a — x.
Should it be required, in the third place, to find theProblcmllK--
beft courfe and trim of the fails for getting away fromTo deter-
a giv'en line of coaft CM (fig. 6.), the procefs P^rf'2<^ly beft^courle
refembles this laft, which is in faft getting away from and trim of
a line of coaft which makes a right angle with the wind, the fails for
Therefore, in place of the angle WCF, we muft fubfti- getting a-
tute the angle WCM WCF. CaU this angle e. We^^f^;'""* '
muft make D* cof [ez±zaz±zb-=±:x) a maximum. Theiineof
analytical procefs is the fame as the former, only iris coaft.
here a conftant quantity. .^^^
Thefe are the three principal problems which can be Obfcrva-
folved by means of the knowledge that we have obtain- ^ -
ed of the motion of the flilp when impelled by an ob-P''""J^^
lique fail, and therefore making leeway ; and they may
be confidered as an abftraft of this part of M. Bouguer 's
work. We have only pointed out the procefs for this
folution, and have even omitted forae things taken notice
of by M. Bezout in his very elegant compendium. Our
reafons will appear as we go on. The learned reader
will readily fee the extreme difficulty of the fupjeA, and
the immenfe calculations which are neceffary even in the
limplcit cafes, and will grant that it is out of the power of
any but an expert analyft to derive any ufe from them ;
but the mathematician can calculate-, tables, for the ufe
of the practical feaman. Thus he can calculate the belt
pofition of the fails for advancing in a courfe 90^ from
the wind, and the velocity in that courfe ; then for i,'^
85°, 80°, 75*^, Sec. M. Bouguer has given a table ofM. B.u*
this kind ; but to avoid the immenfe difficulty of the
procefs, he has adapted It to the apparent direftion offintiing the
the wind. We have inferted a few of his numbers, fult-beft pofu'
ed to fuch cafes as can be of fenice, namely, when all f ion of the
the falls draw, or none ftand in the way of others. Co-^^'^" ^'-^^
lumn I ft is the apparent;angle of the wind and courfe ;any'^Gofrfg
column 2d is the coriefponding angle of the fails and
keel; and column. 3d is' the apparent angle of the fails
and wind.
,1; CF
103=53'
99
94
89
84
79
^3
6B
'3
25
28
23
06
39
42° 30'
40 —
37
35
30
27
25
30
30
30
3
61° 23'
59 15
5^ 55
54 28
5' 53
49 06
46 .09
43 —
2o8 S E A M A
In all tliefe numbers we have tlie tangent of wCD
34 double of the tangent of DCF.
Ifiutility of But this 13 really doing but little for the feaman.
Ibi'm"''^" '^^^^ apparent direftion of the wind is unknown to him
till the fliip is failing with uniform velocity ; and he is
ftill uninformed as to the leeway. It is, however, of
fervice to him to know, for inftance, that when the angle
of the vanes and yards is 56 degrees, the yard fhould be
l)raced up to 3 7^ 30', &c.
But here occurs a new difficulty. By the conftruc-
tion of a fquare rigged fliip it is impoHible to sjive the
yards that inclination to the keel which the calculation
requires. Few fliips can have their yards braced up to
57° 30' ; and yet this is required in order to have an in-
cidence of 56°, and to hold a courfe 94." 29' from the
apparent direftion of the wind, that is, with the wind
apparently 4° 25' abaft the bbam. A good failing fliip
in this pofition may acquire a velocity even exceeding
that of the wind Let us fuppofe it only one half of
this velocity. We fliall find that the angle WCw is in
•this cafe about 29°, and the fhip is nearly going 123^
from the wind, with the wind almoft perpendicular to
the fail ; therefore this utmoft bracing up of the fails
is only giving them the pofition fuited to a wind broad
on the quarter. It is impoflible therefore to comply
with the demand of the mathematician, and the feaman
inuft be contented to employ a lefs favourable dlfpofi-
tion of his fails in all cafes where his courfe does not
lie at leaft eleven points from the wind.
Let us fee whether this reftriftion, arifing from ne-
celTity, leaves any thing in our choice, and makes one
€o;n-fe preferable to another. We fee that there are a
prodigious number of courfes, and thefe the moft ufual
and the moft important, which we muft hold with one
trim of the fails ; in particular, failing with the wind
cn the beam, and all cafes of plying to windward, imift
be performed with this unfavourable trim of the fails.
We are certain that the fmaller we make the angle of in-
cidence, real or apparent, the fmaller will be the veloci-
ty of the fliip ; but it may happen that we fliall gain
more to windward, or get fooner away from a lee-coaft,
or any objeA of danger, by failing flowly on one courfe
than by failing quickly on another
We have feen that while the trim of the fails remains
the fame, the leeway and the angle of the yard and
courfe remains the fame, and that the velocity of the
fhip is as the fine of the angle of real incidence, that is,
as the fine of the angle of the fail and the real direction
of the wind.
Let the fliip AB (fig. 8.) hold the courfe CF, with
the wind blowing in the direfllon WC, and having her
yards DCD braced up to the fmalleft angle BCD
which the rigging can admit. Let CF be to CE as
the velocity of the fliip to the velocity of the wind ;
join FE and draw C iv parallel to EF ; it is evident
that FE is the relative motion of the wind, and wCD
Is the relative incidence on the fail. Draw FO parallel
to the yard DC, and defcrlbe a circle through the points
COF; then we fay that if the fhip, with the fame
wind and the fame trim of the fame drawing fails, be
made to fail on any other courfe C f, her velocity along
CF Is to the velocity along C / as CF is to C/; or, in
other words, the flilp will employ the fame time In
going from C to any point of the circumference CFO
Join / O. Then, becaufe the angles CFO, c/Q are on
N S H I P.
the fame chord CO, tiiey are equal, and /O is parallel to
dC d, the new pofition of the yard correfpondln r to
the new pofition of the keel a i, making the ans^le
JCb =DCB. Alfo, by the nature of the circle,
the line CF is to C/ as the fine of the angle COF to
the fine of the angle CO/, that is (on account of the
parallels CD, OF and C d, Of), as the fine of WCD to
the fine of WCd. But when the trim of the fails remains
the fame, the velocity of the fiiip is as rfie fine of the
angle of the fail with the direftion of the wind ; there-
fore CF is to C/ as the velocity on CF to that on Cf,
and the propofition is demonftrated
Let it now be required to determine the beft courfe To d^ t
for avoiding a rock R lying in the direftlon CR, or for "^"^^
withdrawing as faft as poffible from a line of coaft PQ^fyj-'^avn
Draw CM through R, or parallel to PQ, and let m be j,ig a r
the middle of the arch CmM. It is plain that m is the
moft remote from CM of any point of the arch Cm M,
and therefore the fliip will recede farther from the coaft
PQjn any given tinK by holding the courfe C m than
by any other courfe.
This courfe is cafily determined ; fiir the arch C mM.
— 360'' — (arch CO -f arch OM), aad the arch CO is
the meafure of twice the angle CFO, or twice the an-
gle DCB, or twice and the arch OM meafurcs
twice the angle ECM.
Thus, fuppofe the ftiarpeft poffible trim of the falls
to be 35^, and the obferved angle ECM to be 70® ;
thenCO-fO Mis70°+ 140'' or 210^. This being taken
from 360°, leaves 150°, of which the half Mm is 75°,
and the angle MCm is 37° 30'. This added to ECM
makes ECm 107° 30', leaving WCot = 72^30', and
the fliip muft hold a courfe making an angle of 72° 30'
with the real direftion of the wind, and WCD will be
37" 30'.
This fuppofes no leeway. But if we know that under
all the fail which the fliip can carry with fafety and ad-
vantage flie makes 5 degrees of leeway, the angle DC?b
of the fail and courfe, orb-^-x, is 40°. Then CO -f- OM
= 220°, which being taken from 360" leaves 140^, of
which the half is 70*, = M w, and the angle MC m =:
3 and EC m = 105", and WC m z= 75% and the flilp
muft lie with her head 70*^ from the wind, making ^
degrees of leeway, and the angle WCD is 35".
The general rule for the pofition of the ftiip is, that the
line on Jh'iphoard ivhlch bifeSs the angle b+x may alfo h'lJeS
the angle WCM, or make the angle between the courfe
and the line from which we wifli to withdraw equal to the
angle between the fail and the real direftlon of the wind.
It is plain that this problem Includes that of plying to Coruil
windward. We have only to fuppofe ECM to be 90^' ;
then, taking our example in the fame fhip, with the
fame trim and the fame leeway, we have b -f- x=:40^.
This taken from 90"^ leaves 50° and WC«= 90 — 251:1:65,
and the flilp's head muft He 60° from the wind, and
the yard muft be 25"^ from it.
It muft be obferved here, that it is not always eligi-
ble to fele6t the courfe which v/ill remove the fhip faft-
eft from the given hne" CM ; it may be more prudent
to remove from it more fecurely though more flowly. In
fuch cafes the procedure is very fimple, viz. to fliape
the courfe as near the wind as is poffible.
The reader will alfo eafily fee that the propriety of
thefe praftices is confined to thofe courfes only where
the praflicable trim of the fails is not fufficiently (harp.
6 Whenever
S E A M A
Whenever the coiirfe lies fo far from the wind that it
is poffible to make tlie ttint^ent of the apparent angle
of the wind and fail double the tangent of the fail and
courfe, it fliould be done.
idjiifV- Thefe are the chief praftical confequences which can
ctthejjg deduced from the theory. But we Hiould confider
the ^ow far this adjultmcnt of the fails and courfe can be
im- performed. And here occur difiiculties fo great as to
icable. make it almoft impraftlcable. Wc have always fuppofed
the pofition of the furface of the fail to be dillindly
obfervable and meafurable ; but this can hardly be
affirmed even with refpefit to a fail llretched on a yard.
Here we fuppofed the furface oF the fail to have the
f?.me inclination to the keel that the yard has. This is
by no means the cafe ; the fail affumes a concave form, of
which it is almoft impoffible to affign the direction of
the mean impulfe. We believe that this is always con-
fiderably to leeward of a perpendicular to the yard, ly-
ing between CI and CE (fig. 6.). This is of fome ad-
vantage, being equivalent to a (harper trim. We can-
not affirm this, however, with any confidence, hecaufe it
lenders the impulfe on the weather-leech of the fail fo
exceedingly feeble as hardly to have any effed:. In
failing clofe to the wind the fliip is kept fo near that
the weather-leech of the fail is almoft ready to receive
the wind edgewife, and to flutter or fliiver. The moft
cfFcAive or drawing fails with a fide- wind, efpecially
when plying to windward, are the flayfails. We be-
lieve that it is impoffible to fay, with any thing ap-
proaching to precifion, what is the pofition of the p^eneral
furface of a ftayfail, or to calcuLte the intenfity and
direftion of the ceneral impulfe ; and we affirm with
confidence that no man can pronounce on thefe points
with any exad^nefs. If v/e can gutfs within a third or
a fourth part of the truth, it is all we can pretend to ;
and after all, it is but a guefs. Add to this, the fails
coming in the way of each other, and either becalming
them or ftnding the wind upon them in a direftion
widely different from that of its free motion. All thefe
points we think beyond our power of calculation, and
therefore that it is in vain to give the feaman mathema-
tical rules, or^even tables of adjuflment ready calculated ;
fuice he can neither produce that medium pofition of
his fails that is required, nor tell what is the pofition
which he employs.
This is one of the principal reafons why fo little ad-
vantage has heen derived from the very ingenious and
promifing difquifitions of Bouguer and other mathe-
maticians, and has made us omit the aftual folution of
the chief problems, contenting ourfelves with pointing
out the procefs to fuch readers as have a relifh For thefe
analytical operations.
^,f„.y But there is another principal reafon for the fmall
rro- progrefs which has been made in the theory of feaman-
ihip : This is the errors of the theory itfelF, which fup-
pofcs the impulfions of a fluid to be in the duplicate ra-
tio of tire fine of incidence. The moft careful compa-
lifon which has been made between the refults of this
theory and matter of fa6l is to be feen in the experi-
ments made by the members of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris, mentioned in the article Rrsistanc£
of Fluids. We fubjoin another abflraft oF them in
the following table; where col. ifl gives the angle of in-
cidence ; col. 2d gives the impulfions really obferved ;
col. 3d the impulfes, had they followed tlie duplicate
VoL._X\VII. Part 1.
N S H I P. «09
ratio of the fines; and col 4th the mpulfes, {f tney were
in the fimple ratio of the fines.
of
Incld.
j Implii-
fiori
obferved.
Impulfe
as
Inr^iullc
as
Sine.
90
1000
I COO
1000
84
989
9S9
995
78
958
957
978
72
908
905
951
66
845
83J
9^4
60
771
750
866
54
693
655
809
48
615
552
743
42
543
448
669
36
480
346
587
30
440
250
5C0
24
424
165
407
18
414
96
309
12
406
43
208
6
40 D
1 1
'05
Here we fee an enormous difference in the great obli-
quities. When the angle of incidence is only fix de-
grees, the obferved impulfe is forty times greater than
the theoretical impulfe ; at 12"^ it is ten times greater ;
at I 8"^ it is more than four times greater; and at 24" it
is almofl three times greater.
No wonder then that the deductions from this theory And'lhe de-
are fo ufelefs and fo unlike what we famiharly obferve. dui5tions
We took notice of this when we were^ confidering the*^'"' "^i^ "f^'
leeway of a rectangular box, and thus faw a reafon for''^^^'
admitting an incomparably fmaller leeway than what
would refult from the laborious computations neceffary
by the theory. This error in theory has as great an in-
fluence on the impulfions of air when a£ling obliquely
on a fail ; and the experiments of Mr Robins and of
the Chevalier Borda on the oblique impulfions of air are
pcrfedly conformable (as far as they go) to thofc of
the academicians on water. The oblique impulfions of
the wind are therefore much more efficacious for pref-
fing the fliip in the direftion of her courfe than the
theory allows us to fuppofe ; and the progrefs of a fhip
plying to windward is much greater, both becaufe the
toblique impulfes of the wind are more effeftive, and be-
caufe the leeway is much fmaller, than we fuppofe.
Were not this the cafe, it would be impoffible for a
fquare-rigged fhip to get to windward. The impulfe
on her fails when clofe hauled would be fo trifling that
fhe would not have a third part of the velocity which
we fee her acquire; and this trifling velocity would be
wafled in leeway ; for we have feen that the diminution
of the oblique impulfes of the water is accompanied by
an .increafe of leeway. But we fee that in the great ob-
liquities the impulfions continue to be very confiderable,
and that even an incidence of fix degrees gives an impulfe
as great as the theory allows to an incidence of 40.
We may therefore, on all occafions, keep the yards
more fquare ; and the lofs which we fuflain by the dimi-
nution of the very oblique impulfe will be more than
compenfated by its more favourable diieAion with re-
fpeft to the fhip's keel. Let us take an example of
this. Suppofe the wind about two points before the
beam, making an angle of 68"^ with the keel. The
theory affigns 43^ for the inchnation of the wind to
Dd the
210
SEAMANSHIP,
the full, and 25^ f<">v tKc trim of the fall. The perpen-
dicular impuire being fuppofed 1000, the theoretical
hnpulfe for 43" is 465. This reduced in the proportion
of radius to the fine of 25", gives the impulfe in the di-
reAlon of the courie only « 97.
But if we eafc off the lee-braces till the yard makes
an angle of with the keel, and allows the wind an
incidence of no more than 18°, we have the experiment-
ed impulfe 4 1 4, which, when reduced in the proportion
of radius to the hne of 90% gives an efFeaive impulfe
317. In like manner, the trim 56", with the incidence
I2«, gives an cffeftive impulfe 3 :^7 ; and the trim 62°,
with the incidence only 6°, gives 353.
Hence it would at firft fight appear that the angle
DCB of 62" and WCD of 6" v/ould be better for hold-
ing a courfe within fix points of the wind than any
more oblique pofition of the fails ; but it will only give
a greater initial impulfe. As the (hip accelerates, the
wind apparently comes ahead, and we mull continue to
brace up as the {hip frefhens her way. It is not unufual
for her to acquire half or two thirds of the velocity of
the wind ; in which cafe the wind comes apparently
ahead more than two points, when the yards muft
be braced up to 35", and this allows an impulfe no
greater than about 7". Now this is very frequently
obferved in good fhips, which in a briflc gale and fmooth
water will go five or fix" knots clofe-hauled, the (hip's
head fix points from the wind, and the fails no more
than juft lull, but ready t© fiiiver by the fmallcft luff.
All this would be impoffible by the ufual theory ; and in
this refpeA thefe experiments of the French academy
give a fine illuftratlon of the feaman's pratlice. They
account for what we fiiould otherwifc be much puzzled
to explain ; and the great progrefs which is made by
a fliip clofe-hauled being perfeftly agreeable to what
we Ihonld expedl from the law of oblique impulfion
deducible from thefe fo often mentioned experiments,
while it is totally incompatible with the common theory,
(hould make us abandon the theory without hefitation,
and llrenuoufly fet about the eftablifiiment of another,
tri- founded entirely on experiments. For this purpofe the
meSts pr°- experiments fhould be made on the obliqxie impulfions
per for efta- of air on as great a fcale as poffible, and in as great a
blifhing an. y^riety of circumftances, fo as to furnilh a feries of im-
^^^^"^ pulfions for all angles of obliquity. We have but four
or five experiments on this fubjeft, viz. two by Mr
Robins and two or three by the Chevalier Borda. Ha-
ving thus gotten a feries of impulfions, it is very praAi-
cable to raife on this foundation a praftlcal inftitute, and
to give a table of the velocities of a (hip fiiited to every
angle of inclination and of trim ; for nothing is more
certain than the refolution of the impulfe perpendicular
to the fail into a force in the direftlon of the keel, and
a lateral force.
We are alfo difpofed to think that experiments might
be made on a model very nicely rigged with fails, and
trimmed in every different degree, which would point
out the mean direftion of the impulfe on the fails, and
the comparative force of thefe impulfes in different di-
reftlons of the wind. The method would be very fi-
milai' to that for examining the impulfe of the vyater on
the hull. If this can alfo be afcertained experimental-
ly, the intelligent reader wifl eafily fee that the whole
motion of a fhip under fail may be determined for every
cafe. Tables may then be conftruded by calculation,
or by graphical operations, which will give the veia-
cities of a fhip in every different courfe, and correfpon-
ding to every trim of fail. And kt it be here obferved,
that the trim of the fail is not to be eftlmated in de-
grees of inclination of the yards ; bccaufe, as we have
already remarked, we cannot obferve nor adjuft the la-
teen fails in this way. But, in making the experiments
for afcertaining the Impulfe, the exaft poluion of the
tacks and fheets of the fails are to be noted ; and this
combination of adjuftments is to pafs by the name of a
certain trim. Thus that trim of all the fails may be
called 40, whofe direftion is experimentally found equi-
valent to a flat furface trimmed to the obliquity 40°.
Having done this, we may conilru£l a figure for
each trim fimilar to iig. 8. where, inllead of a circle,
we fliall have a curve C O M'F', whofe chords CF',
c /', &c. are proportional to the velocities in thefe cour-
fes ; and by means of this curve we can find the point
m'y which is moll remote from any line CM from which
we wi(h to withdraw : and thus we may folve all the
principal problems of the art.
We hope that It will not be accounted prefumptlon
in us to expeft more improvement from a theory-
founded on judicious experiments only, than from a
theory of the impulfe of fluids, which is found fo in-
confifteHt with obfervation, and of whofe fallacy all its 1
authors, from Newton to D'Alembert, entertained
flirong fufpiclons. Again, we beg leave to recommend 4
this view ef the fubjedlto the attention of the Society Recoi
FOR THE Improvement of, Naval Architecture.^^^"^
Should thefe patriotic gentlemen entertain a favourable f^r
opinion of the plan, and honour us with their corre-provi
fpondence, we will cheerfully impart to them our no- of >f
tions of the way in which both thefe trains of experl-^^^^^
ments may be profecuted with fuccefs, and refults ob-
tained in which we may confide ; and we content our-
felves at prcfent with offering to the public tliefe hints,
which are not the fpeculations of a man ©f mere fcience,
but of one who, with a competent knowledge of the
laws of mechanical nature, has the experience of feveral
years fervice in the royal navy, where the art of work-
ing of (hips was a favourite objed of his fcientific at-
tention. ^ i,
With thefe obfervations we conclude our dlfcufllon Meaj
of the firll part of the feaman's taflc, and now proceed i'|^^^y«
to confider the means that are employed to prevent or^^^Jj*
to produce any deviations from the uniform redilineal viati(
courfe which has been felefted. fr*n
Here the fhip is to be confidered as a body in free^'^ur^
foace, convertible round her centre of inertia. For
vi'hatever may be the point round which (he turns, this
motion may always be confidered as compounded of a
rotation round an axis paffmg through her_ centre of
gravity or inertia. She is impelled by the wind and by
the water acting on many furfaces differently inclined
to each other, and the impulfe on each is perpendicular
to the furface. In order therefore that (he may con-
tinue fteadily in one courfe, it is not only neceffary that
the impelling forces, eftimated in their mean diredion,
be equal and oppofite to the refilling forces eilimated
in their mean diredion ; but alfo that thefe two direc-
tions may pafs^through one point, otherwife fhe will be
affeded as a log of wood Is when pufhed in oppofite
dircdions by two forces, which are equal indeed, but
are applied to different parts of the log. A fliip muft
8.
grigh
the
diffe
S E A M A
be confjdeced as a lever, a£led on in dlfFerent pHPts by
forcea ia different direftlons, and the whole balancing
each othei- round that point or axis where the equiva-
lent of all the refifling forces paffes, This may be con»
fid^red as a point fupported by this refilling force, and
as a fort of fulcrum : therefore, in order that the ftaip
may maintain her pofition, the energies or momenta of
all the impelling forces tound this point muft balance
each other.
When a fhip fails right afore the wind, with her
yards fquare, it is evident that the impulfes on each fide
*of the keel are equal, as alfo their mechanical momenta
round any axis pafling pei-pendicularly through the
keel. So are the actions of the water on her bows.
But when (he fails on an oblique courfe, with her yards
braced up on either fide, Ihe fuftains a preiFure in tlie
direftion CI (fig. 5.) perpendicular to the fail. This,
by giving her a lateral preflure LI, as well as a preffurc
CL ahead, caufes her to make leeway, and to move in
a line C b inclined to CB. By this means the balance
of a&ion on the two bows is deftroyed ; the general im-
pulfe on the lee-bqw is increafed ; and that on the wea-
ther-bow is dimini(hed. The combined impulfe is there-
fore no longer in the direftion BC, but (in the ftate of
uniform motion) in the direftion IC-
Suppofe that in an inftant the whcle fails are annihi-
lated and the impelling preflure CI, which precifely ba-
lanced the refilling preflure on the bows, removed. The
fhip tends, by her inertia, to proceed in the direftion
C b. This tendency produces a continuation of the re-
fiftance in the oppofite diretlion IC, which is not di-
re£lly oppofed to the tendency of the fhip in the direc-
tion Qb ; therefore the fhip's head would immediately
come up to the wind. The experienced feaman will re-
coUeA fomething like this when the fails are fuddenly
lowered when coming to anchor. It does not hap-
pen folely from the obliquity of the aftion on the bows :
It woidd happen to the parallelopiped of fig. 2. which
was fuftaining a lateral impulfion B* fin.* and » diredi
impulfion A" wf.* x. Thefe are continued for a mo-
ment after the annihilation of the fail ; but being no
longer oppofed by a force in the direftion CD, but by
a force in the direftion C ^, the force B* fin.* x mull
prevail, and the body is not only retarded in its motion,
but its head turns towards the wind. But this effeft
of the leeway is greatly increafed by the curved form
of the {hip's bows. This occafions the centre of elFort
of all the impuHions of the water on the lee fide of the
fliip to be very far forward, and this fo much the more
remarkably as fhe is fharper afore. It is in general not
much abaft the foremait. Now the centre of the {hip's
tendency to continue her motion is the fame with her
centre of gravity, and this is generally but a little be-
fore the mainmaft. She is therefore in the fame con-
dition nearly as if fhe were pulhed at the mainmail in
a direftion parallel to C b, and at the foremait by a
force parallel to IC. The evident confequence of this
is a tendency to come up to the wind. This is inde-
pendent of all fituation of the fails, provided only that
they have been trimmed obliquely.
This tendency of the {liip's head to windward is call-
ed GRIPING in the feaman's language, and is greateit
in {hips which are fharp forward, as we have fald al-
ready. This circumilance is eafily underilood. What-
ever is the direftion of the fhip's niotitui, the abfolate
AS
N S H I ?♦
Impulfe on that part of the bow immediately contigu-
ous to B is perpendicular to that veiy part of the fur-
face. The more acute, therefore, tliat the angle of the
bow is, the more will the impulfe on that part be per-
pendicular to the keel, and the greater will be its ener-
gy to turn the head to windward.
Thus we are enabled to underiland or to fee the pro- p.op ictyof
priety of the difpofitlon of the fails of a {hip. We fcethe difpofi-
her crowded with fails forward, and even many fails tx-'-''^" "f.
tended far befoie her bow, fuch as the fpntfail, the^j^^'''' *
bowfprit topfail, the fore-topmaft ilayiail, the jib, and '*^'
flying jib. The fails abaft are comparatively fmaller.
The fails on the mizenmall are much fmaller than thofe
on the fore'i^ail. All the Itayfalls hoUled on the mair;-
mall may be confidered as headfalk, becaufe their cen-
tres of effort are confiderably before the centre of gra-
vity of the fhip ; and notwithftanding this difpofition,
it generally requires a fmall aftion of the rudder to
counteraft the windward tendency of the lee-bow. This
is confidered as a good quality when moderate ; be-
caufe it enables the feaman to throw the fails aback, and
ftop the {hip's way in a moment, if {he be in danger
from any thing ahead ; and the {hip which does not
carry a little of a weather helm, is always a dull
failer.
In order to judge fomewhat more accurately of the 4^^;^,* „f
aftion of the water and fails, fuppofe the {hip AB [he watet
(fig. 9.) to have its fails on the mizenmaft D, the and the
mainmail E, and foremait F, braced up er trimmed
alike, and that the three lines D i, E F J\ perpendi-
cular to the fails, are in the proportion of the impulfes
on the fails. The Ihip is driven ahead and to leeward,
and moves in the path aQb. This path is fo inclined
to the line of the keel that the medium direftion of the
refinance of the water is parallel to the direftion of the
impulfe. A line CI may be drawn parallel to the lines
D /, E F/, and equal to their fum : and it may be
drawn from fuch a point C, that the aftions on all the
parts of the hull between C and B may balance the
momenta of all the aftions on the hull between C and A.
This point may juftly be called the centra of ejfortf or Centre of
the centre of re/ijlance. We cannot determine this point effort
for want of a proper theory of the rc{illance of fluids.
Nay, although experiments like thofe of the Parifian
academy {hould give us the moil perfcft knowledge of
the intenfity of the oblique impulfes on a I'quare foot,
we fliould hardly be benefited by them : for the aftion of
the water on a fquare foot ol the hull at for inllance,
is fo modified by the intervention of the ftream of wa-
ter which has ilruck the hull about B, and glided along
the bow ^ opt that the prelfure on / is totaUy differeat
from what it would have been were it a fquare foot ©t
furface detached from the reft, and prefented in the
fame pofition to the water moving in the direftion ^C.
For it is found, that the reliftances given to planes join-
ed fo as to form a wedge, or to curved furfaces, are
widely different from the accumulated refiftances, calcu-
lated for their feparate parts, agreeably to the experi-
ments of the academy on fingle furfaces. We there-
fore do not attempt to afcertain the point C by theory ;
but it may be accurately determined by the experiments
which we have fo ilrongly recommended ; 0ud we offer
this as an additional inducement for profecoting them. To be de-
Draw through C a line perpendicular to CI, that is, terminea
parallel to the failt> ; and let the lines of impulfe of the txpart-*
Dd2 three
49
Equil
212 S E A M A
three fails cut it m the points k, and m. This line
i m may be confidered as a lever, moveable round C,
and adled on at the points i, h, and m, by three forces.
The rotatory momentum of the fails on the mizenmaft
is D «" X i C ; that of the fails on the maintnaft is
Y^eY-kC ; and the momentum of the fails on the fore-
maft is F/X W2 C. The two firft tend to prefs forward
the arm C i, and then to turn the fliip's head tov\fards
the wind. The aftion of the fails on the foremaft tends
briiim pre- ^ixm Cm forward, and produce a contrary
ferved by ^Q^ation. If the fliip under thefe three fails keeps llca-
oi the fails dily m her courfe, without the aid ot the rudder, we
muft have DiXiC + EeXiC = F/X w C. J his
is very poffible, and is often feen in a fliip under her
mizeu-topfail, main topfail, and fore-topfail, all parallel
to one another, and their furfaces duly proportioned by
reefing. If more fails are fet, we muft always have a
{imilar equilibrium. A certain number of them will
liave their efforts direfted from the larboard arm of the
lever im lyinpr to leewaid of CI, and a certain number
will have their efforts direfted from the ftarboard arm
lying to windward of CI. The fumof the products of
tach of the fu ll fet, by their dittanccs from C, mult be
equal to the fum of the fimilar produfts of the other
fet. As this equilibrium is all that is neceffary for pre-
ferving the fliip's pofition, and the ceffation of it is im-
mediately followed by a converfion ; and as thefe ftates
of the ihip may be had by means of the three fquare
fails only, when their furfaces are properly proportion-
ed— it is plain that every movement may be executed and
explained by their means. This will greatly fimplify our
future difcuflions. We fli'all therefore fuppofe in future
that there are only the three topfails fet, and that their
furfaces are fo adjufted by reefing, that their afilions
exactly balance each other round that point C of the
middle line AB, where the aftions of the water on the
different parts of her botttom in like manner balance
each other. This point C may be differently fituated
in the fhip according to the leeway the makes, depend-
ing on the trim of the fails ; and therefore although a
certain proportion of the three furfaces may balance
each other in 'one Hate of leeway, they may happen not
to do fo in another ftate. But the equiHbrium is evi-
dently attainable in every cafe, and we therefore fhall al-
ways fuppofe it.
It mull now be obferved, that when this equilibrium
is deftroyed, as, for example, by turning the edge of the
mizen topfail to the wind, which the feamen call Jhiver-
tug the mizen -topfail, and which may be confidered as
equivalent to the removing the mizen-topfail entirely, it
does not follow that the fhip will round the point C,
this point remaining fixed. The fhip muft be confi-
dered as a free body, flill afted on by a nianiber of
forces, which no longer balance each other ; and fhe
inufl therefore begin to turn round a fpontaneous axis
of converfion, which mult be determined in the v/ay fet
forth in the article Rotation. It is of importance to
point out in general where this axis is fituated. , There-
fore let G (fig. 10.) be the centre of gravity of the
fhip. Praw the line y G T parallel to the yards, cut-
ting D in ^, E ^ in r, CI in t, and F / in v. While
the three fails are fet, the line q v may be confideixd as
a lever afted on by four forces, viz. D impelling the
lever forward perpendicularly in the point q ; E f , im-
pelling it forward in the point r ; F/, impelling it for-
5°
Conle-
quence of
deiiroy-
in'g it.
N S H I P.
ward in the point d ; and CI, impelling it backward
in the point Thefe forc-es balance each other both
in rcfpe£t of progreffive motion and of rotatory eneryy;
for CI was taken equal to the fum of D d, E e, and F /';
fo that no acceleration or retai-dation of the fhip 's pro-
grefs in her courfe is fuppofed.
But by taking away the mizen-topfail, both the equi-
libriums areMeflroyed. A part D d of the accelerating
foi-ce is taken away ; and yet the fliip, by her inertia or
inherent force, tends, for a moment, to proceed in the
direftion Cp with her foi-mer velocity ; and by this ten-
dency exerts for a moment the fame preffure CI on the
water, and fuflains the fame refiflance IC. She muit
therefore be retarded in her motion by the excefs of the
refinance IC over the remaining impelling forces E e
and F f, that is, by a force equal and oppofite to D d.
She will therefore be retarded in the fame manner as if
the m.izen-topfail were flill fet, and a force equal and
oppofite to its aftion were applied to G the centre of
gravity, and fhe would foon acquire a fmaller velocity,
which would again bring all things into equilibrium ;
and fhe would ftaad on in the fame courfe, without
changing either her leeway or the pofition of her
head.
But the equilibrium of the lever is alfo deftroyed.
It is now adled on by three forces only, E e and
F /, impelling it forward in the points r and v, and iC
impelUng it backward in the point t. Maker "u : r orr
E e-\-Yf: F /, and make op parallel to CI and equal
to E f-j-F/. Then we know, from the common prin-
ciples of mechanics, that the force op j^fting at o will
have the fame momentum or energy to turn the lever
round any point- whatever as the two forces Ef and F/
applied at r and v ; and now the lever is afted on by
tv/o forces, viz. IC, urging it backwards in the point
t, and op urging it forwards in the point o. It mufl
therefore turn round like a floating log, which gets two
blows in oppofite directions. If we now make IC — o p
: 0 p — 1 0 : t X, or IC — &/> : IC = ^ o : o x, and apply
to the point ic a foi'ce equal to IC — op in the diredtiou
IC; we know, by the common principles of mechanics,
that this force IC — o p will produce the fame rotation
round any point as the two forces IC and o p applied
in their proper dire£lions at t and o. Let us examine
the fituation of the point x.
The force IC — op h evidently zrD^/, and o /> is
=:Ee-fF/. 'I herefore 0 / : / X rz: D J ; 0 But be-
caufe, when all the fails were filled, there was an equi-
librium lound C, and therefore round /, and becaufe
the force op adling at o is equivalent to E ^ and F /
adling at r and -y, we mufl flill have the equiHbrium ;
and therefore we have the momentum D d X q t =: op
Xo t. Therefore o t : t q z= D d : o p, and t q — tx.
Therefore the point x is the fame with the point q.
Therefore, when we fhiver the mizen-topfail, the ro- g
tation of the fhip is the fame as if the fhip were at refill,
and a force equal and oppofite to the adlion of the mi- mia
zen-topfail were applied at q or at D, or at any point ^^'l*
in the line D q.
This might have been fhown in another and fhorter
way. Suppofe all fails filled, the fhip is in equilibrio.
This will be diflurbed by applying to D a force oppo-
fite to D d ; and if the force be alfo equal to D d, it is
evident that thefe two forces deftroy each other, and
that this application of the force </ D is equivalent to
the
S E A M A
the taking away of the mizen-topfail. But we chofe to
give the whole mechanical inveftigation ; becaufe it
eave us an oppoitunity of pointing out to the reader,
in a cafe of very eafy comprthenfion, the preciie man-
ner in which the {hip is afttd on by the different lails
and by the water, and what fliaie each of them has in
the motion ultimately produced. We fliall not repeat
this manner of procedure in other cafes, becaufe a little
rcfleflion on the part of the reader will now enable him
to trace the modus operandi through all its Iteps.
We now fee that, in refpc6^: both of progreffive mo-
tion and oF converfion, the fliip is affetled by ihivering
the fail D, in the fame manner as if a force equal and
oppolite lo D d were applied at D, or at any point in
the line D d. We muil now have recourfe to the prin-
ciples eflabhfl-ied under the article Rotation.
Let p reprefent a particle of matter, r its radius vec-
tor, or its diftance / G from an axis paffing through
the centre of gravity G, and let M reprefent the whole
fuiantity of matter of the fhip. Then its momentum
of inertia is = Jp-^'' {^^^ Rotation, n° i8.) The
fhip, impelled in the point D by a force in the direc-
tion dVi, will begin to turn round a fpontaneous verti-
cal axis, paffmg through a point S of the hne q G,
\\ hich is drawn through the centre of gravity G, per-
pendicular to the direction dY> oi the external force,
and the diftance GS of this axis from the centre of gra-
vity is =: (fee Rotation, 96.), and it is
taken on the oppofite fide of G from (7, that is, S and
q are on oppofite fides of G.
Let us exprefs the external force by the fymbol F.
It is equivalent to ?. certain number of pounds, being the
preffure of the wind moving with the velocity V and
inclination a on the furface of the fail D ; and may
therefore be computed either by the theoretical or ex-
perimental law of oblique impulfes. Having obtained
this, we can afccrtain the angular velocity of the rota-
tion and the abfolute velocity of any given point of the
fliip by means of the theorems eftabliftied in the article
Rotation.
But before we proceed to this inveftigation, we ftiall
r confider the aftion of the rudder, which operates pre-
cifely in the fame manner. Let the fhip AB (fig. 1 1.)
have her rudder in the pofition AD, the helm being
hard a-ftarboard, while the ftiip failing on the ftar-
board tack, and making leeway, keeps on the courfe
a b. The lee furface of the rudder meets the water
obliquely. The very foot of the rudder meets it in the
direftion DE parallel to a h. The parts farther up
meet it with various obliquities, and with various velo-
cities, as it glides round the bottom of the fhip and
falls into the wake. It is abfolutely impoffible to cal-
culate the accumulated impulfe. Wc fiiall not be far
miftaken in the defleftion of each contiguous filament,
as it quits the bottom and glides along the rudder ;
but we neither know the velocity of thefe filaments, nor
the defleftion and velocity of the .filaments gliding
without them. We therefore imagine that all compu-
tations on this fubjed are in vain. But it is enough
for our purpofe that we know the direAion of the ab-
folute preflure which they exert on its furface. It is
in the diredion D d, perpendicular to that furface. We
alfo may be coafident that this preffure is very confider-
N S H I P. 2T3
able, in proportion to the aftlon of the water on the
fhlp's bows, or of the wind en the fails ^ and we may
fiippofe it to be nearly in the proportion of the fquare
of the velocity of the fliip in her courfe ; but we can-
not aftirm it to be accurately in that proportion, for
reafons that will readilv occur to one who confidcrsthe
way in which the water falls in behind the fhip.
It is obferved, however, that a fine failer always CJ^eatcft in
fteet s well, and that all movements by means of the ^ failer,
rudder are performed with great rapidity when the
velocity of the (liip is great. We fhall fee by and by,
that tlie fpeed with which the fhip performs the angu-
lar movements is in the proportion of her progreffive
velocity : For we Hiall fee that the fquares of the times
of performing the evolution are as the impulies inverfe-
ly, which are as the fquares of the velocities. There is
perhaps no force which afts on a fliip that can be
more accurately determined by experiment than this.
Let the fliip ride in a llream or tideway whofe velocity
is accurately meafured ; and let her ride from two moor-
ings, fo that her bow may be a fixed pr.int. Let a
fmall- tow-line be laid out from her ftern or quarter at
right angles to the keel, and connefked with fome ap-
paratus fitted up on fliore or on board another ftiip, by
which the ftrain on it may be accurately meafured ; a
pet ion converfant with mechanics will fee many ways
in which this can be done. Perhaps the following may How to de^*
be as good as any : Let the end of the tow-line be fixed : ermine it,
to fome point as high out of the water as the point of
the ftiip from which it is given out, and let this be very
high. Let a block with a hook be on the rope, and
a confiderable weight hung on this hook* Things be-
ing thus prepared, put down the helm to a certain angle,
fo as to caufe the ftiip to fheer off from the point to
which the far end of the tow-line is attached. This will
ftretch the rope, and raife the weight out of the water..
Now heave upon the rope, to bring the ftiip back again
to her former pofition, with her keel in the direftion of
the ftream. When this pofition is attained, note care-
fully the form of the rope, that is, the angle which it;,
two parts make with the horizon. Call this angle a.
Eveiyperfon acquainted with thefe fubjefts knows that
the horizontal ftrain is equal to half the weight multi-
plied by the cotangent of <?, or that 2 is to the co-
tangent of a as the weight to the horizontal ftrain.
Now it is this ftrain which balances and therefore mea-
fures the action of the rudder, or D 1? in fig. 1 1. There-
fore, to have the abfolute impulfe D d, we muft increafe
D f in the proportion of radius to the fecaut of the
angle h which the rudder makes with the keel. In a
great fhip faiHng fix miles in an hour, the impulfe on
the rudder inclined 36° to the keel is not lefs than
3000 pounds. The furface of the rudder of fuch a
fhip contains near 80 fquare feet. It is not, however,
very neceffary to know this abfolute impulfe D d, be-
caufe it is its part D e alone which meafures the energy
of the rudder in producing a converfion. Such expe-
riments, made with various pofitions of the rudder, will
give its energies correfponding to thefe pofitions, and
will fettle that long difputed point which is the bell
pofition for turning a fhip. On the hypothefis that
the impulfions of fluids are in the duphcate ratio of the
fines of incidence, there can be no doubt that it fhould
make an angle of 54° 44' with the keel. But the form
of a large ftiip will not admit of this, becaufe a tiller of
a length fufficient for managing the rudder in failing
with
t&!4 S E A M A
•wth great velocity has not room to deviate above 30^
from the direftion of the keel ; and in this poiition of
, the rudder tne mean obliquity of the filaments of w»-
ter to its furface cannot exceed 40" or 45^0. A greater
antrle would not be of much fervice, for it is never
for want of a proper obliquity that the rudder fails of
55 producing a converfion.
•Whya ihip A ftiip miffes ftays in rou2,h weather for want of a
r^ifles ftaySjj-y^j^jgj^j, pj-ogreflive velocity, and becaufe her bows are
beat 6ff by the waves ; and there is feldom any diffi-
culty in wearing the fhip, if flic has any progrefiive
motion. It is, however, always defirable to give the
rudder as much influence as poflible. Its furface fliould
be enlarged (efpecially below) as much as can be done
confifl:ently with its fl;rength and with the power of the
fteerfmcn to manage it ; and it fiiould be put in the
moft favourable fituation for the water to get at it with
great velocity ; and it fliould be placed as far from the
axis of the fliip's motion as poffible. Thefe point* are
obtained by making the ft^ern-poft veiy upright, as has
always beer- done in the French dockyards. The Bri-
tifli {hips have a much greater rake ; hui our builders are
gradually adopting the French forms, experience ha-
ving taui»ht us that their fliips, when in our pofleflion,
are much more obedient to the helm than our own. —
In order to aicertain the motion produced by the ac-
tion of the rudder, draw from the centre of gravity a
line G q perpendicular to T) d (D d being drawn thro*
the centre of effort of the rudder). Then, as in the
confideration of the atlion of the fails, we may conceive
the line 5' G as a lever connected with the fhip, and im-
pelled by a farce D ti afting perpendicularly at q. The
^onfequence of this will be, an incipient converfion of
the fiiip about a vertical axis pafling through fome
point S in the line q G, lying on the other fide of G
from q ; and we have, as in the former cafe, GS =
ft
N S H T P.
what is very general, we fhall fimpllfy the bveftl^atJon
by attending only to the motion of converfion. We
can get an accurate notion of the whole motion, if want-
ed for any purpofe, by combining the progreflive or
retrograde motion parallel \.o D d with the motion of
rotation which we are about to determine.
In this cafe, then, we obferve, in thefirft place, that th€
D/--7G;
angular velocity (fee Rotation, n" 22.) is
k6 M-G?-
The adion Thus the aftion and eflfefts of the fails and of tRe
•of the rud-rudder are perfedtly fimilar, and are to be confidered in
der iimilai- thg fame manner. We fee that the a£lion of the rud-
the'^I^U^s''' der, though of a fraall furface in comparifon of the fails,
and very niult be very great : For the impulfe of water is many
^grcat. hundred times greater than that of the wind ; and tht
arm y G of the lever, by which it afts, is incomparably
greater than that by which any of the impulfions on the
fails jiroduces its eflFeft ; accordingly the fliip yields
much more rapidly to its adtion than flxe does to the la-
teral impulfe of a fail.
Obferve here, that if G were a fixed or fupported
■axis, it would be the fame thing whether the abfolute
force D d of the rudder a£ts in the direftion D d, or
its tranfverfs part D e ads in the direftion D f, both
would produce the fame rotation ; but it is not fo in a
free body. The force D d both tends to retard the
ihip's motion and to produce a rotation : It retards it
as much as if the fame force D d had been immediately
applied to tlie ceatre. And thus. the real motion of the
Ihip is compounded of a motion of the centre in a di-
rection parallel to D d, and of a motion round the
centre. Thefe two conftitute the motion round S.
_ As the effetts of the a£lion of the rudder are both
as an exam- ^or£ femarkable and fbmewhat more fimple than ihofe
|)le of the of the fails, we fliall employ them ae an example of ihe
motions of mechanifm of the motions of converfion in general ; and
soaveriiou. j^y^ content ourfelves in a work iSte this with
and, as was flidwii in that article, tli^ velocity of rota-
tion increafes in the proportion of the time of the force*
uniform a6tion, and the rotation would be uniformly ac-
celerated if the forces did i-ealiy aft uniformly, This,
however, cannot be the cafe, becaufe, by the fltip's
change of pofition and change of progreflive velocity,
the diredtioii and inteufity of tlie impelling force is con-
tinually changing. But if two flups are performing
fimilar evolutions, it is obvious that the changes of force
are fimilar in fimilar parts of the evolution. Therefore
the confideration of the momentary evolution jsfufficient
for enabling us to compare the motions of ihips aftuated
by fimilar forces, which is all we have in view at prefent.
The velocity -7), generated in any time t by the con-
tinuance of an invariable momentary acceleration (which
is all that we mean by faying that it is produced by the
aftion of a conllant accelerating force), is a* the acce-
leration and the time jointly. Now what we call the
atigular velocity is nothing but this momentar)'- accele-
ration. Therefore the velocity v generated in the time
V-qG
-t.
t is
The exprefllon'of the angular velocity is alfo the ex-Ang
preflion of the velocity u of a point fituated at the di-veio(
llance i from the axis G.
Let % be the fpace or arch of revolution defcribed ia
the time t by this point, whofe diilance from G is
F-?G .
= I . Then 2 = -y / ~ J'c taking the
F ' (7 G
fluent a =: — ;; 1 *• This arch meafures the whole
angle of rotation accompliflied in the time t. Thefe
are therefore as the fquares of the times Irom the begin-
ning of the rotation.
Thofe evolutions are equal which are meafured by
equal arches- Thus two motions of 45 degrees each
ate equal. Therefore becaufe 2; is the fame in both,
F-yG
the quantity '~T f * Is a conttant quantity, and / ^ is
F'qCr
reciprocally proportional p '
tn>/ r ' > and / Is proportional to
or is proportional
r 4
That
F-yG * ' a/F-^G
Is to fay, the times of the fimilar evolutions of two
fliips are as the fquare r oot of the momentum of iner-
tia direftly, and as the fquare root of the momentum of
the rudder or fail inverfely. This will enable us to
make tlie coijiparifon eafily. Let u-s fuppole the fliipa
perfeftly fimilar ia form and rigging, and to differ only
in length L and /,y P • R " is io Jpr^ as L ^ to
For
S E A M A
Fof tVte fimilar particles P and p contain quantities of
matter which are as the cubes of their lineal dimenixons,
that is, as L' to I K And becaufq the particles ^re fi-
milarly fituated, R ' is to as X-* to / *. Therefore
P • :/> • = \J : Now F is to/as to l\
For the fiiriaces of the fimilar rudders or fails are a$
the fquares of their lineal dimenfions, that is, as L' to
/ \ And, laftly, G 7 is to^jf as L to /, and therefore
F*G?:/-^^ = L' :IK Therefore we have T^ :
Y-Oq fgq ^ ^
' / = L : /.
,f fi- 'Wio efore the times of performing fimilar evolutions
evo- with fimilar fhips are proportional to the lengths of the
^■"^^^ flilps when both are failing- equally fa(l ; and fince the
evohitiorts are fimilar, and the forces vary fimilarly in
their different parts, what is here demonfl rated of the
fnialleft incipient evolutions is true of the whole. They
therefore not only defcribe equal angles of revolution,
but alfo fimilar curves.
A fmall (hip, therefore, works in lefs time and in
lefs room than a jrreat fliip, and this in the proportion
of its length. This is a great advantage in all cafes,
particularly in wearing, in order to fall on the other
tack clofe-hauled. In this cafe flie will always be to
windward and ahead of the large (hip, when both are
got on the other tack. It would appear at firll fight
that the large fliip will have the advantage in tacking.
Indeed the large fhip is farther to windward when again
trimmed on the other tack than the fmall fliip when fiie
is juft trimmed on the other tack. But this happened be-
fore the large (hip had completed her evolution, and the
fmall fhip, in the mean time, has been going forward
on the other tack, and going to windward. She will
therefore be before the large fliip's beam, and perhaps
as far to windward.
We have feen that the velocity of rotation Is propor-
tional, cateris paribus, to F X G 7. F means the ab-
folute Impulfe on the rudder or fail, and is always per-
pendicular to its furfacc. This abfolute impulfe on a
fail depends on the obliquity of the wind to its furface.
The ufual theory fays, that it is as the fquai-e of the
fine of incidence : but we find this not true.. We mull
eContent ourfelves with expreffmg it by fome as yet un-
known fundlion <p of the angle of incidence: a, and call it
f a ; and if S be the furface of the fail, and V the veloci-
ty of the wind, the abfolute impulfe is « V* S X ? c.
This afts (in the cafe of the mizen-topfail, fig. 10.)
by the lever q G> which is equal to DG X cof. D G7,
and DGy is equal to the angle of the yard and keel ;
which angle we formerly called b. Therefore its en-
ergy in producing a rotation isnV^SXr'aX DG X
cof. b. Leaving out the conilant quantities n, V*, S,
and D G, its energy is proportional to f fl X cof. b. In
order, therefore, that any fail may have the greateft
power te> produce a rotation round G, it muft be fo
trimmed that <p a X. cof. b may be a maximum. Thus,
if we would trim the fails on the foremaft, fo as to pay
the fhip off from the wind right ahead with the greateft
effeft, and if we take the experiments of the French
academicians as proper meafures of the oblique impulfes-
of the wind on the fail, we will brace upt the yard t© an
angle of 48 degrees with the keel. The Impulfe corre-
fponding to 48^ is 615^ and the cofine of 48° is 669.
Thefe give a produd of 4? 1435. If we brace the fail
N S H I P.
to 54.44, the angle afligned by the theory, the effedtive
impulfe is 405274. If we make the angle 45"^, the im'
pulfe is 408774. It appears then that 48' is preferable
to either of the others. But the difference is inconli-
derable, as in all cafes of maximum a fmall deviation
from the beft pofition is not very detrimental. But the
difference between the theory and this experimental
meafure will be very great when the impulfes of the
wind are of neceflity very oblique. Thus, in tacking,
fliip, as foon as the headfails are taken aback, they
ferve to aid the evolution, as Is evident: But If we were
now to adopt the maxim Inculcated by the theory, we
fhould immediately round in the weather-braces, fo as
to increafe the impulfe on the fail, becaufe it is then
very fmall ; and although we by this means make yard
more fquare, and therefore dimlnifh the rotatory mo-
mentum of this Impulfe, yet the Impulfe is more increafed <J»
(by the theory) than Its vertical lever is dimlnifhed. — '^^^^^P^'"*^
Let us examine this a little more particularly, becaufe ^^^nj^jp,
it is reckoned one of the niceft points of feamaafhip tg
aid the Ihip's coming round by means of the headfails ;,
and experienced feainen differ In their pra&ice In this
manoeuvre. Suppofe the yard braced up to 40", which
is as much as can be ufually done, and that the fail fhi-
vers (the bowhnes are ufually let go when the helm is
put down), the fail immediately takes aback, and In
a moment we may fuppofe an incidence of 6 degrees.
The impulfe correfpoiiding to this is 400 (by experi-
ment), and the cofine of 40"^ is 766. This gives 306400
for the effective impulfe. To proceed according to the
theory, we fhould brace the yard to 70^, which would-
give the wind (now 34*^ on the weather-bow) an inci-
dence of nearly 36°, and the fail an inclination of 20"
to the intended motion, which is perpendicular to the-
keel. For the tangent of 20^ is about ^ of the tangent
of 35*^. Let us now fee what effedllve impulfe the ex-
perimental law of oblique impulfions will give for this -
adjuftment of the fails. The experimental impulfe for
36*^ is 480 } the cofine of 70° is 342 the pfoduft is-
1641(50, not much exceeding the half of the formero '
Nay, the impulfe for 36'', calculated by the theoryp
would have been only 346, and the. effective Impulfe
only 1 1. 8332. And it muff be farther obferved, that this
theoretical adjuftment would tend greatly to check the
evolution, and in moft cafes would entirely mar It, by
checking the fhlp's motion ahead, and confequently the
adlion of the rudder, which is the moft powerful agent
in the evolution ; for hete would be a great impulfe di-
redled almoft aftern.
We were juftifiable, therefore, in faying, in the be-
ginning of this aiticle, that a feaman would frequently
find himfclf baffied If he were to' work a fhap according
to the rules deduced from M. Bouguer's work ; and we
fee by this inftance of wliai importance it is to have the ■
oblique impulfions of fluids afcertalned experimentally
The pradlice of the moft experienced feaman Is direftly
the oppofite to this theoretical maxim, and its fuccefs-
greatly confirms the ufefulnefs of thefe experiments of
the academicians fo often pralfed by us.
We return again to the general confideration of the-
F o G
rotatory motion. We found the velocity i> — —
It is therefore proportional, cateris paribus, to g Gi
We have feen ia what manner q G depends on the pofi-
tiou
2l6
tlon and fituation of the fail or rudder when the point
G IS fixed. But it alfo depends on the pnfition of G.
With refpe61 to the aftion of the rudder, it is evident
that it is 10 much the more powerful as it is more re-
mote from G. The diilance from G may be increafed
either by moving^ the rudder farther aft or G farther
iorvvard And as it is of the utmoU importance that a
Ihip anfwer her helm with the greateit promptitude,
thofe circumilances have been attended to which diilin-
g'ulfhcd fine fteering (hips from fiich as had not this
quality ; and it is in a great meafnre to be afcribed to
this>thatyin the gradual improvement of naval architec-
ture, the -centre ot gravity has been placed far forward;
Perhaps the notion of a centre of pravity did not come
-into the thoughts of the rude builders in e?.rly times ; but
they obferved that thofe boats ahdfhips lleered bed which
had their extreme breadth before the middle point, and
confequently the bows not fo acute as the fteru. This is
fo contrary to what one would expeft, that it attrafted
attention more forcibly ; and, being fomewhat myHeri-
ous, it might prompt to attempts of improvement, by
exceeding in this fmgular maxim. We believe that it
has been carried as far as is compatible with other ef-
fential requifites in a fhip.
Of im or- believe that this is the chief circumftance in
taiic^\*<°(ie what is called the trim of a fliip ; and it w^ere greatly
termme theto be wifhed that the heft place for the centre of gravi-
beft p ace ty could be accurately afcertained. A praftice pre-
foraifhipo ^^j^jg ^hJch is the oppofite of what we are now ad-
-Centre 01 . • . •
graviry. vancing. It is ufual to load a fhip fo that her keel is
not horizontal, but lower abaft. This is found to im-
prove her fteerage. The reafon of this is obvious. It
increafes the afting furface of the rudder, and allows
the water to come at it with much greater freedom and
regularity ; and it generally -diminifhes the griping of
the fhip forward, by removing a part of the bows out
of the water. It has not always this effeft ; for the
form of the harping aloft is frequently iuch, that the
tendency to gi'ipe is diminifhed by immerfmg more of
the bow in the water. ^
But waving thefe circumflances, and attending only
to the rotatory energy of the rudder, we fee that it* is
of advantage to carry the centre of gravity forward.
The fame advantage is gained to the aAionof the after
fails. But, on the other hand, the aftion of the head
fails is diminifhed by it ; and we may call every iail a
headfail whofe centre of gravity is before the cencre ot
gravity of the fhip ; that is, all the fails h®ifled on the
bowfprit and foremaft, and the ftayfails hoifted on the
mainmafi ; for the centre of gravity is feldom far be-
fore the mainmaft.
Suppofe that when the rudder is put into the por-
tion AD (fig. II.), the centre of j;ravity could be
fhifted to fo as to increafc q G, and that this is done
without increafmg the fum of the produfts p r'' . It is
obvious that the velocity of converfion will be increafed
in the proportion of q G to q g. This is very poflible,
by bringuig to that fide of the fhip parts ot her loading
U'hich were fituated at a dillance trom G on the other
fide. Nay, we can make this change in fuch a manner
th^^yp fliall even be lefs than it was before, by ta-
king care that every thing which we fliift (hall be nearer
to g than it was formerly to G. Suppofe it all placed in
one fpot m, and that m is the quantity of matter fo fhift-
-ed, while M is the quantity of matter in the whole fliip.
SEAMANSHIP.
It is only necefTary that m 'g G* Hiall be lefs than the
fum of the produd^s p r'' correfponding to the matter
which has been fhifted. Now, although the matter
which is eafily moveable is generally very fmall in com-
parifon to the whole matter of tlie fl^ip, and therefore
can make but a fmall change in the place of the centre
of gravity, it may frequently be brought from places fo
remote, that it may occafion a very fenfible diminution
of the quantity j'pr^, w-hich expreffes the whole mo-
mentum of inertia.
This explains a praftice of the fearaen in fmal! wher- .\
ries or flciffs, who in putting about are accuftomed toot fci;
place themfelves to leeward of the mafli. Thav even P" '
find that they can aid the quick motions of thefe l'glit*^"j''^'^'^^,^
boats by the way in which they reft on their two feet,
fometimes leaning; all on one foot, and fometimes on the
other. And we have often feen this evolution very fen-
fibly accelerated in a fliip of war, by the crew running
fuddenly, as the helm is put down, to the lee-bow. And
JVC have heard it afierted by very expert feamcn, that
after all attempts to wear fhip (after lying-to in a florm)
have failed, they have fucceeded by the crew collefting
themfelves near the weather fore-fhrouds the moment
the helm was put down. It mufl be agreeable to the
reflefting feaman to fee this praftice fupportcd by un-
doubted mechanical principles.
It will appear paradoxical to fay that the evolution -p^^ ^
may, be accelerated even by an addition of matter to the >;on a
fhip ; and though it is only a piece of curiofity, • ourr ited
readers may wifh to be made fenfible of it. Let m be''"^"^
the addition, placed in feme point m lying beyond Q."'"^ ''
from q. Let S be the fpontaneous centre of converfion
before the addition. Let v be the velocity of rotation
round g, that is, the velocity of a point whofe diilance
from ^ is I, and let p be the radius veAor, or diftance of
a particle from^. We have (Rotation, n° 22.) vzz.
F ' q g
' But we know (Rotation, n^ 23.)
f'
p p'' -\- m'mg"
that Jpf^—Jpr'-^M.
IS
G Therefore v zz
Let us determine G g
Jp r^+M • G^^+m • m g'
and m g and qg.
Let w G be called z. Then, by the nature of the
centre of gravity, M-^-m :M=Gm : g m = z :gmf and
g m z=. ^> ^"'^ m ' gm = _ z*. In
M+ m
like manner, M • Gg*=
M
Now mM^-^
_MmX (M-f-w) I
Mt»2
Therefore M' Gg'^ + ft'gm^
, ~ — — - 2 . Let n be =
M + m^ ^ + '"
_, thenM G^'-f w•^/M^=M«^^ Alfo G^
—^—•5. Let o G be called c : then
q g =: c n z. Alfo let SG be called e.
We have now for the expreffion of the velocity v ~
L ^ g^j.
M +
= nz, being
J^p + M n z''
M + nz*
Rotation,
S E A M A
(R.OTATION, n^30 )
M
" ^. Had there been no addition of matter
F c
made, we {hould have had u = ---X It remains to
fhow, that z may be fo taken that — may be lefs than
■' c e
^— ^— — — . Now, if c be to K as c f to z*, that is, if %
c e-\-n z
be taken equal to e, the two fra£tions will be equal.
But it z be lefs than e, that is, if the additional matter
is placed anywhere between S and G, the complex frac-
c
tion will be greater than the fraftion — , and the velo-
city of rotation will be increafed. There is a particular
diftance which will make it the greatcll polTible, name-
ly, when 2; is made =z~ {4/ c"" + n ce~-c), as will
N S II I P.
and wc are not here obliged to have i*Gourfc to Jiisy
ce. Therefore, finally, roneous theory.
It is eafy to fee that the lateral prefTure both of the
wind on the fails and of the water on the rudder tends
to incline the fhip to one iid€. The fails alfo tend to
orefs the fnip's bows into the water, and, if fhe were 6$
kept from advancing, would prefs them down confidcr- ^^'^'f'^rent
ably. But by the fhip's motion, and the prominent
form of her bows, the rel'iftance of the water to the on the'
fote part of the fhip produces a force which is directed Ihip and
upwards. The fails alfo have a fmall tendency to raife <i
If
with
cafily be found by treating the fraftion
^ ce-\-nz
jz, confidered as the variable quantity, for a maximum.
In what we have been faying on this fubjcft, we have
confidered the rotation only in as much as it is per-
formed round the centre of gravity, although in every
moment it is really performed round a fpontaneous axis
lying beyond that centre. This was done becaufe it af-
forded an eafy inveftigation, and any angular motion
round the centre of gravity is equal to the angular
motion round any other point. Thereh)re the exter.t
and the time of the evoluti<m are accurately defined. —
From obferving that the energy of the force F is pro-
portional to q G, an inattentive reader will be apt to
conceive the centre of gravity as the 'centre of motion,
and the rotation as taking place becaufe the momenta of
the fails and rudder, on the oppofite fides of the centre
of gravity, do not balance each other. But we mult
always keep in mind that this is not the caufe of the ro-
tation. The caufe is the want of equilibrium round
the point C (fig. lO.), where the aftions of the water
balance each other. During the evolution, which con-
fifts of a rotation combined with a progrelTive motion,
this point C is continually fhifting, and the unbalanced
momenta which continue the rotation always rcfpe<£t the
momentary fituation of the point C. It is neverthekfs
always true that the enersy of a force F is proportional
(ceteris paribus) to q G, and the rotation is ala-ays
made in the fame dire<£lion as if the point G were real-
ly the centre of converfion. Therefore the malnfail afts
always (when oblique) by pufiiing the Hern away from
the wind, although it fhould fometimes aft on a pcint
of the vertical lever through C, which is a head of C.
Thefe obfervations on the efFeds of the fails and
rudder in producing a converfion, are fufficient for ena-
bling us to explain any cafe of their adion which may
occur. We have not confidered the effefts which they
tend to produce by inclining the fiiip round a horizon-
tal axis, viz. the motions of rolling and pitching. See
Rolling and Pitching. To treat this fubjed pro-
perly would lead us into the whole dottrineef the eqiii-
librium of floating bodies, and it would rather lead to
maxims of conftrudion than to iimxiras of manoeuvre.
M. Bouguer's Traite du Nav re and Euler's Sc/entia
Navalis are excellent performances on this fubjeft,
Vol. XVII. Fart L
the fhip, for they conflitute a furface which in ^'"^l [jj^^^^^^'^^^^j^*
feparates from the plnmb-line below. This is remark- other,
ably the cafe in the ilayfail^ particularly the jib and
fore-topmaft flayfail. And this helps greatly to foftow
the plunges of the (hip's bows into the head ieas. Thp
upward preflure alfo of the water on her bows, which
we jufl now mentioned, has a great efieic in oppofuig
the immerfion of the bows wh'ch the lails produce bv
ading on the long levers furniihed by the mafts. M.
Bouguer gives the nam.e of point 'velique to the point V
(fig. 12.) of the mail, where it is cut by the line CV,
which marks the mean place and diredion of the whole
impulfe of the water on the bows. And he obferves, that
if the mean diredion of all the adions of the v/ind
on the fails be made to pafs alfo through this point,
there will be a perfed equihbrium, and the fliip will
have no tendency to plunge into the water or to rife
out of it ; for the whole adion of the water on the
bows, in the diredion CV, is equivalent to, and may-
be refolved into the adion CE, by which the progrcf-
five motion is refifted, and the vertical adion CD, by
which the fiiip is raifed above the water. The force
CE muft be oppofed by an equal force. VD, exerted by
the wind on the fails, and the force CD h oppofed by
the weight of the fhip- If the mean effort of the fails
pafies above the point V, the fhip's bows will be prefTed
into the water ; and if it pais below V, her ftern will
be preffed down. But, by the union of thefe forces,
fhe will rife and fall with the fea, keeping always in a
parallel pofitiom We apprehend that it is of very little
moment to attend to the fituation of this point. Ex-
cept when the fhip is right afore the wind, it is a thou-
fand chances to one that the line CV of mean refillance
does not pafs tlirough any maft ; and the fad is, \.h.i*t
the fhip cannot be in a flace of uniiorm motion on any-
other condition but the perfed union of the line of
mean adion of the fails, and the fine of mean adion of
the refinance. But its place fliifts by every change ©c
leeway or of tiira^ and it is impoffible to keep thefe
lines in one conilant point of interfedion tor a moment,
on account of the inceffant changes of the iurface or the
water on which fhe floats. M. Bouguer's obfervations
on this point are, however, very ingenious and original.
We conclude this diffeitation, by defcribing foine chiel'l^-'^
the chief movements or evolutions. \^hat we have l^(J,,f,J
faid hitherto is intended for the iiillrudion of .the artiit, fciibei.
by making him fenfible of the mechanical procedure.
The defcriptitjn is rather meant for the amulement of
the landiraaii, enabling him to uiiderlland operations
that are familiar to the feaman. I'he latter will per-
haps fmile at the aukvvard account given of his bufinels
one who cannot hand, reef, zior fleer.
To tack Shi/-.
The fhip muft firfl of all be kept full, that is, with
E e a
S E A M A
a very fcnfible angle of Incidence on the fails, and by
no means hu2;ging the wind. For as this evolution is
chiefly performed by the rudder, it is neceflary to give
the fhip a good velocity. When the fhip is obferved
to luff up of herfelf, that moment is to be catched for
beginning the evolution, becaufe (he will by her inhe-
rent force continue this motion. The helm is then put
down. When the officer calls out Helm's a lee, the
fore-fheet, fore-top bovvHne, jib, and flag fail flieets for-
ward are let go. The jib' is frequently liauled down.
Thus the obflacles to the fhip's head coming up to the
wind by the aftion of the rudder are removed. If the
mainfail is fet, it is not imufual to clue up the weather
fide, which may be confidered as a headfail, becaufe it .
is before the centre of gravity. The mizen muft
be hauled out, and even the fail braced to windward.
Its power in paying off the ftern from the wind con-
fpires with the aflion of the rudder. It is really an
aerial rudder. The fails are immediately taken aback.
Tn this ftate the effeft of the mizen-topfail would be
to obftruft the movement, by prefling the Itern the con-
trary way to what it did before. It is therefore either
immediately braced about fharp on the other tack, or
lowered. Bracing it about evidently tends to pay
round the ftern from the wind, and thus aflift in bring-
ing the head up to the wind. But in this pofition it
checks the progreffive motion of the fliip, on which the
evolution chiefly depends. For a rapid evolution, there-
fore, it is as well to lower the mizen-topfail. Mean-
time, the lieadfails are all aback, and the aftion of the
wind on them tends greatly to pay the fhip round. To
increafe this effcft, it is not unufual to haul the fore-top
bowline again. The fails on the mainmafl; are now
almoft becalmed ; and therefore when the wind is right
ahead, or a little before, the mainfail is hauled round
and braced up fharp on the- other tack with all expedi-
tion. The ftayfail flieets are now fhifted over to their
places for the other tack. The fliip is now entirely un-
der the power of the headfails, and of the rudder, and
their aftions confpire to promote the converfion. The
ihip has acquired an anf?;ular motion, and will preferve
it, fo that now the evolution is fecured, and fhe falls off
apace from the wind on the other tack. The farther
adtion of the rudder Is therefore unnecefTary, and would
even be prejudicial, by caufino- the fhip to fall of!" too
much from the wind before the fails can be fhifted and
trimmed for failing on the other taek. It is therefore
proper to right the helm when the wind is riifht ahead,
that is, to bring the rudder into the direftion of the
keel. The fhip continues her converfion by her inhe-
rent force, and the adlion of the headfails.
When the fhip has fallen off about four points from
the wind, the headfails are hauled round, and trimmed
fharp on the other tack with all expedition ; and al-
though this operation was- begun with the wind four
points on the bow, it will be fix before the fails are
braced up, and therefore the headfails will immediately
fill. The after-fails have filled already, while the head-
fails were inactive, and therefore immediately check the
farther falKng off from the wind. AH fails now draw,
for the ftayfail flieets have been fhifted over while they
were becalmed or fhaking in the wind. The fhip now
^fathers way, and will obey the fmalleft miOtion of the
helm to bring her clofe to the wind.
We have here fuppofcd, that during all this opera-
tisu* the. ihip preferves her piogrelHve motion. She
N S H I P:
muft therefore have defcribed a curve Kne, advancing'
all the while to windward. Fig. 13. is a reprefenta-
tion of this evolution when it is performed in the com-
pleteft manner. The fhip ftanding on the courfe E tf,
with the wind blowing in the direftion WF, has her
helm put hard a-lee when fhe is in the pofition A. She
immediately deviates from her courfe, and defcribing a
curve, comes to the pofition B, with the wind blowing
in the direction WF of the yards, and the fquare-fails
now fhiver. The mizen-topfail is here reprefented
braced fharp on the other tack, by which its tendency
to aid the angular motion (while it checks the progref-
five motion) is diftinftly feen. The main and fore-
fails are now fhivering, and immediately after are taken
aback. The effedl of this on the headfails is diftinft-
ly feen to be favourable to the converfion, by pufhing
the point F in the dire£tion F /' / but for the fame rea-
fon it continues to retard the progreffive motion.
When the fhip has attained to the pofition C, the main-
fail is hauled round and trimmed for the other tack.
The impulfe in the direction F i ftill aids the converfion
and retards the progreflive motion. When the fiiip has
attained a pofition between C and D, fuch that the
main and mizen topfail yards are in the direftion of the
wind, there is nothing to counta-a£t the force of the
headfails to pay the fhip's head off from the wind.
Nay, during the progrefs of the fhip to this interme-
diate pofition, if any v.-ind gets at the mam or mizen
topfails, it a£ls on their anterior furfaces, and impels
the after parts of the fliip away from the curve abed,
and thus alv's the revolution. We have therefore fa id,
that when once the fails are taken fully aback, and
particularly when the wind is brought right ahead, it
is fcarce poffible for the evolution to fail ; as foon there-
fore as the main- topfail (trimmed for the other tack)
fhivers, V'jt are certain that the headfails will be filled
by the time they aie hauled round and trimmed. The
ftayfails are fiDed- before this, becaufe their fheets ha-w:
been fhifted, and they ftand much fharper than the
fquare-falls ; and thus every thing tends to check the
falling off from the wind on the other tack, and this
no iooner than it ftiould be done. The fhip imme-
diately gathers way, and holds on in hef new courfe
d G .
But it frequently happens^, that in this converfion
the fliip lofes her whole progreflive motion. This
fometimes happens^ while the fails are fhiverlntr before
they are taken fully aback. It is evident, that in this
cafe there is little hopes of fuccefs, for the fhip now lies
hke a log, and neither fails nor rudder have any aftlon..
The fhip drives to leeward like a log, and the water ail-
ing, on the. lee-fide of the rudder checks a little the dri-
ving of the ffern;- The head therefore falls off" again,
and by and by the fails fill, and the. fliip continues on
her former tack. This is called, missing stays, and
it is generally owing to the fliip's- having too little ve-
locity at the beginning of the evolution. Hence the-
propriety of keeping the fails well filled for fome. little
time before. Rou;»h weather, tooj by laifing a wave
which beats violently on the weather-bow, frequently
checks the firft luffing of the fliip, and beats her off
again.
If the fliip lofes all her motion after the headfails
have been fuUy taken aback, and befbre we have
brought the wind right ahead, the evolution becomes
uncertain, but by no means defperate i for the adion
S E A M A
«f the wind on the headMs will pr?fently give her
ftern-way, Suppofe this to happen when the fhip is
in the pofition C, Bring the helm over hard to wind-
%vard, fo that the rudder {hall have the pofition repre-
fented by the fmall dotted line of. It is evident, that
the rehftance of the water to the ftern-way of the rud-
der afts in a favourable direAion, pufhing the item out-
wards. In the mean time, the a<?H0n of the wind on
the headfails pui'hes the head in the oppofite direftion.
Thefe actions confpire therefore in promoting the evo-
lution ; and if the wind is right ahead, it cannot fail,
but may even be completed fpeedily, becaufe the fhip
gathers ftern-way, and. the aftion of the rudder becomes
very powerful ; and as foon as the wind comes on the
formerly lee-bow, the aftion of the water on the now
lee-quarter will greatly accelerate the converfion. When
the wind therefore has once been brought nearly right
ahead, there is no rifle of being baffled.
But fliould the (hip have loft all her head-way con-
fiderably before this, the evolution is very uncertain 5
for the action of the water on the rudder may not be
nearly equal to its contrary aftion on the lee quarter ;
in which cafe, the adlion of the wind on the headfails
may not be fuficient to make up the difference. When
this is obferved, when the fbip goes aftern without
changing her pofition, we muft immediately throw the
headfails completely aback, and put the helm down
again, which will pay off" the ihip's head from the wind
enough to enable us to fill the fails again on the fame
tack, to try our fortune again ; or we muft box haul
the (hip, in the manner to be defcribed by and by.
Such is the ordinary procefs of tacking (hip ; a pro-
cefs in which all the different modes of adlion of the
rudder and fails are employed. To execute this evolu-
tion in the moll expeditious manner, and fo as to gain
as much on the wind as pollible, is confidered as the
tefl of an expert feaman. We have defcribed the pro-
cefs which is bed calculated for eti/uring the movement.
But if the fhip be failing; very brifldy in fmooth water,
fo that there is no danger of mifling flays, we may gain
more to windward confiderably by keeping fafl the
fore-top bowline and the jib and flay-fail fheets till the
fquare-fails are all fhivering : For thefe fails, continuing
to draw with confiderable force, and balancing each
other tolerably fore and aft, keep up the fliip's velocity
very much, and thus maintain the power of the rudder.
If we now jet all fly when the fquare-fails are fhivering,
the fhip may be confidered as without fails, but expofed
to the action of the water on the lee-bow ; from which
ariies a ftrong preffure of the bow to windward, which
eonfpires with the a<ftion of the rudder to aid the con-
verfion. It evidently leaves all that tendency of the
bow to windward which arifes from leeway, and even
what was counteradled by the formerly unbalanced
a£lion of thefe head-flayfaila. This mxthod lengthens
the whole time of the evolution, but 'it advances the
(hip to windward. Obferve, too, that keeping fafl
the fore-top bowline till the fail fhivers, and then let-
ting it go, infures the taking aback of that fail, and
thus inflantly produces an action that is favourable to
the evolution.
The mofl expert feamen, however, differ among
chemfelves with refpeft to thefe two methods, and the
firfl is the mofl generally praAifed in the Btitifli navy,
Ijecaide the leali liable to fail. The forces which op-
N S H I P.
pofe the copyerfion are fponer removed, and tlie pro-
du^lion of a favourable aAion by the backing of the
fore-topfail is alio fooner obtained, by letting go the
fore-top bowline at the firfl.
Having entered fo minutely into tlie defcription and
rationale of this evolution, we have fufficiently turned
the reader's attention to the different adlions which co-
operate in producing the motioiis of converfion. We
fhall therefore be very brief in our defcription of the
other evolutions.
To wear Ship,
When the feaman fees that his fhip will not go a
bout head to wind, but will mifs flays, he muft change
his tack the other way ; that is, by turning - her head
away from the wind, going a httle way before the wind,
and then hauhng the wind on the other tack. This
is called wearing or ve-ering fhip. It is mofl necef-
fary in floriny weather with little fail, or in very faint
breezes, or in a difabled fhip.
The procefs is exceedingly fimple; and the mere nar-
ration of the procedure is fufficient for fhowing the
propriety of e.very part of it. . "
Watch for the m.oment of the fhip's falling off, and
then haul up the mainfail and mizeri, and fhiver the
mizen-topfail, and put the helm a- weather. When the
fhip falls off fenfibly (and not before), let go the bow-
hnes. Eafe away the fore-flieet, raife the fore- tack, and
gather aft the weather fore-fheet, as the lee fheet is ea-
fed away. Round in the weather-braces of the fore
and main mails, and keep the yards nearly bifcding the
angle of the wind and keel, fo that when the fliip is
before the wind the yards may bt fquare. It may even
be of advantage to round in the weather-braces of the
main-topfail more than thofe of the headfails ; for the
mainmaft is abaft the centre of gravity. All this
while the mizen-topfail mud be kept fliivering, by
rounding in the weather-braces as the fliip pays off
from the wind. Then the main-topfail will be braced
up for the other tack by the time that we have brought
the wind on the weather-quarter. After this it will
be full, and will aid the evolution. When the win4
is right aft, fhift the jib and flay-fail fheets. The e/o-
lution now goes on with great rapidity ; therefore briflc-
ly haul on board the fore and main tacks, and haul out
the mizen, and fet the mizen-flayfail as foon as they will
take the wind the right way. We miifl now check
the great rapidity with which the fhip comes to the
wind on the other tack, by righting the helm before
we bring the wind on the beam ; and all muft be trim-
med fharp fore and aft by this time, that the headfails
may take and check the coming-to. All being trim-
med, fland on clofe by the wind.
We cannot help lofing a great deal of ground in
this movement. Therefore, though it be very fimple,
it requires much attention and rapid execution to do
it with as httle lofs of ground as poffible. One is apt
to imagine at fi-rft that it vrauld be better to keep the
headfails braced up on the former tack, or at leafl not
to round in the weather -braces fo much as is here di-
reded. When the fhip is right afore the wind, we
fhould expeft affiftance from the obliquity of the head-
fails ; but the rudder being the principal agait in the
evolution, it is found that more is gained by increafino*
the fhip's velocity, than by a fmaller impulfe on the
Ee 2 head-
?2d S £ A M A
headfails more favourably direiled. Experienced fea-
roen differ, however, in their pratllce in refptd of this
particular.
T'o loxhcul a Ship.
Tuts is a procefs performed only in critical fitya-
tlons, as when a rock, a ftivp, or fomc danger, is fud-
denly feen light ahead, or when a fliip miifes flays. It
requires the moft rapid execution.
The fhip being clofe- hauled on a wind, haul up the
mainfail and mizcn, and fhiver the topfails, and put the
helm hard a-lee altogether. Raife the fore-tack, let
go the head bowlines, and brace about the headfails
fiiarp on the other tack. I'he flu'p will quickly lofc
her way,, get flern-way, and then fall off, by the joint
aflion of the headfails and of the inverted rudder.
When fhe has fallen off eight points, brace the after-
fails fquare, which have hitherto been kept fhiuering.
This will at firft Increafe the power of the rudder, by
increafing the ftern-way, and at the fame time it makes
no oppoiition to the convet fion which is going on. The
eontinuation of her circular motion will prefently caufe
them to take the wind on their after furfaces. This will
check the ftern-way, flop it, and give the fhip a Httle
head-way. Now fliift the helm, fo that the rudder may
again a6l in conjundlion with the headfails in paying
her off from the wind. This is the critical part of the
evolution, becaufe the fhip has little or no way through
the water, and will frequently remain long in this po-
rtion. But as there are no counteraAing forces, the
fhip continues to fall off. Then the weather-braces of
the after-fails may be gently rounded in, fo that the
wind afting on their hinder furfaces may both pufh the
fhip a little ahead and her flern laterally in conjunc-
•tion with the rudder. Thus the wind k brought upon
the quarter, and the headfails fliivcr. By this time the
fliip has acquired fome headway. A continuation of
the rotation would now fill the headfails, and their ac-
, lion would be contrary to the intended evolution.
They are therefore immediately braced the other way,
neatly fquare, and the evc^lution is now completed in
the fame manner with wearing fhip.
Some ff amen brace all the fails aback the moment
that the helm is put hard a-lee, but the after-fails no
more aback than juft to fquare the yards. This quick-
ly gives the fhip flern-way, and brings the rudder into
adion in its inverted diredion ; and they think that the
evolution is accelerated by this method.
There is another problem of feamanfhip deferving of
cur attention, which cannot properly be called an evo-
lution. I'his is lying-to. This is done in general by
laying fome fails aback, fo as to flop the head-way pro-
duced by others. But there is a confiderable addrefs
necefTa.y for doing this in fuch a way that the fhip
fhall lie eafily, and under' command, ready to proceed in
her courfe, and enfily brought under weigh.
To bring-to with the fore or main-topfail to the maft,
brace that fail fharp aback, haul out the mizen, and
clap the helm hard a- lee.
Suppafe the fore topfail to be aback ; the other fails
fhoot tive fliip ahead, and the lee helm makes the fhip
come up to the wind, which makes it come more
perpendicularly on the fail which is aback. Then its
, impulfe foon exceeds thofe on the other fails, which are
sow fhivcring, or ahnodl fhivering. The fhip ftands (till
N S H I P.
awhile, and then falls off, fo as to fill the aftcr-fail%
which again fhoot her ahead, and the procefs is thus
repeated. A fhip lying- to in this way goes a good
deal ahead and alfo to leeward. If the main-topfail be
aback, the fhip fhoots ahead, and comes up till the di-
minifhed impulfe of the drawing fails in the direction of
the keel is balanced by the increafed impulfe on the
main-topfail. She lies a long while in this pofition,
driving flowly to leeward ; and fhe at lafl falls off by
the beating of the water on her weather-bow. She fails
off but little, and foon comes" up again.
Thus a fhip lying-to is riot like' a mere log, but has
a certain motion wliich keeps her under command. To
get under weigh again, we mufh watch the time of fall-
ing off; and when this isjufl about to finifh, brace
about brifkly, and fill the fail which was aback. To
aid this opeiation, the jib and fore-topmafl ftayfail may
be hoilled, and the mi/en brailed up : or, when the in-
tended courfe is before the wind or large, back the fore-
topfail fharp, fliiver the main and mizen topfail, brail
up the mizen, and hoill the jib and fore-topmafl flay-
fails altogether.
In a florm with a contrary wind, or on a lee fhore, a
fhip is obliged to lie-to under a very low fail. Some fail
is abfolutely neceffary, in order to keep the fhip fleadi-
ly down, otherwife fhe would kick about like a corkj(
and roll fo deep as to flrain and work herfelf to pieces.
Different fhips behave befl under different fails. In a
very violent gale, the th;ee lower flayfails are in gene-
ral well adapted for keeping her fleady, and diilribu-
ting the flrain. This mode feems^alfo well adapted for
wearing, which may be done by hauling down the mi-
zen-flayfaiL Under whatever fail the fhip is brought-
to in a florm, it is always with a- fitted fail, and ne-
ver with one laid aback. The helm is lafhed down
hard a-lee ; therefore the fhip fhoots ahead, and comes
up till the fea on her weatlier-bow beats her off again.
Getting under weigh is generally difficult ; becaufe the
fliip and rigging are lofty abaft, and hinder her from fall-
ing off readily when the helm is put hard a-weather.
We mufl watch the falling off, and aflifl the fhip by
fome fmall hcadfail. Sometimes the crew get up ou
the weather fore-fhrouds in a crowd, and thus prefent a
furface to the wind.
These examples of the three chief evolutions willen*
able thofe who are not feamcn to underfland the pre-
priety of the different fleps, and alfo to underfland the
other evolutions as they are defcribed by praiftical au-
thors. We are not acquainted with any performance
in our language where the -whole are eonfidered in a
connefted and fyftematic manner. There is a book on
this fubjed in French, called Le Manauvrier, by M.
Bourde de Ville-Huet, which is in great reputation in
France. A tranflation into Englifh was publifhed fome
years ago, faid to be the performance of the Chevalier"
de Saufeuil a French officer. But this appears to be a
bookfeller's puff ; for it is undoubtedly the work of
fome perfon who did not undeHland either the French
language, or the fiibjeft, or the mathematical principles-,
which are employed in the fcientific part. I'he blun-
ders are not fuch as could poffibly be made by a French-
man not verfant in the Englifh language, but natural,
for an EngHfhman ignorant of French. No French,
gentleman or officer would have tranflated a wosis of
this-
S E A M A
this kind (which he profeffes to think fo hlsrhly of) to
ferve the rivals and foes of his country. But indeed
it can do no preat harm in this way ; for the fcientific
part of it is abfolutely unintelligible for want of fcience
in the tranflator ; and the praftical part is full of blun-
ders for want of knowledpre of the French lancjuage.
We offer this account of the fubjeft with all proper
refpcdl and diffidence. We do not profefs to teach :
but by poinfing out the defeds of the celebrated works
SEA
>n^cn. FEAMEN, fnch pcrfons as fervc the king or others
at fea by navigation and fighting fiiips, &c. See Ma-
ritime State.
Seamen fighting, quarrelling, or making any difturb-
ance, may be punifhed by the commifiidners of the navy
with fine and imprifonment. Regiitered feamen are ex-
e'mpted from ferving in any parifli, office, Sec. and are
allowed bounty-money befide their pay. By the law of
mepchants, the feamen of a vefTel are accountable to the
mafter or commander, the mafter to the owners, and
the owners to the merchants, for damage fuftained ei-
ther by negligence or otherwife. Where a feamah is
hired for a voydge, and he deferts before it is ended,
he fhall lofe his wages ; and in cafe a ihip be loft in a
ftorm, the feamen lofe their wages, as well as the own-
ers their freight.
Means of Preferilng the Health of Se^msn. See Me-
fiiciNE, n° 351.
In addition to what has been faid on this fubjeft in
the place referred to, we (hall fubjoin fome valuable ob-
fcrvations which we have met with in the fixth vo-
lume of the Menioirs of the Royal Society of Medicine
at Patis for the years 1784 and 1785.
In 1783, the marlhal de Caftries, intending to make
fome changes in the regulations of the navy, particu-
larly with regard to diet, propofed to the fociety the
two following queftions : i . " What are the moft whole-
fome ahments for feamen, confidering the impoflibility
©f procuring them frefli meat i And what kinds of fait
B-ieat, or fifli, of pulfe, and of drink, are moft proper for
them, and in what quantity, not omitting to inquire
into the regimens in ufe amongft other maritime nations
for what may be adopted by us, and into what expe-
rience has evinced the utility of, from the accounts of
the moft celebrated navigators ?" 2. " A number of
patients labouring under different difeafes being affem-
bled in naval hofpitals, and different conftitutions af-
fefted by the fame difeafe requiring difference of diet,
^hat general dietetic rules for an hofpital would be beft
adapted to every exigence, dividing the patients into
three claffes ; the fir ft in which liquids alone are proper,
the fecond in which we l^egin to give folids in fmall
quantities, and the ftate of convalefcence in which a
fuller diet is neceffary >" A committee was appointed
to draw up an anfvver to thefe, who inveftigated the
ftibjeft very minutely. The refult of their labours is
there given at large. The obfervations moft v/orthy of
notice are, that the fcurvy of the Englifn feamen, who
live chiefly on falt meat, is a putrid dileafe ; whilft that
of the Dutch, who ufe farinaceous vegetables and dried
pulfe in large quantities, has more of an hydrcpical
tendency. A mixture of both, even at the fame meal>
N S H I P. ' 221
of M. Bouguer, and the courfe which may be taken
to remove them, while we preferve much valuable know-
ledge which they contain, we may perhaps excite fome
perfons to apply to this fubjedl, who, by a combination
of what is juft in M. Bouguer's theory, with an expe-
rimental doftrine of the im-pulfesof fluids, may produce
a treatife of feamanfhip which will not be confined to'-
the libraries of mathematicians, but become a manual
for feameii by profeffion.
SEA
15! recommended. This is fupported by philofophical Seamerij
reafoning, and the example of Captain Cook, who was Seapoyv
partly indebted to this mixed regimen for the preferva-
tion of his crew. Salt ilfli fhould never be ufed ; fait
beef grows hard, and after boihng its fibrous parts Only
remain, which are more calculated to load the Itomach
than recruit the ftrength. Salt bacon may be ktpt at
fea 18 months; it does not lofe its moift and nutri-
meiital parts, and unites better with pulfe, but fiiould
not be ufed when rancid. Live animals kept on board-
ftiips tend :to produce difeafes amongft the crew. Rice
fhould be ufed largely. Our puddings are bad food:
the flour would be much better made into bread, which
might be done at fea with no great trouble. Sour krout
fhould be ufed freely^ Muftard, vinegar, fugar, melaf-
fes, and honey, are good antifcorbutics. Of drinks,
wine is the beft: wort, fpruce-beer, or the Ruffiun guasy
are good fubftitutes. Spirits are only to be ufed in cold
climates, and in fmall quantity. I'he greater part of
the excellent memoir in anfwer to the fecond queftion,
perfeftly coincides with M. Duhamel du Monceaux's
'* Means of Preferving the Health of Seamen," and
M. Poiffonnier des Perriercs's treatifes "On the Dif-
eafes of Seamen," and " On the advantages of changing
the Diet of Seamen," and his " Examination of Priiigle's
Differtation."
Si'.APOYS, or Sepoys, natives of Indoftan ferving
in a military capacity under the European powers, and"
difciplined after the European manner.
The Seapoys of the EngHfli Eaft India company
compofe perhaps the moft numerous, regular, and belt
difciplined body of black troops in the world. They
are raifed from among the natives ot the country, and
confift of Moors, or Mahometans, Raja-poots, Hindoos,
Pariars, befides many intermediate /cafts peculiar to
themfelves ; the whole modelled in all correfponding ^ ,
particulars, and difciplined in every refpeft as the army
of Great Britain.
The military eftabliHiments of Bengal, Madras, and
Bombay, have each their refpeftive numbers, that of
Bengal exceeding the reft. The Seapoys are formed'
into complete, uniform, and regular battalions, as our
marching regiments at home, being intended to repre-
fent and anfwer fully to every purpofe in India to the
Hke troops in Europe. A battalion confifts of 700
men, of complete tffeftive ftrength. In each there are
eight companies, including two flank ones or grena-
diers. They are refpe£lively commanded by their own
black and Europeaiv oflicers ; to each com.pany therfc
is attached a fubaltern, who takes the command, under
whom are two native commiffioned oflicers, bearing, the
rank of fubidar and jimindar ; ef ei^ht fubalterns, fix
are
SEA I 2i
BnpYh ifg lieyienanta, the other eufigna 3 exclafive k a Itaff,
pf adjutant and furgeon. The hhch non-commlffioned
efficers anfwer to our ferjeants and corporals, and are
■called haviJdars and naigues. 'i'here is alio to each
corps an Englifh fcrjeant-raajor, drill and ftore fei jeant;
to each battalion is a band of drums and file«, and to
each a pair of colours, A captain comrnands the
¥/hole.
Their jackets, which are made entirely after the Eu-
ropean fafhion, are of a red colour with yellow facings
(as worn by all the infantry of the company on the
Coromandel coaft), The remaining part of their at-
tire refembles more the country or Indian habit, and
confifts of a dark bhie turban, broad and round at
top, defcending deep to the bottom, the fides of which,
of a concave form, are crofTed by a white band, running
in front, faftened under a rofe above. As an under
garment, they have a jacket of linen, A dark blue
Jalh girding, to anfwer the turban, goes x-ound their
Tniddle, On the thighs they have fhort drawers, faf-
tened by a fcoUoped band. Their legs are bare, which
renders them more ready for aftion or fervice. Their
arms are a firelock and bayonet ; tlieir accoutrementa
or crofs belts black leather, with pouches the fame.
A battalion drawn out cannot but ftrike the fpefla-
tors with a lively and fanciful military jmpreflion, as
they unite in their exterior traits refpedtively Indian
and Eurppean.
They are brought to the utm.oft exadlnefs of difci-
pline ; go through their evolutions and manoeuvres with
a regularity and precifion equal to, and not furpafled by,
European troops. In aftion they are brave and fteady,
.g,nd have been known to ftand where Europeans have
given way.
Their difcipline puts them on a footing with Euro-
.pean troop, with whom they are always ready to ad
in concert.
Their utility ^nd fervices are evident : they fecure to
the company the internal good order and prefervation
of their territorial diftrids, which, though poflible to
be enforced with a ftrong hand by Europeans, requires
numbers, and can only be conduced with that eafe and
addrefs peculiar to the native forces of the country.
They are confidered with refpeft in the eyes of the
other natives, though they fufficiently, and with a good
grace, feel and affert their own confequence. In large
garrifons, where the duty is great, as Madras, Pondi-
pherry, Trichinopoly, Vdlore, &c. two or three batta-
lions might be pj-efent together, exclufive of Europeans.
If fent fingly up the country, they are liable to be de-
tached, foraetimes by one or more companies being fent
to a ftation dependent on the chief garrifon or head-
quarters, otherwife they are difperfed through the di-
ftrids, four or five together, with a non-commifiioned
officer (this is apart of the fervice which is called going
on command), on hills, or in villages, to prefetve order,
fonvcy intelligence, and affift the tafildar, renter, or
cutwall of the place, in cafes of emergency. They al-
fo enforce the pqJ^cCj and prevent in fuch cafes the coun-
try from being infefted with thieves, which otherwif^
have combined, forming a banditti, to rob paffengers
and plunder cattle, of which there are fo many inilancea
upon i-ecord. As for fuch Britifh officers in the com-
pany's fervice as are attached to battalions; they are
pbli|red to follow the fortunes and deltin^tigns of their
la ] ^ SEA
men, with theiV rcfpeftive .corpsj kadlrig" n life ah^n
replete with adventures of a pecuKar nature. An in-,
dividual in fuch cafes is frequently fecluded from thqfe
ot his own colour when np the country, or detached
upon command, where in a frontier garrifon or hill lort
in the interior parts of India none but-natives jire to be
found. Here he might live as he pleafea, being pcrfc6l«
ly abfolute within his jurifdiilion. Such ftations being
lucrative, with management may produce great for«
tunes. Neither is the condition hard to a perfon conver-
fant in the language of the country, or that of the Sea«
poys called Moors (which moft officers in the compa-
ny's fervice acquire ) ; otherwife the lofs of foclety ia
not recompenfed by other advantages, as you forget
your own language, grow m.elancholy, and pafs your
days without comfort.
The peace eitabliihmcnt at Madras coufifts of 30 Sea.
poy battalions, but in time of war is augmented as oc-
cafion requires ; or frequently eacli corps is ftrengthen-
cd by the addition of two companies, which are redu-
ced again in time of peace, the officers remaining fuper-
numeraries in the fervice. In garrifon they are quar-
tered in barracks : they live agreeably to the ufage of
the country, fleep on the ground on a mat or thiir car-
pet. In their perfons they are cleanly, but appear t«
beft advantage m their uniform. Off duty they go aa
the. other natives in poor circumftances ; and have only
a cloth round their middle and over their Ihoulders. As
to the different calls, the Moormen or Muffulmen affert
pre-eminence, as coming into the country by conqueft.
In their perfons they are rather robuH, and' in their
tempers vindidive. Their religion and drei"s is diftind
fr-om the Hindoos, who are mild and paffi.ve in their
temper, faithful, fteady, and good foldiers. The ?a-
riars are inferior to the others, live under different cir-
cumftances, dwell in huts, and affociate not on equal
terms with the reft 5 they do all menial offices, are fer-
vants to Europeans, and think themfelves happy when
by them employed, though they are equally good Sea-
poys.
Having thus treated of the (3on\pany'8 Seapoys, ws
fhall obferve that they are kindly attentive to their offi.
cers when often in cijcumftances- requiring their affiiU
ance; are guilty of few vices j. and have a ftrong at-
tachment for thofe who have corrimanded them. That
acute hiftorian Dr Robertfon has remarked, as a proof
that the ingenuity of man has recourfe in fimilar fitua-
tions to the fame expedients that the European powers
have, in forming the eftablithment of thefe native troops,
adopted the fame maxims, and, probably without know-
ing it, have modelled their battalions of Seapoya upon
the fame principles as Alexander the Great did hia
phalanx of Perfians,
SEARCH-WARRANT, in law, a kind of general war-
rant iffued by juftices of peace or magiftrates of towna
for fearching all fufpedcd places for ftolen goods. In
Scotland this was often done formerly ; and in fome
Englifh law-books there are precedents requiring the
conftable to fearch all fuch fufpeded places as he and
the part)^ complaining fhall think convenient j but fuch
pradice is condemned by Lord Hale, Mr Hawkins, and
the beft authorities both among the Enghfh and Scotch
lawyers. However, in cafe of a complaint, and oath
made of goods ftolen, and that the party fufpeds that
thofe goods ftre in a particular houfe, and fhows the
caufe
SEA [ 22
caufe of fuch fufpicion, the juftice may grant a warrant
to fearch not only that houfe but other fufpeded pla-
ces J and to attach the goods, and the party ui whofe
cuftody they are found, and bring them before him or
fome other juftice, to give an account how he came by
them, and to abide fuch order as to law fhall appertain ;
which warrant fhould be direfted to the conftable or
other public officer, who may enter a fufpeded houfe
and make fearch.
SEARCHER, an officer in the cuiloms, whofe bu-
linefs it is to fearch and examine fhips outward bound,
if they have any prohibited goods on board, &c. ( 1 2
Car. II.) There are alfo fearchers of leather, &c. See
Alnager.
Searcher, in ordnance, is an iron focket with
branches, from four to eight in number, a Httle bent
outwards, with fmall points at their ends ; to this fock-
et is fixed a wooden handle, from eight to twelve feet
long, of about an Inch and a quarter diameter. After
the gun has been fired, this fearcher is introduced into
it, and turned round, in order to difcover the cavities
within. The diftances of thefe cavities, if any be
found, are then marked on the outfidc with chalk,
when another fearcher that has only one point, about
which a mixture of wax and tallow is put, is introdu-
ced to take the imprcffion of the holes ; and if there be
any hole, a quatter of an inch deep, or of any confider-
able length, the gmi is rejedled as unferviceable.
SEARCLOTH, or Cerecloth, in furgery, a form
of external remedy fomewhat harder than an unguent,
yet fofter tlian an emplafter, though it is frequently
ufed both for the one and the other. The cerecloth is
always fuppofed to have wax in its compofition, which
diftinguilhes and even denominates it. In effeft, when
a liniment or unguent has wax enough in it, it does not
differ from a cerecloth.
SEASIN, in a fhip, the name of a rope by which
the boat rides by the fhip's fide when in harbour, &e.
SEASONING, the fiill illnefs to which perfons
habituated to colder clim.ates are fubjeft on their arrival
in the Weft Indies. This feafoning, unlefs they live
very temperately, or are in a proper habit of body ( tho'
fome people are unmolefted for many months), feldom
fuffers them to remain long before it makes its appear-
ance in fome mode or other ; particularly if at firft
they expofe themfelves in a fhower of rain, or too lon<{
in the fun, or in the night-air ; or when the body is
much heated, if they drink large draughts of cold li-
quors, br bathe in cold water ; or ufe much exercife ;
or commit excefs in drinking wine or fpirits ; or by
heating the botly and inflaming the blood ; or by fub-
jeftin-T themfelves to any caufe that may fuddenly check
perfpiratlon, which at firft is generally cxceffive.
Some people, from a favourable ftate of body, have
IK) feafoning. Thin people, and very young people,
are moft likely to efcape it. Women generally do from
their temperance, and perhaps their menftruatlon con-
tributes to their fecurity ; indeed hot climates are fa-
vourable to the delicacy of their habits, and fuitable to
their models of life. Some efcape by great regularity
of living ; fome, by the breaking out of the rafh, called
the prickly htat ; fome by a great degree of perfpira-
tion ; and fome by obferving a cooling regimen. The
dilordcrs are varioua that conftitute this feafoning of
3 3 S E B '
nenv'comen as they are called ; depending on age, con-
ftitution, and habit of body. But all feafoning difeafes
are of the inflammatory kind ; and yield to antiphlo-
giftic treatment proportioned to their violence. When
all precaution to guard agaiiift ficknefs has failed, and
prudence proved abortive to new-comers, they will have
this comfort at leaft for their pains, that their diforders
will feldom be fevere or expenfive, and will generally
have a fpeedy termination ; and that their feafoning, as
it is emphatically called, will be removed by bleeding,
a dofe of falts, reft, and a cooling regimen.
Seasoning of Timber. See Timber.
SEASONS, in cofmography, certain portions or
quarters of the year, diftingulfhed by the figns whick
the fun then enters, or by the meridian altitudes of the
fun ; confequent on which are different temperatures
of the air, different works in tillage, Sec. See Wea-
ther.
The year is divided into four feafons, fjprlng, fum-
mcr, autumn, and winter. The beginnings and endings
of each whereof, fee under its proper article. It is to
be obferved, the feafons anciently began differently
from what they now do : witnefs the old verfes,
Dat Clemens hyemem ; dot Petrus ver cuthedratus
JEJlmt Urbanus ; autumnat B aflholomam .
SEAT, in the manege, is the pofture or fitiiatlon of
a horfeman upon the faddle.
SEATON, a fmall fifhing town on- the fouth coaft;
of Devon, between Lyme and Sidmouth. Rifdon fays
" our learned antiquarians would have it to be that
Maridunum whereof Antonine fpake, placed between
Dunnovaria and Ifca ; for Marulunum in Britifh is the
fame with Seaton in Englifh, ' a town upon a- hill by
the fea fide.'* This place is memorable for the Danilh
princes landing there in the year 937.
SEBACIC ACID, the acid procured from fat. To
obtain it, let fome fuet be melted in a ikillet over the
fire, along with fome quickHme In fine powder, and
conftantly ftlrred, raifing the fire towards the end of.
the operation, and taking care to avoid the vapours,
which are very ofFenfive. By this procefs the febaclc
acid unites with the lime into a fcbat of lime, which,
is difficultly foluble in water ; it is, however, feparated
from the fatty matters with which it is mixed by folu-
tion in a large quantity of boihng water. From this
the neutral ialt is feparated by evaporation ; and, to
tender it pure, is calcined, redilTolved, and again cry^
ftallizcd. After this we pour on a proper quantity of
fvdphuric acid, and the febaclc acid palfes over by di^
ftillation. See Fat, and Chemistry-Zw^/^x.
StSEBAS riAN, ahandfome, populous, and ftromj
town of Spain, in the province of Gulpufcoa, with a
good and well frequented harbour. It is feated at the
fopt of a mountain ; and the- harbour fecured by two
moles, and a narrow entrance for the fhips. The town •
is furrounded with a double wall, and to the fea-fide is
fortified with baftions and half moons. I'he ftreets are
long, broad, and ftraight, and paved with white fiag^^
ftones. At the top of the mountain is a citadel, with
a garrifon well furniflied with cannon. Ihe town car-
ries on a confiderable trade, the grcateft part of which '
confifts of iron and fteel, which fome reckon to be the '
beft in Europe. They alfo deal in wool, which cwnes
1 , f rona '<
Seafoninfe'
I!
St Sebaf-
tian.
SEC I 2
€c;lafHano f,.om Old Cafllle. W. LoFi<r. r. 59. N. Lat. 4.3. 23.—
Secalc '■^^^ capital of Brafil iii South America ib likcwife call-
I . ■„ . ' ed Sehnflum.
SE15ASTJ[AN0, called Del Plcmbo, from an oiSce
jii the lead mines given him by Pope Clement VII.
•was an eminent Venetian painter, horn in i4'^5. He
was firll a difciple of old Giovanni Bellino ; continued
his ftudies under Gierwione ; and having attained an
excellent manner of colouring, went to Rome, where
he infinuated himfclf into the favour of Michael Ang^e-
lo. He has the name of being the firft who invented
the art of preparing plalter-walls for oil-painting ; but
was fo flow and lazy in his work, that other hands were
-often employed to finiili what he began. He died in
1547-
SEBESTEN, in botany. See Cordia.
>SEBU^l, a led among the ancient Samaritans,
■whom St Epiphani\is accufes of changing the time e\-
prefled in the law, for the celebration of the great an-
imal fcafts of the Jews,
SEBURAI, SiiEUR^i, a name which the Jiws give
to fuch ot their rabbins or doftors as lived and taught
iome time after the finifliing of tlie Talmyd,
SECACUL, in the materia meJica of the aticicnts,
■ a name given by Avicenna, Serapion, and others, to a
■root which was like ginger, and was brought from the
Eall Indies, and ufcd as a provocative, to vcnej-y. The
interpreters of their works have rendered this word
ir'mgo ; and hence foine have fuppofed that our erynglum
or eryrtgo was the root meant by it : but this does not
appear to be the c?fe on a ftricl inquiry, and there is
fome reafon to believe that the famous root, at this time
called g'mfeng, was what they meant.
SEC ALE, Rye, In botany: A genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 4th order, Gra-
mma. The calyx is a glume of two leaves, which are
oppofite to one another, ered, hnear, pointed, and lefs
than the corolla. The corolla confifts of two valves,
the exterior of which ends in a beard. There are fo.ur
fpecies, the vlHofum, orler.tale, creticum, and cereale. 'I he
•villofum, or wood rye-grafs, Is dlftinguiflied by a calyx
with wedge-fliaped (calcs, and by the fringe of the glume
being wooly. The glumes of the orientals arc fiiaggy,
and the fcales of the calyx flraped like an awl. The
glumes of the creticum are fringed on the outfidi. The
cereale, or common rye, has glumes with rough fringes-
It is a native of the ifland of Candia, was introduced
into England many ages ago, and is the only fpecies
,of rye cultivated in this kingdom. There are, however,
two varieties, the winter and fpring rye.
The winter rye, which is larger in the grain than the
fpring rye, is fown in autumn at the fame time with
wheat, and fometimes nilxtxl with it ; but as the rj^e
ripens fooner than the wheat, this method mult be very
exceptionable. The fpring rye is fown along with the
toats, and ufually ripens ,as foon as the winter rye ; but
the grain produced is iigli-ter, and it is therefore fel-
<lom fown except where the autumnal crop has failed.
Rye is commonly fown an poor, dry, Jimeflone, or
i4 1 SEC
fandy foils, where wheat will not thrive. By continu-
ing t9 fow it on fuch a foil for two or three vears, it — '
will at length ripen a month earlier than that which
has been ralfed for years on ilrong cold ground.
R.ye is commonly ufed tor bread either alone or mix-
ed with wheat. This mixture Is called m jl.n, and was
formerly a very common crop in fom.e parts of Britain.
Mr Marfnall tells us, that the farmers in Yorkfliire be-
lieve that this mixed crop is never affected by mildew,
and that a fmall quantity of rye fowa among wheat will
prevent this deftruiflve difeafe. Rye is much ufed for
bread in fome parts of Sweden and Norway by the
poor people. About a century ago rye-bread was alfo
much ufed in England ; but being made of a black
kind of rye, it was of the fame colour, clammy, very
detergent, aud confequentjy not fo nouriihing as wheat.
Rye is fubjeft to a difeafe which the French call er-
got, and the Englifh horned rye ; which fometimes hap.
pens when a very hot fummer fucceeds a rainy fpring.
According to Tiflbt, horned rye is fuch as fuffers an
irregular vegetation in the middle fubftance between
the grain and the leaf, producing an excrcfcence of a
brownldi colour, about an inch i^nd a half Ion,?, and
two-tenths of an inch broad. Bread made of this kind
ot rye has a naufeous acrid tafte, and produces fpafmo-
dic and gangrenous diforders. In 1596, an epidemic
difeafe prevailed in Heffc, which the phyficians afcrlbcd
to bread made of horned rye. Some, we are told,
were feized with an epilepfy, and thefe feldom ever re-
covered ; others became lunatic, and continued Ihipid
the relt of their lives : thofe who apparently -recovered
had annual returns of their diforder In January and Fe-
bruary ; and the dlieafe was faid to be contagious at
lealt in a certain degree. The fadls which we have
now mentioned are taken from a work of Tiffot, which
was never printed. The fame difeafe was occafioned
by the ufe of this br'edd in feveral parts of the conti-
nent in the years 1648, 1675, 1702, 1716, 1722, and
1736 ; and has been very minutely defcribed by Hoff-
man, A. O. Goelicke, Vater Burghart, and Jt A-
Srink.
In the year 1 709, one fourth part of all the rye
ralfed in the province of Salonin in France was horn-
ed, and the furgeon to the hofpital of Orleans had no
lefs than 500 patients under bis care that were dillem-
pered by eating it : They were called ergots, from er-
got (a), the French name for horned rye ; they confift-
eJ chiefly of men ajKi boys, the rumiber of women and
girls being very fmall. The firft fymptom was a kind
of dnmkennefs, then the l!>cul diforder began in the
toes, and thence extended fometimes to the thigh,
and the trimk itfelf, tven ^her amputation, which Is a
good argument againll that operation befo-c the gan-
grene is flopped.
In the year » 7 fo, the celebrated Fontenelle defcribes
a cafe in the Hittory of the Academy of Sciences of
France, which exa6Uy refembles that of the poor fa-
mily at Wattlfham. A pcafant at Blols, who had eaten
horned rye in bread, was feized with a mortification,
which iiril caufed all tbe toes of one foot to fall off,
thea
(a) Ergot is French for a cock's fpur, and horned rye was called cgot from the refemblance of its excrefcence
to that pact.
SEC
[ 225 ]
S E C
ihm the toes of the othef, afterwards the remaiHder of
the feet, and, laftly, It eat off the flefh of both his legs
and thiirhs, leaving the bones bare.
Horned rye is not only hnrtful to man, but to other
animals ; it has been known to deftroy even the flies
that fettled upon it ; (heep, dogs, deer, <)eefe, ducks,
fwlne, and poultry, that were fed with it for experi-
ment, died miferably, fome convulfed, others mortified
and ulcerated.
SECAN r, in geometry, a line that cuts another or
divides it into parts. The fecant of a circle is a line
drawn from the circumference on one fide to a point
without the circumference on the other ; and it is de-
monftrated by geometers, that of feveral fecants drawn
to the fame point, that is the longeft which paffes thro'
the centre of the circle. The portions, however, of
thefe feveral fecants that are without the circle are fo
much the greater as they recede from the centre, and
the leaft external portion is of that fecant which palFes
through it.
Secant, in trigonometry, denotes a right line drawn
from the centre of a circle, which, cutting the circum-
ference, proceeds till it meets with a tangent to the
fame circle. See Geometry, n' 24 — 28.
Line of Secants, one of thofe lines or fcales which
are ufually put upon feAors. How fuch a fcale is form-
ed will be feen by a bare infpeftion ©f fig. 53. Plate
CCXV. ; for C ic, C 2G, C 30, &c. dratvn from the
centre C to the line of tangents BE, being the real fe-
cants of the arches B lO, B 20, B 3c, it is obvious
that by marking off the diftances B 10, B 20, B 30,
up9n qny other line, we make that line a fcale of fe-
cants.
SECEDERS, a numerous body of Prefbyterians in
Scotland, who have withdrawn from the communion of
the eftablilhed church. As they take up their ground
upon the eftablifhment of religion from 1638 to 1650,
which they hold to be the pureft period of the Scottifh
church, we fhall introduce our account of them by a
fhort review of ecclefiaftical hiftory from that period to
the era of theii feccflion. With our ufual candour and
-impartiality we mean to give a fair ftatement of thofe
events with which, as they fay, their feceffion is connedl-
«d.
James I. having for fome time previous to his death
entertained a wifh to form tlie church of Scotland as
much as poifible upon the model of that in England,
his fon Charles, with the affifi.ance of archbifhop Laud,
endeavoured to carry the defign into execution, by efta-
blifliing canons for ecclefiattical difclpllne, and introdu-
cing a liturgy into the public fervlce of the church. —
Numbers of the clergy and laity of all ranks took the
alarm at what they confidered to be a bold and dan-
gerous innovation ; and after frequent applications to
the throne, they at lalt obtained the royal proclamation
for a free parliament and general alTembly. The aflem-
bly met in 1638, and began their labours with a repeal
of all the a£i6 of the fix preceding parliaments, which
had favoured the defigns of James. They condemned
the liturgy, together with every branch of the hierar-
chy. They cited all the Scottiih biftiops to their bar ;
and after having excommunicated nine of them, and de-
f)ofed live from their epifcopal office, they rcftored
kirk-feflions, prefbyteries, and fynod* provincial as well
as national. See Pr£ssytsrian«.
Vofc. XVII. Part I.
Thefe proceedings were ratified by the parliament Scfcdetui
which met in 1640. The law of patroHage was in full — -v— ^
force for feveral years after this period ; yet great cai e
was taken that no rainifter fhould be obtruded on the
Chrlftian people contraiy to their inchnatlons ; and in
1 649 it was abolilhed as an oppreffive grievance.
The Reftoration of Charles II. in 1660 changed the
face of affairs in the church of Scotland. All that the
general an';;mbly had done from 1638 to 1650 was ren-
dered null and void, their covenants were' pronounced
to be unlawful, epifcopacy was reftored, and the king
was declared to be the fupreme head of the church in
all caufes civil and ecclefiaftical. During this period the
Prefbyterians were fubjefted to fines and imprifonment,
while numbers of them were publicly executed f«r their
adherence to their political and religious tenets.
The Revolution in 1688 gave a different turn to the
affairs of the church. The firft parhanaent which met
after that event, abolifhed prelacy and the king's fuprc-
macy in ecclefiaftical affairs. They ratified the Wefl-
mlnfter Confeffion of Faith, together with the Prefby-
terlan form of church-government and difcipHne, *' as
agreeable to the word of God, and mofl conducive to
the advancement of true piety and godlinefs, and the
effabli-lTiment of peace and tranquillity within theic
realms." That fame parliament aboliflied patronage,
and lodged the ele^iion of miniflers in the hands of
heritors and elders, with the confent of the congrega-
tion.
In the reign of Q^Annt the true Proteflant religion
was ratified and eftablifhed, together with the Prefby-
terian form of church-government and difcipline ; and
the unalterable continuance of both was declared to be
an efTcntlal condition of the union of the two kingdoms
in all time coming. In 1712 the law refpefting pa-
tronage was revived, in refentment, it has been faid, of
that warm attachment which the church of Scotland
difcovered to the family of Hanover ; but the fevetity
of that law was greatly mitigated by the firfl parha-
ment of George 1. flat. 50. by which it is enaded, that
if the prefentee do not fignify his acceptance, the pre-
fentatlon fhall become void and null in law. The
church, however, did not avail herfelf of this flatute ;
and an event which happened not many years afterwards
gave rife to the fecejjion. 4
In 1732 more than 40 miniHers prefented an addrefs Origin c£
to the general aflembly, fpecifying in a variety of in-
ftances what they confidered to be great defeftions from
the ellabllfhed conftltution of the church, and craving
a redrefs of thefe grievances. A petition to the fame
effevTt, fublcribed by feveral hundreds of elders and pri-
vate Chriftlans, was offered at the fame time ; but the
affembly refufed a hearing to both, and enadled, that
the eleftion of minifters to vacant charges, where an ac-
cepted prefentation did not take place, fhould be com<.
petent only to a conjunA meeting of elduns and heri-
tors, being Proteflants. To this aft many objeftlons
were made by numbers of minifters and private Chri-
ftlans. They afferted that more than 30 to one ia
every parifli were not poffefied of landed property, and
were on that account deprived of what they deemed
their natural right to choofe their «wn paftors. It waa
alfo faid, that this aft was extremely prejudicial to the
honour and intereft of the church, as well as to the edi-
fication of the people ; and in fine, tliat it was direftly
I" f contrary
SEC [2
S«cede«. contrary to the appointment of Jefus CKrIft, and the
^" " » praftice of the apoftles, when they filled up the firft
vacancy In the apoftohc college, and appointed the elec-
tion of deacons and elders in the primitive church. —
Many of thofe alfo who were thought to be the beft
friends of the church, exprelTed their fears that this
aft would have a tendency to overturn the ecclefiafti-
cal conilitution which was eftablifhed at the Revolu-
3 tlon.
They op- Ebenezer Erfl<ine tr.inifter at Stirling diftin-
nieafurcp of ^^'^^"'^ himfelf by a bold and determiued oppohtion to
the general the meafures of the affembly in 1732. Being at that
aflembly; time moderator of the fynod of Perth and Stirling, he
opened the meeting at Perth with a fermon Irom Plalm
cxviii. 22. " The ftone which the builders rejefted is
become the head ftone of the corner." In the courfe
of his fermon he remonftrated "with no fniall degree of
freedom againft the aft of the preceding affembly with
regard to the fettlement of minifters, and alleged that
it was contrary to the word of God and the eftablifti-
ed conftitution of the church. A formal complaint
was lodged againft him for uttering feveral offenlive ex-
preffions in his fermon before the fynod. Many of
the members declared that they heard him utter no-
thing but found and feafonable doftrine ; but his accu-
fers infifting on their complaint, obtained an appoint-
ment of a committee of fynod to colleft what were
called the offenfive expreffions, and to lay them before
the next diet in writing. This was done accordingly ;
and Mr Erflcine gave in his anfwers to every article of
the complaint. After three days warm reafoning on
this affair, the fynod by a majority of fix found him
For which cenl'urable ; againft which fentence he proteftcd, and
their mini- appealed to the next general affembly. When the af-
fters are fembly met in May 1733, it affirmed the fentence of
ccnfured, j-j^g fynod, and appointed Mr Erfkine to be rebuked
and admoniftied from the chair. Upon which he pro-
tefted, that, as the affembly had found him cenfurable,
and had rebuked him for doing what he conceived to
be agreeable to the word of God and ihe ftandards of
the church, he ftiould be at liberty to preach the fame
truths, and to tettify againft the fame or fimilar evils, on
every proper occafion. To this proteft Meffrs Wil-
liam Wilfon mlnifter at Perth, Alexander Moncrief
minifter at Abcrnethy, and James Either minifter at
Kinclaven, gave in a written adherence, under the form
of inftrument ; and thefe four withdrew, intending to
return to their refpeftivc charges, and aft agreeably to
their proteft whenever they ftiould have an opportuni*
ty. Had the affair refted here, there never would have
been a feceffion ; but the affembly refolvin^ to carry
on the procefs, cited them by their officer to compear
next day. They obeyed the citation ; and a committee
was appointed to retire with them, in order to perfuade
them to withdraw their proteft. The committee ha-
lving reported that they ftill adhered to their proteft,
the affembly ordered them to appear before the com-
jniifion in Auguft following and retraft their proteft ;
and if they ftiould not comply and teftify their forrow
for their conduft, the commiffion was empowered to
fufpend them from the exercife of their miniftry, with
certification that if they fhould aft contrary to faid fen-
tence, the commiffion (hould proceed to an higher cen-
fure.
The commiffion met in Auguft accordingly; and the
26 ] SEC ;
four minifter? ftill adhering to their proteft, were fuf- Sccea
pended from the exercife of their office, and cited to
the next meeting of the commiffion in November fol- >
lowing. From this fentence feveral minifters and elders,
members of the commiffion, diffented. I'hc commit'-irufe
fion met in November, and the fufpended minifters -ncn- 1
compeared. Addreffes, reprefentatlons, and letters from
feveral fynods and preftjyterles, relative to the bufmefs
now before the commiffion, were received and read.
The fynods of Dumfries, Murray, Rofs, Angus and
Mearns, Perth and Stirling, craved that the commif-
fion would delay proceeding to an higher ccnfure. The
fynods of Galloway and Fife, as alfo the pre/by tery of
Dornoch, addreffed the commiffion for lenity, tendernefs,
and forbearance, towards the fufpended minifters ; and
the prcft)ytery of Aberdeen reprefented, that, in their
judgment, the fentence of fufpenfion inflifted on the
forefaid minifters was too high, and that it was a ftretch
of ccclefiaftical authority. Many members of the com-
mlfTion reafoned in the fame manner, and alleged that
the aft and fentence of laft aflembly did not oblige
them to proceed to an higher cenfure at this meet-
ing of the commiffion. The queftlon, hovs'ever, was
put. Proceed to an higher cenfure, or not ? and the
votes being numbered, were found equal on both fides :
upon which Mr John Goldie the moderator gave liis
cafting vote to proceed to an higher cenfure ; which
ftands In their minutes in thefe words : " The commif-
fion did and hereby do loofe the relation of Mr Ebene-
zer Erflcine minifter at Stirling, Mr William Wilfon
minifter at Perth, Mr Alexander Moncrief minifter at
Abernethy, and Mr James Fifher minifter at Kiqclaven,
to their rcfpeftlve charges, and declare them no longer q
minifters of this church ; and do hereby prohibit all mi
nifters of this church to employ them, or any of them, ^'v-'ig'
in any minifterial funftlon. And the commiffion do
declare the churches of the faid minifters vacant from
and after the date of this fentence."
This fentence being intimated to them, they proteft-
ed, that their minifterial ofRce and relation to their re-
fpeftive charges fiiould be held <2s valid as if no fuch
fentence had paffed; and that they were now obhged to
make a fecejftun from the prevailing party in the ccclefia-
ftical courts; and that it fhall be lawful and warrantable
for them to preach the gofpel, and difcharge every
branch of the palforal ofRce, according' to the word of
God anjd the eftablifhed principles of the church of
Scotland. Mr Ralph Erflcine minifter at Dunfermline,
Mr Thomas Mair minifter at Orwel, Mr John M'Laren
minifter at Edinburgh, Mr John Currie minifter at
Kinglafiic, Mr James Wardlaw minifter at Dunfermline,
and Mr Thomas Nairn minifter at Abbotfhal, protefted
againft the fentence of the commiflion, and that it
ftiould be lawful for them to complain of it to any fub-
fequent general affembly of the church.
The feceflion properly commenced at this date. And
accordingly the ejefted minifters declared in their pro-
teft that they were laid under the difagreeable neceffity
of feceding, not from the principles and conftitution of
the church of Scotland, to which, they faid, they fted-
faftly adhered, but from the prefent church-courts,
which had thrown them out fi-om minifterial communion.
The affembly, however, which met in May 1734 did fo
far modify the above fentence, that they empowered
the fynod of Perth and Stirling to receive the ejefted
miniilera
5
1 riv
SEC
[ 227 ]
SEC
itrfi. mini'fters into the communion of the church, and reftore
- them to their refpedb've charges ; but with this exprefs
dire<£lioT), " that the faid fynod (hould not take upon
them to judge of the legality or formality of the former
procedure of the church judicatories in relation to this
affair, or either approve or cenfure the fame." As this
appointment neither condemned the atl of the prece-
dina^ aflembly nor the conduft of the commiflion, the
feceding minifters confidered it to be rather an a£l of
grace than oF juftice, and therefore they faid they could
not return to the church-courts upon this ground ; and
they publi(hed to the world the reafons of their refufal,
and the terms upon which they were willing to return
to the communion of the eftablifhed church. They now
erefted themfelves into an ecelefiaftical court, which they
called the /ijfoclated Prejbytery, and preached occafionally
tonurabers of the pcoplewhojoinedthem indifferent parts
of the country. 1 hey alfo publifhed what they called an
^8, Declaration^ and Tejiimony, to the doftrine, worfhip,
government, and difcipline of the church of Scotland,
and again ft feveral inftances, as they faid, of defection
from thefe, both in former a«d in the prefent times.
Some time arter this feveral minifters of the eftablifhed
church joined them, and the AfTociated Prefbytery
now confifted of eight minifters. But the general af-
fembly which met in I73t> finding that the number of
Seceders was much Increafed, . ordered the eight mini-
fters to be ferved with a libel, and to be cited to the
next meeting of the aflembly in 1739. i hey now ap-
peared at che bar as a conftituted prefbytery, and ha-
ving formally declined the affembly's authority, they
immediately withdrew, i'he affcmbly which met next
year dep<jled them from the office of the mini'ry;
which, however, they continued to exercife in their
refpe£tive congregations, who ftill adhered to them,
and eiedled mteting houfes, where they preached till
their de ^th. Mr James Fifher, the laft iurvivor ot them,
was, by an unanimous call in 174.1, tranflated fiom
l-.inclaven to Glaigow, where he continued in the exer-
cife ©f his miniftiy among a numerous congregation,
refpt£led by all ranks in that large city, and died in
1775 much regretied by his people and friends. In
1745 the feceding minifters were become fo numerous,
that they were eied-t^ed into three dift'crent prtfbyteiies,
under one fynod, when a very unprofitable difpute divi-
ded them into two parties.
The burgels oath in feme of the royal boroughs of
Scotland contains the following claufe : " I profefs
and allow with my heart the true religion prelently
profefled within this realm, and authorifed by the laws
thereof. I will abide at and defend the fame to my
liixi's end, reriouncing the Romilh religion called fa-
^^fp^//' y" McfTrs Ebenezer and Ralph iirfkine, James
jjjg Fifher, and others, affirmed that this claufe was no way
y of contrary to the principles upon which the feceflion was
"gc^s formed, and that therefore every Seceder might lawfully
fwear it. Meftrs Alexander Moncrief, Thomas Mair,
Adam Gib, and others, contended on the other hand
that the fwean'ng of the above claufe was a virtual re- Secerff f«.
nunciation of their teftimony. And this controverfy was v-r— '
fo keenly agitated, that they fplit into two different
parties, and now meet in different fynods. Thofe of
them who affert the lawfulnefs of fwearing the burgefs
oath are called Burghers^ and the other party who con-
demn it are called Antiburgher Seceders. Each party
claiming to itfelf the lawful conftitution of the /IJjociate
Synod ^ the Antiburghers, after feveral previous fteps,
excommunicated the Burghers on the ground of their
fin and of their contumacy in it. This rupture took ^
place in 1 747, fince which period no attempts to effeft a And form
reunion have been fuccefsful. They remain under the^^i ar^te
jurifdidion of different fynods, and hold feparate com-
munion, although much of their former hoftility has
been laid afide. The Antiburghers confider the Burgh-
ers as too lax and not fufficiently ftedfaft to their tef-
timony. The Burghers on the other hand contend
that the Antiburghers are too rigid, in that they have
introduced new terms of communion into the fociety.
The Antiburghers having adopted ideas with regard to
what they call covenanting,, which the Burghers never
approved (a), have been in ufe of renewing in their
feveral congregations the Scottifh Covenant, by caufing
their people formally fwear to maintain it. In other
refpefits the differences between the two parties are not
material. The Antiburghers are mofl numerous on
the north of the Tay, and the Burghers on the fouth
.... 10
What follows in this article is a further account of Hiftory of
thofe who are commonly called x\\c Burgher Seceders. ^'^'^^^^^^Z^-
Thefe have a gi-eater number of people in their com-^' beccders-
m union than the Antiburghers, and for fome years
pail they have greatly increafed in the fouthern and
weftern diftridts of Scotland. As there were among
them from the commencement of their fccefTion feveral
ftudents who had been educated at one or other of the
univerfitles, they appointed one of their minifters to give
leftures in theology, and train up candidates for the
miniflry. MefTrs William Willon minifter at Perth
and Alexander Moncrief minifter at Abernethy were
their profelPjrs of theology before their fepaiation from
the Antiburgherg.
Since that period Mr Ebenezer Erfkine minifter at
Stirlinir, , Mr James Fifher minifter at Glafgow, Mr
John Swanfton minifter at Kinrofs, and Mr John Brown
minifter at Haddington, have fucceeded each other in
this ofSce. At prefent ( 1 794) Mr George L.awfon
minifter at Selkirk is their profeffor of theology, and
there are between thirty and forty ftudents who at-
tend his ledures annually. The number of their mi-
nifters is about an hundred, and each of their congrega-
tions contain from two hundred and fifty to three
thoufand perfons ; and there are among them at prefent
more than twenty vacant charges. Where a congrega-
tion is very numerous, as in Stirling, Dunfermline, and
Perth, it is formed into a coflegiate charge, and provi-
ded with two minifters. They are erected into fix dif-
F f 2 ferent
(a) This is the account which the Burghers give of their own notions refpedting the covenant. One of the
moil enlightened of their opponents, however, afiure us that they acknowledge covenanting to be a moral duty^
and that the folemn vows of our anceftors are obligatory. But fince the breach in the fynod they have never
<^ngaged in this work i giving, a» their leafon, that this is not the proper fcafon.
SEC [22
Scfi'JeM, ferent prefbytetles, united in one general fynod, which
^"-"^f^ commonly meets at Edinburgh in May and Septem-
ber (b). They have alfo a fynod in Ireland compoied
ot three or four different prefijyteries. They are legally
tolerated in Ireland ; and government lome years ago
granted L.500 per annum, and of late an additional
L. too, which, when divided among them, affords to
each minifter about L. 20 over and above the llipend
wliich he receives from his hearers. Thefe have befides
K prefbytery in Nova Scotia ; and feme years ago, it is
laid, that the Burgher and the Antiburgher miniilers re-
fcding in the United States formed a coalition and
joined in a general fynod, which they call the Synod of
New Tork and Pennfylvania, They all preach the doc-
trines contained in the Weftmiafter Confeffion oF Faith
and Catechifms, as they believe thefe to be founded on
the facred fcriptures. They catechile their hearers
publicly^ and viht them from houie to houfe once every
year. They will not give the Lord's fupper to thofe
.who are ignorant of the- principles of the golpel, nor to
fuch as are fcandalous and immoral in their lives.
They condemn private baptifm, nor will they admit
thofe who are grofsly ignorant and profane to be fpon-
fors for their children. Believing that the people have
a natural right to choofe their own pallors, the fettle-
inent of their minilters always proceeds npon a popu-
lar eleclion ; and the candidate who is eledled by the
majority is ordained among them. Convinced that the
charge of fouls is a truft of the greateft im.portance,
they carefully watch over the morals of their Itudents,
and diredl them to fuch a courie of reading and Itudy
as they judge moil proper to qualify them for the pro-
fitable difcharge of the paftorai duties. At the ordina-
tion of their miniflers they irfe a formula of the fame
kind with that of the ellablifhed church, which their
miniflers are bound to fubfcribe when called to it ; and
if any of them teach doftrines contrary to the fcriptures
or the Wellmintter Confeflion of Faith, they arefure of
being thrown out of their communion. By this means
uniformity of fentiment is preferved among them ; nor
has any of their miniflers, excepting onu, been profecuted
for error in dodlrine fuice the commencement of their
fecefllon.
Thei" rules '^^^1 believe that the holy fcriptures are the fole
cf faith ' criterion of truth, and the only rule to dire<St mankind
to glorify and enjoy God, the chief and eternal good ;
and that " the Supreme Judge, by which all controver-
iies of religion are to be determined, and all the decrees
of councils, opinions of ancient writers, dodlrines of
men and private fpirits, are to be examined, and in
whofc fentcnce we are to reft, can be no other but the
Holy Spirit fpeaking in the fcriptures." They are
fully perfuaded, however, that the llandards of public
authority in the church of Scotland exhibit a jufl and
8 ] SEC
confifteqt view of the meaning and defign of the holy Seiede
fcriptures with regard to do6lrine, worfhip, government,
and dilcipline ; and they in fo far differ from the diffent-
ers in England, in that they hold thefe ilandards to be
not only articles of peace and a tefl of orthodoxy, but
as a bond of union and fellowfhip. They conlider a
fimple declaration of adherence to the fcriptures as too
equivocal a proof of unity in fentiment, becaufe Arians,
Socinians, and Arminians, make fuch a confeilion of
their faith, w^hile they retain fentiments which they
(the Seccders) apprehend are fubverfive of the great doc-
trines of the gofpel. I'hcy believe that Jefus Chrift
is the only King and Head of the Church, which is
his body ; that it is his fole prerogative to enatl laws
for the government, of his kingdom, which is not of this
world ; and that the church 'S not poffefTed of a le^ifla-
tive, but only of an executive power, to be exercifed in
explaining and applying to their proper objefts and ends
thofe laws which Chrift hath publlflied in the fcriptures.
I'liofe doftriiies which they teach relative to faith and
praftice aie exhibited at great length in an explana«
tion of the Wcitminfter Alfembly's Shorter Catechifm,
by way of queftlcon and anfwer, in two volumes, com-
pofed chiefly by Mr James Fifher late of Glafgovv, and
publifhed by delire of their fynod.
For thefe fifty years paft; the grounds of their fecef.
fion, they allege, have been greatly enlarged by the pu-
blic adminiftrations of the eflablifhed church, and par-
ticularly by the uniform execution of the law refpedling
patronage, which, they fay, has obliged many thoufands
of private Chrillians to withdraw from the pai'ifh-
churches and join their fociety.
It is certain, however, that their number has rapidly
increafed ot late, efpecially in the large cities of the
kingdom. They have three different congregations ia
Edinburgh, two in Glafgow, and two in London, be-
fides feveral others in the Hofth of England. In moll
of their congregations they celebrate the Lord's fupper
twice in the year, and they catechife their young people
concerning their knowledge of the principles of religion
previoufly to their admifTion to that facrament. When
any of them fall into the fm of fornication or adultery,
the fcandal is regularly purged according to the form
of procefs in the eftabliihed church ; and thofe of the
delinquents who do not fubratt to adequate cenfure are
publicly declared to be fugitives from difcipline, and
are expelled the fociety. They never accept a fum of
money as a commutation for the offence. They con-
demn all clandeiline and irregular marriages, nor will
they marry any perfons unlefs they have been pro-
claimed in the parifh church on two different Lord's
days at leaft.
When they feparated from the eflablifhed church. And po!
they remained firm in their attachment to the Itate ; and <^^' P"^'"
theyP'"-
(b) The conftitution of the Antiburgher church differs very Httle from that of the Burghers. The fupreme
court among them is deligned The General /IJfoc'iate Synod, having under its jurifdidlion three provincial fynods
in Scotland and one in Ireland. In the former country there are eleven prefbyteries ; in the latter,, four. They
have a few congregations in England, and a prefbytery in connexion with them in North America. The
•number of minifters belonging to the general fynod is a hundred and thirty-feven ; and in Scotland there arc
nineteen vacancies. They, as well as the Burgher Seceders, have a profeffor of theology, whofe lectures every
candidate for the office of a preacher is obliged to attend, we have been told, for no lefs than five or fix feffions I.
Surely the feflion mult be of Ihort duratioxi.
et^.en,
chiuni.
eir mo-
ijation.
SEC [22
they yf£fe not many years formed into 9 dlftlnft focitty,
when they expelled from their communion a Mr Thomas
Nairn raiaifter at Kirkcaldy, who had taufrht dodtrines
inimical to the civil governnx'nt of the nation. In I 745
there was not one of their number who joined the then
pretender to the Britifh crown. They arc flill of the
iame fentiments ; and in their public afiemblies they al-
ways pray for our fovereign I^ing Georcre, with the
royal family, and for all who are in authority under
them. They are fo far from wifeing the overthrow of
the prefent civil provernment, that when the nation waa
lately in danger of being thrown into a fermentation by
the circulation of inflammatory and feditious writings,
they warmly recommended peace and order in fociety
(c). No legal difquahfications, as in the cafe o| the
dilTenters in England, exclude them from any place oS
public truft in the municipal government of the couutry ;
and fome of them are frequently in the magiftracy of
the royal boroughs. They are not, however, legally-
tolerated, but are fupported by the mildnefs of admini-
ftration and the liberal fpirit of the times. Avowing
their adherence to the doctrines contained in the pu-
blic ftandards of the church of Scotland, together with
the prefbyterian form of government, from which they
never intended to fecede, they deny that they are either
fchifmatics or fedaries, as they have been frequently
called : and when they withdrew from the ecclefiaftical
courts, they did not, they fay, conllitute a church of
their own, different from the national church, but pro-
fefs to be a part of that church, endeavouring to hold
by her reformed principles, in oppofition to thofe devi-
atioiis from them which they have fpecified in their
and Tejlimony. Moft of them live in habits of
friendfhip and intimacy with their brethren of the efta-
blifhmeut, and they ptofefs an affeftionate regard for
all thofe of every denomination who love Jefus Chrift
in fincerity and truth. In the late re- exhibition of
their teftimony, they have declared to the world, that,
were the grounds of their fecefllon happily removed,
they would account it one of the moft Angular felicities
of their time to return with pleafure to the communion
of the eftabllfhed church.
SECHIUM, in botany : A genus of the fyngenefia
erder, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 34th order,
Cucurbitacea. The male calyx is quinquedentate and
monophyllous ; the corolla monopetalous ; the five fila-
ments are united in an ereft tube. In the female
fiower the pillillum is cylindrical and ereft ; the ftig-
ma large, peltated, and reflefted ; the periearpium large,
©val, unequal, flefhy, and unilocular, containing one feed,
which is fmooth, compreffed, and fiertiy. Of this there
is only one fpecies, viz. the Edulu, or Chocho vine. —
This is cultivated and grows very luxuriantly in many
places in Jamaica. The vines run and fpread very
much. i'he fruit is boiled, and ferved up at table by
9 1
SEC
way of greens ; and the root of the old vine is fome- Seckerdor^'i
what hke a yam [Diofcoreu), and on being boiled or ^*^'"^'''^''" ,j
roalted tailes farinaceous and wliolefome.
SECKENDORF (Guy Lewis de), a very learned
German, defcended from an ancient and noble family,,
was born at Aurach in Franconia in 1626. He was
a good linguift, learned in law, hiitory, and divinity ;
and is laid to have been a tolerable painter and engra-
ver. He was honourably employed by ieveral of the
German princes ; and died counfellor of flate to Fre-
deric Hi. eledor of Brandenburg, and chancellor of
the univerfity of Halle, in 1692. He wrote many
books, particularly " A hiftory and defence of the
Lutheran religion," 2 vols folio, Frankfort, 1602, ia
Latin.
SKCKER (Thomas), a learned and refpedable pre-
late of the church of England, was born, in 1693, at a-
village called Slbthorpy in the vale oV Bel voir, Notting-
hamfhlre. His father was a Proteftant diffenter, a pi-
ous, virtuous, and fenfible man ; who having a fmall
paternal fortune, followed no profeifion. His mother
was the daughter ot Mr George B rough, a fubllantial.
gentleman farmer of Shelton in the fame county. He
received his education at feveral private fchools and aca-
demies in the cotmtry, being obliged, by various acci-
dents, to change his mailers frequently.
Notwithftanding this difadvantage, he had. at the age
of 19 not only made a confiderable progrefs in Greek
and Latin, and read the beft writers in both languages^
but had acquired a knowledge of French, Hebrew^.
Chaldee, and Syriac ; had learned geography, logic, al-
gebra, geometry, conic fedtions, and gone through a
courfe of ledtures on Jewifh antiquities and other points,,
preparatory to the critical ftudy of the Bible. He had
been deftined by his father for orders among the Dif-
fenters. With this view, during the latter years of hia-
education, his iludies were chiefly turned towards divinity,
in which he had made fuch quick advances, that by the
time he was 23 he had carefully read over a great part
of the Scriptures, particularly the New Teftament, in
the original, and the belt comments upon it ; Eufe-
bius's Ecclefiafl^ical Hiilory, The Apofl-olical Fathers,
Whifton's Primitive Chriftianity, and the principal wri-
ters for and againlt Minillerial and Lay Conformity.——
But though the relult of thefe inquiries was a well-
grounded belief of the Chriftian revelation, yet not be-
ing at that time able to decide on fome abitrufe fpecu-
lative dodlrines, nor to determine abfolutely what co'm-
munion he fliould embrace ; he refolved, like a wife and.
honeft man> to purfue fome profeflSon, which fhould
leave him at liberty to weigh thole things more ma-
turely in his thoughts, and not oblige him to declare or
Leach publicly opinions which were not yet thorouglilyf
fettled in his own mind.
In 1 7 16, therefore, he applied himfelf to the ftudy of
phyfic, and after gaining all the medical knowledge he
could;,
( c ) All this is faid of the Burgher Seceders ; but we hope it is equally true of thofe who are ftyled. Anti-
, burghers. There are indeed fome claufes in the Covenant which they fwear to maintain, that feem not, at firft
view, very friendly to civil fubordination ; but let not thofe who entertain, any apprehenfion on this account,
forget that one of the moft ufeful defences of the Britifti conttitution, occafioned by the late factious fpirit of
democratic inaovation, came from the pea of Dr Young the Antiburgher rainifter at Hawick. See Toung'g
SEC [2
could, by reading the ufual preparatory books, and at-
tending the beft ledtures during that and the following
winter in London, in order to improve himfelf farther,
in January 17 i 8-19 he went to Paris. There he lod-
ged in the fame houfe with the famous anatomift Mr
Winflow, whofe lectures he attended, as he did thofe of
the materia medica, chemiftry, and botany, at the king's
gardens. The operations of furgery he faw at the Ho-
tel Dieu, and attended alfo for fomc time M. Gregoire,
the accoucheur, but without any defign of ever prac-
tifing that or any other branch of furgery. Here he
became acquainted with Mr Martin Benfon, afterwards
birtiop of Gloucefter, one of the moil agreeable and vir-
tuous men of his time ; with whom he quickly became
much conne(Sled, and not many years after was united
to him by the ftrifteft bonds of afHnity as well as affec-
tion.
^ During the whole of Mr Seeker's continuance at Pa-
ris, he kept up a conftant correfpondence with Mr Jo-
feph Butler, afterwards bifhop of Durham, with whom
he became acquainted at the academy of one Mr Tones,
kept firft at Gloucefter, and afterward at Tewkfbury.
Mr Butler having been appointed preacher at the Rolls
on the recommendation of Dr Clarke and Mr Edward
Talbot, fon to bifhop Talbot, he now took occafion to
mention his friend Mr Seeker, without Seeker's know-
ledge, to Mr Talbot, who promifed, in cafe he chofe to
take orders in the church of England, to engage the
bifhop his father to provide for him. I'his was com-
iTiunicated to Mr Seeker in a letter from Mr Butler
about the beginning of May 1720. He had not at
that time come to any refolution of quitting the fludy
of phyilc ; but he began to forefee many obflacles to
his purfuing that profeflion ; and having never difconti-
nued his application to theology, his former difficulties
both with regard to conformity and fome other doubt-
ful points had gradually lefTened, as his judgment be-
came ftronger, and his reading and knowledge more
extenfive. It appears alfo from two of his letters flill
in being, written from Paris to a friend in En;xland,
(both of them prior to the date of Mr Butler's above-
mentioned), that he was greatly difTatisfied with the di-
vifions and difturbances which at that particular period
prevailed among the DifTenters.
In this ilate of mind Mr Butler's unexpe(B:ed propo-
fal found him ; which he was therefore very well dilpo-
fed to take into confideration ; and after deliberating
on the fubjedl of fuch a change for upwards of two
months, he refolved at length to embrace the offer, and
for that purpofe quitted France about the beginning of
Augufh 1720.
On his arrival in England, he was introduced to Mr
Talbot, with whom he cultivated a clofe acquaintance ;
but it was unfortunately of very fhort duration ; for in
the month of December that gentleman died of the
fmall-pox. This was a great fhock to all his friends,
who had juftly conceived the highefl expeftations of
him ; but efpecially to an amiable lady whom he had
lately married, and who was very near finkintj under fo
fudden and grievous a flroke. Mr Seeker, befide fha-
ring largely in the common grief, had peculiar reafon
to lament an accident that feemed to put an end to all
his hopes ; but he had taken his refolution, and he
determined to perfevere. It was fome encouragement
to him to find that Mr Talbot had, on his death-bed,
o ] SEC
recommended him, together with Mr Benfon arad Mr Seek*
Butler, to his father's notice. Thus did that excellent
young man (for he was but 29 when he died), by his
nice difcernment of charafters, and his confiderate yood
nature, provide moft effedtually, in a few folemn mo-
ments, for the welfare of that church from which he
himfelf was fo prematurely fnatched away ; and at the
fame time raifed up, when he leaft thought of it, the
truefl friend and protedor to his wife and unborn
daughter ; who afterwards found in Mr Seeker ail that
tender care and afPiflance which they could have hoped
for from the near eft relation.
It beinir judged necefTary by Mr Seeker's friends that
he fhould have a degree at Oxford ; and having been
informed, that if he fhould prcvioufly take the degree of
Doftor in Phyfic at I^eyden, it would probably help
him in obtaininp the other, he went over and took his
det ;;ree there in March 1721 : and, as part of his exer-
cife for it, he compofed and printed a differ tation di
Medx'ina Siatica. which is ftill extant, and is thought by
the gentlemen of that profefTion to be a fcnfible and
learned performance.
In April the fame year, he entered himfelf a gentle-
man commoner of Exeter college, Oxford ; after which
he obtained the degree of Bachelor of Arts, in confe-
quence of the chancellor's recommendatory letter to the
convocation.
He i)ovv fpent a conflderable part of his time in Lon-
don, where he quickly gained the efleem of fome of the
moft learned and ingenious menof thofe days, particularly
of Dr Clarke, redor of St James's, and the celebrated dean
Berkeley, afterwards bifhop of Cloyne, with whom he
evcy day became more delighted, and more clofely con.
ncded. He paid frequent vtfits of gratitude and friend-
fhip to Mrs Talbot, widow of Mr Kdward Talbot, by
whom flie had a daughter five months after his deceafe.
With her hvcd Mrs Catharine Benfon, fifter to bifhop
Benfon, whom in many refpcfts flie greatly refembled.
She had been for feveral years Mrs Talbot's infepa-
rable companion, and was of unfpeakable fervice to her
^t the time of her hufband's death, by exerting all her
courage, adivity, and good fenfe (of v;hich fhe poflef-
fed a lai-ge fliare), to iupport her friend under fo great
an afHidion, and by afterwards attending her fickly in-
fant with the utmoft care and tendernefs, to which, un-
der Providence, was owing the prefervation of a very
valuable life.
liifhop l albot being in 17 21 appointed to the fee
of Durham, Mr Seeker was in 1722 ordained deacon
by hi m in St James's church, and prieft not long after
in the fame place, v^here he preached his firft lermon
March 28. 1723. The bifhop's domeftic chaplain at
that time was Dr RuncUe, a man of warm fancy and
very brilliant converfation, but apt fometimes to be car-
ried by the vivacity of his wit into indiicreet and ludi-
crous exprelTions, which created him enemies, and, on
one occafion, produced difagreeable confequences. — .
With him Mr Seeker was foon after affociated in the
bifhop's family, and both taken down by his lordlhip to
Durham in July i 723.
In the following year the bifhop gave Mr Seeker the
redoiy of Houghton-le-Spring. This preferment put-
ting it in his power to fix himfelf in the world, in a
manner agreeable to his inclinations, he foon after made
a propofai of marriage to Mrs Benfon j which being ac-
cepted.
SEC [2
cr. ceptCiJ, they were married by blOiop Talbot In 1725.
At the earneft rcqueft of both, Mrs Talbot and her
daughter confented to live with them, and the two fa-
mih'es from that time became one.
About this time bifhop Talbot alfo gave preferments
to Mr Butler and Mr Benfon, whofe rife and progrefs
in the church is here interwoven with the hiftory of
Mr Seeker. In the winter of 1725-6, Mr Butler firft
publifhed his incomparable fermons ; on which, as Dr
jBcilby Porteous and Dr Stinton inform us, Mr Seeker
took pains to tender the ftyle more familiar, and the
author's meaning more obvious : yet they were at lad
by many called obfcure. Mr Seeker gave his friend
the fame affiftance in that noble work the Analogy of
Religion, &c.
He now gave up all the time he poflibly could to his
refidence at Houghton, applying himltlf with alacrity
to all the duties of a country clergyman, and fupport-
ing that ufeful and refpeftable charafter throughout
with the ftridteft propriety. He omitted nothing which
he thought would be of ufe to the fouls and bodies of
the people entrufted to his care. He brought down
his converfation and his fermons to the level of their
underftandings ; he vifited them in private, he catechi-
fed the young and ignorant, he received his country
neighbours and tenants very kindly and hofpitably, and
was of great fervice to the poorer fort of them by his flcill
in phyfic, which was the only ufe he ever made of it.
Though this place was in a very remote part of the
world, yet the folitude of it perfeftly fuited his ftudi-
ous difpofition, and the income arifmg from it bounded
his ambition. Here he would have been content to live
and die ; here, as he has often been heard to declare, he
fpent fome of the happieft hours ot his life ; and it was
no thought or choice of his own that removed him to
an higher and more public fphere ; but Mrs Seeker's
health, which now began to be very bad, and was
thought to be injured by the dampnefs of the fituation,
obliged him to think of exchanging it for a more heal-
thy one. Accordingly, an exchange was made through
the friendly interpofition of Mr Benfon (who gcnerouf-
ly facrificed his own interefl on this occafion, by relin-
quifhing a prebend of his own to ferve his friend) with
I)r Finney, prebendary of Durham, and reftor of Ry-
toii ; and Mr Seeker was inftituted to Ryton and the
prebend June 3. 1727. For the two following years
he lived chiefly at Durham, going every week to offi-
ciate at Ryton, and [pending there two or three months
together in the fummer.
In July 1732 he was appointed chaplain to the king;
for which favour he was indebted to Dr Sherlock, who
having heard him preacli at Bath, had conceived the
highell opinion of his abilities, and thought them well
worthy of being brought forward into public notice.
From that time an intimacy commenced between them,
and he received from that great prelate many folid proofs
of efteem and friendlhip,
His month of waiting at St James's happened to be
Auguft, and on Sunday the 27th of that month he
preached before the queen, the king being then abroad.
A few days after, her majefty fent for him into her clo-
fet, and held a long and gracious converfation with him;
in the couife of which he took an opportunity of men-
tioning to her his friend Mr Butler. He alfo, not long
after this, on Mr Talbot's being made lord chancellor,
31 1 SEC
found means to have Mr Butler effeftually recommend- Seeker,
ed to him for his chaplain. The queen alfo appointed — — v~"
him clerk of her clofet ; from whence he rofe, as his ta-
lents became more known, to thofe high dignities which
he afterwards attained.
Mr Seeker now began to have a public charafter,
and flood high in the eftimation of thofe who were al-
lowed to be the beft judges of merit : he had already
given proofs of abilities that plainly indicated the emi-
nence to which he mult one day rife, as a preacher and:
a divine ; and it was not long before an opportunity of-
fered of placing him in an advantageous point of view.
Dr Tyrrwhit, who fucceeded Dr Clarke as rtilor of
St James's in 1729, found that preaching in fo large a
church endangered his health. Bifhop Gibfon, there-
fore, his father-in-law, propofed to the crown that he
fhould be made refidentiaiy of St Paul's, and that Mr
Seeker fhould fucceed him in the reftory. This ar-
rangement was fo acceptable to thofe in power, that it
took place without any difficulty. Mr Seeker was in-
ftituted reftor the i8th of May 1733 ; and in the be-
ginning of July went to Oxford to take his degree of
Doftor of Laws, not being of fufficient ftanding for
that of divinity. On this occafion it was that he
preached his celebrated A€t Sermon, on the advantages
and duties of academical education, which was univer-
fally allowed to be a mailerpiece of found reafoning
and juft compofition : it was printed at the defire of the
heads of houfes, and quickly paffed through fevcral edi-
tions. It is now to be found in the fecond colleftioa
of Occafional Sermons, publifhed by himfelf in 1 766.
It was thought that the reputation he acquired by
this fermon, contributed not a little toward that pro-
motion which very foon followed its publication. For
in December 1734, he received a very unexpected no-
tice from bifliop Gibfon, that the king had Hxed on
him to be bifhop ©f Briftol. Dr Beaton was about the
fame time appointed to the fee of Gloucefler, as was
Dr Fleming to that of Carliile ; and the three new bi-
fhops were all confecrated together in Lambeth Chapel,
Jan. 19. 1734-5, confecration-fermon being preach-
ed by Dr Thomas, afterwards bifhop of Winchefter.
The honours to which Dr Seeker was thus raifed in
the prime of life did not in the leaft abate his diligence
and attention to bufinefs ; for which, indeed, there was.
now more occafion than ever. His learned biographers,
MefTrs Porteous and Stinton, now relate the manner in
which he fet about the vifitation of his diocefe, and the
ceremony of confirmation, which he performed in a
great number of places ; he alfo preached in feveral
churches, fometimes twice a-day. The affairs of his
parifh of St James's being likewife in great diforder, he
took extraordinary pains to regulate and adjuft every
thing, particularly the management of the poor; and thus
became of fignal fervice to his parifhioners, even in a
temporal view. But, fay our authors, " it was their
fpiritual welfare which engaged, as it ought to do, his
chief attention. As far as the circumftances of the
times, and the populoufnefs of thai part of the metro-
polis allowed, he omitted not even thofe private admo-
nitions atid perfonal applications which are often attend-
ed with the happieft effefts. He allowed out of his
own income a falary for reading early and late prayers,
which had formerly been paid out of the offertory mo-
ney. He held a confirmation once every year, and ex-
3 amined
SEC
I 23
leeltpf . ^rnimi the candidates fevgral weeks bsfore in the veftry,
' and gave them religion! trafts, whiclihe alfo diftribated
at other times very liberally to thofe that needed them.
He drew up, for the ufe of his parifhioners, that admi-
rable courfe of Le&ures on the Church Catechifm which
hath been lately publiflied, and not only read them once
every week on the ufual diiys, but alfo every Sunday
evening, either at the church or one of the chapels be-
longing to it."
The fermons which at the fame time, we are told, he
fet himfelf to compofe, " were truly excellent and origi-
nal. His faculties were now in their full vigour, and
he had an audience to fpeak before that rendered the
titmoft exertion of them neceflfary. He did not, how-
ever, feek to gratify the higher part, by amufing them
■with refined fpeculations, or ingenious eflays, unintelli-
gible to the lower part, and unprofitable to both ; but
he laid before them all, with equal freedom and plain-
nefs, the great Chriftian duties belonging to their re-
ipeAive ftations, and reproved the follies and vices of
■every rank among them, without diftinftion or pallia-
tion. He ftudied human nature thoroughly in all its
•various forms, and knew what fort of arguments would
have moft weight with each clafs of men. He brought
the fiibjeft home to their bofoms, and did not feem to
be merely faying ufeful things in their prefence, but ad-
drefllng himfelf perfonally to every one of them. Few
€ver pofleffed, in r. higher degree, the rare talent of
touching on the moft dehcate fubjefts with the niceft;
propriety and decorum, of faying the moft familiar
things without being low, the plaineft without being
feeble, the boldeft without giving oiFence. He could
defcend with fuch lingular eafe and felicity into the ml-
fiuteft concerns of common life, could lay open with
fo muchaddrefs the various workings, artifices, and eva-
jions of the human mind, that his audience often
thought their ow -i particular cafes alluded to, and heard
with furprife their private fentimcnts and feelings, their
ways of reafoning and principles of adling, exaftly
ftated and defcribed. His preaching was, at the fame
time, highly rational, and truly evangelical. He ex-
plained with perfpicuity, he afferted with dignity, the
peculiar charafteriftic doftrines of the gofpel. He in-
culcated the utility, the neccffity of them, not merely as
fpeculative truths, but as aftual inftruments of moral
goodnefs, tending to purify the hearts and regulate the
lives of -men ; and thus, by God's gracious appointment,
as well as hy the infeparable connexion between true
ifeith and right practice, leading them to falvation.
*' Thefc iinportant truths he taught with the autho-
Tity, the tendernefs, the familiarity, of a parent inftruft-
ing his children. Though he neither poffefled nor af-
fe£led the artificial eloquence of an orator who wants
to amufe or to miflead, yet he had that of an honeft
man who wants to convince, of a Chriftian preacher
who wants to reform and to fave thofe that hear him.
Solid argument, manly fenfe, ufeful direftions, fhort,
nervous, ftriking fentences, awakening queftions, fre-
quent and pertinent applications of fcriptute ; all thefe
following each other in quick fuccefiion, and coming
evidently from the fpeaket^s heart, enforced by his elo-
cution, his figure, his aftion, and above all by the cor-
refponding fandlity of his example, ftamped conviftion
on the minds of his hearers, and feiit them home with
imprefiions not eafy to be effaced. It will readily be
2 3 SEC
imagined that with thefe powers he quickly becjftnft en?
of the moft admired and popular preachers of his time."
In 1737 he fuGceeded to the fee of Oxford, on the
promotion of Dr Potter to that of Canterbury, then
vacant by the death of Archbifhop Wake.
In the fpring of 1748, Mrs Seeker died of the gout
in her ftomach. She was a woman of great fenfe and
merit, but of a weak and flckly conttitution. The bi-
fliop's affeftion and tendernefs for her was fuited to hia
charafter. In 1750, he was inft dled dean of 8t Paul's,
for which he gave in exchange the redtory of St James'*
and his prebend of Durham. " It was no wonder (fay
our authors) that, after prefiding over fo extenfive and
pspulous a parifti for upwards of i 7 years, he fhould
willingly confent to be releafed from a burden which be«
gan now to grow too great for his ftrength. When he
preached his farewel fermon, the whole audience melted
into tears : he was followed with the prayers and good
wifties of thofe whom every honeft man would be moft
ambitious to pleafe ; and there are numbers ftill livin^r
who retain a ftrong and grateful remembrance of his in-
ceflant and tender folicitude for their welfare. Having
now mote leifure both to profecutc his own ftudies and
to encouiaee thofe of others, he gave Dr Church con-
fiderable afliftance in his Firji and Second Findication of
the Miraculous PoTvers, Sec. againft Dr Middleton, and
he was of equal ufe to him in his jinalyjis of Lord Bo-
lingbroke's Works. About the fame time began the late
Archdeacon Sharp's controverfy with the followers of
Mr Hutchinfon, which was carried on to the end of
the year 1755." Biftiop Seeker, we are told, read over
all Dr Sharp's papers, amounting to three volumes 8vo,
and correfted and improved them throughout. But the
eafe which this late change of fituation gave him was
foon difturbed by a heavy and unexpe&ed ftroke, the
lofs of his three friends, Biftiops Butler, Benfon, and
Berkeley, who were all cut off within the fpace of one
year.
Our authors next give an account of the part which
Dr Seeker bore, in the Houfe of Lords, in refpeft to
the famous repeal of the Jew bill ; for which the duke
of Newcaftle moved, and was feconded by the Bifhop,
in a fpeech which, we are told, was remarkably well re-
ceived. At length his diftinguiftied merit prevailed
over all the political obftacles to his advancement, and
placed him, without any efforts or application of his
own, in that important ftation which he had fhown him-
felf fo well qualified to adorn. On the death of arch*
bifliop Hutton, he was promoted to the fee of Canter-
bury, and was confirmed at Bow-church, April 21.
1758 ; on which occafion our authors obferve, that iii
accepting this high and burdenfome ftation, Dr Seeker
afted on that principle which influenced him through
life ; that he facrificed his own eafe and comfort to con^
fiderations of public utility ; that the mere fecular ad-
vantages of grandeur were objefts below his ambition ;
and were, as he knew and felt, but poor compenfations
for the anxiety and difficulties attending them. He had
never once through his whole life afked preferment for
himfelf, nor fhowo any unbecoming eagernefs for it ; and
the ufe he made of his newly acquired dignity very
clearly fhowed, that rank, and wealth, and power, had
in no other light any charms for him, than as they en-
larged the fphere of his active and induftrious bene-
volence.
4 He
SEC [2
He fought out and encouraged men of real genius
or extenfive knowledge; he expended 300 1, in arran-
ging and improving the mannfcript library at Lambeth ;
and obferving- with concern, that the library of printed
books in that palace had received no additions fince the
time of Archbifhop Tennifon, he made it his bufinefs
to colle6l books in all languages from moft parts of Eu-
rope at a very great expence, with a view of fupplying
that chafm ; which he accordingly did, by leaving them
to the library at his death, and thereby rendered that
coUeftion one of the noblcft and moft ufeful in the
kingdom.
AH defigns and inftitutlaas which tended to advance
good morals and true religion, he patronized with zeal
and generofity : he contributed largely to the mainte-
nance of fchools for the poor ; to rebuilding or repair-
ing parfonage houfes and places of worihip ; and gave
no lefs than 600 1. towards eredting a chapel in the pa-
ri fh of Lambeth. To the foclety for promoting Chrif-
tian knowledge he was a liberal benefaftor ; and to that
for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts, of which
he was the prefident, he paid much attention ; was con-
ftatit at all the meetings of its members, even fometimes
when his health would but ill permit, and fuperintended
their deliberations with confummate prudence and tem-
per.
Whenever any publications came to his knowledge
that wer-e manifeftly calculated to corrupt good morals,
or fubvert the foundations of Chriftianity, he did his
litmoft to ftop the circulation of them ; yet the wretch-
ed authors themfelves he was fo far from wifhing to treat
with any undue rigour, that he^as more than once ex-
tended his bounty to them in diftrefs. And when their
writings could not properly be fuppreffed (as was too
often the cafe) by lawful authority, he engaged men of
abilities to anfwer them, and rewarded them for their
trouble. His attention was everywhere. Even the
falfehoods and mifreprefentation of writers in the newf-
papers, on religious or ecclefiaftical fubjefts, he general-
ly took care to have contradiftcd ; and when they feem-
ed likely to injure, in any material degree, the caufe of
virtue and religion, or the reputation of eminent and
worthy men, he would fometimes take the trouble of
an.fwering them himfelf. One inftance of this kind,
which does him honour, and deferves mention, was his
defence of Bifhop Butler, who, in a pamphlet pubhfli-
e;d in 1767, was accufed of having died a Papift. The
condudl which he obferved towards the feveral divifions
and denominations of Chriftians in this kingdom was
fuch as (howed his way of thinking to be truly liberal
and catholic. The dangerous fpirit of popery, indeed,
he thought fliould always be kept under proper legal
reftraints, on account of its natural oppofition not only
to the religious but the civil rights of mankind. He
therefore obferved its movements with care, and exhort-
ed his clergy to do the fame, efpecially thefe who were
fituated in the midft of Roman Catholic families ;
againft whofe inflnence they were charged to be upon
their guard, and were furnifhed with proper books or
Vol. XVIL Part L
33 ] SEC
inftruiftions for that purpofe. He took all fit opportu- Seeker,
nities of combating the errors of the church of Rome ' ••y
in his own writings (a) ; and the beft anfwers that were
pubhfhed to fome of the late bold apologies for popery-
were Written at his inftance, and under his diredion.
With the Diffenters his Grace was fmcerely defirous
of cultivating a good underftanding. He confidered
them, in general, as a confcientious and valuabre clafs
of men. With fome of the moft eminent of them,
Watts, Doddridge, Leland, Chandler, Lardner, he
maintained an intercourfe of friendfhip or civility. By
the moft candid and conliderate part of them he was
highly reverenced and efteemed ; and to fuch among
them_ as needed help he ftiowed no lefs kindnefs and li-
berality than to thofe of his own communion.
Nor was his concern for the Proteftant caufe confined
to his own country. He was well known as the great
patron and protedor of it in various parts of Europe ;
from whence he had frequent applications for aftiftance,
which never failed of being favourably received. To
feveral foreign Proteftants he allowed penfions, to others
he gave occafional relief, and to fome of their univerfi-
ties was an annual benefaftor.
^ In public affairs, his Grace aded the part of an honeft
citizen, and a worthy member of the Britilh legiflature.
From his firft entrance into the Houfe of Peers, his
parliamentary condu6l was uniformly upright and noble.
He kept equally clear from the extremes of fadious pe-
tulance and fervile dependence ; never wantonly thwart-
ing adminiftration from motives of party zeal or private
pique, or perfonal attachment, or a paffion for popula-
rity ; nor yet going every length with every minifter
from views of intereft or ambition. He admired and
loved the conftitution of his country, and wilhed to
preferve it unaltered and unimpaired. So long as a due
regard to this was maintained, he thought it his duty to
fupport the meafures of government; but whenever they
were evidently inconhftent with the pulilic welfare, he
oppofed them with freedom and firmnefs. Yet his op-
poiition was always tempered with the utraoft fidelity,
refped, and decency, to the excellent prince upon the
throne ; and the moft candid allowances for the una.-
voidable errors and infirmities even of the very beft mi-
nilters, and the peculiarly difficult fituation of thofe who
govern a free and high-fpirited people. He feldom
Ipoke in parhament, except where the interefts of re.
ligion and virtue feemed to require it ; but whenever
he did, he fpoke with propriety and ftrength, and was
heard with attention and deference. Though he never
attached hirafclf blindly to any fet of men, yet his chief
political connedions were with the late Dnke of New-
caftle and Lord Chancellor Hardwicke. To thefe he
principally owed his advancement ; and he had the good
fortune to live long enough to fhow his gratitude to
them or their d'efcendaats.
During more than ten years that Dr Seeker enjoyed
the fee of Canterbury, iie refided conftantly at his
archiepifcopal houfe at Lambeth. A few months be-
fore his death, the dreadful pains he felt had compelled
G g him
(a) See particulariy his fermons on the rebellion in 1745 ; on the Proteftant Working fchools in Ireland • on
the 5th of November; and" a great number of occafional paffages to the fame purt^ofe, in various parts of his
kdures, fermons, and other works.
S E C [ 234 ] SEC
Seeker, tiim to think of trying the Bath waters ; but that de- ing from a private door of the palace to the north door
'•"-'y^ fign was flopped by the fatal acci<lent which put an end of Lambeth church ; and he forbade any monument or
to his life. epitaph to be placed over him.
His Grace had been for many years fubjcfl to the By his will he appointed the Rev. Dr Daniel Bur.
gout, which, in the latter part of his life, returned with ton, canon of Chriil-church, and Mrs Catherine Tal-
more frequency and violence, and did not go off in a bot, already mentioned in the courfe of chefe memoirs,
Sec
I'egular manner, but left the parts affefted for a long
time very weak, and was fucceeded by pains in different
parts of the body. About a year and a half before he
died, after a fit of tlie gout, lie was attacked with a
pain in the arm, near the fhoulder, which having conti-
nued about 12 months, a fimilar pain fei zed the upper
and outer part of the oppoflte thigh, and the arm foon
became eafier. This was much more grievous than the
former, as it quickly difabled him from walking, and
kept him in almoft continual torment, except when he
was in a reclining pofition. During this time he had
two or three fits of the gout ; but neither the gout nor
the medicines alleviated thefe j>ainsj which, with the
want of exercife, brought him into a general bad habit
of ))ody.
On Saturday July 30. 1768, he was feized, as he
fat at dinner, with a ficknefs at his ftomach. He re-
covered before night ;. but the next evening, while his
phyficlans were attending, and his- fervants railing him
on his couch, he fuddenly cried out that his thigh-bone
■was broken. The fhock was fo violent, that the fervants
perceived the couch to fhake under him, and the pain
lb acute and unexpefted, that it overcame the firmnefs
he fo remarkably poffefled. He lay for fome, time in
great agonies ; but when the furgeons arrived, and dif-
covered with certainty that the -bone was braken, he
■was perfeAly refigned, atid sever a'fterwwds allced a
queftion about the event. A fever foon-enfu^. On
Tuefday he became lethargic, and cowtinued fo till
about five o'clock on We'dnefday afternoon, when he
his executors; and left 13,000]. in truft to the Dr»
Porteous and Stinton, his chaplains ; to pay the intereil
thereof to Mrs Talbot and her daughter during their
joint lives, or the life of the furvlvor ; and after the
deceafe of both thofe ladies, 1 1,000 1. of the faid
13,000 1. are to be transferred to charitable purpofes 5
amongft which are locol. to the Society for the Pro-
pagation of the Gofpel, and 1 oco 1. to the fame fociety
for a bifhop or bifhops in the king's dominions in
America.
The followiTig defcrlption is given of his perfon : He
was tail and comely ; in the early part of his life flen-
der, and rather confumptive ; but as he advanced in
years his conftitution gained ilrength, and his fize in-
creafed, yet never to a degree of corpulency that was
difpfoportionate or troublefome.
The dignity of his form correfponded with the great-
nefs of his mind, and infpired at all times refpeft and
awe ; but peculiarly fo when he was engaged in any of
the more foiemn functions of religion, into which he
entered with fuch devout earneftnefs and warmth, with
fo juft a confcioufnefs of the place he was in, and the
bnlinefs he was about, as feemed to raiie him above him-
felf, and added new life and fplrit to the natural gracc-
fulnefs of his appearance.
His countenance was open, ingenuous, and expreffive
of every thing right. It varied eafily with his fpirits
and his feelings, fo as to be a faithful interpreter of his
mind, which was incapable of the leall diffimulation. It
could fpeak dejeftion, and, on occafion, anger, very
expired with great calmnefs, in the 75th year of his ftrongly ; but when it meant to fllow pleafure or appio
age-
On examination, the thigh-bone was found to be ca-
rious about four inches in length, and at nearly the
fame diftance from its head. The difeafe took its rife
from the internal part of the bone, and had fo entirely
deftroyed its fubftance, that nothing remained at the
part where it was broken but a portion of its outward
integument; and even this had many perforations, one
of which was large enough to admit two fingers, and
■was filled with a fungous fubftance arifing from within
the bone. There was no appearance of matter about
the caries, and the furrounding parts were in a found
Hate. It was apparent that the toi-ture which he un-
derwent during the gradual corrofion of this bone mull
have been inexpreflibly great. Out of tendernefs to his
family he feldom made any complaints to them, bat to
his phyficians he frequently declared his pains were fo
excruciating, that unlefs fome rcHef could be procured
he thought it would be impoffible for human, nature to
fupport them long. Yet he bore them for upv^ards of
fix months with aftonifliing patience and fortitude ; fat
up generally the greater part of the day, admitted his
particular friends to fee him, mixed with his family at
the ufual hours, fometimes with his ufual cheerfulnefs ;
and, except fome very flight defefts of memory, retain-
ed all his faculties and fenfes in their full vigour till
within a few days of his death. He was buried, pur-
fuant to his own diredions, in a covered palTage, lead-
bation, it foftened into a moft. gracious fmile, and dif-
fufed over all his features the moft benevolent and re-
viving complacency that can be imagined.
SECOMI^, in natural hillory, the name of a ge-
nus of foffils of the clafs of feptariae ; the chara£lers of
which are. That they are bodies of a dufky hue j di-
vided, by fepta or partitions of a fparry matter, into
feveral more or lefs regular portions ; of a moderately-
firm texture ; not giving fire with fteel ; but ferment-
ing with acid menftrua, and eafily calcining. The
feptariae of this genus are of all others the moft com-
mon, and are what have been known by the little ex-
prefiive or miftaken names of the waxen vein, or ludus
Helmontii. We have many fpecj'es of thefe bodiea
common among us. Of the whitifti or biownifti, we
have thirteen ; of the yellowifh hve ; and of the ferru-
ginous ones four.
SECOND, in geometry, chronology, &c. the 60th
part of a prime or minute, whether of a degree or of
an hour.
Second, in mufic, one of the mufical intervals ; be-
ing only the difference between any found and the next
neareft found, whether above or below it.
Second Majort in mufic. See Interval.
Second Minor, in mufic- See Interval.
Second Sigk, in Erfe called Taifch, is a mode of
feeing fuperadded ta that which nature generally ber
flows. This gift or faculty, which is neitiier voluntary
S E C
S E G
!l<i»r cotiftant, 18 in general rather troublefome than agree-
able to the poflefi'ors of it, who are chiefly found among
the inhabitants of the Highlands of Scotland, thofe of
the Wettern Ifles, of the Ifle of Man, and of Ireland.
It is an imprefiion made either by the mind upon the
^ye, or by the eye upon the mind, by which things -di-
ftant or future are perceived^ and feen as if they were
prefent. A man on a journey far from home falls from
his horfe ; another, who is perhaps at work about the
houfe, fees him bleeding on the ground, commonly with
a landicape of the place where the accident befals him.
Another feer, drivin.r home his cattle, or wandering in
idlenefs, or mufmg in the funfhine, is fuddenly furprifed
\)y the appearance of a bridal ceremony, or funeral pro-
ceffion, and counts the mourners or attendants, of
whom, if he knows them, he relates the names •; if he
knows them not, he can defcribe the dreffes. Things
dillant are feen at the inftant when they happen.
Of things future, Johnfon fays that he knows no rule
pretended to for determining the time between the fight
and the event ; but we are informed by Mr Grofe, that
in general the time of accomplilhraent bears fome rela-
tion to the time of the day in which the imprefiions are
received. Thus vifions feen early in the morning (which
feldom happens) will be much fooner accompUfhed than
thofe appearing at noon ; and thofe feen at noon will
take place in a much Ihorter time- than thofe happening
at night ; fometimes the accompli fliment of the lail does
not f all out within a year or more.
Thefe viiions are not confined to folemn or important
events ; nor is it true, as is coranvonly reported, that to
the fecond fight nothing is prefentcd but phantoms of
evil. The future vifit of a mountebank, or piper ; a
plentiful draught of fifli ; the arrival of common travel-
lers ; or, if poffible, ilill more trifling matters than thefe,
— are forefeen by the feers. A gentleman told Dr John -
fon, that when he had once gone far from his own ifland
one of his labouring fervants predi<Sted his return, and
delcribed the livery of his attendant, which he had never
worn at home ; and which had been, without any pre-
vious defign, occafionally given him.
As many men eminent for fcience and literature
have admitted the reality of this apparently ufelefs gift,
w-e fhall, without interpofing our own opinion, give the
refledions of two of the firft charafters of the age upon
it, and leave our readers to form their own judgment.
JBy Dr Bcattie of Aberdeen it is tlius accounted for.
The Highlands of Scotland are a pifturefque but a
melancholy country. Long traits of mountainous dc-
fert, covered with dark heath, and often obfcured by
miily weather ; narrow valleys, thinly inhabited, and
bounded by precipices refounding with the fall «f tor-
rents ; a foil fo rugged, and a climate fo dreary, as in
many parts to admit neither the amufem-ents of paf-
turage nor the labours of agriculture ; the mournful
dafhing of waves along the friths and lakes that inter-
fe6l the country ; the portentous noifes which every
change of the wind and every increafed diminution of
the waters is apt to raife in a lonely region fuU. of SrcorwJ.
echoes and rocks and caverns ; the grotefque and — ~"V~"
gha'flily appearance of fuch a landfcape by the light of
the moon : objefts like thefe diflufe a glpom over the
fancy, which may be cornpatible enough with occafion-
al and focial merriment, but cannot fail to tinfture the
thoughts of a native in the hour of filence and folltude.
If thefe people, notwithftanding their reformation in
religion, and more frequent intercourfe with fbrangers,
do ftill retain many of their old fuperftitions, we need
not doubt but in former times they mud have been much,
more enflaved to the horrors of imagination, when befet
with the bugbeare of Popery and Paganifm. Moft. of"
their fuperftitions are of a melancholy cafl:. That of
fecond fighty by which fome are ilill fuppofed to be haunt-
ed, is confidered by themfelves as a misfortune, on ac-
count of the many dreadful images it is -faid to obtrude
upon the fancy. It is faid that fome of the Alpine re-
gions do likewlfe lay claim to a fort of fecond fight*
Nor is it wonderful, that perfons of a lively imagination,
immured in deep folitude, and furrounded with the Ihx-
pendous fcenery of clouds, precipices, and torrentsj
fliould dream (even when they think themfelves awake)
of thofe few ftriking ideas with which their lonely hves
are diverfified : of corpfes, funeral proceflions, and other
fubjedls of terror ; or of marriages, and the arrival of
ftrangers, and fuch like matters of more agreeable curl-
ofity.
Let It be obferved alfo, that the aricient Plighlan;-
ders of Scotland had hardly any other way of fupport-
ing themfelves than by hunting, fifliing, or war ; prdi-
feffions that are continually .expofed to fatal accidents.
And hence,' no doubt, additional horrors would often
haunt theif . folitude, and a deeper gleora overlhadow
the imagination even of the hardieft native.
A fufiicit^jit evidence can liardly be found for the re-
ality of the fecond fight or at leafl: of what is commonly
ufiderftood by that term. A. treatife oh the fubjedt
was pubhfhed in the year 17^2, in which many tales
were told of perfons whom the author belieyed to have
been favoured, or haunted, with thefe illumioiations j
but moft of the tales were trifling and ridiculous : and
the whole work betrayed, on the part of the compiler,
fuch extreme credulity, as could not fail to, prejudLcQ
many readers againtt his fyilem.
That any of thefe vifionaries are apt to be fwayed
in their declarations by finifter views, we will not fay %
but this may be faid with confidence, that none but ig-
norant people pretend to be gifted in this way. And
in them it may be nothing more, perhaps, than fhort
fits of fudden fleep or drowfiaefs, attended with Hveljr
dreams, and arifing from fome bodily diiorder, the ef-
f eft of idlenefs,* lo ft' fpirits, or a gloomy imagination.
For it is admitted, even by the moJl credulous High,
landers, that as knowledge and induftry are propaga-
ted in their country, the fecond fight dilappears in pro-
portion : and nobody ever laid claim to the faculty who
vras much employed in the intercourfe of focial hfe (a).
G g 2 Nor
(a) This, however, is denied by Johnfon, who affirms that the Iflanders of all degrees, whether of rank or
underftanding, univerfally admit it except the minifters, who, according to him, reject it, in confequence of a fy.
ftem, againft conviaicn. He affirms, too, that in 1773 tha?€ was i«i the Hebrides a fecond-fi«hted gentleman,
who complained of the terrors to which he was expofed.
Second.
SEC [ ,36 ]
Nor h jt at all extraordinar)', that ®ne Oiould have the timony
appearance of being awake, and Oiould even think one'?
fflf fo, during thofe fits of dofing ; that they Oiould
come on fuddenly, and while one is engaged in fome
■bulinefs. The fame thing happens to perfons much
fatigued, or long kept awake, who frequently fall afleep
for a moment, or for a long fpace, while they are {land-
ing, or walking, or riding on horfeback. Add but a
lively dream to this flumber, and (which is the frequent
effeft of difeafe) take away the confcioufnefs of having
been afleep, and a fuperftitious man may eafily miflake
his dream for a waking vilion; which, however, is foon
forgotten when no fubfequent occurrence recals it to
his memory ; but which, if it fliall be thought to re
S E C
By pretcnfion to fecond fight, no profit was
ever fou«ht or gained. It is an involuntary affeftion,
in which neither hope nor fear are known to have any
part. . Thofe who profefs to leel it do not boaft of it
as a privilege, nor are coufidered by others as advanta-
Seeon
!l
Secret
geoufly diitinguifhed. They h
ave no temptation to
•femble any future event, exalts the poor dreamer into a
Highland prophet. This conceit makes him' more re-
clufe and more melancholy than ever ; and fo feeds his
•difeafe, and multiplies his vifions: which, if they are not
diflipated by bufinefs or fociety, may continue to haunt
him as long as he lives ; and which, in their progrefs
through the neighbourhood, receive fome new tinaures
of the marvellous from every mouth that promotes their
circulation. ^ As to the prophetical nature of this fe-
cond fight, it cannot be admitted at alL That the De-
ity fliould work a miracle in order to give intimation
of the frivolous things that thefe tales are made up of,
■the arrival of a ftranger, the nailing of a coffin, or the
colour of a fuit of clothes ; and that thefe inlimations
Should be given for no end, and to thofe perfons only
who are idle and folitary, who fpeak Gaelic, or who live
among mountains and deferts— is like nothing in nature
or providence that we are acquainted with ; and muft
therefore, unlefs it v/ere confirmed by fatisfaftory proof
(which is not the cafe), be rejefted as abfurd and in-
credible.
Thefe vifions, fuch as they are, may reafonably
enough be afcribed to a diftempered fancy. And that
in them, as v/ell as in our ordinary dreams, certain ap-
pearances ihould, on fome rare occafions, referable cer-
tain events, is to be expefted from the laws ©f chance ;
and feems to have in it nothing more marvellous or fu-
pernatural, than that the parrot, who deals out his fcur-
rilities at random, fhould fometimes happen to falute the
pafTenger by his right appellation.
To the confidence of thefe objeftions Dr Johnfon re-
plies, that by prefuming to determine what is'fit, and
>vhat is beneficial, they prefuppofe more knowledge of
the univerfal fyftem than man has attained ; and there-
fore depend upon principles too complicated and exten-
iive for our comprehenfion ; and that there can be no
fecurity in the confequence when the premifes are not
wnderftood ; that the fecond fight is only wonderful be-
caufe it is rare, for, confidered in itfelF, it involves no
more difficulty than dreams, or perhaps than the regu-
lar exercife of the cogitative faculty ; that a general opi-
nion of communicative impulfes, or vifionary reprefenta-
tions, has prevailed in all ages and all nations; that par-
ticular initances have been given with fuch evidence, as
neither Bacon nor Bayle has been able to refill ; that
fudden impreffions, which the event has verified, have
been felt by more than own or publifh them ; that the
fecond fight of the Hebrides impHes only the local fre-
quency of a power, which is nowhere totally unknown;
and that where we are unable to decide by antecedent
reafon, we muft be content to yield to the force of tef-
feign, and their hearers have no motive to encourage
the impofture.
SecoND Terms, in algebra, thofe where the unknown
quantity has a degree of power lefs than it has in the
term where it is raifed to the highell. The art of
throwing thefe fecond terms out oF an equation, that
is, of forming a new equation whei-e they have no place,
is one of the moil ingenious and ufeful inventions in all
algebra.
SECONDARY, in general, fomething that acts as
fecond or in fubordination to another.
Secondary, or Secundary, an officer w^ho a£ts a? fe-
cond or next to the chief officer. Such are the fecond.
aries of the courts of king's bench and common pleas ;.
the fecondaries of the compters, who are next the fhe-
riifs of London in each of the two compters ; two fe-
condaries of the pipe ; fecondaries to the remembrancers^
&c.
Secondary Circles of the Ecliptic are circles of longi^
tude of the ftars ; or circles which, paffing through the
poles of the ecHptic, are a^t right angles to the ecliptic.
See Circles of Latitude.
Secondary polities of Bodies. See Metaphysics,
"° 153-
SECONDAT. See Montesquieu.
SECRETARIES BIRD, the falco ferpentarius and
fagittarius of Linnaeus, but claiTed by Latham under
the genus Vultur ; which fee.
SECRETARY, an officer who, by his matter's
orders, writes letters, difpatches, and other inllruments,
which he renders authentic by his fignet. Of thefe
there are feveral kinds ; as, i . Secretaries of ftate,
who are officers that have under their management and
direftion the mod important affairs of the kingdom,
and are obliged conftantly to attend on the king : they
receive and difpatch whatever comes to their hands, ei-
ther from the crown, the church, the army, private
grants, pardons, difpenfations, &c. as likewife petitions
to the fovereign, which, when read, are returned to
them ; all which they difpatch according to the king's
diredtion. They have authority to commit perfons for
treafon, and other offences againft the flate, as confer-
vators of the peace at common law, oras juflices of the
peace throughout the kingdom. They are members of
the privy-council, which is feldom or never held with-
out one of them being prefent. As to the bufinefs and
correfpondence in all parts of this kingdom, it is mana-
ged by either of the fecretaries without any diflinftion;
but with refpeft to foreign affairs, the bufinefs is divi-
ded into two provinces or departments, the fouthern
and the northern, comprehending all the kingdoms and
ilates that have any intercourle with Greaf Britain ;
each fecretary receiving all letters and addreffes from,
and making all difpatches to, the feveral princes and
ilates comprehended in his province. Ireland and the
Plantations are under the direftion of the elder fecreta-
ry, who has the fouthern province, which alfo compre-
hends France, Italy, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, and
Turkey; the northern province includes the Low Coun-
tries,
E C
[ 237 3
SEC
retion tries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Muf-
covy. Each of the fecretaries has an apartment in all
the royal houfeS) both for their own accommodation
and their officers ; they have alfo a table at the king's
charge, or elie board-wages. The two fecretaries for
Britain have each two under fecretaries, and one chief
clerk ; with an uncertain number of other clerks and
tranflators, all wholly depending on them. To the fe-
cretaries of ftate belong the cuftody of that feal properly
called the ftgntty and the direftion of two other offices,
©ne called the paper-office, and the other the Jtgnet office.
In addition to thefe, there is at prefent (179O a fecre-
tary for the war department, whofe office muft be tem-
porary. 2. Secretary of an embaffy, a perfon attending an
ambafiador, for writing difpatches relating to the nego-
ciation. There is a great difference between the fecreta-
ry of an embaffy and the ambaffador's fecretary ; the
St&or:
ACB will be fimilar; and confequently the fides ADf,
DE, AB, and BC, proportional; that is, as AD":
DE : : AB : BC : whence, if AD be the half, third, or
fourth part of AB 5 DE will be a half, third, or fourth-
part of CB : and the fame holds of all the reft. If,
therefore, AD' be the chord, fine, or tangent, of any
number of degrees to the radius AB ; DE will be the
fame to- the radius BC. 4
Defcription of the SeElor. The inftrument confifts of Defciibedi-
two rulers or legs, of brafs or ivory, or any other mat-
ter, reprefenting the radii, moveable round an axis or
joint, the middle of which exprcffes the centre ; whence
are drawn on the faces of the rulers feveral fcales, which
may be diftinguilhed into fingle and double.
The double fcales, or lines graduated upon the faces
of the inftrument, and which are to be ufed as feftoral
lines, proceed from the centre ; and are, i. Two fcales
laft being a dameftlc or menial of the ambaffador, and of equal parts, one on each leg, marked lin. or l. each
the firft a fervant or minifter of the prince. 3. The fe- of thefe fcales, from the great extenfivenefs of its ufe,
eretary of war, an officer of the war-office, who has two
chief clerks under him, the laft of which is the fesreta-
ry's meffenger. There are alfo fecretaries in moft of
the other offices.
SECRETION, in the animal oeconomy. See Phy-
siology, feft. VI.
SEC r, a colleftive term, comprehending all fuch as
follow the doArines and opinions of fome famous divine,
philofopher, &c.
SECTION, in general, denotes a part of a divided
thing, or the divifion itfelf. Such, particularly, are
the fubdivifions of a chapter ; called alio paragraphs
and articles : the mark of a fedlon is §.
Section, in geometry, denotes a fide or furface of
a body or figure cut off by another ; or the place where
lines, planes, &c. cut each other.
SECTOR, in geometry, is a part of a circle com-
prehended between two radii and the arch ; or it is a
mixed triangle, formed by two radii and the arch of a
circle.
Sector, is alfo a mathematical inftrument, of great
ufe in finding the proportion between quantities of the
.fame kind: as between hnes and lines, furfaces and fur-
' faces, &c. whence the French call it the compafi of pro-
portion. The great advantage of the feftor above the
common fcales, &c. is, that it is made fo as to fit all ra-
dii and all fcales. By the lines of chords, fines, &c.
on the fedor, we have lines of chords, fines, &c. to any
radius betwixt the length and breadth of the feilior when
©pen.
The real inventor of this valuable inftrument is un-
known ; yet of fo much merit has the invention appeared,
that it was claimed by Galileo, and difputed by nations.
The feftor is founded on the fourth propofition ©f
the lixth book of Euclid ; where it is demonftrated,
that fimilar triangles have their homologous fides pro-
portional. An idea of the theory of its conftrud'lion
may be conceived thus. Let the lines AB, AC (Plate
CCCCXLVIII. fig. 5.) reprefent the legs of the fedor;
and AD, AE, two equal feftions from the centre : if,
now the points CB and DE be conneded, the lines CB
and DE will be parallel ; therefore the triangles ADE,
great
is called the line of lines. 2. Two lines of chords mark-
ed CHO. or c. 3. Two Hnes of fecants marked sec.
or s. A line of polygons marked pol. Upon the
other face the fedoral lines are, i . Two lines of fines
marked sin. or s. 2. Two lines of tangents marked"
TAN. or T. 3. Between the line of tangents and fines-
there is another line of tangents to a leffer radius, to
fupply the defed- of the former, and extending from 45>'
to 75", marked /.
Each pair of thefe lines (except the line of poly-
gons) is fo adjufted- as to make equal angles at the
centre ; and confequently at whatever diftance the fee--
tor be opened, the angles will be always refpedively
equal. That is, the diftance between 10 and 10 on'
the line of hnes, will be equal to 60 and 60 on the hne
of chords, 90 and 90 on the hne of fines, and 45 and
45 on the hne of tangents*
Befides the fedlorah fcales, there are others on each
face, placed parallel to the outward edges, and ufed as
thofe of the common plane fcale. I . Thefe are a Hne of
inches. 2. A Hne of latitudes. 3. A line of hours.
4. A Hne of inclination of meridians. 5. A Hne of
chords. Tliree logarithmic fcales, namely, one of num-
bers, one of lines, and one of tangents ; thefe are ufed -
when the feftor is fully opened, the legs forming one-
line (a). 3
The value of the divifions on moft of the lines areTo read
determined by the figures adjacent to them ; thefe pro- ^" J efti-
ceed by tens, which conftitute the divisions of the .
order, and are numbered accordingly ; but the value of the fecSbor.
the divifions on the line of lines, that are diftinguifhedjmi imes.-
by figures, is entirely arbitrary, and may reprefent ariy
value that is given to them ; hence the figures i, 2, 3,
4, &c. may denote either lo, 20, 30, 40, or 100,' 20c,
30c, 4C0, and fo on.
The line of lines is divided into ten equal parts, num-<
bered 1, 2, 3, to 10 ; thefe may be called divifions of
the f'Jl order ; each of thefe are again fubdivided into''l o
other equal parts, which may be called divifions of the /e-
cond order ; each of thefe is divided into two equal parts,
forming divifions of the third order. The divifions on
all the fcales aie contained between four parallel Hnes ;
thof.-
(a) The lines are placed in different orders on different fedors, but they may eafily be found by thefe general
directions.
S E C
^tor. titofe of the third order extend to the moft xliftant ;
V- thofe of the third to the leall ; thofe of the fecond to
the intermed'ate parallel.
^ When the whole line of Uv.es reprefents loo, the di-
vlllons of the firft order, or .thofe to which the figures
are annexed, reprefent t-ens ; thofe of the fecond order
- units ; thofe of the third order the halves of thefe unit*.
If the whole line reprefent ten, then the divifions of
the firft order are units j thofe of the fecond tenths ; the
thirds twentieths.
In the line of tangents, the divifions to which the
numbers are affixed, are the degrees ex preffe-d by thoft
numbers. E'^ery fifth degi-ee is denoted by a line fome-
what longer than the reit ; between every number and
each fifth degree, there are feur divifion8,-long€r than
the intermediate adjacent ones, thefe are whole de-
grees ; the fhorter ones, or thofe of the third order, are
30 minutes.
_ From the centre, to 60 degrees, the line of fines is
divided hke the line of tangents, from 60 to 70 ; it is
divided only to every degree, from 70 to 80, to every
two degrees, from 80 to 90 j the divifion muft be efti-
mated by the €ye.
The divifions on the Kne of chords are to be eftima-
ted in the fame manner as the tangents.
The leffer line of tangents is graduated every two
degrees, from 45 to 50 ; but from 50 to 60 to every
degree ; from 60 to the end, to half degrees.
The hne of fecants from o to 10 is to be eftimated
by the eye ; from 20 to 50, it is divided to every two
degrees ; from 50 to 60, to every degree ; from 60 to
4 the end, to every half degree.
Divifion of U/e of the L \m of Equal Parts on the Sector, i . To
■ bftZVnJf'^'^^^ S'""^" ^'"^ ^"^'^ number of equal parts,
of equal iupp'afe feven. Take the given line in your compaffes ;
jparts. ■ and fetting one foot in a divifion of equal parts, that
may be divided by feven, for example 70, whofe fe-
venth part is 10, open the feaor till the other point
fall exaftly on 70, in the fame line on the other leg.
In this difpofition, applying one point of the compaffes
to 10 in the fame line ; fhut them till the other fall in
10 in the fame line on the other leg, and this opening
will be the feventh part of the given line. Note, if
the line to be divided be too long to be applied to the
legs of the feftor, divide only one half or one fourth
by feven, and the double or quadruple thereof will be
J the feventh part of the whole.
*To-mea- 2. To meafure the lines of the perimeter of a poly-
' fure the pe- gon, one of which contains a given number of equal
r 238 ]
S E C
3«
.ximeter of
a polygon
parts. Take the given line in your compaffes, and fet
it parallel, upon the line of equal parts, to the num-
ber on each leg exprefTing its length. I'lie feftor re-
maining thus, fet off the length of each of the other
lines parallel to the former, and the number each of
them falls on will exprefs its length.
3. A right line being given, and the number of
parts it contains, fuppofe 1 20, to take from it a fhorter
line, containing any number of the fame parts, fuppofe
25. Take the given line in your compafles, open the
feftor till the two feet fall on 1 20 on each lef ; then
will the dilfance between 25 on oiie Jeg, and the fame
^ number on the other, give the line required.
'Muluplica- 4- I'o niultiply by the hne of equal parts on the
«ion, iedloi'. Take the laterai.di2.ance from the centre cf the
6
^Sabtrac
line to the given multiplicator.; open the foaor till
you fit that lateral diftance to the parallel of i and i,
or 10 and 10, and keep ihe feftor in that difpofition ;
then take in the compafles the parallel diftance of the
multiplicand, which diflance, meafured laterally on the
fame line, will give the product required. Thus, fup-
pofe it were required to find the produft o£ 8 multi-
phed by 4 : take the lateral diibnce from the centre
of the line to 4 in your cenipaffes, e. place one foot
of the compaffes in the beginning of the divifions, and
extend the other along the line to 4. Open the fee-
tor till you fit this lateral diftance to the parallel of i
and I, or 10 and 10. Then take the parallel diflance
of 8, the multiplicand ; /. e. extend the compaffes from
8, in this line, on one leg, to 8 in- the fame line on the
other; and that extent, meafured laterally, will give the
produA required. 3
5. To divide by the line of equal parts on the fec-^"''*''^i
tor. Extend the compaffes laterally from the begin-
ning of the hne to i, and open the feftor till you fit '
that extent to the parallel of the divifor ; then take
the parallel diftance of the dividend, which extent, mea-
fured in a lateral diredlion, will give the quotient re-
quired- Thus, fuppofe it was required to divide 36
by 4 ; extend the compaffes laterally, the beginning of
the line to /, and fit to that extent the parallel of 4,
the divifor; then extend the compaffes parallel, from
36 on one leg to 36 on the other, and that extent, mea-
fured laterally, will give 9, the quotient required. 9
6. Proportion by the line of equal parts. M&ke the po
lateral diftance of the fecond term the parallel diflance of
the firfl term, the parallel diftance of the third term ia
the fourth proportional. Example. To find a fourth
proportional to 8, 4, and 6, take the lateral diftance of
4, and make it the parallel dillance of 8 ; then -the pa-
rallel diftance of 6, extended from the centre, fhall reach
to the fourth proportional 3. ,
In the fame manner, a third proportional is found to
two numbers. Thus, to find a third proportional to '
8 and 4, the fedor remaining as in the former example,
the parallel diftance of 4, extended frem the centre,
fhall reach to the third proportional 2. In all thefe
cafes, if the rmmber to be made a parallel diftance be
too great for the fe<[tor, fome aliquot part of it is to be
taken, and the anfwer is to be multiphed by the num-
ber by which the firfl number was divided. , <
Ufe of the Line of Chords on the Ssctoh. i. To open V"*","
the fedor fo as the two lines of chords may make an*" '
angle or number of degrees, fuppofe 40. Take the di-
ftance from the joint to 40, the number of the degrees
■propofed, on the line of chords ; open the fedlor till the
diftance from 60 to 60, on each leg, be equal to the
given diftance of 40 ; then will the two lines on the fee-
tor form an angle of 40 degrees, as was required.
2. The fe£lor being opened, -to find the degrees of
its aperture. Take the extent from 60 to 6®, and lay
it off on the line of chords from the centre ; the num-
ber whereon it terminates will fliow the degrees, &c,
required.
3. To lay off any number of degrees upon the cir-
cmnfereace of a circle. Open the fedor till the di~
•ftance between 60 and 60 be equal to the radius of the
given circle ; then take the parallel extent of the chord
of the number of degrees on each k^r of the feftor, and
5 lay
S E C [ a;
• hy it off on the circumference of the given circle. —
Hence any regular polygon may be cafily infcribed in a
given circle,
U/e of ihe Line of Polygons on the Si'CTor. I. To in-
fcribc a regular polygon in a given circle. Take the
femidiameter of the given circle in the compares, and
adjuft: it to the number 6, on the line of polygons, on
each leg of the feftor ; then, the fedtor remaining thus
opened, take the diftance of the two eqnal numbers,
expreffing the number of lidea the polygon is to have ;
e. gr. the difl^ance from 5 to 5 for a pentagon, from 7
to 7 for a heptagon, &c. Thefe dillances carried
about the circumference of the circle, wilr divide it into
fo many equal parts.
2. To defcribe a regular polygon, e. gr. a penta-
gon, on a given right line. Take the length of the
line in the compaffes, and apply it to the extent of
the number 5, 5, on the lines of polygons. The fee-
tor thus opcntd, upon the fame lines take the extent
from 6tG 6; this will be the femidiameter of the circle
the polygon is to be infcribed in. It then, with this
diftance, from the ends of the given line, you deicribe
tvvo arches of a circle, their interfeilion will be the
centre of the circle.
3. On a right line, to defcribe an ifoceles triangle,
having the angles at the bafe double that at the ver-
tex. Open the feftor, till the ends of the given line
fall on 10 and 10 on each leg; then take the diftance
from 6 to 6. This will be the length of the two equal
fides of the triangle.
tan. IJfe of the Lines of Sines, Tangents, and Secants, on the
" Sector. By the feveral lines difpofed on the fedor,
we have fcalcs to feveral radii ; fo that having a
length or radius given, not exceeding the length of the
feftor when opened, we find the chord, fine, &c.
thereto : e. gr. Suppofe the chord, fine, or tangent,
of I o degrees, to a radius of 3 inches required ; make
3 inches the aperture, between 60 and 60, on the lines
of chords of the two legs ; then will the fame extent
reach from 45 to 45 on the line of tangents, and from
90 to 90 on the line of the fines on the other fide ; fo
that to whatever radius the line of choids isr fet, to the
fame are all the others fet. In this difpofition, there-
fore, if the aperture between 10 and to, on the lines
of chords, be taken with the compaffes, it will give
the chord of to degrees. If the aperture of 10 and 10
he in like manner taken on the Hues of fines, it will
be the fine of 10 degrees. Laftly, if the aperture of 10
and 10 be in hke manner taken on the lines of tan-
gents, it gives the tangent of 10 degrees.
If the chord, or tangent, of 70 degrees were re-
tpired ; for the chord, the aperture of half the arch,
viz., 35, muft be taken, as before; which diftance, re-
peated twice, gives the chord of 70 degrees. To find
the tangent of 70 degrees to the fame radius, the fmall
line of tangents m.uft be ufed, the other only reaching
to 45 : making, therefore, 3 inches the apertme between
45 and 45 on the fmall line ; the extent between 70
and 70 degrees on the fame, will be the tangent of 70
degrees to 3 inches radius»
To find the fecant of an arch, make the given radius
the aperture between o and o on the lines of fecants :
then will the aperture of 10 and 10, or 70 and 70, on
faid lines, give the tangent of jo* or 70''.
I If tlte coirverfe of any of thefc things were required,
i9 1 S E - C
that is, if the radius be required, to which a given Scdlor,
line is the fine, tangent, or fecant, it is biit making Secular,
the given line, if a chord, the aperture on the li«e of ' ^
chords, between to and 10, and then the feftor will
ftand at the radius required ; that is, the aperture be-
tween 60 and 60 on the faid line is the radius. If
the given line were a fine, tangent, or fecant, it is but
making it the aperture of the given number of de-
grees ; then will the diftance of 90 and 90 on the fines,
of 45 and 45 OH the tangents, of o and o on the fe-
cants, be the radius.
Afironomical Sector. See Astronomicjl SeSor,
Dia/ing Sector. See Dialing.
SECULAR, that which relates to affairs of the pre-
fent world, in which fenfe the word ftands oppofed to
fpiritual, ecclefiaflical : thus we fay fecular power, &c.
Secular, is more peculiarly ufed for a perfon who
lives at liberty in the world, not flmt up in a mona-
fterj', nor bound by vows, or fubjefted to the particu-
lar rules of any religious community ; in which fenfe
it ftands oppofed to regular. The Romifh clergy are
divided into fecular and regular, of which the latter are
bound by monaftic rules, the former not.
Secular G/mes, in antiquity, folemn games held
among the Romans once in an age. Thefe games laft-
ed three days and as many nights ; during which time
facrifices were performed, theatrical ftiews exhibited,
with combats, fports, &c. in the circus. The occafion
of thefe games, according to Valerius Maximus, was ta
ftop the progrefs of a plague. Valerius Pubhcola was
the firft who celebrated them at Rome in the year of
the city 245. The folemnity was as follows : The
whole world was invited by a herald to a feaft which
they had never feen already, nor ever ftiould fee again.
Some days before the games began, the quindecemviri
in the Capitol and the Palatine temple, diftributed to
the people purifying compofitions, of various kinds, as
flambeaus, fulphur, &c. From hence the populace
pafled to^Diana's temple on the Aventine mount, with
wheat, barley, and oats, as an offering. After this,
whole nights were fpent in devotion to the Deftinies.
When the time of the games was fully come, the people ;
aflembled in the Campus Martius, and facrificed to Ju-
piter, Juno, Apollo, Latona, Diana, the Parcse, Ceres, .
Pluto, and proferpine. On the firft night of the feaft '
the emperor, with the quindecemviri, caufed three altars -
to be erefted on the banks of theTiber, which they fprink-
led with the blood of three lambs, and then proceeded ■-
to regular facrifice. A fpace was next marked out for ■
a theatre, which was illuminated with innumerable
flambeaus and fires. Here they fung hymns, and cele-
brated all kinds of fports. On the day after, having
offered victims at the Capitol^ they went to the Campus
Martius, and celebrated fports to the honour of Apollo
and Diana. Thefe lafted till next day, when the noble
matrons, at the hour appointed by the oracle, went to •
the Capitol to fing hymns to Jupiter. On the third day,
which concluded the folemnity, twenty-feven boys, and
as many girls, fung, in the temple of Palatine Apollo ;
hymns and verfes in Greek and Latin, to recommend
the city to the proteftion of thofe deities whom they
defigned particularly to honour by their facrifices.
The inimitable Carmen Seculare of Plorace was com-
pofed for this laft day, iu the Secular Games, held hj
Auguftus.
"Secular
Secundus
SEC [2
Tt has been much difputed whether thefe games were
held eveiy hundred, or eveiy hundred and ten years.
Valerius Antlus, Varro, and Livy, are quoted in fup-
port of the former opinion : In favour of the latter
may be produced the quindecemviral regifters, the edifts
of Auguflus, and the words of Horace in the Secular
poem,
Catus undenos dec'tes per annos.
It was a general belief, that the girls who bore a
part in the fong fhould be fooneil married ; and that
the children who did not dance and i'mg at the coming
•of Apollo, fhould die unmarried, and at an early period
of life.
Secular Poem, a poem fung or rehearfed at the fe-
cular games ; of which kind we have a very fine piece
among the works of Horace, being a fapphic ode at the
-end of his epodes.
SECULARIZATION,, the aa of converting a
regular perfon, place, or benefice, into a fecular one.
Almoft all the cathedral chxirches were anciently regu-
lar, that is, the canons were to be religious ; but they
have been fince fecularized. For the fecularization of
a regular church, there is required tiie authority of the
pope, that of the prince, the bifliop of the place, the
patron, and even the confent of the pople. Religious
that want to be releafed from their vow, obtain briefs
of fecularization from the pope.
SECUNDINES, in anatomy, the feveral coats
or membranes wherein the foetus is wrapped up in the
mother's womb 4 as the chorion and amnios, with the
placenta, &c.
SECUNDUS (Joannes Nicolaius), an elegant writer
of Latin poetry, was born at the Hague in the year
1511. His defcent was from an ancient and honour-
able family in the Netherlands ; and his father Nicola-
us Everardus, who was born in the neighbourhoed of
Middleburg, feems to have been high in the favour of
the emperor Charles V. as he was employed by that
monarch in feveral ftations of confiderable importance.
We find him firft a member of the grand parliament
or council of Mechelen, afterwards prefident of the
ftates of Holland and Zealand at the Hague, and laft-
ly holding a fimilar office at Mechelen, where he died,
Auguft 5. 1532, aged 70.
Thefe various employments did not occupy the whole
of Everardus's time. Notwithftanding the multiphcity
of his bufinefs, ht found leifure to cultivate letters with
great fuccefs, and even to aft as preceptor to his own
children, who were five fons and three daughters.
They all took the name of Nicolaii from their father ;
but on what account our author was called Secundus is
notJtnown. It could not be from the order of his
birth, far he was the youngeft fon. Perhaps the name
was not given him till he became eminent ; and then,
according to the faflilon of the age, it might have its
rife from fome pun, fuch as his being Poetarum nem'tni Se-
cundus. Poetry, however, was by no means the pro-
feffion which his father wifhed him to follow. He in-
tended him for the law, and when he could no longer
direft his ftudies himfelf, placed him under the care of
Jacobus Valeardus. 'Phis man is faid to have been every
way well quahfied to difcharge the important truft
which was committed to him ; and he certainly gained
file affedion of his pupil, who, in one of his poems,
40 ] S E G
mentions the death of Valeardus with every tlp^earance
of unfeigned forrow. Another tutor was foon provi-
ded ; but it does not appear that Secundus devoted
much of his time to legal purfuits. Poetry and the
fifter arts of painting and fculpture had engaged his mind
at a very early period ; and the imagination, on which
thefe have laid hold, can with difficulty fubmit to the,
dry ftody of mufty civilians. Secundus is faid to have
written verfes when but ten years old ; and from the
vaft quantity which he left behind him, we have reafon
to conclude that fuch writing was his principal employ-
ment. He found time, however, to carve figures of
all his own family, of his miftreffes, of the emperor
Charles V. of feveral eminent perfonages of thofe times,
and of many of his intimate friends ; and in' the laft
edition of his works publifhed by Scirverius at Leyden,
1 63 1, there is a print of one of his miftreffes with this
inicription round it; Vatis amatoris Julia sculpta
MANU.
Secundus having nearly attained the age of twenty
one, and being determined, as it would feem, to comply
as far as poffible with the wifhes of his father, quitted
Mechelen, and went to France, where at Bourges, a city
in the Orkanoh, he ftudied the civil law under the Cele-
brated ylndreas Alciatus. Alciatus was one of the moft
learned civilians of that age ; but what undoubtedly
endeared him much more to our author was his general
acquaintance with polite literature, and more particular-
ly his tafte in poetry. Having ftudied a year under
this eminent profeffor, and taken his degrees, Secundus
returned to Mechelen, where he remained only a very
few months. In 1533 he went into Spain with warm
recommendations to the count of NafTau and other per-
fons of high rank ; and foon afterwards became fecre-
tary to the cardinal archbiftiop of Toledo in a depart-
ment of bufinefs which required no other qualifications
than what he pofTelTed in a very eminent degree, a faci-
lity in writing with elegance the Latin language. It
was during his refidence with this cardinal that he wrote
his Bafioy a feries of wanton poems, of which the fifth,
feventh, and ninth carm'ma of Catullus feem to have given
the hint. Secundus was not, however, a fervile imitator
of Catullus. His expreflions feem to be borrowed ra-
ther from Tibullus and Propert 'ius ; and in the warmth
of his defcriptions he furpafles every thing that has been
written on fimilar fubjedts by Catullus, Tibullus, Proper-
ttus, C. Gallus, Ovid, or Horace,
In I J 35 he accompanied the emperor Charles V. to
the fiege of Tunis, but gained no laurels as a foldier.
The hardfliips which were endured at that memorable
fiege were but little fulted to the foft difpofition of a
votary of Venus and the mufes ; and upon an enterprife
which might have furnifhed ample matter for an epie
poem, it is remarkable that Secundus wrote nothing
which has been deemed worthy of prefervation. Ha-
ving returned from his martial expedition, he was fent
by the cardinal to Rome to congratulate the pope
upon the fuccefs of the emperor's arms ; but was taken
fo ill on the road, that he was not able to complete his
journey. He was advifed to feek, without a moment's
delay, the benefit of his native air ; and that happily
recovered him.
Having now quitted the fervice of the archbilhop
of 1 oledo, Secundus was employed in the fame office of
fecretary by the bilh<?p of Utrecht ; and fo much had
6 he
SEC r
he hitherto dlflinfruifhed hlmfelF by the clafTical elegance
of his compofitions, that he was foon called upon to fill
the important poll of private Latin fecretary to the em-
peror, who was then hi Italy. This was the mod ho-
nourable office to which our author was ever appointed ;
but before he could enter upon it death put a ftop to his
career of glory. Having arrived at Saint AmanH in the
diftrift of Tournny, in order to meer, upon bufinefs,
with the bifhop of Utrecht, he was on the 8th of Odo-
her 1536 cut ofFby a violent fever, in the very flower of
his age, not having quite completed his twenty-fifth
year. He was interred in the church of the Benediftines,
of which his patron, the bifhop, was abbot or pro-abbot ;
and his near relations erefted to his memory a marble
moruiment, with a plain Latin infcription.
The w'orks ot Secundus have gone through feveral
editions, of which the heft and moll copious is that of
ticriverius already mentioned. It confifts of Julia, Eleg.
Lib. I.; Amores, E/eg. Lib. 2.; AD DiVERSOs Eleg.
Lib. 3. ; Basia, ilyled by the editor incomparabilis et
diviniis prorfus liber; Epigrammata ; Odaru m /f^fr
tinus ; ^visrohhKvu /iber vnus Elegiaca ; E pistol A-
RUM liber alter, heroico carmine fcriptus ; Funerum liber
unus ; Sylv^ie et Carminum fragmenta ; Poemata
nonnuHa fratrvm ; Itineraria Secundi tria, &c. ;
ILpisTOhJE totitJem^ foluta oratione. Of thefe works it
would be fuperfluous in us to give any charafter after
the ample teftimonies prefixed to them of Lelius Greg.
GyraUus, the elder Scaliger, Theodore Beza, and others
■equally celebrated in the republic of letters, who all
fpeak of them with rapture. A French critic, indeed,
utter having; affirmed that the genius of Secundus never
produced any thing which was not excellent in its kind,
adds, with too much truth, Mais /a mufe ejl un peu trap
lafcive. For this fault our author makes the following
iipology in an epigram addrefled to the grammarians ;
Carmina cur fpargam cunftis lafciva libellis,
Queritis ? Infulfos arceo grammaticos.
Fortia magnanimi canerem fi Cjefaris arma,
Fa(?cave Divorum religiofa virum :
■Quot mifer exciperemque notas, patererque llturas ?
Quot fierem teneris fupplicium pueris ?
At nunc uda mihi distant cum Basia carmen,
Pruriet et verfu mentula multa meo ;
Me leget innuptas juvenis placiturus arnicas,
Et placitura nova blanda puella viro :
Et queincurique juvat lepidorum de grege vatum
Otia feftivis ludere delicils.
Lufibus et lastis procul hinc abfiftite, s^vt .
Grammatici, injuftas et cohibite manus.
Ne puer, ab malleis caefus lacrymanfque leporis ;
Duram forte meis ossibus optet humum.
SECURIDACA, a plant belonging to the clafs of
diadelphia, and to the order of oftandria The calyx
has three leaves, which are fmall, deciduous, and colour-
ed. The corolla is papilionaceous. The vexillum, con-
filling of two petals, is oblong, ftrai'ght, and conjoined
to the carina at the bafe. The carina is of the fame
kngth with the alap. The legumen is ovated, unilocu-
lar, monofpermous, and ending in a ligulatcd ala.
There are two fpecies, the ereSa and volubilis. The
-erefta has an upi ight ftem : the volubihs or fcandens is
a climbing plant, and is a native of the Weft Indies.
SECUTORES, a fpecies of gladiators among the
Vol. XVIL Paitl.
24T ] S E D
Romans, whofe arms were a Iielmet, a ihield, and a Sed-w,
fword or a leaden bullet. They were armed in this man- dirion.
ner, becaufe they had to contend with the retiarii, who
were drelfed in a Ihort tunic, bore a three-pointed lance
in their left hand, and a net in their right. I'he reti-
arius attempted to caft his net over the head of the fe-
cutor; and if hefiicceeded, he drew it together and flew
him with his trident : but if he mifled his aim, he im-
mediately betook himfelf to flight till he could find a
fccond opportunity of intangling his adverfary with hia
net. ^ He was purfued by the fecutor, who endeavoured
to difpatch him in his flight.
Secutof-es was alfo a name given to fuch gladiators
who took the place of thofe killed in the combat, or
who engaged the conqueror. This poll w^as ufually
taken by lot.
SEDAN is a town of Champagne in France, in E.
Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 49. 46. This is the capital of
a principality of the fame name, fituated on the Maefe,
fix miles from Bouillon, and fifteen from CharleviUe.
Its fituation on the frontiers of the territory of Liege,
Namur, and Limburg, formerly rendered it one of the
keys of the kingdom. It is extremely well fortified, and
defended by a ftrong citadel. The caftle is fituated on a
rock, furrounded with large towers and ftrong walls :
here you fee a moft beautiful magazine of ancient arms.
I'he governor's palace is oppofite the caftle. From
the ramparts you have a moft agreeable profpc6t of the
Maefe and the neighbouring counti^. Though the
town is but fmall, yet it is full of tradefmen, as tanners,
weavers, dyers, &c. the manufafture of fine cloth
in this city employing a great number of hands. The
principality of Sedan formerly belonged to the duke of
Bouillon, who was obliged in the beginning of the lalt
century to refign it to the crown.
SEDAN-CHAIR Is a covered vehicle for carryln;^ a
fingle pcrfon, fufpended by two poles, and borne by two
men, hence denominated chairmen. They were firft intro-
duced in London In ) 634, when Sir Sanders Duncomb
obtained the fole privilege to ufe, let, and hire a number
ofthe fald covered chairs for fourteen years.
SEDITION, among civilians, is nfed for a faftious
commotion of the people, or an affembly of a number
of citizens without lawful authority, tending to difturb
the peace and order of the fociety. I'his offence is of
different kinds : tome feditions more immediately threat-
ening the fupreme power, and the fubverfion of the
prefent conilltutlon of the ftate ; others tending only
towards the redrefs of private grievances. Among the
Romans, therefore. It was vatloufly punifhed, according
as its end and tendency threatened greater mifchief.
See lib. i. Cod. de Seditiofis., and Mat. de Crimin. lib. ii.
n. 5. de Lafa Majejlc.te. In the punllhment, the authors
and ringleaders were ju lily diftlngulflied from thofe who,
with lefs wicked intention, joined and made part the
multitude.
The fame diftinftion holds in the law of England
and in that of .-cotland. Some kinds of fedltion in
England amount to high treafon, and come within the
ftat. 25 Edw. III. as levying war againft the king.
And feveral feditions are mentioned in the Scotch ads
of parliament as treafonable. Bayne's Crim. Laiv of
Scotland^ p. 33, 34. The law of Scotland makes riot-
ous and tumultuous affemblies a fpecies of fedltion.
But the law there, as well as in England, Is now chiefly
H h regulated
S E D r 24
Seclai'ives reffulated by the riot aft, made i Geo. I. only It is to be
obfcrvcd, that the proper officers in Scotland, to make
the proclamation thereby enafted, are fhcriffs, ftewards,
and bailies of rejTalities, or their deputies ; mas;iftrates
of royal boroughs, and all other inferior judges and
maoillrates ; high and petty conftables, or other officers
of the peace, in ai:y co'inty, ilewartry, city, or town.
And in that part of the iHand, the punifhment of the
offence is any thing ihort of death which the judges,
in their difcretion, may appoint.
SEDA IIVES, in medicine, a general name for
fucli medicines as weaken the powers oF nature, fuch as
blood-lettintr, coohng falts, purgatives, 6fc.
wSE DE'FENDENDO, in law, a plea ufcd for him
that is charged with the death of ar.olher, by allesring
that he was under a neceffity of doing what he did in
his own defence : as that the other aiTaiiked him in fucli
a manner, that if he had not done what he did, he mn'.i
haye been in hazard of his own liie. See Homk.idf
and Murder.
SEDI?'IEN'!', the fettlement or dregs of any thing,
or that grofs heavy past of a fluid body which finks to
the bottom ot the veffel when at relt.
SEDLEY (Sir Charles), an Enghfh poet and wit,
the fon of Sir John Sedley of Aylesford in Kent, was
born about the year i 639. At the rettoration he came
to Eondon to join the general jubilee ; and commen-
ced wit, courtier, poet, and gallant. He was fo much
admired, that he became a kind of oracle among the
poets ; which made king Charles tell him, that Na-
ture had given him a patent to be Apollo's viceroy.
The produftions of his pen were fome plays, and feveral
delicately tender amorous poems, in which the foftnefs
of the verfes was fo exquifite, as to be called by the
duke of Buckingham witrhcraft. " '1 here
were no marks of genius or true poetry to be defcried,
(fay the Jiuthors of the Biographta Britannka) ; the
art wholly conhfted in raifing loofe thoughts and lewd
defires, without giving any alarm ; and fo the poifon
worked gently and irrefillibly. Our author, we may
be fure, did not efcape the infeftion of his own art, or
rather was firft tainted himfelf before he Spread the in-
fedfion to others "-— A very ingenious writer of the pre-
fent day, however, fpeaks much more favourably of Sir
Charles Sedley's writings. " He ftudied human na-
ture ; and was dlftinguiflied for the art of making him-
felf agreeable, particularly to the ladies ; for the verfea
of Lord Rochefter, beginning with, SeJ/ey has that pre-
vailing gentle art, &c. fo oi'ten quoted, allude not to his
mx-itwgsy but to his perfmal addrefs.'" [^Langhorn's
Eff'ujions, &c.] — But while he thus grew in reputation
for wit and in favour with the king, he grew poor and
debauched : his eftate was impaired, and his morals were
corrupted. One of his frolics, however, being followed
by an indiftment and a heavy fine, Sir Charles took a
more ferious turn, applied himfelf to bufinefs, and be-
came a member of parliament, in which he was a fre-
quent fpeaker. We find him in the Houfe of Com-
mons in the reign of James IL whofe attempts upon
the conllitution he vigoroully withftood ; and he was
very aftive in bringing on the revolution. This was
thought more extraordinary^ as he had received favours
from" James. But that prince had taken a fancy to Sir
Charles's daughter (though it feems fhe was not very
handfome), aiad, in confequence of his intrigues with
2 ] S E D
her, he created Mifs Sedley countefs of Dorcheiltr,
This honour, fo far from plcafmg, gre?.tly fhocked Sir ^
Charles. liowever libertine he himfelf had been, yet ' '
he could not bear the thoughts of his daughter's dlf-
honour ; and with regard to her exaltation, he only
conhdered it as rendering- her more confpicuoufly in-
famous. He therefore conceived a hatred tor the king ;
and M-om this, as well as otiior motives, readily joined
to difpolfefs liim of the tlirone. A witty fnying of
Sedley's, en this occasion, is recorded. «' T liafe in-
gratitude, (faid Sir Charles) ; and tlicrefore, as the
king has made my daughter acouutefs, •! will endeavour
to make his daughter a queen meaning- the princefs
Mary, married to the prince o^' Orange, v/ho difpoffeffed
James of the th.rone at the revolution. Ele lived to the
beginning of queen Anne's reign ; and his works were
orinted in 2 vols 8vo, I 7 19.
SEDR, or Sedre, the high-prieft of the feft of Ali
among the Perfians. The iedre is appoiilted by the
emperor of Pcrfia, who ufually ccnvers the difrnity on
his'neareft relation. The jurifdiclion of the fedie ex-
tends over all e?Fe6fs deftined for pious purpofes, over
all mofques, hofpitals, ' colleges, fepulchres, and mo-
nalleries. He difpofes of all ecclcfiailical employments,
and nominates all the fuperiors of religious houfes. His
decifions in matters of religion are received as fo many
infallible oracles; he judges of all criminal matters in
his own houfe without appeal. His authority is ba-
lanced by that of the mudfitehid," or firft theologue of
the empire.
SEDUCTION, is the aft of tempting and drawing
afide from the right path, and comprehends every en-
deavour to corrupt any Individual of the human race.
This isthe import of the word in its largeft and mott gene-
ral fenfe ; but It Is commonly employed to exprefs the act
of tempting a virtuous woman to part with her chaftity.
The feducer of female innocence praftifes the fame
ftratagems of fraud to get poffeffion of a woman's per-
fon, that the fiuindkr employs to get poffeffion of his
neighbour's goods or money ; yet the law of honour,
which pretends to abhor deceit, and which impels its vo-
taries to murder every man who prefumes, however jufl-
ly, to fufpeft them of fraud, or to queftlon their vera-
city, applauds the addrefs of a fuccefsful intrigue, tho'
it be well known that the feducer could not have ob-
tained his end without fwearing to the truth of a thou-
fand falfehoods, and calling upon God to witnefs pro-
mifes which he never meant to fulfil.
The law of honour is indeed a very capricious rule,
•which accommodates Itfelf to the pleafures and conve-
niences of higher life ; but the law of the land, which
is enafted for the equal proteftion of high and low,
may be fuppofed to view the guilt of feduAIon with a
more Impartial eye. Yet for this offence, even the laws
of this kingdom have provided no other punifhment
than a pecuniary fatisfadllon to the injured family 5
which, in England, can be obtained only by one ot the
quainteft fidtlons in the world, by the father's bringing
his adllon agalnft the feducer for the lofs of his daugh-
ter's fervice during her pregnancy and nurturing. See
Paley's Moral Philefophy, Book HI. Paitiii. Chap. 3.
The morallft, however, who eftimates the merit or
demerit of aAions, not by laws of human appointments
but by their general confequences as eftablrfhed by the
laws of nature, muH coniider the fedueer as a criminal
S E D
[ 243 1
S E D
\^
of tKe deepeft fjuilt. In every cIvIKzed country, and m
many couHtries. where civilization has made but fmall
progrefs, the virtue of women is collefted as it were in-
to a fmgle point, which they are to guard above all
thlno-s, as that on which their happinefs and reputation
•whoUy depend. At Hrft light this may appear a capri-
cious regulation ; but a moment's refleaion will con-
vince us of the contrary. In the married ftate fo much
confidence is nL-ceffarily repofed in the fidelity of wo-
men to the beds of their hufbands, and evils fo great
refult from the violation of that fidelity, that whatever
contributes in any degree to its prefervation, muft be
a^rreeable to him who, in eftablKhing the laws of na-
ture, intended them to be fubfervient to the real happi-
nefs of all his creatures. But nothing contributes fo
much to preferve the fidelity of wives to their hufbands,
as the imprelTing upon the minds of women the highell
-veneration for the virtue of chaftity. She who, when
unmarried, has been accuftomed to grant favours to dit-
ferent men, will not find it eafy, if indeed poflible, to
refift afterwards the allurements of variety. It is there-
fore a wife inftitution, and agreeable to the will of Him
pofe her nature as to embrue her hands in the blood oF Se'^"^'^";
her iiriploring infant. V ' ■
Even this deed of horror feldom prevents a detec-
tion of the mother's frailty, which is indeed commonly
difcovered, though no child has been_ the conlequence
of her intrigue. He who can feduce is bnfc enough to
betray ; and no woman can part with her honour, and
retain' any well-grounded hope that her amour iLall be
kept fecret. The villain to whom flie furrendered will
glory in liis viftory, if it was with dlfiicuky obtained ;
and if file furrendered at difcretlon, her own behaviour
wlll reveal her fecret. Her reputation is then irretrie-
vably loft, and no future circumfpeftion will be of the
fmallefl avail to recover it. She will be fi^nned by the
virtuous part of her own fex, and treated as a mere in-
ftrument of pleafure by the other. In fuch circum-
fiances flie cannot expeft to be married with advantage.
She may perhaps be able to captivate the heart of a
heedlefs youth, and prevail upon him to unite his fate
to her's before the delirium of his paflion fhall give luni
time for refleaion ; flie may be addreflcd by a man who
is a ftranger to her ftory, and married while he has no
took upon tl ofs of Ac? chaftity as the moft diferace- o^a fta.ion inferior .0 Xr:u ^'ht"! he
f„\ of all crimes • as that which finks them in the order ed with every thing that has befallen he., can baitei tne
ful of all crimes , as t^t vin c delicacy of wedded love for fome pecuniary advantage ;
deeply' Imprefled upon their minds, and is fo clofely af.
fociated with the principle of honour, that they cannot
think but with abhorrence upon the very deed by which
it is loft, fie therefore who by fraud and falfehood
pev'fuades the unfufpeaing girl to deviate in one inftance
foon vanifii, and leave the hufband to the bitternefs of
his own refleaions, which can hardly iail to produce
cruelty to the wife. Of the fecret, to which, in the
fecond cafe, the lover was a ftranger, the hufband wdl
foon make a dlfcovery, or at leaft find room for har-
fr;m"thc'i;ononr of the fex, weakens in a great degree bourlng llronj '"^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
her moral principle ; a«d if he reconcile her to a repe- deceived in a po nt fo daicate "J^
the feducer in his praaices upon other giils that they
lie and fwear and fteal without compunaion ; and
lhat too m*ny of them hefitate not to commit murder
if it can ferve any felfifti purpofe of their own.
The lofs of virtue, though the greateft that man or
woman can fuftain, is not the only injury which the fe-
ducer brings upon the girl whom he deceives. She
- cannot at once reconcile herfelf to proftitution, or even
to the lofs of charaaer ; and while a fenfe of fliame re-
mains in h£r mind, the mifery which flie luffers muft be
fortune to get afterwards a hufband ; but this is a for-
tune which few in her circumftances can reafonably ex-
pea. By far the greater part of thofe who have been
defrauded of their virtue by the arts of tlie feducer fink
deeper and deeper into guilt, till they become at laft
common prottitutes. The public Is then deprived ofc
their fervice as wives and parents ; and inftead of cou-
trlbutinc- to the population of the ftate, and to the fum
of domelllc felicity, thefc outcafts of fociety become fe-
ducers in their turn, corrupting the morals of every
- m nH the milerv wnicn ine uineis iiiuiL uc vi.i..N->-ia — / - i ^ j r
Srtrrtha7n,e has forfeited what in VO'^. '^^^^^'^TrtJ^lZ,:;:^^^
exqulfite. — , , , , r j
the female charaaer is moft valued by both fexes ; and
ilie muft be under the perpetual dread of a dlfcovery.
She cannot even connde in the honour of her feducer,
who may reveal her fecret in a £t of drunkennefs, and
thus rob her of her fame as well as of her virtue ; and
while fhe is in this ftate of anxious uncertainty, _ the
aoony of her ihind muft be infupportable. That it is
fo In faa, the many inftances of child murder by unmar-
ried women of every rank leave us no room to doubt.
every young woman whom they can entice to their own
pradlices. _ , r n u
All this complication of evil is produced at lirit by
arts, which, if employed to deprive a man of his pro-
perty, would fubjea the oft"ender to the execration of
his fellow- fubjeas, and to an ignominious death : but
while the forger of a bill is purfued with relentlefs n-
gour by the minifters of juftice, and the fwindler load-
ed with univerfal reproach, the man who by fraud and
Sy'if aUbefrccu/d prompt any'^oiie fo far ,0 cp- ruin, as weU as to repeate^^ injunes to the puohc «
S E D I 2
Sfduftfor, large, is not defplfcd by hi's own fex, and Is too often
^^^"^""^ carefled even by the virtuous part of the other. Yet
the lofs of property may be eaiily repaired ; the lofs oF
honoxir is irreparable ! It is vain-to plead in alleviation
of this guilt, that women fhould be on their guard
againft the arts of the feducer. Moll imqueftionably
they Oiould ; but arts have been ufed which hardly any
degree of caution would have been fufficient to coun-
teraft. ^ It may as well be faid that, the trader fhould
be on his guard againft the arts of the forger, and ac-
cept of no bill without previoufly confulting him in
whofe name it is written. Cafes, indeed, occur in
trade, in wliich this caution would be impoflible ; but
he muft be little acquainted with the working's of the
human heart, who does not know that fituations like-
wiie occur in life, in which it is equally impoflible for a
gir-1 of virtue and tendernefs to refill the arts of the man
who has completly gained her affedlions.
The mentioning of this circumftance leads us to confi-
der another fpecies of fedudion, which, though not fo
highly criminal as the former, is yet far removed From
innocence ; we mean the praclice which is too prevalent
among young men oF fortune of employing every art
in their power to gain the hearts of heedlefs girls whom
they refolve neither to marry nor to rob oF their ho-
nour. ^ Should a man adhere to the latter part of this
refolution, which is more than common fortitude can
always promife for itfelf, the injury whicli he does to
the objed oF his amufement is yet very great, as he raifes
hopes of the moft fanguine kind merely to difappoint
them, and diverts her affeSions perhaps for ever from
fuch men as, had they been fixed on one of them,
might have rendered her completely happy. Difap-
pointments of this kind have fometimes been fatal to
the unhappy girl ; and even when they have neither de-
prived her of life, nor difordered her reafon, they have
often kept her wholly from marriage, which, whatever
It be to a man, is that from which every woman ex-
peds her chief happinefs. We cannot therefore con-
elude this article more properly than with warning our
female readers not to give up their hearts haftily to men
whofe ftation in life is much higher than their own ;
and we beg leave to afl"ure every one of them, that the
man who folicits the laft favour under the moft folemn
promife of a fubfequent marriage, is a bafe feducer, who
prefers a momentary gratification of his own to her
honour and happinefs through life, and has no intention
to fulfil his promife. Or, if he^ fhould by any means
be compelled to fulfil it, fhe may depend upon .much ill
treatment in return for her premature compliance with
his bafe defires.
SEDUM, ORPINE, in botany : A genus of the pen-
tagynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 13th or-
der, Succulenta. The calyx is quinquefid ; the corolla
is pentapetalous, pointed, and fpreading ; there are five
neftariferous fquamae or fcales at the bafe of the ger-
men. The capfules arc five.
The fpecies are 20 in number, i. The Verticilla-
tum ; 2. Telephium ; 3. Anacampferos ; 4. Aizoon ;
5. Hybridum ; 6. Populifolium ; 7. Stellatum ; 8. Ce-
paea; 9. Libanoticam ; 10. Dafyphyllum ; 11. Re-
flexum ; i z. Rupeftre j j 3. Lineare ; 14. Hifpanicum ;
J 5. Album; 16. Acre J 17. Sexangulare; 18. Annuumj
44 ] S E D
19. Villofum ; 20. Atratum. The following fpecies
are the moft remarkable.
I . The telephium, common orpine, or live long-, hath
a perennial root, compofed of many knobbed tubercles,
fending up ereft, round, fucculcnt italks, br anching half
a yard or two feet high, garnifhed wich oblong, plane,
ferrated, fucculent leaves, and the ftalks terminated by
a leafy corymbi-is of flowers, of differ-ent colours in the
varieties. This fpecies is an inhabitant of wooit; and
dry places in Engknd, &c. but has been long a refi.
dent oF gardens for variety and medical ufe. 2. '['he
anacampferos, or decumbent evergreen Jtalian orpine,
hath a fibrous perennial root, decumbenlf or trailing
ftalks, wedge-fhaped entire leaves, and the ftalks
terminated by a corymbus of pur-ple flowers. 3. The
rupeftre, rock fedum, or ftone-crop of St Vincent's rock,
hath flender, trailing, purple ftalks ; fhort, thick, awL
fhaped, fucculent, glaucous leaves in clufters, quinquefa-
rioufly imbricated round the ftalks, and the ftalks ter-
minated by roundifh cymofe bimches of bright yellow
flowers. It grows naturally on St Vincent's rock near
Briftol, and other rocky places in Europe. 4. The
aizoon, or Siberian yellow orpine, hath a tuberculate,.
f-brous, pei-ennial root; many upright, round, fucculent,
ftalks, a foot high ; lanceolated, plane, ferrated, thick-
ifti leaves ; and the ftalks terminated by a clofe-fittrng
cymofe clufter oF bright yellow flowers. 5. The re-
flexum, reflexed fmall yellow fedum, or prick-madam^
hath a flender fibrous perennial root ; fmall trailing fuc-
culent ftalks, garniflied with thick, awl-fliaped, fuccu-
lent leaves fparfedly, the lower ones recurved, and the
ftalks terminated by reflexed fpikes of bright yellow
flowers. It grows naturally on old walls and buildings
in England, &c. 6. The acre, acrid fedam, commoa
ftone-crop of the wall, or wall-pepper, hath Fmall fibry
roots, very flender fucculent ftalks four or five inches
high, very fmall, fuboval, gibbons, ereft, alternate leaves,
clofc together, and the ftalks terminated by trifid cy-
mofe bunches of fmall yeflow flowers. This fort grows
abundantly on rocks, old walls, and tops of buildinirs,
almoft everywhere, which often appear covered with the
flowers in fummer. 7. The fexangulare, or fexangular
ftone-crop, hath a fibry pei-ennial root ; thick, fhort,
fucculent ftalks ; fmall, fuboval, gibbous, ereft leaves
clofe together, arranged fix ways imbricatim, and the
ftalks terminated by bunches of yellow flowers. It
grows on rocky and other dry places in England, &c.
8. The album, or white ftone-crop, hath fibry perennial
roots ; trailing flender ftalks, fix or eight inches long ;
obloiig, obtufe, fefflle, fpreading leaves ; and the ftalks
terminated by branchy cymofe bunches of white flowers.
This grow's on old walls, rocks, and buildini^js, in Eng-
land, &c. 9. The hifpanicum, or Spanilh fedum, hath
fibrous perennial roots, crowned with clufters of taper,
acute, fucculeiit leaves ; flender fucculent ftalks. Four
or five inches high, garnifhed alfo with, taper leaves, and
terminated by downy cymofe clufters of white flowers.
All thefe fpecies of fedum are hai-dy herbaceous fuc-
culent perennials, durable in root, but moftly annual ia
ftalk, &c. which, rifing in fpring, flower in June, July,
and Auguft, in different forts ; the flowers confilling
iiniverFally of five fpreading petals, generally crowning
the ftalks numeroufly in corymbofe and cymofe bunches
and fpikes, appearing tolerably confpicuous, and are
fuc-
SEE [2
fuceeeded by plenty of feeds in autnmn, by v/hich they
may be propagated, alfo abundantly by parting the
roots, and by flips or cuttings of the ftalks in fummer;
in all of which methods they rejidily grow and fpread
very fall into tufted bunches : being all of fucculent
growth, they confequently delight moft in dry foils, or
in any dry rubbilhy earth.
Ufes. As flowering plants, they are moftly employ-
ed to embellifli rock-work, ruins, and the like' places,
planting either the roots or cuttings of the (hoots in
a little mud or any moid foil at fiift, placing it in the
crevices, where they will foon root and fix themfelvcs,
and fpread about very agreeably. For economical pur-
pofes, the reflexum and rupeftre are cultivated in Hol-
land and Germany, to mix with lettuce in fallads, The
w^U-pepper is fo acrid, that it blifters theflcin when ap-
plied eyternally. Taken inwardly, it excites vomiting.
In fcorbutic cafes and quartan agues, it is faid to be an
excellent medicine under proper management. Goats
cat it ; cows, horfes, fheep, and fwine, refufe it.
SEED, in phyfiology, a fubftance prepared by na-
ture far the reproduftion and confervation of the fpecies
both in anim.als and plants. See Botany, itdi. iv.
p. 435. ; and Physiology, feft. xii,
SEEDLINGS, amony; gardeners, denote fuch roots
of gilliflowers, &c. as come from feed fown. Alio
the young tender Ihoots of any plants that are newly
fown.
SEEDY, In the brandy trade, a term ufed by the
dealers to denote a fault that is found in feveral parcels
of French brandy, which renders them unfaleable. The
French fuppofe that thefe brandies obtain the flavour
which they exprefs by this name, from weeds that grow
among the vines from whence the wine ol- which this
brandy is preffed was made.
SEEING, the perceiving of external objefts by
means of the eye. For an account of the organs of
light, and the nature of vifion, fee Anatomy, fe<5l. vi.
and Optics, page 292, et feq.
SEEKS, a religious feft fettled at Patna, and fo
called from a word contained in one of the command-
ments of their founder, which fignifies learn thou. In
books giving an account of oriental feSs and oriental
cuftoms, we find mention made both of Seeks and Sdks ;
and we are ftrongly inclined to think that the fame
tribe is meant to be denominated by both words. If
fo, different authors write very differently of their prin-
ciples and manners. We have already related what we
then knew of the Seiks under the article Hindoos,
p. 530 ; but in the Aiiatic Refearches, Mr Wilkins
gives a much more amiable account of the Seeks^ which
we lay before our readers with pleafure.
The Seeks are a feft ditllnguifhed both from the
Muffulmans and the worfliippers of Brahma ; and, from
our author's account of them, mufl be an amiable peo-
ple. He aflced leave to enter into their chapel : 'i hey
faid it was a place of worfhip, open to all men, but in-
timated that he muft take off his fhoes. On comply-
ing with this ceremony, he was politely condufted into
the hall, and feated upon a carpet in the midft of the
affembly. The whole building forms a fquare of about
40 feet. The hall is in the centre, divided from four
other apartments by wooden arches, upon pillars of the
fame materials. The walls above the arches were hung
wit^ European looking-glafTes in gilt frames, aad with
45 ] see;
pidures. On the left hand, as one enters, is the chan-
cel, which is furnifhcd with an altar covered with cloth
of gold, raifed a little above the ground in a declining
pofitlon. About it were fcveral flower-pots and rofe-
water bottles, and three urns to receive the donations
of the charitable. On a low deflc, near the altar, flood
a great book, of folio fize, from which fome portions
are daily read in the divine fervice. When notice was
given that it was noon, the congregation arranged them-
felvcs upon the carpet on each fide of the hall. The
great book and deflc were brought from the altar, and
placed at the oppofite extremity. An old filver-haired
man kneeled down before the deflc, with his face to-
wards the altar, and by him fat a man with a drum,
and two or three with cymbals. The book was now
opened, and the old man began to chant to the time of
the inflruments, and at the conclufion of every verfe
moft of the congregation joined chorus in a refponfe,
with countenances exhibiting great marks of joy. Their
tones were not harfh ; the time was quick ; and Mr Wil-
kins learned that the fubjed was a hymn in praife of the
unity, omniprefence, and omnipotence of the Deity. The
hymn concluded, the whole company got up and prefent-
ed their faces, with joined hands, towards the altar in the
attitude of prayer. The prayer was a fort of litany
pronounced by a young man in a loud and diflindl
voice ; the people joining, at certain periods, in a ge-
neral refponfe. This prayer was followed by a fhort
bleffing from the old man, and an. invitation to the af-
fembly to partake of a friendly feafl. A fhare was of-
fered to Mr Wilkins, who was too polite to refufe it.
It was a kind of fweetmeat eompofed of fugar and
fliower mixed up with clarified butter. They were next
fervcd with a few fugar plums ; and thus ended the
feafl and ceremony.
In the courfe of converfation Mr Wilkins learned that
the founder of this fed was Naneek Sa/.', who lived about
400 years ago ; who left behind him a book, eompofed
by himfelf in verfe, containing the doftrines he had e-
ftabhfhed ; that this book teaches, that there is but one
God, filling all fpace, and pervading all matter ; and
that there will be a day of retribution, when virtue will
be rewarded, and vice puniflied, (Our author forgot
' to aflc in what manner. ) It forbids murder, theft, and
fuch other deeds as are by the majority of mankind
efleemed crimes, and inculcates the praftice of all the
virtues ; but, particularly, a univerfal philanthropy and
hofpitallty to flrangers and travellers. It not only
commands univerfal toleration, but forbids difputes with
thofe of another perfuafion. If any one fhow a fmcere
inclination to be admitted among them, any five or
more Seeks being affcmbled in any place, even on the
highway, they fend to the firfl fhop where fweetmeat^^
are fold, and procure a very fmall quantity of a parti-
cular kind called hatafd ( Mr Wilkins does not tell us of
what it is comf>ofed), which having diluted in pure wa-
ter, they fprinkle fome of it on the body and eyes of
the profelyte, whilflone of the befl inftrudled repeats to
him the chief canons of their faith, and exafts from him
a folemn proralfe to abide by them the reft of his hfe..
They offered to admit Mr Wilkins into their fociety ;
but he declined the honour, contenting himfelf with
their alphabet, which they told him to guard as the
apple of his eye, as it was a facred character. Mr Wil~
kias fiuds it but little differsnt from the Dewanagari.
The.
Seckj.
S E G
t -246 ]
S E G
Segovia.
Eegeberg The knc^uage itfelf is a mixture of Perfian, Arklalc, and
Shanfcrit, grafted upon the provincial dialeft of Pun-
jab, which is a kind of Hindowee, or, as we commonly
call it, Moors.
SEGEBERG, a town of Germany, in the dnchy of
Holftein, and in Wagria ; with a calLle Handing on a
.hi'ih mountain, confiftin',!; of h'n>eftone, large quantities
of which are carried to Hamburg and Lubeck. It be-
longs to Denmark, and is feated on the river Treve, in
E. Lomr. 10. 9. N. Lat. 54. o.
SEGEDIN, a ftrong town of Lower Hungary, in
the county of Czongrad, with a caftle. The Imperia-
lifts took it from the Turks in 1686. It is feated at
the confluence of the rivers TefTe asd'Mafroch, in E.
Long. 10. 35. N. Lat. 46. 28.
SEGMENT of a Circle, in geometry, is that part
of the circle contained between a chord and an arch of
the fame circle.
S£GNi\, a city of Croatia, belonging to the houfe
of Aiiflrla, and feated on the coaft of the Gulph of
Venice. It was formerly a place of ftrength and great
importance ; but it has fuffcred many calamities, and
its inhabitants at prefent do not amount to ycoo. In
the beginning of this century it fent 50 merchant
fhips to fea ; but the inconveniency of its fituatlon and
badnefs of its harbour, in which the fea is never calm,
difcouraged navigation, and Segna has now very few
Hiips belonging to it. Among the cuftoms of the Seg-
nans, Mr Fortis mentions one relative to the dead,
which for its fingularity may be worthy of notice.
.Portis's " All the relations and friends of the family go to
Trni eh into kifs the corpfe, by way of taking leave, before bur ial,
Dalmotia. Y.?kck\ of them uncovers the face, over which a hand- ,
kerchief is fpread, more or lefs rich according to the
family ; having klffed the dead perfon, every one throws
another handkerchief over the face ; all which remain
to the heirs, and fometimes there are 20, 30, and more
at this ceremony. Some throw all thefe handkerchiefs
into the grave with the corpfe ; and this, in former
times, was the general cuftom ; bnt then they were
rich. This feems to have been brought into ufe as a
fubftitute for the ancient "u^Ty? lachrimatorii." E. Long.
J 5. 2r. N. Lat. 45. 22.
SEGNT, an ancient town of Italy, in the Campag-
>T)a of Rome, with a bifliop's fee, and the title of duchy.
It is faid that organs were firft invented here. It is
feated on a mountain. E. Long. 13. 15. N. Lat. 41. 50.
SEGORBE, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
"Valencia, with the title of a duchy, and a bifhop's fee.
It is feated on the lide of a hill, between the moun-
tains, in a foil very fertile In corn and wine, and where
there are quarries of fine marble. It was taken from
the Moors in 1 245 ; and the Romans thought it worth
their while to carry fome of the marble to Rome. W.
Long. o. 3. N. Lat. 39. 48.
SEGOVIA, an ancient city of Spain, of great power
\ in the time of the Csefars, is built upon two hills near
the banks of the Arayda in Old Caftile. W. Long. 3.
. 48. N. Lat. 41.0. It is ftlU a bifhop's fee, and is di-
ilinguKhed for fome venerable remains of antiquity. In
the year 1525 the city contained 50CO families, but
now they do not furpafs 2000, a fcanty population for
2 5 parifhes ; yet, befides 2 1 churches and a cathedral,
there are 2 1 convents.
The firft objed ia Segovia jhat attrafts the eye is
the aqueduA, which the fingular fituation of the citv Seg
renders neceflary. As it is built upon two hills, and
the valley by which they are fcparated, and extends
confiderably in every direftion, it was difficult for a
part of the citizens to be fupplied with water. The
difficulty was removed, according to the opinion of the
learned, in the reign of Trajan, by this aqueduft, which
is one of the moft. alloniihing and the belt preferved of
the Roman works. In the opinion of Mr Swinburne, Sivinb
who furveyed it in 1776, and who feems to have given
a very accurate account of the curlofities of Segovia, it^'^*"'%
is fuperior in elegance of proportion to the Pont du
Gard at Nifmes. It is fo perfcdlly virell preferved,
that it does not feem leaky in any part. From the firft \
low arches to the refervoir in the town, its length is
2400 Spanifh feet ; its greateit height (in the Plaza
del Azobejo at the foot of the walls) is 104; It is there
compofed of a double lovv of arches, built of large fquare
ftones without mortar, and over them a hollow wall of
coarfer materials for the channel of the water, covered
with large oblong flags. Of the lower range of arcades,
which are 15 feet wide by 65 high, there are 42. The
upper arches are 119 in number, their height 27 Spa-
nifti feet, their breadth feventeen, the tranfverfal thick-
nefs, or depth of the piers, eight feet.
The cathedral is a mixture of the Gothic and Moor- Travi
ifli a'chiteftiire. The infide is very fpacious and of ma-'^/"""
jeftic hmplicity. The windows are well difpofed, and d^^^"^
the great altar has been lately decorated with the fineft
Grenadian marble. But it is to be regretted, that in
this cathedral, as well as in moft others of Spain, the
choir is placed In the middle of the nave. 'I'he church
is nearly upon the model of the great church of Sala-
manca, but it is not fo highly finlihed.
The alcazar, or ancient palace of the Moors, ftands
in one of the fineft pofitlons poflible, on a rock rifing
above the open country. A very pretty river wafhes
the foot of the precipice, and the city lies admirably
well on each fide on the brow of the hill ; the declivity
16 woody, and the banks charmingly rural ; the fnovvy
mountains and dark forefts of Saint Ildetonzo compofe
an awful back-ground to the pidture. Towards the
town there is a large court before the great outward
tower, which, as the prifon of Gil Bias, is fo well de-
fcribed by Le Sage, that the fubjeft requires no farther
explanation. The reft of the buildings form an antique
palace, which has feldom been inhabited by any but pri-
foners fince the reign of Ferdinand and Ifabella, who
were much attached to this fituation. There are fome
magnificent halls in it, with much gilding In the ceil-
ings, in a feml-barbarous tafte. AH the kings of Spain
are feated in ftate along the cornice of the great faloon ;
but it is doubtful whether they are like the princes
whofe names they bear; if that refemblance, however, be
wanting, they have no other merit to claim. The
royal apartments are now occupied by a college of
young gentlemen cadets, educated at the king's ex-
pence in all the fciences requifite for forming an engi--
neer. The grand-mafter of the ordnance refides at Se-
govia, which is the head eftablifhment of the Spanifli
artillery.
The mint is below the alcazar, a large building, the
moft ancient place of coinage in the kingdom. The
machines for melting, ftamping, and milling the coin,
are worked by water : but tlicre is reafon to believe
that
8 E J
[ 24
that Seville ha9 at prefent more budnefs, as being near-
er the f-urce oF riches, the port of Cadiz, where th(?
ingots of America are landed.
The unevcnnefs of the crown of the hill gives a wild
look to this city. Moft of the ftteets are crooked and
dirty, the houles wooden and very wretched ; nor do
the inhabitants appear niucli the richer for their doth
manufaaory. Indeed, it is not in a very flounOnng
condition, but what cloth th.ey make rs very f^ne.
The country about Segovia has the reputation of be-
in</ the beil for rearing the kind of (beep that produ-
ces the beautiful Spanifh wool; but as thofe flocks wan-
der over many other parts of the kingdom, Segovia If ems
to have no exclufive title to this reoutation. Segovia
(fays Mv M ownfend, whofe valuable travels will be
read with much pleafure) was once famous for its cloth
ma-'e on the king's account ; but other nations have
fmce become rivals in this branch, and the manutafture
in this city has been gradually declining. When the
king gave it up to a private company, he left about
^^o-o 1. in trade ; but now he is no hnger a partner m
ihe bufinefs. In the year 1612 were made hero
25,500 pieces of cloth, which confumed 44,625 quin-
tals of wool, employed 34,189 perfons ; but at prefent
they make only about 4000 pieces.. The principal im-
perfeftions of this cloth are, that the thread is not even,
and that much greafe remains in it when it is delivered
to the dyer ; in confequence of which the colour is apt
to fail. Yet, independently of imperfedtions, fo many
are the difadvantages under which the manufaaure la-
bours, that foreiuners can alford to pay 3 1. for the ar-
roba of fine wool, for which the Spaniard gives no more
than 20 (hiUings, and after all his charges can command
the market even in the ports of Spain.
Segovia (New), a town of North America, in New
Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala; feated on the
river Yare, on the confines of the province ot Hondu-
ras. W. Long. 84. 30. N. Lat 13. 25.
Segovia, a town of America, in Terra Firma, and
j'n the province of Venezuela, feated on a river, near a
very high mountain, where there are mines of gold. W.
LoufT. 65. 30. N. Lat. 8. 20. _ , .,
Segovia, a town of Afia, in the ifiand ot Manila,
?nd one of the largeft of the Philippines, feated at the
north end of the ihand, 240 miles north of Manila, and
fubjea to Spain. E.Long. 120.59. N. Lat. 18,
SEGREANT, Is the herald's word for a griffin
when drawn in a leaping pofture and difplaying his
wings as if ready to fly. , . r r 1 , r
SEGUE, in the Italian muiic, is often found before
arm, alleluja, amen, &c. to fbow that thofe portions or
parts are to be fung immediately after the laft note of
that part over which it is writ ; but if thefe words 7?
placet, or ad libitum, are joined therewith, it fignifies,
that thefe portions may be fung or not at pleaiure.
SEGUIERIA, in botany ; a plant belonging to
the clafs of polyandria, and the order of monogynia.
The calyx is pentaphyllous ; the phylla ^ are oblong,
concave, coloured, and permanent ; there is no corolla.
The capfulc is oblong and monofpermous, the large ala
terminating in fmall lateral alae. There is only one fpe-
cies, the americana.
SEJAN T, a terra ufed in heraldry, when a lion, or
7 \ S K J
Other beaft, {s drawn in an efcutcbeon fitting hke a caf S«jaf5U«'.
with his fore- feet ftral.Tht.
SEJANUS (vElIus), a native of Vulfinum In Tuf-
cany, who diilinguilbed himfelf in the court of Tiberi-
us. His father's name was Selus Strabo ; a Roman
knight, commander of the pretorian guards. His mo-
ther was defeended from the Junian family. Sejanus
firil gained the favours of Caius Caefar, the grandfon of
Auguftus, but afterwards he attached himfelf to the in-
terefl and the views of Tiberius, who then fat on the-
imperial throne. The emperor, who was naturally of
a fufpicious temper, was free and open v/ith Sejanus,
and while he dlllrulled others, he communicated his
greateft fecrcts to this fawning favourite. S
Lemprisre^ s
^ im-Q.^^,-,^^^^,
proved this confidence ; and when he had found that he
pofTefled the efleem of Tiberius, he next endeavoured
to become the favourite of the ibldiers, and the darlino;
of the fenate. As commander of the pretorian guards
he was the fccond man in Rome, and in that important
office he made ufe of infinuations and every mean arti-
fice to make himfelf beloved and revered. His afFabillty
and condefcenfion gained him the hearts of the common
foldlers, and, by appointing his own favourites and ad-
herents to places of truft and honour, all the officers and
centurions of the army became devoted to- his interdl.
The views of Sejanus in this were well known ; yet, to.
advance with morfj fuccefs, he attempted to gain the af-
feaion of the fenators. In this he met with no oppo-
fition. A man who has the difpofal of places of ho-
nour and dignity, and wly> has the command of the pub-
lic money, cannot but be the favourite of thofe who are
in need of his affiftance. It is even fald, that Sejanus ■
gained to his views all the wives of the lienators, by a
private and moft fecret promife of marriage to each of
them, whenever he had made himfelf independent and^
fovereign of Rome. Yet, however fuccefsful with the
beft and nobleft families in tlie empire, Sejanus had to
combat numbers in the houfe of the emperor; but thefe
feeming ©bflacles were foon removed. All the children
and grandchildren of Tiberius were facrificed to the
ambition of the favourite under various pretences ; and'
Drufus the fon of the emperor, by ftriking Sejanus,
made his deflruaion fure and inevitable. Livia, the
wife of Drufus,. was gained by Sejanus ; and, though
the mother of many children, flie was prevailed upon to
aflift her adulterer in the murder of her hufband, and
fhe confented to marry him when Drufus was dead. No
fooner was Drufus poifoned, than Sejanus openly decla-
red his wifn to marry Livia. This was ftrongly oppo-
fed by Tiberius ; and the emperor, by recommending
Germanicus tp the fenntors for his fucceffor, rendered
Sejanus bold and determined. He was more urgent in
his demands ; and when he could not gain the confent of
the emperor, he perfuaded him to retire to folitude from
the noife of Rome and the troubles of the government.
T iberius, naturally fond of eafe and luxury, yielded to
his reprefentations and retired to Campania, leaving Se-
janus at the head of the empire. This was highly gra-
tifying to the favourite, but he was not without a ma-
tter. Prudence and moderation might have made him
what he wifhed to be; but having offended the emperor
beyond forgivenefs, he refolved to retrieve his lofs, and
by one vigorous effort to decide the fate of the erapir*.
He called together his friends and followers j he paid
court
Murfhy'}
1 acitusy
Book V.
S E J [ J
Scjanu* court to fueli as feemcd diffafFefted ; he lield foith re-
""S-^ wards and promifes ; and, having increafed the number
of his partifang, formed a bold confpiracy, refolved by
any means to feize the fovereign power.
_ A powerful league was formed with aftonifhing rapi-
dity, and great numbers of all dcfcriptions, fenators as
well as military men, entered into the plot. Among
thefe, Satrius Secundus was the confidential friend and
prime agent of the minlller: Whatever was this man's
■motive, whether fear, or views of intereft, or ingratitude
(for no principle of honour can be imputed to him), he
refolved to betray the fecret to Tiberius. For this pur-
pofe he addrelTed himfelf to Antonfa, the daughter of
Anthony the triumvir, the widow of Drufus, and the
mother of Germanicus. When this illuftrious woman,
\vho was honoured by the court and revered by the
people, heard the particulars, (he fent difpatches to the
emperor by one of her flaves. Tiberius was attoniflied,
but not difmayed. The danger prefTed ; his habitual
flownefs was out of feafon ; the time called for vigour
and decifive meafures. He fent Macro to Rome, with
a fpecial commiffion to take upon him the command of
the praetorian guards. Ke added full inftrudions for
his conduft in all emergencies. Early is the morning
on the 15th, before the kalends of November, a report
was fpread, that letters had arrived at Rome, in which
the emperor fignificd his intention to afibciate Sejanus
with himfelf in the tribunitian power. The fenate was
fummoned to meet ia the temple of Apollo, near the
imperial palace. Sejanus attended without delay. A
party of the prastoi-ians followed him, Macro met him
in the veftibule of the temple. He approached the mi-
iiifter with all demonftrations of profound refpeft, and
taking him afide, <' Be not furprifed (he faid) that you
have no letter from the prince : it is his pleafure to de-
clare you his colleague in the tribunitian power ; but
he thinks that a matter of fo much importance fhould be
communicated to the fathers by ihe voice of the confuls,
I am going to dehver the emperor's orders." Sejanus,
-elated with joy, andfiufhed with his new dignity, enter-
ed the fenate-houfe ; Macro followed him. As foon as
the confuls arrived, he delivered the letter from Tiberi-
us, and immediately went forth to the praetorian guards.
He informed them, that by order of the prince, a large
donative was to be diftributed among the foldiers. He
added, that, by a new commiffion, he himfelf was
appointed their commanding officer ; and, if they
followed him to the camp, they would there re-
ceive the promifed bounty. The lure was not thrown
out in vain : the prastorian guards quitted their fta-
tton. Laco, who flood near at hand, immediately fur-
Koimded the fenate-houfe with a body of the city co.
horts.
The letter to the confuls was confufed, obfcure, and
tedious, only glancing at Sejanus, till at lad the lan-
guage of inveftive left no room for doubt. Sejanus
kept his feat like a man benumbed, fenfelefs and ftupid
with aflonifhmcnt. His friends, who a httle before
congratulated him on his new dignity, deferted him on
«very fide. He was commanded by the conful to rife
and follow him, and being loaded with irons, was con-
duced to prifon. His downfal filled the city with ex-
ultation. The populace, who worfliipped him in the
hour of profperity, rejoiced to fee the fad cataftrophe
Xo which he was now reduced. They followed in crowds,
48 ]
S E I
rending the air with fiiouts, and pouring forth a ton-ent Sei>;
ol abufe and fcurrilous language. The prifoner endea- '
voured to hide his face ; but the mob delighted to fee ^"^'^
remorfe and fliame and guilt and hor ror in every fea-
ture of his dillrafted countenance. They ixviled him
for his ads of cruelty ; they laughed at liis wild ambi-
tion \ they tore down his images, and dadied his ftatues
to pieces. He 'was doomed by 'J'iberius to fufFer death
on that very day ; but, as he had a powerful fadion in
the fenate, it was not thought advifable, for the mere
formahty oF a i-eguhr condemnation, to hazard a de-
bate. _ Pi-ivate orders were given to Macro to difpatch
lum without delay ; but the conful, feeing the difpofi-
tions of the people, and the calm neutrality of the prae-
torian guards, judged it bell to re-affibmble the fathers.
'Fhey met in the temple of Concord. With one voice
Sejanus was condemned to die, and the fentence was
executed without delay. He was ftrangled in the pri-
fon. His body was dragged to the Gemonite, and, af-
ter every fpecies of infult from the populace, at the end
of three days was thrown into the Tiber. Such was
the tr-agic end of that ambitious favourite. He fell a
terrible example to all, who, in any age or country,
may hereafter endeavour by their vices to rife above
their fellow-citizens.
SEIGNIOR, is, In its general fignification, the fame
with lord ; but is particulai-ly ufed for the lord of the fee
as of a manor, as fe'igneur amon j; the feudiils is he who
grants a fee or benefit out of the land to another ; and
the reafon is, becaufe having granted away the ufe and
profit of the land, the property or dominion he Hill re- '
tains in himfelf.
SEIGNIORAGE, is a royalty or prerogative of the
king, whereby he claims an allowance of gold and filver
bought in the mafs to be exchanged for coin. Asfeig-
niorage, out of every pound weight of gold, the king
had for his coin 5 s. of which he paid to the mailer of
the mint fometimes i s. and fometimes i s. 6 d. Upon
every pound weight of filver, the feigniorage anfwered
to the krng in the time of Edward III. was 1 8 penny-
weights, which then amounted to about i s. out of which
he fometimes paid 8 d. at others 9 d. to the mafter. In
the reign of king Henry V. the king's feigniora <-*e of
every pound of filver was 15 d. &c.
SEIGNIORY, is borrowed from the French fe'tg.
neur'ie, I. e. dom'tnatus, imperium, pr'incipatus ; and ficrni.
fies with us a manor or lordfiiip, feigniory de fokemans.
Seigniory in grofs, feems to be the title of him who is
not lord by means of any manor, but immediately in his
own perfon ; as_ tenure in capite, whereby one holds of
the king as of his crown, is feigniory in grofs
SEIKS. See H INDOSTAN, p. 530.
SEISIN, in law, fignifies polTefrion. In this fenfe
we fay, premier feiftn, for the firlt poffeffion, &c.
Seifin is divided into that in deed or in fail, and that
in law. A feifin in deed is where a pofl*eflion is aftually
taken : but a feifin in laiv is, where lands defcend, and
the party has not entered thereon ; or in other words,
it is where a perfon has a right to lands, &c. and is by
wrong diffeifed of them. A feifin in law is held to be
fufficient to avow on ; though to the bringing of an af-
fize, a£lual feifin is.required; and where feifin is alleged,
the perfon pleading it muft fiiow of what ettate he is
feifed, &c.
Seifin of a fuperior fervice is deemed to be a feifin
7 of
S E I
of all fiipeplor and eafoal fervi'ce* that ar« incident
thereto ; and feifm of a leflee for years, is fufFicient
for him in reverfion.
Livery of Seisin, in law, an effential ceremony in
the conveyance of landed property ; being no other
than the pure feodal inveftiture, or delivery of corpo-
ral pofTeffion of the land or tenement. This was held
abfolutely neceflary to complete the donation ; Nam
fiudam fine invefiitura nulla modo conflitu'i potuit : and
an eftate was then only perfeA when, as Fleta cxprefieB
jt in our law, fit juris et feiflnne conJun3io. See Feof-
WENT.
Inveflitures, in their original rife, were probably in-
tended to demonftrate in conquered countries the aftual
pofTeflion of the lord ; and that he did not grant a bare
litigious right, which the foldier was ill qualified to
profecute, but a peaceable and firm pofTeffion. And,
at a time when writing was fddom praftifed, a mere
oral gift, at a diftance from the fpot that was given,
was not likely to be either long or accurately retained
in the memory of byftanders, who were very little inte-
refted in the grant. Afterwards they were retained as
a public and notorious aft, that the country might take
notice of and teftify the transfer of the eftate; and that
fuch as claimed title by other means might know againfl
whom to bring their actions.
In all well-governed nations, fome notoriety of this
kind has been ever held requifite, in order to acquire
and afcertain the property of lands. In the Roman
law, plenum dominium was not faid to fubfift unlefs where
a man had both the rigbt and the corporal poffi-ffion s
which pofTeflion could not be acquired without both an
aftual intention to pofTefs, and an adual feifin, or entry
into the premifTes, or part of them in the name of the
whole. And even in ecclefiaflical promotions, where
the freehold pafTes to the perfon promoted, corporal
pofTeffion is required at this day to vefl the property
completely in the new proprietor ; who, according to
the diftinftion of the canonifts, acquires thej«j ad rem^
or inchoate and imperfeft right, by nomination and in-
ftitution ; but not the jus in re, or complete and full
Tight, unlefs by corporal pofTeffion. Therefore in dig-
nities pofTeffion is given by inftalment ; in re£lories and
vicarages by indiftion ; without which no temporal rights
accrue to the minifler, though every ecclefiaftical power
ic vefted in him by inftitution. So alfo even in defcents
of lands, by our law, which are cad on the heir by aft
of the law itfelf, the heir has not plenum dominium, or
full and complete ownerlhip, till he has made an aftual
corporal entry into the lands : for if he dies before entry
made, his heir fhall not be entitled to take the pofTeffion,
hut the heir of the perfon who was lafl aftually feifed.
Xt is not therefore only a mere right to enter, but the
aftual entry, that makes a man complete owner ; fo as
to tranfmit the inheritance to his own heirs : nan jus^
fed feifina, facit flipitem.
Yet the corporal tradition of lands being fometimea
inconvenient, a fymboHcal delivery of pofTeffion was in
many cafes anciently allowed ; by transferring fome-
thing near at hand, in the prefence of credible wit-
nefTes, which by agreement fhould ferve to reprefent
t-he very thing defigned to be conveyed ; and an occu-
pancy of this fign or fymbol was permitted as equiva-
lent to occupancy of the land itfelf. Among the Jews
we find the evidence of a purchafe thus defined in the
Vol. XVIL Part L
[ 249 1
S E I
book of Ruth : Now this was the manner In former
time in Ifrael, concerning redeeming and concerning
changing, for to confirm all things : a man plucked off
his ftioe, and gave it to his neighbour ; and this was a
teftimony in Ifrael." Among the ancient Goths and
Swedes, contrafts for the fale of lands were made in
the prefence of witnefTea, who extended the cloak of
the buyer, while the feller call a clod of the land into
it, in order to give pofTeffion ; and a flaff or wand was
alfo delivered from the vender to the vendee, which
pafTed through the hands of the witncfTes. With our
Saxon anceftors the dehvery of a turf was a neceflary
folemnity to eftabh'fh the conveyance of lands. And,
to this day, the conveyance of our copyhold eftates is
ufually made from the feller to the lord or his fteward
by delivery of a rod or verge, and then from the lord to
the purchafer by re-delivery of the fame in the prefence
of a jury of tenants.
Conveyances in writing were the laft and moft re-
fined improvement. The mere delivery of pofTeffion,
either aftual or fymbolical, depending on the ocular
teftimony and remembrance of the witnefTes, was liable
to be forgotten or mifreprefented, and became frequent-
ly incapable of proof. Befides, the new occafions and
neceffities introduced by the advancement of commerce,
required means to bedevifedof charging and incumber-
ing eftates, and of making them liable to a multitude of
conditions and minute defignations, for the purpofes of
raifing money, without an abfolute fale of the land;-
and fbmetimes the like proceedings were found ufeful
in order to make a decent and competent provifion for
the numerous branches of a family, and for other do-
meftic views. None of whic 1 could be effected by a
mere, fimple, corporal transfer of the foil from one man
to another, which was principally calculated for convey-
ing an abfolute nnlimited dominion. Written deeds
were therefore introduced, in order to fpecify and per-
petuate the peculiar purpofes of the party who convey-
ed : yet ftill, for a very long feries of years, they were
never made ufe of, but in company with the more an- '
cient and notorious method of transfer by delivery of
corporal pofTeffion.
Livery «f feifin, by the common law, is necefTary to
be made upon every grant of an eftate of freehold in he-
reditaments corporeal, whether of inheritance or for hfe
only. In hereditaments incorporeal it is impoffible to
be made; for they are not the objeft of the fenfes; and
in leafe^ for years, or other chattel interefts, it is not
necefTary. In leafes for years indeed an aftual entry is
neceflary, to veft the eftate in the lefTee: for a bare leafe
gives him only a right to enter, which is called his inte-
reft in the term, or intereffe termini : and when he enters
in purfuance of that right, he is then, and not before,
in pofTeffion of his term, and complete tenant for years.
This entry by the tenant himfelf ferves the purpofe of
notoriety, as well as livery of feifin from the granter
could have done ; which it would have been improper
to have given in this cafe, becaufe that folemnity is ap-
propriated to the conveyance of a freehold. And this
is one reafon why freeholds cannot be made to com-
mence in futuroy becaufe they cannot (at the common
law) be made but by livery of feifin ; which livery, be-
ing an aftual manual tradition of the land, muft take
effeft in prafenti, or not at all.
Xiverj of feifin is either in deed or in law,
I i Livery
Seifin.
Seize.
S E I [ 250 1 S E L
Livery in deed is thus performed. The feoffor, leffor, SEIZURE;, in commerce, an arreft of fome m<fr-
or his attorney, together with the feoffee, kffee, or his chandife, moveable, or other matter, either in confe-
attorney, (for this may as effedually be done by de- quence of fome law or of fome exprefs order of the
puty or attorney as by the principals themfclves in fovereign. Contraband goods, thofe fraudulently en-
perfon), come to the land or to the houfe ; and there, tcred, or land,ed without entering at all, or at wrong
in the prefcnce ®f witnelTes, declare the contents of places, are fubjeft to feiziire
Sei
the feoffment or leafe on which livery is to be made.
And then the feoffor, if it be of land, doth deliver to
the fcoifee, all other perfons being out of the ground,
a clod or turf, or a twig or bough there gtowinEr,
with words to this effeft : " I deliver thefe to you in
the name of feifm of all the lands and tenements con-
tained in this deed." But, if it be of a houfe, the
leoffor muft take the rin;^ or latch of the door, the
houfe being quite empty, and deliver it to the feoffee
in the fame form ; and then the feoffee muff enter
alone, and fliut the door, and then open it, and let
m the others. If the conveyance or feoffment be of
divers lands, lying fcattered in one and the fame coun-
ty, then in the feoffor's pofTefiion, livery of feifin of
any parcel, in the name of the reft, fufficeth for all ;
but if they be in feveral counties, there muff be as
many Kvenes as there are counties. For, if the title to
thefe lands comes to be difputed, there mufl be as
many trials as there are counties, a"nd the jury of one
county are no judges of the notoriety of a faft in ano-
ther. . Befides, anciently, this feilin was obliged to be
delivered coram pirihus de vidneto, before the peers or
ireeholders of the neighbourhood, who attefled fuch
delivery in the body or on the back of the deed ; ac-
cording to the rule of the feodal law, Pares dihent in-
terejfe inncjl'itura: feud'i, et non alii : for which this 'reafon
73 exprefsly given ; becaufe the peers or vafials of the
ferd, being bound by their oath of fealty, will t:ike care
that no fraud be committed to his prejudice, which
th'angers might be apt to coimive at. And though af-
terwards tlie ocular atteftation of the ptJres was held
unneccfTary, and livery might be made before any cre-
'dible wituefles, yet the trial, in cafe it was difputed,
(like that of all ether •'.ttefl:ations}, was f^ill referved to
the pnrss or jury o! the couuty. Alfo, if the lands be
t.at on leafe, though iill lie in the fame county, there
Tinill be afi many liveries as I'here are tenants : becaufe no
Jivery can be made in this cafe, but by the confent of
the particular tenant ; and the confent of one will not
bind the reff.. And in all thefe cafes it is prudent, and
uxual,. to endorfe the hvery of feifm on the back of the
deed, fpecifying the manner, place, and time of making
it ; tooether with the names of the witneffes. And thus
inKch for livery in deed.
Lively in tanv is where the fame is not made on
the land, but in Jight of it only ; the feoffor faying to
the feoffee, " I give you yonder land, enter and take
poffefTion." Here, it the feoffee enters during the Hfe
of the feoffor, it is a good liveiy, but not otherwife ;
unlefs he dares not enter through fear of his life or bo-
dily harm ; and then his continual claimij made yearly
in due form of law,, as near as pofEble to the lands, will
fiifiice without an entry. This Hvery in law cannot,
I'.owever, be given or received by attorney, but only by
the parties themfelves.
SEIZE, in the fea-language, is to make fafl or
bind, particularly to fallen tv/o ropes together with
rope-yarn. The feizing of a toat is a rope tied to a
ring or little chain in the fore-fhip of the boat, by which
loeaiiB it is failened to the fide of the flu'p.
In feizures among us, one
half goes to tl>j informer, and the other half to the king.
SELAGO, in botany : A genus of the augiofpermia
order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants ; and'
in the natural method tanking under the 48th order,
jiggregata. The calyx is quinquefid : the tube of the"
corolla capillary, with the limb nearly equal, and a
fin ',Ie feed. There are 22 fpecies.
SELDEN (John), caUed by Grotins the glory of
England",, was born at Salvington in Suflex in 1584.
He was educated at the free^fchool at Chichefter v
whence he was fent to Hart- Hall in the univerfity of
Oxford, where he flaid four years. Jn 1612, he enter-
ed himfclf in Clifford's Inn, in order to fludy the law;,
and about two years after removed to the Inner Tem-
ple, where he foon acquired great reputation by his.
learnintr. He had already publifhed feveral of his works ;
and this year wrote verfes in Latin, Greek, and Eng-
lifli, upon Mr William Browne's Britannia's Paflorals.
In 1614, he publifhed his Titles of Honour; and in
161 6, his Notes on Sir John Fortefcue's book Dc I.au-
dibvs Legum Anglia. In 1618, he pubhfhed his Hiffory
of Tythes ; which gave great offence to the clergy, snd
was animadverted upon l)y feveral writers; and tor that
book he was called before theiiigh commiflion court,,
and obliged to make a public ackuovlcdgment of hiji
forrow for having publiflied it. In 1621 , being fent for
by the parliament, though he v^'as not then a member
of that houfe, and giving his opinion very itrongly in
favour ot their privileges in oppofition to the court, he
was committed to the cuftody of the fheriff of Lon-
don, but was fet at liberty after five weeks confinement.
In 1623, he was chofen burgefs for Lancafler ; but,,
amidtl all the divif.ons of the nation, kept himfelt neu-
ter, profecuting his fludies with fuch application,
that though he was the next year chofen reader of
Lyon's Inn, he refufed to perform thaLofSce. In 1625,.
hie was chofen burgefs foi Great Bedwin in Wiltfhire,
to ferve in the firft parliament of king Charles I. in
which he declared himfelf warmly againft the duke of
Bitckingham ; and on his Grace's being impeached by
the Houle of Commons,, v/as appointed one of the ma-
nagers of the articles againft him. In 162 7 and 1628,
he oppofed the court party with great vigour. The
parliament being prorogued to January 20. r629, Mr
Selden retired to the earl of Kent's houfe at Wrfift, in
Bedfordfhire, where he finifhed his Marmora yirunde.-
liana. 'Fhe parliament being met, he, among others,,
agam diilinguiihed himielf by his zeal againft the court;
when the king diffolving the parliament, aidered feveral
of the members to be brought before the King's-Bench-
bar, and committed to tlie Tower. Among thefe was
Mr Selden, who infilling on the benefit of the laws, and-
reiufing to make his iubmifhon, was removed to the
King's Bench prifon. Being here in danger of fits life,
on account of the plague then raging in Southwark, he
petitioned the lord high treafurer, at the end of Trini-
ty-term, to intercede with his Majefty that he might be
removed to the Gate- Houfe, Weftminfter, whicii wiis
granted : but in Michaelmas term following, the judges-
objecting to the lord treafurer '&. warrant, by wliich he
" had
■y
S E L [ 251
ihad 'been Temoved to the Gate-ho«fe, -an order was made form
for conveying him back to the King's Bench, whence
he was releafed in the latter end of ihe fame year ; but
£fteen years after, the parHament ordered iiim 500c 1-
£(:■■: the lofies he had fuftained on this occafioii. He was
afterwards committed, with feveral other gentlemen, for
difperfing a hbel ; but the author, who was abroad, being
dilcovered, they were at length fet at liberty. In 1634,
a difpute arifing between the Englifh and Dutch con-
cerning the herring-fifhery on the Britifh coaft, he was
prevailed upon by archbifhop Laud to draw up his
Mare Claufum, in anfwer to Grotius's Mare Liberim :
which greatly recommended him to the favour of the
court. In 164c, he was chofcn member for the uni-
vei-fity ( ■ Oxford ; when he again oppofed the court,
though he might, by complying, have raifed himfelf to
very confidcirable pofts. In 1643, he was appointed
one of the lay- in embers to fit in the affembly of divines
at Weftminfter, and was the fame year appointed keeper
of the records in the 'Lower. Whilft he attended his
duty in the affembly, a warm debate arofe refpedfing
the diftance of Jericho from Jerufalem. The paity
which contended for the flioiteft diftance, urged, as a
proof of their opinion being well founded, that filhes
were cai-ried from the one city to the other, and fold in
the market. Their adverfarics were ready to yield to
the force of this conclufivc argument, when Selden,
who defpifed both parties, as well as the frivoloufnefs of
their difpute, exclaimed, " Perhaps the fiflies were fak-
ed 1" This unexpected remark left the viftory doubt-
ful, and renewed the debate ; and our author, who was
lick of fuch trifling, foon found employment more fuit-
td to his genius ; for, in 1645, he wa« made one of the
cDraraiiRoners of the admiralty. The fame year he
was unanimoufly eleded mafter of Trinity-college,
Cambridge ; but declined accepting. Pie died in 1 654 ;
and was interred in the Temple-church, where a monu-
ment is erefted to his memory. Dr Wilkes obferves,
tiiat he was a man of uncommon gravity and greatnefs
of foul, averfe to flattery, liberal to fcholars, charitable
to the poor; and though he had great latitude in his
principles with regard to ecclefialtical power, yet he
had a hncere regard lor the church of England. He
wrote many learned works befides thofe already men-
tioned ; the principal of which are, i. De Jure Natu-
r.al'i y Gentium juxta D'lfc'tplinam Hehi aorum, 2. De
Nuptiis Iff Divorciis, 3. De Anno Civ 'ilj i>derum Hebra-
orum. 4. De Numrrds. 5. De Dtis Syris. 6. Uxor
Htbraka. '7. Jutii Anghrurt^Facies altera^ 8iC. All his
works were printed together in 1726, in 3 vols folio.
SELENlTES,in natural hiftory, the name of alarge
clafs of foflils, the charafters of which are thefe : they
are bodies compoled of flender and fcarce vifible fila-
ments, arranged into fine, even, and thin flakes ; and
thofe diipofed into regular figures, in the feveral diffe-
rent genera, approaching to a rhomboide, orhexangular
column, or a redtangled parallelogram ; fiffile, like the
talcs, but they not only lie in a horizontal, but alfo in a
perpendicular dircdioa : they are flexile in a fmall de-
gree, but not at all elailic ; they do not ferment with
acid menltrua, but readily calcine in the fire. Of this
clals there are feven orders of bodies, and under thole
ten gtaera. 'i he lelenitse of the firft order are tiiofe
compoled of horizontal plates, and approaching to a
jhoml .oidal lorm : of the fecond are thofe compofed of
|aoriz,ontal plates, arranged into a columnar and angular
] S E L
of the third are thofe whofe filaments are fcarce
vifibly arranged into plates, btit which, in the whole
maffes, appear rather of a llriated than of a tubulated
ilruAure : of the fourth are thofe whidi are flat, but of
no dcterminately angular figure : of the fifth are thofe
formed of plates, perpendicularly arranged : of the fixth
are thofe formed of congeries of plates, arranged into
the figure of a flar ; and of the feventh are thofe of a
complex and indeterminate figure.
Of the fii-fl: of thefe orders there are three genera.
1. Tht hptockcarhombes. 2. '1'h.t pachodecarhombes. 3. The
tetradccarhomies. Of the fecond order there are alfo three
genera. 1. The i/chnamb/uces. 2. The i/ambluces. 3. The
oxuda. Of the third order there is only one known ge-
nus, the inamb/ucia. Of the fourth order there is alfo only
one known genus, the fanidia. Of the fifth order there
is alfo only one known genus, the caihetoliptu Of the
fixth order, there are two genera, i. The lepajha. —
2. The trichefra. Of the feventh order there is only
one genus, the fympltxia.
'J he fl;ru£iure of the felenitas of all the genera of the
firft order is exaiily alike ; they are all compofed of a
great number of broad flakes or plates, in a great mea-
fure externally refembling the flakes of the foliaceous
talcs : thefe are of the length and breadth of the whole
mafs ; the top and bottom being each only one fuch
plate, and thofe between them, in like manner, each
complete and fingle; and the body may always be ealily
and evenly fplit, according to the direftion of thele
Hakes. 1 hefe differ, however, extremely from the
talcs, for they are each compofed of a number of paral-
lel threads or filaments, which are ufually difpofed pa-
rallelly to the iides of the body, though fometimes pa-
rallelly to its ends. In many of the fp^cies they are
alfo divided by parallel lines, placed at a confiderable
diftance from each other, and the plates in fplitting of-
ten break at thefe lines ; add to this, that they are not
elaftic, and that they readily calcine. The ftrncfure
of thofe of the fecond order is the fame with that of the
tirft ; but that in many of the fpecimcns of them the
filaments of which the plates are compofed ran in two
directions, and meet in an obtufe angle ; and in the
middle there is generally feen in this cafe a ftraight line
running the whole length of the column and finall par-
cels of clay infinuating themfelves into this crack, repre.
fent in it the figure of an ear of grafs fo naturally, as to
have deceived many into a belief that there was really
an ear of grafs there. The other orders confifting only
of fingle genera, the ftrutSlure of each is explained under
the generical name.
Selenites, in chemiftry, called aKo gypfut.i fpatofuwy
a ipecies oi oypfum or plafter of Paris. Sec Gvp-
SUM.
SELENOGRAPHY, a branch of cofmography,
which dcfcribes the moon and all the parts and appear-
ances thereof, as geography does thoie of the eartii.
See Moon.
SELEUCIA, (anc- g<^ogr.), furnamed Bnlyloniay
becaufe fituated on its confines, at the confiuence of the
Euphrates and Tigris. Ptolemy places it in Mefijpo-
tamia. It is called alfo Seleucia ad Tigrm, (Pclybius,
Strabo, Tfidorus, Chataceuus) ; wafhed on the fouth
by the Euphrates, on the eaft. by the Tigris, (Theophy-
latftns) ; generally agreed to have been built or enlarged
by Selcucus Nicanor, mafter or the eaft after Alexan-
der } by means of which Babylon came to be defertcd,
1 i 2 It.
Selenire*
n
Seleucia*
S E L [25*
ScleucIdaB Jt Is faid to have been originally called Coche, (Ammian,
gjjjP Eutropiiis) ; though others, as Arrian, diftinguifh it,
I _ \ \ as a village, from Schcla : and, according to Zofimus,
the ancient name of Selucia was Zochafia. Now called
Bagdad, E. Long. 44. 21. N. Lat. 3c;. 10. There
were many other cities of the fame name, all built by
Seleucus Nicanor.
SELEUCIDiE, in chronology. Era of the Se-
leucidae, or the Syro- Macedonian era, is a computa-
tion of time, commencing from the eftablifhment of the
Seleucidse, a race of Greek kings, who. reigned as fuc
cefibrs of Alexander the Great in Syria, as the Ptole-
mies did in Egypt. This era we find exprefled in the
books of the Maccabees, and on a great number of
Greek medals ftruck by the cities of Syria, &c. The
Rabbins call it the era of contrails^ and the Arabs
thi^tik di.kaniain, that is, the '* era of the two horns."
According to the bell accounts, the iirft year of this
era falls in the year 311 B. C. being 1 2 years after
Alexander's death.
SELEUCUS (Nicancr), one of the chief generals
under Alexander the Great, and, after his death,
founder of the race of pi inces called Seieuc'ida. He is
equally celebrated as a renowned warrior, and as the fa-
ther of his people ; yet his virtues could not proteft
him from the fatal ambition of Ceraunus, one of his
fiourtiers, by whom he was afTaffuiated 280 B. C.
SELF-Heal, the Prunella Vulgaris of Lin-
naeus. The ftem is eredt, and about eight or ten inches
high. Tlie leaves grow on foot ftalks, are ovato-oblong,
nightly indented, and fomewhat hairy. The braftese
are hcait-fliaped, oppofite, and fringed. The flowers
are white or purpllfh, grow in denfe fpikes, and are ter-.
minal. This plant is perennial, grows wild in meadows
and pafture grounds, and flowers in June and July,
This herb is recommended as a mild reftringent and
vulnerary in fpittings of blood, and other hemorrhagies
Eetvh^s ^"'i fluxes ; and in gargar.fms againft aphthas and inflam-
Materia mations of the fauces. Its virtues do not appear to be
Medico, ^(-ry great ; to the tafte it diCcovers a very flight aullerity
or bitteriflmefs, which is more fenfible in the flowery tops
than in the leaves, though the latter are generally direct-
ed for medicinal ufe.
SEiF-(^omn,an.-^\ is that fteady equanimity which
enables a man in every fituation to exert his reafoning
faculty with coolnefs, and to do v/hat the prefent cir-
cumltances require. It depends much upon the natural
temperament of the body, and much upon the moral cul-
tivation of the mind. Pie who enjoys good health,
and has braced his frame by exetciie, has always a
greater command of himfelf than a man of equal mental
pGwers, who has fuffered his conftitution to become re-
- laxed by indolence ; and he who has from his early
youth been accuftomed to make his paflions fubmit to
his rcafon, muft, in any fudden emergency, be more
capable of a£ling propetly than he who has tamely
yielded to his paffion. Hence it is that reclufe and
literary men, when forced into the bullle of pubhc life,
are incapable of ailing where promptnefs is requifite ;
and that men who have once or twice yielded to a ienfe
of impending danger ieldom acquire afterwards that
command of thenafelves which may be neceffary to ex-
tricate thtm from fubfequent dangers In one of the
earlitft battles fought by the late king of Prufha, the fo-
•«ertiga was among the hrft mea who quitted the held :
] S E L
had he behaved In the fame manner a fecond and a third Su!
time, he would never have become that" hero whofe ac-
tions afl:oni{hed Europe. A celebrated engineer among
ourfelves, who was well known to the writer of this
fhort article, had little fcience, and was a ftranger to
the principles of his own art ; but being poffcfTed of a
firm and vigorous frame, and having been accullomed
to flruggle with dangers and difficulties, he had fuch a
confliant command of himfelf, as enabled him to employ
with great coolnefs every neceffary relource in the day
of battle.
But it is not only in battle, and in the face of imme-
diate danger, that felf-cc mmand is neceffary to enable a
man to aft with propriety. There is no fituation in life
where difficulties, greater or left, are not to be encoun-
tered ; and he who would pafs through life with com*
fort to himfelf, and with utihty to the public, muft en-
deavour to keep his paffions in conftant fubjeftion to his
reafon. No man can enjoy without inquietude what he
cannot lofe without pain ; and no man who is overwhelm-
ed with defpondency under any fudden misfortune can
exert the talents neceffary to retrieve his circumftances*
We ought, therefore, by every means to endeavour to
obtain a conftant command of ourlelves ; and nowhere
ftiall we f nd better leffons for this purpofe than in. an*
cient Lacedemon. There certain occupations were ap-
pointed for each fex, for every hour, and for every fea-
fon of life. Tn a life always aftive, the paflions have
no opportunity to deceive, feduce, or corrupt ; and the
nervous fyftem acquires a firmnefs which' makes it a fit.
inftrument to a vigorous mind.
SELF-Defcnce implies not only the prefervation of
one's life, but alfo the protection of his property, be»
eaufe without property life cannot be prelerved in a ci-
vilized nation. The extent of property effential to life
is indeed fmall, and this confideration may enable us to J
decide a qucftion which fome moralifts have made intri-* -
cate. By what mesns, it has been aflced, may a man
protefi his property I May he kill the perfon who at*
tacks it, if he cannot otherwife repel the attack ?
1 hat a man, ih the ftate of nature, may kill the per*
fon who makes an attack on his life, if he cannot other*
wife repel the attack, is a truth which has never been
controverted; and he may do the lame in civil fociety^
if his danger be fo imminent that it cannot be exerted
by the interpofition ot the prote<9:ion provided for indi^
viduals by the' ftate. In all poffible fituations, except
the three following, whatever is abfolutely neceffary to
the prefervation of life may be lawfully performed, for
the law of Iclf-pieiervaiion is the iirft and moft facred
ot thole laws which are impreffed upon every mind by
the author ot nature.
The thice excepted fituations are thofe af a foldier
in the day of battle, ol a criminal about to fuffer by the
laws of his country, and of a man called upon to re-
nounce his religion. The ioldier hazards his life in the
moft honourable of all cauies, and cannot betray his
truft, or play the coward, without incurring a high de-
gree of mo. al turpitude. He knows that the very pro-
feffion in which he is engaged neceflarily fubjefts him
to danger ; and he voluntarily incurred that danger for
the good of his country, which, with great propriety,
annexes to his profeffion peculiar privileges and much
glory. The criminal under fentence of death cannot,
without adding to his guilt, refiit the execution of that
fcuteuce; ;
S E L [253 1 S E L
fcntcncc ; for the power of infliftlng punlfiimetit is ef • could not fubfift ; but in a ftate of nature every man
jfcntial to fociety, and fociety is tlie'ordinance of God, muft be the defender of his own property, which in
(fee Society). The man who is called upon to je- that Itate muft neceffarily be fmall : and if he be not aL
nounce his religion ought to fubmit to the cruelleft lowed to defend it by every mean in his power, he will
death rather than comply with that requc-ft, fince reli- not long be able to proted it at all. By giving him
gion is his only fecurity for future and permanent hap- fuch liberty,, a few individuals may, indeed, occafionally
pincfs. But in every other fituation, that which is ab- lofe their lives and limbs for the prefervation of a very
folutely neceffary to the prefervation oF litt is, undoubt- fmall portion of private property ; but we beheve that
cdly lawful. Hence it is, that a perfon fmking in wa- the fum of human happinefs will be more augmented by
ter Is never thought to be guilty of any crime, though cutting off fuch worthlefs wretches than by expofmg
he drag his ntighbour after him by his endeavours to pvopeity to perpetual depredation ; and therefore, if
Cave himfelf ; and hence, too, a mian in danger of perift- general utility be the criterion of moral good, we muft
ing by Ihipwreck may drive another from a plank which be of opinion that a man may in every cafe lawfully kill-
cannot carry th^m both, for fince one of two lives muft a robber lather than comply with his unjuft demand,
be loft, no law, human or divine, calls upon either of But if a man may without guilt preferve his proper-
them to prefer his neighbour's life to his own. ty by the death of the aggreflor, when it cannot be pre-
But though the rights of felf-defence authorife us ferved by any other means, much more may a womari
to repel every attack made upon our life, and in cafes have recourfe to the laft extremity to proteft her chaf-
of extremity to fave ourfelves at the expence of the life tity from forcible violation. This, indeed, is admiitted
©four innocent neighbour, it is not fo evident that, rather by Mr Paley himfelf, and will be controverted by no
than give to an unjuft demand a few ftiillings or pounds, man who refleas on the importance of the female cha-
we may lawfully deprive a fellow creature of hfe, and the rafter, and the probable confequences of the fmalleft
public of a citizen. A few pounds loft may be eafily re- deviation from the eftablifhed laws of female honour,
gained; but life when loft can never be recovered. Ifthefe See Seduction.
pounds, indeed, be the whole of a man's property; if they SMLF-Knowledgey the knowledge of one's own cha-
include his clothes, his food, and the houfe where he fliel- rafter, abilities, opinions, virtues, and vices. This ha$ •
ters his head—there cannot be a doubt but that, rather always been confidered as a difficult though important
than part with them, he may lawfully kill the aggreflor, aequifition. It is difficult, becaufe it is difagreeable to
for no man can exift without ftielter, food, and 'raiment, inveiiigate our errors, our faults, and vices ; becaufe we
But it is feldom that an attempt is made, or is indeed are apt to be partial to ourfelves, even when we have
prafticable, to rob a man at once of all that he poflefles. done wrong ; and becaufe time and habitual attention ■
The queftion then of any importance is, May a man put are requifite to enable us to difcover our real chaiaften =
a robber to death rather than part with a fmall part of But thefe difficulties are more than counterbalanced by
his property ? Mr Paley doubts whether he could inno- the advantages of felf- knowledge.
cently do fo in a ftate of nature, « becaufe it cannot be By knowing the extent of our abilities, we fhall ne--
contended to be for the augmentation of human happi- ver raftily engage in enterprifcs where our meff"eftual
nefs, that one man Ihould lofe his hfe or limb, rather exertions may be produftive of harm : by inveftigating
than another a pennyworth of his property." He al- our opinions, we may difcover thofe which have no
lows, that in civil fociety the life of the aggreflor may foundation, and thofe alfo which lead us infenfibly into
be always taken away by the perfon aggrieved, or meant vice. By examining our virtues and vices, we ftiall
to be aogrieved, when the crime attempted is fuch as learn what principles ought to be ftrengthened, and
would fubjeft its perpetrator to death by the laws of his what habits ought to be removed.
country. Man is a rational and inteUigent being, capable of
It is not often that we feel ourfelves difpofed to dif- great improvement, and hable to great vices. If he afta
fer in opinion from this moft valuable and intelligent without examining his principles, he may be hurried
writer; but on the prefent occafion we cannot help by bhnd palhon into crimes. If he afpires at noble and
thinking that he does not reafon with his ufual preci- valuable acqullitions, he mutt a£t upon a plan, with de.^
fion. To us he even feems to lofe fight of his ownprin- hberation and fore^thought ; for he is not like a vege»
ciples. No legiflature can have a right to take away table, which attains perfeftion by the influcnce of ex-
life in civil fociety, but in fuch cafes^as individuals hbve ^ernal caufes : he has powers within himfelf which muft:
the fame right in a ftate of nature. If therefore a man, be exerted, and exerted with judgment^ in order to at-
in the ftate of nature, have not a right to proteft his tain the peneftion of his natu.e. To enable him to
property by killing the aggrelfor, when it cannot be employ thefe powers aright, he muft know, firft, what
otherwifc protefted, it appears to us lelf-evident that no is his duty.; and, fecondly, he muft often review his
legiflature can have a right to inflic! the punifliment of principles and conduft, that he may difcover whether
death upon fuch offences ; but if the laws inflidting he is performing his duty, or in what circumftances he
death upon the crime of robbery be morally evil,, it is has failed. When he ( nds that he has fallen into er-
certain that an individual cannot be innocent when he ror and vice, he will naturally inquire what caufes have
prevents robbery by the death of the robber, merely produced this effeft, that he may avoid the fame For the
becaufe he knows that the laws of his country have de- time to come. This is the method by which every re-
creed that punifliment- at; ainft thofe convifted of that toimation in religion and fcience has been produced,
crime. But we think that the proteftion of property and the method by which the arts have been improved,
by the death of the aggreflor may be completely vindi- BeU.ie Lord Bacon introduced the new way ot philo-
cated upon more general principles. It is neceflary, in fophizing, he muft i rft have coaf;dtrcd w^herein true
every ftate, that ' property be protefted, or mankind pluloiophy confiited i kcondly, he muil have inquired
S E L [2
in what refpefts the ancient method of philofophizina;
was falfe or iifelefs : and after determining thefe two
points, he was qualified to delcribe the way By which
the fludy of philofophy could be fuccefsfully purfued
without deviating iflto hypothefis and en-or. Luther
found out the errorlBf the church of Rome by compa-
ring their doftrines mth. the Scriptures. But had this
coraparifon never been made, the reformation could ne-
ver have taken place. Without felf-kno wledge, or
without that knowledge of our charafter which is de-
rived from a comparlfon of our principles and conduft
with a perfeft ftandard of morality, we can never form
plans and refolutions, or make any exertion to abandon
the vicious habits which we have contrafted, and fcrensrth-
«n thofe vn-tuous principles in which we are deficient.
As much may be learned from the errors of thofe
•who have been in fimilar fituations with ourfelves ; fo
■many ufeful cautions may be obtained from our own
errors ; and he that will remember thefe, will feldom be
twice guilty of the fame vice.
It was evidently the intention of Providence that
tnan {hould be guided chiefly by experience. It is by
the obfervations which we make on what we fee paf-
fing around us, or from what we fuffer in our own per-
fon, chat we form maxims for the conduft of hfe. The
more minutely therefore we attend to our principles,
and the more maxims we form, we fhall be the better
fitted to attain moral perfection .
With refpeft to our underftanding, to mark the
errors which we have fallen into, either by its natural
defers or by negligence, is alfo of great importance ;
for the greatcft genius and moll profound fcholar are
liable to thefe errors, and often commit them as well as
the weak and illiterate. But by obferving them, and
tracing them to their caufes, they at length acquire an
habitual accuracy. It is true, that men of feeble minds
can never by knowing their own defefts exalt themfelves
to the rank of genius ; but fuch knowledge will enable
them to improve their underftandings, and fo to appre-
ciate their own powers, as fcldom to attempt what is
beyond their ftrcngth. They may thus become ufeful
members of focicty ; and though they will not probably
be admired for their abilities, they will yet efcape the ri-
dicule which is poured upon vanity.
It is difficult to lay down precife rules for the acqui-
fition of this fclf-k no wledge, becaufe almoft every man
is blinded by a fallacy peculiar to himfelf. But when
one has got rid of that partiality which arifes from felf-
love, he may eafily form a juft eftimate of his moral im-
provements, by comparing the general courfe of his con-
duft with the ftandard of his duty .; and if he has any
doubt of the extent of his intelleftual attainments, he will
moll readily difcover the truth by comparing them with
the attainments of others who have been moft fuccefs-
ful in the fame purfuits. Should vanity arife in his
mind from fuch a comparifen, let him then compare the
extent of liis knowledge with what is yet to be known,
and he will then be in little danger of thinking oF him-
fclf more highly than he ought to think. See Preju-
dice c-nd SkLF'Pa/tiaiity.
SsLF-Love, is that inftinftive principle which impels
every animal, rational and irrational, to preferve its life
and promote its own happinefs.' It is very generally con-
founded with felfifhnefs ; but we think that the one pro-
penfitj is diitindl from the other. Every man loves hira-
;4 1 S E L
Jtlf; but every man is not ftlnili. The fe]S{?i man
grafps at all immediaie advantages, regai'dlefs of the con-
lequences which his conduft may have upon his neigh-
bour. Selt-love only prompts him who is aftuated by
it to procure to himfelf the greateft poffible fum of hap-
pinefs during the whole of his exiilcnce. In this pur-
fuit the rational felF-lover will often forego a prefent
enjoyment to obtain a greater and more permanent one
in reverfion ; and he will as often fubmit to a prefent
pain to avoid a greater hereafter. Self-love, as diftin-
guilhed from felfiihnefs, always comprehends the whole
of a man's exittence, and in that extended fenfe of the
phrafe, we hefitatc not to fay that every man is a felf-
lover ; for, with eternity in his view, it is furely not
poffible for the moll diliuterefted of the human race not
to prefer himfelf to all other men, if their future and
everlafting interefts could come into competition. This
indeed they never can do ; for though the introduftion
of evil into the world, and the different ranks which it
makes necelfary in fociety, put it in the power of a man
to raife himfelf, in the prefent ftate, by the deprefTiou
of his neighbour, or by the praftice cf injuftice, yet in
the purfuit of a prize which is to be gained only by fo-
bernefs, righteoulnefs, and piety, there can be no rival-
fhip among the different competitors. The fuccefa of
one is no injury to another ; and therefore, in this fenfe
of the phraie, felf-love is not only lawful, but abfolutely
unavoidable. It has been a queltion in morals, whe-
ther it be not likewife the incentive to every a£lion,
however virtuous ®r apparently difinterefted ?
Thoie who maintain the affirmative iide of this que-
ftion fay, that the profpedf of immediate pleafure, or
the dread of immediate pain, is the only apparent mo-
tive to aftion in the minds of infants, and indeed of all
who look not before them, and infer the future from
the pall. 'I'hey own, that when a boy has had fome
experience, and is capable of making comparifons, he
will often decline an immediate enjoyment which he has
formerly found productive of future evil more than
equivalent to all its good ; but in doing fo they think,
and they think juitly, that he is Hill "aduated by the
principle of felf-love, purfuing the greateft good of
which he knows himfelf to be capable. After experi-
encing that truth, equity, and benevolence in all his
dealings is the readieft, and indeed the only certain, me-
thod of fecuring to himfelf the kindnefs and good offi-
ces of his fellow-creatures, and much more when he has
learned that they will recommend him to the Supreme
Being, upon whom depends his exiflence and all his
enjoyments, they admit that he will pra<5tice truth,
equity, and benevolence; but Hill, trom the fame prin-
cipk-, purfuing his own ultimate happinefs -as the ob-
jecl which he has always in view. The profpeft of this
great objeft will make him feel an exquifite pleafure in
the performance of the aftions which he conceives aa
neceflary to its attainment, till at M, without attend-
ing in each inllance to their confequences, he will, by the
g!tat aflTociating principle which has been explained
ellcwliere (fee METAPHYstcs, part ill, chap. 1.) feel
a refined enjoyment in tl: ; ?-.-tiui:s themfelves, and per-
form them, as occafioDs ufter, without deliberation or
refleftion. Such, they think, is the origin of benevo-
lence itfelf, and indeed of every virtue.
Thofe who take xu-: other iide of the queftion, can
iiardly deny that felf-love tlius xiwjjilied may prompt to
vir-
s E L r 2
virtuous and apparently difintereftcd conduft ; but they
think it degrading the dignity of man to fuppofe him
a^xiated folely by motivt-s which can be traced back to
a defire of his own happinefs. They obferve, that the
Author of our nature has not left the prefervation of the
tndividual, or the continuance of the fpecies, to the de-
duflions of our reafon, computing the fum of happinefs
which the aflions neceiTary to thefe cnda produce ^to
ourfelves : on the contrar)', He has taken care of both,
by the furer impulfe of inflinft planted in us for thefe
very purpofes. And is it conceivable, fay they, that He
would leave the care of our fellow-creatxirea a matter
of indifference, till each man fhould be able to difcover
or be tau;?^ht that by loving his neighbour, and doing
him all th*e good in his power, he would be moft effec-
tually promoting his own happinefs ? It is di {honouring
virtue, they con"tinae,. to make it proceed in any in-
ftance from a profpeft of happinefs, ot a dread of mi-
fery ; and they appeal from theory to faft, as exhibi-
t''d in the conduA of favage tribes, who deliberate
little on the confequences of their aftions.
Tht ir antagonifts reply, that the conduft of favage
tnbes is to be confidered as that of children in civilized
nations, regulated entirely by the examples which they
have before them ; that their aftions cannot be the
©ffspring of innate inftinits, otlierwife favage virtues
vrould, under fimilar circumftances, everywhere be the
fame, which is contrary to faft ; that virtue proceeds
from an interefled rriotive on either fuppofition ; and
that the motive which the inflinfiive fclieme holds up
is the moft felfifh of the two. The other theory fnp-
pofes, that the governing motive is the hope future
happinefs and the dread of future mifery ; the infiinc-
tive fcheme fupply a prefnt motive in the felf compla-
cency arifing in the heart from a confcioufnefs of right
condud. The former is a rational motive, the latter
has nothing more to do with reafon thmi the enjoyment
arifinar from eating or drinkiag, or from the inter-
coiirfe between the fexes. But we mean rot to puvfue
tlie fubjeft farther, as we have faid enough on it in the
articles Benevolence, Instinct, Passion, and Phi-
tA NTH ROPY. We fhall therefore conclude with obfer-
ving, that there is certainly a virtuous as well as a vici-
ous fclf lovr, and that *' true felf-love and focial are the
fame."
SfLf- Murder. See Suicide.
SEiF-Partiality, is a phrafe employed by fame philo-
orJ fbphers * to exprefs that weaknefs of htiman nature
through which men overvalue themfelves when compa-
red with others. It is diflinguifhed from general par-
tiality, by thofe who make ufe of the expreflion, be-
caufe it is thought that a man is led to over-rate his
own accomphfhments, either by a particular inftinft, or
by a procefs of intelleft different from that by which
lie over- rates the accomphfhments of his friends or chil-
dren. 1 he former kind of partiality is wholly felfifli ;
the latter partakes much of benevolence.
This diflIn£lion may perhaps be deemed plaufible by
thofe who confider the human mind as little more than
a bundle of inftin&s ; but it muft appear per''eftly ridi-
s^ulous to fuch as refolve the greater part of apparent
inflinfts into eariy and deep-rooted affociations o! ideas,
l!^ the partialities which mofl men have to their friends,
tiicir families, and themfelves, be inllindivc, they are
55 ,] . . . S E t
certainly mi!Hn<Sls of different kinds ; bat an inftlnftrve
partiality is a contradidtion in terms. Partiality is
founded on a comparifon between two or more objefts;
but genuine inftinfts form no comparifons. Sec In-
stinct. Ivfo man can be faid to be partial, to the late
Dr Johnfon, merely for thinking highly of his intellec-
tual-powers; nor was the Doftor partial to himfelf, tho*
he thought in this refpeft with the generaUty of his'
countrymen ; but if, upon a comparifon with Milton,
he was deemed the greater poet of the two, fuch a
judgment will be allowed to be partial, whether formed
by himfelF or by any of his admirers. We apprehend,
however, that the procefs of its formation, was the fame
in every mind by which it w^as held.
The origin of felf- partiality is not difficult to be
found ; and our partialities to our fi'iends may be tra-
ced to a fimilar fpurce. By the conftitution of our na-
ture we are impelled to fhun pain and to purfue plea-
fure ; but rernorfe, the fcverelt of all pains, is the never-'
faili ng confequence of vicious conduft. Remorfe arifes<
from the dread of that punifhment which we beheve will
in a future ftate be inflifted on vice unrepented of in
this ; and therefore every vicious pei'fon endeavours by
all pofiible means to banifh that dread from his ownr
mind. One way of efFefting this is to compare his
own life with the lives of others ;»for he fancies that if
numbers be as wicked as himfelf, the benevolent ILorcf
of all things will not involve them in one common
ruin. Hence, by magnifying to himfelf the tempta-
tions which led him affray, and diminifhuig the iniuries
which his conduft has. done in the world, and by adopt-
ing a courfe diametrically the reverfe, when eflimating
the morality or immorality of the conduft of his neigh-
boui-s, he foon comes to believe that he is at leafl not
more wicked than they. Thus is felf-partiality formed
in the mind, and quickly blinds him who is under its In-
fluence fo completely, as to hide from him the very
faults whlcli he fees and blames in others. Hence the
coward thinks himfelf only cautious, the mifer frugal.
Partiality is formed in the very fame manner to natural
or acquired accompliflmients, whether mental or corpo-
real. Thefe always procure refpeft to him who is pof-
feffed of them ; and as refpcft is accompanied with ma-
ny advantages, every man wifhes to obtaiti it for him-
felf. If he fail in his attempts, he confoles himfelf with
the perfuafion that it is at leait due to his merits, and
that it is only withheld bly the envy of the public.
He compares the particular branch of fcience or bodily
accompli flmient in which he himfelf m.oll excels, witK'
thofe which have conferred fplendor on his rival ; and
eafily finds that his own excellencies are of the hiohcft
order, and entitled to the greateft fhare of pubhc efteem.
Hence the polite fcholar defpiles the mathematician ;
the reader of Ariflotle and Plato all' the modern difco-
veries in phylical and moral fcience ; and the mere ex-
perimentalift holds in the mofl fOvcreign contempt a cri-
tical knowledge of the ancient languages. The pupil i
of the ancients denies' t4ie merits of the moderns, whilfl
the mere modern allows nothing to the ancients ; and
thus each becomes partial to his own acquifitions, and
of courfe to himfelf, for having been at the trouble to
make them.
Partiality to our friends and families is generated in*
the very fame way. Whenever we acquire fuch an af-
2 fe<Stit>a ;
"■V"
Selim
S E L t ^
feftion for them as to confider thelp happjnefi as ad-
ding^ to our own (fee Passion), we magnify their ex-
, ccUenciea, and dimlnifh their defedls, for the fame roa-
fon, and by the fanae procefs, that we magnify and di-
minidi our own. All partialities, however, are preju-
dices, and prejudices of the worlt kind. They ought
therefore to be guarded againll with the utmoft care,
by the fame means which we have'.elfewhere recom-
mended (fee Prejudice and Metaphysics, n*^_98.) ;
and he who Is partial to his own virtue or his own
^knowledge, will do well to compare the former, not
with the conduct of his neighbour, but with the exprefs
y.ule of his duty ; and to conuder the latter as no far-
ther valuable than as it contributes to the fum of hu-
man happinefs.
SELIM I. emperor of the Turks, was the fecond
fon of Bajazet II. He made war upon hia father, and
though- defeated in 1 511, he at laft dethroned him and
took him prlfoner, and immediately difpatched him by
poifon, together with his elder brother Achmet, and
his.younger Korkud, an amiable and enlightened prince.
Having ettablifhed his throne by thefe crimes, he march-
ed againft Campfon-Gaury fovereign ot Egypt, gained
a great victory at Aleppo, and flew their general. But
though the fultan periOied in that battle, the Mame-
luks determined to oppofe the emperor. ~SelIm enter-
ing their country at the.head of his army, defeated the
Egyptians in two battles, and ordered Toumonbai, the
new elefted fultan, who had fallen into his hands, to be
hung on a gibbet. He then took Cairo and Alexandria,
and in a fhort time reduced all Egypt to fubjedion.
Thus ended the dominion of the Mameluks In Egypt,
which had continued for more than 260 years. He
confirmed the ancient privileges of the Venetians in
Egypt and Syria, by which they carried on their com-
merce with India, and "formed a league with them to
deftroy the power of the Portuguefe in that country.
(See India, n° 37). Sdim had before this gained a
great viftory over the Perfians, and ftripped them of
Tauria and Keman. He was preparing to attack
Chriftendom when he was feized with an ulcex^ous fore
in the back. Thinking that the air of Adrianople
vrould reilore his health, he ordered himfelf to be con-
duced thither ; but he died at Clari in Thrace on his
road to that city, in the year 1520, in the very fpot
where he had polfoned his father. He reigned 8 years,
and lived 54. He was a prince of great courage, fo-
briety, and liberality ; he was fond of hiftory, and wrote
feme verfes. But thefe good qualities were obfcurcd
by the moft abominable crimes that ever difgraced hu-
man nature : he made his way to the throne by (bed-
ding the blood of his father, and fecured it by murder-
ing his brothers and eight nephews, and every bafhaw
who had been faithful to his duty.
SELINUM, in botany : A genus of the digynia
order, belonging tC the pentandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 45th order,
Umbe/lata. The fruit is oval, oblong, compreffed, plane,
and flrlated in the middle ^ the invulucrum is reflexed j
the petals cordate and equal. There are feven fpecies,
the fylveftre, palultre» cuftriacunj, carvifolia, chabraci,
feculeri, monnieri.
SELKIRK (Alexander), whofe adventures gave
rife to a well known hifr' ^rical romance, was born at
Lar"Ps In the county of ■•ife, aboyt the year 1676,
§nd was bred a ieaman. He went from England, in
56 1 s E L
1703, in th? OJ^pacIty of failing-mafter of s fm^l vcfTel Sa
called Cinque- Ports Go/Zfy, Charles Pickering gaptain,
burthen about 96 tons, with i6 guns and 63 men } and
in September the fame year failed from Corke, in com-,
pany with another fl^ip of 26 guns and 1 20 men, called
the St George, commanded by that famous navigator
William Darapier, Intending to cruize on the Spaniards
In the South Sea. On the coaft of Brazil, Pickering
died, and was fucceeded in his command by hia lieute-
nant Thomas Stradlin;^. They proceeded on their
voyage round Cape Horn to the ifland of Juan Fer«
nandes, whence they were ' driven by the appearance
of two French fhips of 36 guns each, and left five of
Stradling's men there on (bore, who were taken off by
the French. Hence they failed to the coaft of Ameri-
ca, where Dampier and Stradling quarrelled, and fepa-
rated by agreement, on the 19th of May 1704. In
September following, Stradling came again to the ifland
of Juan Fernandes, where Selkirk and his captain had
a difference, which, with the circumftance of the (hip's
being very leaky, and in bad condition, induced him to
determine on ftaylng there alone ; but when his com-
panions were about to depart, his refolution was (haken,
and he defired to be taken on board again. The captain,
however, refufed to admit him, and he was obliged t»
remain, having nothing but his clothes, bedding, a gun,
and a fmall quantity of powder and ball j a hatchet,
knife, and kettle j his books, and mathematical and
nautical inftruments. He kept up his fpirits tolerably
till he faw the veffel put off, when (as he afterwarda
related) his heart yearned within him, and melted at
parting with his comrades and all human fociety at once.
** Yet believe me. Areas,
Such is ihe rooted love we bear mankind,
All rujffians as they were, I never heard
A found fo difmal as their parting oai^a."
ThomJoTi's jigamemnon.
Thus left folc monarch of the ifland, with plenty of
the necefTaries of life, he found himfelf in a fitmtion
hardly fupportable. He had f:fh, gocit'a flefh, turnipa
and other vegetables ; yet he grew dejedled, languid,
and melancholy, to fuch a degree as to be fcarce able
to refrain from doing violence to himfelf. Eighteen
months pafTed before he could, by reafoning, reading
his bible, and ftudy, be thoroughly reconciled to hia
condition. At length he grew happy, employing him*
felf in decorating his huts, chafing the goata, whom he
equalled in fpeed, and fcarcely ever failed of catching.
He alfo tamed young kids, laming them to prevent
their becoming wild ; and he kept a guard of tame cata
about him, to defend him when afleep from the rats,
who were very troublefome. When his clothes were
worn out, he made others of goats (Icins, hut could not
fucceed in making Oioes, with the ufe of which, how-
ever, habit, in time, enabled him to difpenfe. His only
liquor was water. He computed that he had cau.>-ht
1 000 goata during his abode in the ifland 5 of which
he had let go 500, after markinjt them by flitting their
ears. Commodore Anfon'a people, who were there
about 30 years after, found the firfl: goat which they
fliot upon landing was thus marked, and as it appeared
to be very old, concluded that it had been under the
power of Selkirk. But it appears by captain Carteret'a
acc(?unt of his voyage in the Swallow floop, thai other
perfons pradifed this mode of marking, as he found a
1 go*t
S E L
ifk. goat with hts ears thus flit the ■neighbouring ifland
Mas-a-fuera, where Seljiiik never was. He made
companioHS of his tame gcjrats and cats, often dancing
and fmging with them. ' Though he conftantly per-
formed his devotions at ftated hours, and read aloud ;
yet, when he was taken off the ifland, his language,
from difufe of converfation, was become fcarcely intelli-
gible. In this folitudc he continued folir years and
four months ; during which time only two incidents
happened which he thought worth relating, the occur-
rences of every day being in his circumftances nearly
fimilar. The one was, that, purfuing a goat eagerly,
he caught it juft on the edge of a precipic<?, which was
covered with bufhes, fo that he did not perceive it, and
he fell over to the bottom, where he lay (according to
captain Roger's account) 24 hours fenfelefs; but, as he
related to Sir R. Steele, he computed, by the alteration
of the moon, that he had lain three days. When he
came to himfelf, he found the goat lying under him dead.
[ 1
S E L
contrived to keep an account of the days of the week
and month : but this might be done, as Defoe makes
Robinfon Crufoe do, by cutting notches in a poft, or
many other methods. From this account of Selkirk,
Defoe took the idea of writing a more extenfive work,
the romance of Robinfon Crufoe, and very difhoneflly
defrauded the original proprietor of his fliare of the
profits. Of the time or place or manner of this extra-
ordinary man's death we have received no account ; but
in 1792 the cheft and mufl<:et which Selkirk had with
him on the ifland were in the poflcffion of his grand-
nephew, John Selkirk weaver in Largo, where doubt-
Itfs they are at prefent.
Selkirk, the capital of the county of the fame name,
is a fmall town pleafantly fituated on a rifing ground,
and enjoys an extenfive profpett in all direftions, efpe-
cially up and down the river Etterick. It is remark-
able for nothing but thofe plaintive airs produced in its
neighbourhood, the natural fimplicity of which are tl»e
It w^as with great difficulty that he could crawl to his pride of Scotland and the admiration of flrangers.
habitation, whence he was unable to Itir for ten days, W. Long. 2. 46. N. Lat. 55. 26.
and did not recover of his bruifes for a long time. The
other event was the arrival of a f.iip, which he at fir ft
fuppofed to be Fnench : and fuch is the natural love of
fociety in the human mind, that he was eager to aban-
don his folitary felicity, and furrender himlelf to them,
although enemies ; but upon their landing, approach-
ing them, he found thera to be Spaniards, of whom he
had too great a dread to truft himfelf in their hands.
They were by this time fo near that it required all
his agility to efcape, which he effefted by climbing in-
to a thick tree, being fhot at feveral timt s as he ran off.
Fortunately the Spaniards did not difcover him, though
they ftayed fome time under the tree where he was hid,
and killed fome goats juft by. In this folitude Selkirk
remained until the 2d of February 1709, when he faw
two fhipg come into the bay, and knew them to be
Engliih. He immediately lighted a lire as a fignal ;
and on their coming on ftiore, found they were the
Duke captain Rogers, and the Duchefs captain Court-
ney, two privateers from Brittol. He gave them the
beft entertainment he could afford ; and, as they had
been a long time at fea without frefh provifions, the
goats which he caught were highly acceptable. His
habitation confifting of two huts, one to flcep in, the
other to drefs his food in, was fo obfcurely fituated, and
fo difficult of accefs, that only one of the fhip's officers
would accompany him to it. Dampier, who was pilot
on board the Duke, and knew Selkirk very well, told
captain Rogers, that, when on board the Cinque-Ports,
he was the beft feaman on board that veffel ; upon
SELKIRKSHIRE, called alfo the SheriffHom of
Etterick Forejl, a county of Scotland, extending about
20 miles in length from eaft to well, and about 1 2 in
breadth from fouth to north. It borders on the north
with part of Tweeddale and Mid-Lothian ; on the fouth
and eaft with Teviotdale ; and on the weft with An-
nandale. This county was formerly referved by the
Scottifli princes for the pleafure of the chace, and
where they had houfes for the reception of their train.
At that time the face of the country was covered with
woods, in which there were great numbers of red and
fallow ileer, whence it had the name of Etterick Forejl.
The woods, however, are now almoft entirely cut down,
and the county is chiefly fupported by the breed of
fhcep. They are generally fold into the fouth, but
fometimes into the Highlands, about the month of
March, where they are kept during fummer ; and after
being improved by the mountain-grafs, arc retmnecl in-
to the Lowlands in the beginning of winter.
This county, though not very populous at prefent,
was once the nurfe of heroes, who were juftly account-
ed the bulwark of their native foil, being ever ready to
brave danger and death in its defence. Of this we -
have a memorable proof in the pathetic lamentations
of their wives and daughters for the difafter of the field
o\ Flowden, " where their brave forefters were a' wed
away." The rivers Etterick and Yarrow unite a XiX.'C^t Statipcal
above the town of Selkirk, and terminate in the 'VysttA. Account of
For five miles above itsjunftion with the Etterick, the ■^'^''''^'"^»
Tweed is ftill adorned with woods, and leads the pleafed'"^"
•which captain Rogers appointed him matter's mate of imagination to contemplate what this country muft
the Duke. After a fortnight's ftay at Juan Fernandes, have been in former times. The Yarrow, for about
the firips proceeded on their cruize agairrft the Spa- five miles above its junftion with Etterick, exhibits na-
niards \ plundered a town on the coaft of Peru ; took a ture in a bold and ftriking afpeft. Its native woods
Manilla fhip off California ; and returned by way of ftill remain, through which the ftream has cut its turbid
the Eaft Indies to England, where they arrived the ift courfe, deeply ingulphed araidft rugged locks. Here,
of O Sober 171 1 ; Selkirk having been abfent eight
years, more than half of which time he had fpent alone
3n the ifland. The public curiofity being excited refpeft-
ing him, he was induced to put his papers into the
hands of Defoe, to arrange and form them into a re-
gular narrative. Thefe papers muft have been drawn
up after he left Juan Fernandes, as he had no means of
recording his tranfaftions there. Captain Cooke re-
snarks, as an extraordinary circumftance, that he had
Vol. XVn. Pait L
certainly in a flood,
when he faw it
ftood the defcriptive Thomfon
" Work and boil, and foam and tliun-der through.'*
Upon a peninfula, cut out by the fuiTounding ftream,
in the middle of this fantaftically wild fcene of grandeur
and beauty, ftands the caftle of Newark, which has been
fuppofed by many to be the birth-place of Mary Scot
the flower of Yarrow j but this we believe to be a miftake,
Kk SELLA
S E L
t ^58 1
S E L
Sella, SELLA TURCICA, is a deep depreflion between the
, clinoid apophyfes of the fphenoid bone. See Anato-
' ' ' ftiy, p. 682.
SELTZER WATER, is a mineral water which
fprings up at Lower Seltzer, a villaj^e in the eleftorate
of Triers, about 10 miles from Frankfort on the Mayne.
It is a very ufcful medicinal water. Jt contains, accord-
ing to fome, a very fmall portion of calcareous earth,
of a native mineral alkali, and an acid ; but of thefe the
quantity is too fmall to attribute any medicinal virtues
to ; but it contains alfo near 1.7th of its bulk of fixed
air, which is more than is found in any other mineral
•water, and to this it owes its principal virtues. Others
have faid that it is of the very fame nature with Pyrmont
■water, and contains a fubtile aqueous fluid, a volatile
iron, and a predominant alkali, all joined together into
one briik fpirituous water. The confequence of thefe
different opinions refpefting its conftituent parts is,
that different methods have been reconunended for imi-
tating it.
According to the former analyfis, artificial Seltzer
water may be preoared by adding one fcruple of mag*
jiefia alba, fix fcruples of foflil alkali, and four fcruples
of common fait, to each gallon of water, and faturating
the water with fixed air or carbonic acid. According to
the latter it may be imitated by adding to a quart of
the pureft and lighted water thirty drops of a ftrong fo-
lution of iron made in fpirit of fait, a drachm of oil of
tartar per deliquium, and thirty drops of fpirit of vitriol,
or a little more or lefs as is found neceffary, not to let
the alkali of the oil of tartar prevail too ftrongly, tho'
it muft prevail a little. If the proportions be carefully
obferved, and the whole of thefe ingredients (haken
brifldy together, the artificial Seltzer or Pyrmont wa-
ter thus made will ftrongly refemble the natural, and
have the fame good effedl in medicine. *
But as fixed air is the only efiicaciovis medicinal part
of the compofition of Seltzer water, the beft method of
imitating it is by impregnating common water with that
acid by a procefs for which we are indebted to Dr
Prieftley. The firft idea of thi? kind occurred to him
in 1767, when, having placed fhallow veffels of water
within the region of fixed air, on the furface of the fer-
menting veflels of a brewery, and left them all night in
that fituation, he found that the water had acquired a
very fenfible and pleafant impregnation. He proceeded
to accelerate the impregnation by pouring the water
from one veffel into another, while they were both held
within the fphere of the fixed air. The method of
eff^fting this by air diflodged from chalk ^nd other
calcareous fubftances did not occur to him till the year
177'2, when he publiftied his direftions for this purpofe,
together with a drawing of the neceffary apparatus,
which he had before communicated to the Board of
Admiralty. That apparatus has now given way to
another invented by Dr Nooth, which is made of glafs,
plate and Hands on a wooden veffel dd (fig i.) refem-
ceecLxiv. btin;^ a tea-board :. the middle veffel B has a neck which
is inferted into the mouth of the veffel A, to which it
is ground air-tight. The lower neck of the veffel B
has a glafs ftopper S, compofed of two parts, both ha-
ving holes fufficient to let a good quantity of air pafs
through them. Between thefe two parts is left a fmall
fpace, containing a plano-convex lens, which afts like a
valve, ia letting the air pafs from below upwarais, and
hindering Its return into the veffel A. The upper vef- S
fel C terminates below in a tube r/, which being crook-
ed, hinders the immediate afcent of the bubbles -of fixed
air into that veffel, before they reach the furface of the
water in the veffel B. The veffel C is alfo ground air-
tight to the upper neck or the middle veffel B, and has
a ftopper p fitted to its upper mouth, which has a hole
through its middle. The upper veffel C holds juft half
as much as the middle one B ; and the end t of the
crooked tube goes no lower than the middle of the vef-
fel B.
For the ufe of this apparatus : Fill the middle veffel
B with fpring or any other wholefome water, and join
to it the veffel C. Pour water into the veffel A (by the
opening m, or otherwife) fo as to cover the rifing part
of its bottom : for this about three-fourths of a pint will
be fufficient. Fill an ounce phial with oil of vitriol,
and add it to the water, fhaking the veffel fo as to mix
them well together. As heat is generated, it will be
beft to add the oil by a little at a time, otherwife the
veffel may be broken. Put to this, through a wide glafs
or paper funnel, about an ounce of powdered raw chalk
or marble. White marble being firft granulated, or
pounded like coarfe fand, is better for the purpofe than
pounded chalk, becaufe it is harder ; and therefore
the adlion of the diluted acid upon it is flower, and lafts
to a confiderable time. On this account the fiipply of
fixed air from it is more regular than with the chalk :
and befides, when no more air is produced, the water
may be decanted from the veffel A, and the white fedi-
ment wafhed off, and the remaining granulated marble
may be employed again, by adding to it frefh water
and a new quantity of oil of vitriol. The funnel in this
procefs Is made ufe of, in order to prevent the powder
from touching the infide of the veffel's mouth ; for if
that happens, it will ftick fo ftrongly to the neck of
the veffel B as not to admit of their being feparated
without breaking. Place immediately the two veffels
B and C (faftened to each other) into the mouth of the
veffel A, as in the figure, and all the fixed air which is
difengaged from the chalk or marble by the oil of vi-
triol will pafs up through the valve in S into the vef-
fel B. When this fixed air comes to the top of the
veffel B, it will diflodge from thence as much water as [
is equal to its bulk ; which water will be forced up
through the crooked tube into the upper veffel C.
Care muft be taken not to fliake the veffel A when
the powdered chalk is put in ; otherwife a great and
fudden effervefcence will enfue, which will perhaps ex- ,
pel part of the contents. In this cafe it may be necef-
fary to open a little the ftopper ^, in ca der to give vent,,
otherwife the veffel A may burft. It will be proper
alio to throw away the contents and wafh the veffel ;,
for the matter will ftick between the necks of the
■veffels, and cement them together. The operatioa
muft then be begun afrefh. But if the chalk be put into
the veflel loofely wrapt up in paper, this accident will
be ftlll better guarded againft. When the effervefcence
goes on well, the veffel C will foon be filled with water,
and the veffel B half filled with air; which will eafily
be known to be the cafe by the air going up in large
bubbles- through the crooked tube r t.
When this is obferved, take off the two veffels B and
C together as they are, and (hake them fo that the wa-
ter and air within them may be much agitated. A great
«■ part
S E L [ 2
p«rt tKe fixed air will be abforbed into the water,
as will appear by the end of the crooked tube bein^
confiderably under the furface of the water in the veflel.
1'he fhaking them for two or three minutes will be fuf-
ficient for this purpofe. Thefe veffels mull not be
ihaken while joined to the under one A, otherwife too
great an effervefcence will be occafioned in the latter,
together with the ill confequence above mentioned.
After the water and air have been fufficiently agitated,
loofen the upper veffel C, fo that the remaining water
may fall down into B, and the unabforded air pafs out.
Put thefe veffels together, and replace them into the
mouth of A, in order that B may be again half filled
with fixed air. Shake the veffels B and C, and let
out the unabforbed air as before. By repeating the
operation three or four times, the water will be fuffi-
ciently impregnated.
whenever the effervefcence nearly ceafes in the vef-
fel A, it may be renewed by giving it a gentle fliake, fo
that the powdered chalk or marble at the bottom may
be mixed with the oil of vitriol and water, above it ;
fer then a greater quantity of fixed air will be difen-
gaged. When the effervefcence can be no longer re-
newed by (baking the veffel A, either more chalk muft
be put in, or more oil of vitriol; or more water, if
neither of thefe produce the defired effeft.
Mr Magellan has Uill further improved this contri-
vance. He has two fets of the veffels B and C. While
he is fliaking the air and water contained in one of thefe
fets, the other may be receiving fixed air from the veffel
A. By this means twice the quantity of water may
be impregnated in the fame time. He has a wooden
(land on which to fix the, veffels B, C, when taken off
from A, which is very convenient. He has a fmall
tin trough for meafuring the quantity of chalk or mar-
ble requifite for one operation, and a wide glafs funnel
for putting it through into the veffel A, to prevent its
flicking to the fides, as mentioned before.
He has alfo contrived a ftopper without a hole, to
be ufed occafionally inrtead of the perforated one p. It
muft be of a conical Hgure, and very loofe ; but fo
cxaftly and fmoothly ground as to be air-tiijht merely
by its preffure. Its ufe is to comprefs the fixed air on
the water, and thereby increafe the impregnation. For
by keeping the air on the water in this compreffed flate,
the latter may be made to fparkle like champaign. And
if the veffels are ftrong, there will be no danger of their
burfling in the operation.
The water thus impregnated may be drawn out at
the opening k. But if it is not wanted immediately,
it will be better to let it remain in the machine, where
it has no communication with the external air ; other-
wife the fixed air flies off by degrees, and the water be-
comes vapid and flat. But it rpay be kept a long time
in bottles well (topped, efpecially if they are placed
with their mouths downwards.
Dr Withering of Birmingham has lately contrived a
new apparatus for impreirnating water with fixed air,
which, he fays, is preferable to that in common ufe, be-
caufe It can be made at lefs expence, and is more eafily
prepared ; becaufe the whole quantity of fixable air
produced is converted to ufe, without any wafte of the
vitriolic acid ; becaufe it impregnates three times the
quantity of water at one time more completely and
with lei's trouble ; and the impregnated water will al-
1 s E L
ways retain its virtue, if the joints and cocks of the
machine are made perfectly air-tight ; for whieh pur-
pofe they fhould once a-year be fupplied with a fmall
quantity of unfalted lard. This apparatus is exhibited
by fig. 2. and confifts of a glafs veffel A, about ten
inches high in the cylindrical part, and fix inches and a
half- in diameter ; another glafs veffel B, about twelve
inches high in the conical part, one inch and a half in
the neck, and five inches in diameter at the bottom ; a
copper pipe C paffing through tlrc ftopper of the veffel
B, and tied fafl in the flexible tube D, made of ftrong
leather, air-tight, and kept hollow by means of a fpiral
wire pafling through its whole length; a conical brafs
pipe E, with a ftop-cock faftened to the tube D ; ano-
ther conical pipe F, with a ftop cock G, into which
the end of the tube E is accurately ground fo as to be
air-tight, and cutting off all communication with the
atmofphere when the pipe E is removed ; two large
hog's bladders H, H, each of which ought to hold two
quarts ; a ftop cock I to prevent the water rifing into
the bladders when the veffel A is agitated ; a bladder
K tied to the crooked tube with the ftop-cock L,
which occafionally opens or fhuts the communication
with the veffel B ; a glafs funnel M, accurately fitted
with the glafs ftopper N ; an aperture O, fitted with a
glafs ftopper or a filver cock, from which the impreg-
nated water is to be drawn for ufe ; and, laftly, the
tube P opening into the veffel A. When this appara-
tus is ufed, let the veffel A be filled with pure water,
and any other ingredients that are required, in a proper
proportion ; into the veffel B put as much marble or
whiting, in fmall lumps, as will cover its bottom to the
height of about two inches, and pour in water to the
height reprefented by the dotted hne ; let the mouth
of the veffel A be well fitted with a cork, and through
a hole in the cork pafs the tube P, putting upon the
cork melted fealing-wax of the fofteft kind, or model-
ling-wax, fo as to make the whole air-tight. Let the
mouth of the veffel B be flopped with a piece of ma-
hogany, turned into a conical figure in a lathe, and of
a fize fomewhat larger than the mouth of the glafs will
admit ; put this piece of wood into melted bees-wax,
and heat the wax till the wood begins to grow black J
when cool, turn it again till it fits the mouth of the
veffel : the tubes C, L, and M are fitted into holes
and bored through the wooden ftopper previous to its
being immerfed in the wax ; pufh thefe tubes through
the holes, and prefs the ftopper into the orifice of the
veffel B, and cement the whole with fealing or model-
ling-wax ; fliut the ftop-cocks I and L, having previoufly
preffed the air out of the bladder K : open the ftop-cocks
G and E ; then fqueeze the air out of the bladders H, H,
and afterwards prefs the conical pipe E into the pipe F ;
pour about a large fpoonful of oil of vitriol through the
funnel M, and ftop it with its ftooper N. The fixable air
let loofe by the effervefcence in the veffel B, rifing
through the tube C, paffes into the bladders H, H, and
diftends them. In this cafe open the ftop-cock I, and
from the aperture O draw out about a quart of water ;
and the fpace before occupied by t,he water will be
filled with fixable air, which foon begins to be abforbed
by the remaining water, and is ftill fupphed from the
bladders H, H, and from ^he effervefcing mixture in
the veffel B. When the bladders are confiderably coK
lapfed, more vitriolic acid muft be added through the,
Kk 2 funnel
S E L F t6o
Spatter funnel M, fo that they may be always kept pretty fully
"•""x — T diftended. When an impregnation is fpeedily required,
turn the itop-cocks at G and E, and open that at h ;
then feparate the pipe E from the tube F, and agitate
the vcfft'l A ; the tixable air will pafa into the bladder
K, ajid may be prefTed into the two other bladders,
when the parts of the apparatus are united. During
the agitation, the ftop-cock at I (hould be clofed, and
opened only occaiionally to fupply out of the^ladders
Hj H, the fixable air abforbed by the water. If a
ftrong imprci^nation be required, this procefs ihould be
carried on in a room, the heat of which does not ex-
ceed foity-eight degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer.
Dr Withering obferves, that the impregnated water re-
ctivcs no talte from the bladders ; and that if the vef-
fel A with its impregnated water be feparated from the
veffel B at the conical parting E, F, it may be inclofed
in a pyramidal mahogany cafe, out of the lower part of
\*hicli the filver cock at O projedls ; and thus ferve for
asi ornamental as well as luxurious and falubrious addi-
tion to the fide-board, particularly in the fummer and
autumnal feafons.
'L he artiiicial mineral waters thus made, are more
• pleafant to the talle than the natural Pyrmont or Selt-
y^^er waters ; which, befides their fixed air, contain fa-
line particles of a difagreeable tafte, which are known
to contribute little or nothing to their medicinal vir-
tues, and may, in fome cafes, be hurtful, 'i'hey are
likewife confiderably Itronger. According to Sir John
.Vringle, thefe waters may be made more nearly to re-
femble genuine Pyrmont water,' by adding to each pjnt
(if them from eight to ten drops of tinSura martis cum
fplritu falls. Or this may be done, by adding to the
"watrr in the middle veflel B (fig. i.), in the propor-
tion of about thirty grains of Epfom fait, ten grain* of
com.mon fait, a fcruple of magnefia alba, and a dram of
iron filings or iron wire, clean and free from rult, to
one gallon of fpring water, and impregnating the whole
with fixed air in the manner already dcfcribed. Let
them .remain, till the other ingredients and as much
of the iron as is neceffary are difTolved ; which will
be in two or three days : or the magnefia may be
omitted, and then the operation will be finifiied in lefs
than half that time. Thele waters may be rendered
ferruginous or chalybeate very eafily, by putting in the
Hiiddle vefTel two or more flender phials, filled with
cuttings of fine iron-bindin:/ wire, or with fmall iron
ftails ; becaufe the impregnated water will diflolve
the iron fo fatt, as to become well faturated with
it in a few hours, according to the experiments of Mr
Xane. But the method of rendering thefe artifi.cial
waters chalybeate, ufed by Dr Hulme, is to add one
jrrain of fait of fteel to each pint (fixteen ounces J of
vvater alVeady impregnated with fixed air.
But the ingenious Mr Bevvley has invented a ftill bet-
ter method of rxhibiting fixed air as a medicine. He
direfts a fcruple of alkaline fait to be diilblved in a l\if-
ficient quantity (a quarter of a pint, or lefs) of water,
which is to be impregnated with as much fixed air as
k can imbibe ; this is to be taken at one dofe. Mr
Bewley directs it to be prepared in larger quantities at a
time, and calls it his mephitic julep. If immediately
after it a fpoonful of lemon juice, mixed with two ot
three fpoonfuls of water, and fwectened with fugar, be
drunk, the £»cd( air will be extricated irt the ftomacli ;
J S E M
and thug a miich greater quantity of it mny be given
than the fame quantity of water alone can be made to
imbibe. Fixed air afts as a corroborant ; and there-
fore may be piven with fuccefs in weaknefs of the
ftomach, and in vomitings arifing from that caufe. It
has alfo been given witli fuccefs in the ttonc and in nephri-
tic complaints. When the lungs are purulent, fixed air
nu'xed with the air drawn into the lungs has repeatedly
been found to perform a cure. The bark alfp- may bq
given with advantage in water impregnated -with fixed
air, ns they both coincide in their cffeft. Fixed
air may be applied by means of a fyringe, funnel, or
otherwife, to inflamed breafls, putrid ulcers, mortified
parts, ulcerated fore throats, and has been found in fiich
and fimilar cafes to have very remarkable efficacy. It
may alfo be given internally at the fame time. In pu-
trid dyfenteries, and in putri<l ftools, fixed air may be
given by way of clyiler. Fermenting cataplafms are
of fervice, chiefly as they fupply fixed air to the part.
In cafes of putridity fixed air has been fuccelsfuUy ap-
plied to the furface of the body expofed to flreams of
it. It is alfo found an excellent cooling as well as;
llrengthening beverage in hot relaxing weather, ai!dha9
the advantage of being pleafant to the talle.
SEM, orSnEM, the fon of Noah, memoraljle far
his filial piety in concealing the folly and difgracc of
his father ; for which he received a remarkable bene-
diftion, about 2476 B. C. Fie lived to. the age of 6do
years.
Ras Sem
See Ras Sem and Petrf.fied City.
SEMECARPUS, in botany ; a genus of the trigy,
nia order, belonging to the pentaudria claiV of plants.
The corolla fs qinnquepetalous ; the drupa is heart-
fliaped, cellulous, and monofpermous. There is but
one fpecies.
SEMEN, SEED. See Botany, feft, iv. p. 4^5.
With refpetl to number, plants are cither furnifhcd
with one feed, as fea-pink and biilort ; two, as wood-
roof and the umbelliferous plants ; three, as fpurgc ;
lour, as the lip-flowers of Tournefort and rough-leaved
plants of Ray ; or many, as ranunculus, anemone, and
poppy.
The form of feeds is likewife extremely various, be-
ing either large or fmall, toimd, oval, heait-fliaped, kid-
ney-fhapcd, angular, prickly, rough, hairy, wrinkled,
fl'eek or fliining, black, white, or brown. Moif feeds
have only one cell or internal cavity ; thofe of leffer bur-
dock, valerian, lamb's lettuce, cornelian cherry, and fe-
bellen, have two.
With refpeft to fubftance, feeds are either foft, mem*<
branaceous, or of a hard bony fubltance ; as in grom-
well, tamarind, and all the nuciferous plants.
In point of magnitude, feeds are eitlier very large, as
in the cocoa-nut ; or very fmell, as in campanula, amman-'
nia^ rampions, and throat wort.
With refpeft to fituation, they are either difperfed
promifcuoufly through the pulp ( fern'ina nidulantiajy as
in vrater-lily ; affixed to a future or joining of the valves
of the feed-vefTcl, as in the crofs-fliaped and pea-blooni
flowers ; or placed upon a platenta or receptacle withm
the feed vefTeV, as in tobacco and thorn-apple.
Seeds are faid to be naked ( femina tiuda ), which are
not contained in a cover or veffcl : fuch are thofe of
the lip and compound flowers, the umbelliferous and
rough-kavcd plants j covered feeds (femina ieSa ) &xi
COtt-
S E M [2
eonta'ned in fome vefTel, whether pf the eapfule, pod,
betry, apple, qr cherry kind.
A fimple feed is fuch as bears neither crown, wi^^r
ITor downy pappus ; the varieties in feeds, arifniL? from
thefe circumrtances, are particularly enumerated under
their refpeCtive heads.
In .tflimilating the animal and vegetable kingdoms,
Linnseus denominates feeds the eggs of plants. The
fecundity of plants is frequently marvellous ; from a
fingle plant or ftalk of Indian Turkey wheat, sre pro-
duced, in one fummer, 2000 feeds ; oF elecampane,
5000; of fun-llower, 4000; of poppy, 32,000; of a
fpike of cat's tail, 1 0,000 and upwards : a fingle fruit,
or feed-veflel, of tobacco, contains 1000 feeds ; that of
white poppy, 8ooo. Mr Ray relates, from experi-
ments made by himfclf, that 10 12 tobacco-feeds are
equal in vv-eight to one grain ; and that the weight of
the whole quantum of feeds in a fin<ile tobacco-plant,
is fuch as mulf, according to the above proportion, de-
termine their number to be 360,000. The fame au-
thor eitimates the annual produce of a fingle ftalk of
jpleen-wort to be upwards of one million of feeds.
The difleminatioH of plants refptiTs the different me-
thods or vehicles by which nature has contrived to dif-
jyerfe their feeds for the purpoik of increafe. Thefe
by naturalifts are generally reckoned four.
1. Rivers and running waters. 2. The wind. 3. Ani-
mals. 4. An elaftic Ipring, peculiar tp the feeds them-
felves.
, I. The feeds which are carried along by rivers and
torrents are frequently conveyed many hundreds of
leagues from then- mtive foil, and caft upon a very dif-
ferent climate, to which, however, by degrees they ren-
tier themfelvcs Familiar.
2. Thofe which are carried by the wind, are either
ivingc^y as in fir-tree, trumpet-flower, tulip-tree, birch,
arbor-vitte, meadow rue, and Jeffamine, and fome um-
belliferous plants ; furnifhed with a pappus^ ©r downy-
crown, as in valerian, poplar, reed, fucculent fwallow-
>;vort, cotton-trec, and many of the compound flowers ;
placed within a winged calyx or fced-veflel, as in fca-
bious, fea-pink, dock, diofcorca, afn, maple, and elm-
trees, logwood and woad ; or laftly, contained within a
fweUed calyx or feed-veffel, as in winter-cherry, cucuba-
lus, melilot, bladder-nut, fumatory, bladder- fena, heart-
feed, and chick-peafe.
3. Many birds fwallow the feeds of vanelloe, juniper,
mifletoe, oats, millet, and other graffes, and void them
entire. Squirrels, rats, parrots, and other animals, fuf-
fer many of the feeds which they devour to efcape, and
thus in efl^eft diffeminate them. Moles, ants, earthworms,
and other infects, by ploughing up the earth, admit a
free paifage to thofe i'eeds which have been fcattered
upon its furface. Again, fome fetds attach themfelves
to animals, by means of hooks, crotchets, or hairs,
•which are either affixed to the feeds themfelves, as in
liound's tongue, moufe ear, vervain, carrot, badard-par-
fley, fanicle, water hemp-agrimony, artlopus and vcrbe-
Jma ; to their f alyx, as in burdock, agrimeny, rhexia^
fmall wild buglofs, dock, nettle, pellitory, and lead wort;
or to their fruit or feed-veiTel, as in liquorice, enchan-
ter's night fhade, crofs-wort, clivers, French honey-
fuckle;, and arrow-headed grafs.
. 4. The feeds which difperfe themfelves by an elaftic
/orce, have that force refident either in their calyx, as
6r J S E M
in oats and the greater nurnbcr of ferns ; m their paP'
pm, as in centaurea crupina ; or in their cnpfuky as
in gerannium, herb-bennet, African fpir^a, fraHineIl-4,
horfe-tail, balfam, Malabar nut, cucumber, elaleiiunj,
and male balfam ?.pple.
Semkn, in the animal economy. See pHysiOLOGy,
fed. xii. and Anatomy? IC9.
Sfmen Sanflum, or Santonicum, See Artemisia.
SEMENDRIAH, a town of Turkey in Europe, iij
the province of Servia, with a good citadel. It is the
capital of a fangiicate, was taken by the 'I'urks iu
1690, and is feated on the Danube, in E. Long. ^ 1. 45.
N. Lat. 45. o.
SEMENTINjE FtRT.E, in antiquity, feafts held an-
nually among the Romans, to obtain of the godsa plen-
tifiil harveft. They were celebrated in the temple of
Tellus, where folemn facrifices were offered to Tellua
and Ceres. 'I'hefe fcails were held about feed-time,
ufually in the month of January ; for, as Macrobius
obferves, they were moveable feafls.
SEMI, a word borrowed from the Latin, fieni' vin'r
half; but only ufed in compoiition with otha- words,
as in the following articles.
Sf.Mi'A' ians, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a branch &f the
ancient Arians, confiiling, according to Epiphanius, of
fuch as, in appearance, condemned the errors, of that
herefiarch, hut yet acqwiefced in fome of the principles
thereof, only palliatiiig and hiding them under f'ofter
and more moderate terms. Though they feparated from
the Arian fadion (tVe Arians), they could never be
brought to acknowledge that the Son was hbmooufios,
that is, confubftantial, or of the fame fubftance with
the Father ; they would only allow him to be honioi-
oufios, that is, of a like fubfisnce with the Father, or
fimllar to the Father in his effence, not by nature, but
by a peculiar privilege.
The femi-arianifm of the moderns confifls in their
maintaining that the Son was from all eternity begot-
ten by the w/"// of the Father, contrary to the dottrir^e
of the orthodox, who fccm to teach that the eternal ge-
neration is necejjary. Such at leaft are the refpeftive
opinioftsof Dr Clarke and Bilhop Bull. See 'I'heology.
Semicircle, in geometry, half a circle, or that fi-
gure comprehended between the diameter of the circle
and half its circumference.
Semicolo?}, in grammar, one of the points or ftons
ufed to diilinguifh the feveral memberi of a fentence
from each other.
The mark or charafter of the femlcolon Is (;), and
has its name as, being of fomewhat lefs e{fe(3: than a co-
lon ; or as demanding a fliorter paufe.
The proper nfe of the femicolon is to diflinguifli the
conjundl members of a fentence. Now, by a conjundl
member of a fentence is meant fuch a one as contains
at leaft two fimple members. — Whenever, then, a fen-
tence can be divided into feveral members of the fame
degree, which are again divifible into other fimple mem-
bers, the former are to be feparated by a femicolon.
For inliance : " If fortune bear a great fway over him,
v/ho has nicely ffated and concerted every clrcumftance
of an affair ; we muft not commit every thing, without
referve, to fortune, left fhc have too gr eat a hold of us.'*
A gain : St quantum in agro locifque defer t 'ls cudaria potejit
tantum in Joro a'que judiciis impudentia valeret ; non mi"
mis in caufa ccdfret ^uluf Cxcsnm Se^ta JEbutii tmpu*
tiemea
Senu~-
S E M
r 262 1
S E M
•Sa'tiiei!.
bium
aentite, quam ium in vi facienda cejtt audacla. An m-
ftance in a more complex fentence we have in Cicero :
Res famUtaris pr'mum bene parta ftty nulloqm turpi qn^f'
tu : turn quam plurimisy modo dtgnist fe utilem prabeat ;
deimle augealur rmione, dUtgentiay^parJimonia ; nec Itbidlni
pot'ms luxnr'taque, quam I'lberalitati et benejicentia pareat.
But though the prsper ufe of the femicolon be to
ciiftin,:Tuifh conjunA members, it i$ not neccflary that all
the members divided hereby be conjunft. For upon
dividing a fentence into great and equal paits, if one of
-them be conjunft, all thofe other parts of the fame de-
gree are to be diftinguifhed by a femicolon. — Sometimes
iilfo it happens, that members that are oppofite to each
cither, but rehte to the fame verb, are feparated by a
femicolon. Thus Cicero : Ex hac parte pudor, illinc
petulantta ; hinc fides, illtnc fraudat'io ; h'lnc p'tetas, illinc
fcelus, &c. To this likewife may be referred fuch fenten-
^es, where the whole going before, the parts follow: as
The parts of oratory are four ; invention, difpofition,
£locution, and pronunciation."
Semicubium, in medicine, an half-bath, wherein the
patient is only placed up to the navel.
Semidiameter, half the diameter, or a right line
^rawn from the centre of a circle or fphere to its cir-
cumference: being the fame with what is otherwife
called the radius.
Semiflosculus, in botany, a term ufed to exprefs
the flowers of the fyngenefia clafs. Thefe femiflofculi
are petals, hollow in their lower part, but in their up-
per flat, and continued in the (hape of a tongue.
Semitone, in raufic. See Interval.
SEMINAL, fomethingbelonging tothefemen orfeed.
SEMINARY, in its primary fenfe, the ground
-where any thihg is fown, to be afterwards tranfplanted.
Seminary, in a figurative fenfe, is frequently ap-
plied to placets of education, whence fcholars are tranf-
planted into iife. — In Catholic countries it is particu-
larly ufed for a kind of college or fchool, where yoath
are inftrufted in the ceremonies, &c. of the facred rni-
niftry. Of thefe there are great numbers; it being
ordained by the council of Trent, that there be a fe-
minaiy belonging to each cathedral, under the direc-
tion of the biftiop.
SEMINATION, denotes the manner or aft of flied-
iing and difperfing the feeds of plants. See Semen.
SEMIPELAGIANS, in ecclefiaftjcal hiilory, a
name anciently, and even at this day, given to fuch as
retain fome tindure of Pelagianifm. See Pelagians.
CafTian, who had been a deacon of Conftantinople,
and was afterwards a prieft at Marfellles, was the chief
•of thefe Semipelagians ; whofe leading principles were,
1. That God did not difpenfe his grace to one more
than another in confequence of predeftination, /. e. an
eternal and abfolute decree, but was willing to fave all
men, if they complied with the terms of his gofpel.
2. That Chrift di«l for all men. 3. That the grace
purchafed by Chrift, and neceffary to falvation, was of-
fered to all men. 4. That man, before he received
grace, was capable of faith and holy defires. 5. That
man was born free, and was confequently capable of re-
fitting the influences of grace, or of complying with its
fuggeftion. The Semipelagians were very numerous ;
and the doarine of Caflian, though varioufly explained,
was received in the greateft part of the monaftic fchools
io Gaul, from whence it fpread itfelf far and wide thro'
the European provinces. As to the Greeks and other Semir
e^iftern Chriftians, they had embraced the Semipelagian ^^"^F
doilrines before Caffian, and fl;ill adhere to them. In
the 6th century, the controverfy between the Semipe-
lagians and the difciples of Auguftin prevailed much,
and continued to divide the weftern churches.
SEMIRAMIS (fab. hifl:.), a celebrated queen of
Aflyria, daughter of the goddefs Derceto, by a young
AHyiian. She was expofed in a defert ; but her life
was prefervcd by doves for one whole year, till Simmas,
one of the fliepherds of Ninus, found her and brought
her up as hia own child. Semiramis, when grown up,
married Menones, the governor of Nineveh, and accom-
panied him to the fxcge of Badria ; where, by her ad-
vice and prudent direftions, (he haftened the king's ope-
rations, and took the city. Thefe eminent fervices, to-
gether with her uncommon beauty, endeared her to Ni-
nus. The monarch aflced her of her hufband, and offered
him his daughter Sofana in her ftead; but Menones, who
tenderly loved Semiramis, refufed ; and when Ninus had
added threats to entreaties, he hanged himfelf. No foon-
er was Menones dead, than Semiramis, who was of an
afpiring foul, married Ninus, by whom (he had a fon
called ^inyas. Ninus was fo fond of Semiramis, that
at her requett he refigned the crown, and commanded
her to be proclaimed queen and fole emprefs of Aflyria.
Of this, however, he had caufe to repent : Semiramis
put him to death, the better to eftablifli herfelf on the
throne ; and when fhe had no enemies to fear at home,
ftie began to repair the capital of her empire, and by
her means Babylon became the molt fuperb and mag-
nificent city in the world. She vlfited every part of
her dominions, and left everywhere immortal monuments
of her greatnefs and benevolence. To render the roads
pafiable and communication eafy, fhe hollowed moun-
tains and filled up valleys, and water was conveyed at a
great expence by large and convenient aquedufts to
barren deferts and unfruitful plains. She was not
lefs diftinguiflied as a warrior: Many of the neighbour-
ing nations were conquered ; and when Semiramis was
once told as (he was drefling her hair, that Babylon had
revolted, flie left her toilette with precipitation, and
though only half drefled, fhe refufed to have the reft of
her head adorned before the fedition was quelled and
tranquillity re eftabliflied. Semiramis has been accufed
of licentioufnefs ; and fome authors have obferved that
fhe regularly called the ftrongeft and ftouteft men in
her army to her arms, and afterwards put them to
death, that they might not be living witneffcs of her
incontinence. Her pafiion for her fon was alfo unnatu-
ral ; and it was this criminal propenfity which induce??
Ninyas to deftroy his mother with his own hands. Some
fay that Semiramis was changed into a dove after
death, and received immortal honours in Aflyria. It
is fuppofed that ftie lived about 1 i centiiries before the
Chriftian era, and that ftie died in the 6 2d year of her
age and the 25th of her reign. Many fabulous reports
have been propagated about Semiramis, and fome have
declared that for fome time flie dif^uifed herfelf and paf-
fed for her fon Ninyas. Lempriere's Bibliotheca Clajftca.
SEMPERVIVUM, house-leek, in botany: A
genus of plants belonging to the order of dodecagynia,
and to the clafs of dodecandria ; and in th^ natural method
ranking under the 1 3th order. Succulents. The calyx is
divided into 12 parts i the petals are 12, and thecapfules
SEN
[
1 2, containing many feeds. There are 1 2 fpecies ; the
arboreum, canaricnfe, glutinofum, glandulofum, teflo-
rum, globiferum, villofum, tortuofam, arachnoideum,
montanum, fedeforme, and menanthes. Linnaeus has
only eight of thefe. The teftorum alone is a native of
Britain. The ftalk Is about a foot high ; the radical
leaves are thick, oval, pointed, frin-xed, and fpreadint^ in
a rofe ; thofe on the ftem are imbricated and membra-
nous : the flov^rers are pi^.le red and feffile, and growr on
curved terminal bunches. It is frequent on the tops of
houfes, and flowers in July.
The following chemical defcription of this fpecies is
given by Lewis : " The leaves of houfe-leek, of no re-
markable fmell, difcover to the tafte a mild fubacid
aullerity : their exprefled juice, of a pale yellowifh hue
when filtered, yields on infpiffation a deep yellow, tena-
cious, mucilaginous mafs, conliderably acidulous and
acerb : from whence it may be prefumed, that this herb
has fome claim to the refrigerant and reftringent virtues
that have been afcribed to it. It is obfervable that
the filtered juice, on the addition of an equal quantity
of reftified Ipirit of wine, forms a light white coagu-
lum, like cream of fine pomatum, of a weak but pene-
trating tafte : this, freed from the fluid part, and ex-
pofed to the air, almoft totally exhales. J^rom this ex-
periment it Is coHcluded by fome, that houfe-leek con-
tains a volatile alkaline fait : but the juice coagulates
in the fame manner with volatile alkalis themfelves, as
alfo with fixed alkalis : Acids produce no coagula-
tion."
SENAAR, or Sennaar. See Sennaar.
SENATE, in general, is an aflembly or council of
fenators $ that is, of the principal inhabitants of a ftate,
who have a fhare In the government.
The fenate of ancient Rome Is of all others the moft
celebrated. It exercifed no contentious jurlfdiftion ;
but appointed judges, either from among the fenators
or knights, to determine proceffes : it alfo appointed go-
vernors of provinces, and difpofed of the revenues of the
commonwealth, &c. Yet did not the whole fovereign
power refide in the fenate, fmce it could not eledt ma-
giftrates, make laws, or decide of war and peace ;
in all which cafes the fenate was obliged to confult the
people.
The fenate, when firfl: inftltuted by Romulus, con-
fifled of 1 oo members ; to whom he afterwards added
the fame number when the Sabines had migrated to
Rome. Tarquin the ancient made the fenate confift of
300, and this number remained fixed for a long time ; but
afterwards it fluftuated greatly, and was Increafed firft
to 700, and afterv^ards to 900 by J. Casfar, who filled the
fenate with men of every rank and order. Under Augufl us
the fenators amounted to 1000, but this number was
reduced, and fixed to 600. The place of a fenator was
always beftowed upon merit: the monarchs had the pri-
vilege of choofing the members ; and after the expulfion
ef the Tarquins, it was one of the rights of the con-
fuls, till the eleftlon of the cenfors, who from their of.
fice feemed mofl; capable of making choice of men whofe
chara&er was irreproachable, whofe morals were pure,
and relations honourable. Only particular families were
admitted into the fenate ; and when the plebeians- were
permitted to flaare the honours of the ftate, it was then
required that they ftiould be born of free citizens. It
was alio required that the candidates foould be knights
63 ] SEN
before their admlllion Into the fenate. They were to
be above the age of 25, and to have prevloufly pafTed
through the inferior offices of quaeftor, tribune of the
people, edile, prctor, and conful.
The fenate always, met of courfe on the ift of Janua-
ry, for the Inauguration of the new cbnfuls ; and In alt
months, unlverfally, there were three days, viz. the ka-
lends, nones, and ides, on which It regularly met : but
it always met on extraordinary occafions, when called"
together by conful, tribune, or didator.
To render their decrees valid and authentic, a cer-
tain number of members was requifite, and fuch as
were abfent without fome proper caufe were always-
fined. In the reign of Auguftus, 4-:o fenators were
requifite to make a fenate. Nothing was tranfacted be-
fore fun-rife or after fun-fet. In their office the fena-
tors were the guardians of religion, they difpofed of
the provinces as they pleafed, they prorogued the af-
femblies of the people, they appointed thankfgivings,
nominated their ambaffadors, dift;ributed the public mo-
ney, and in fliort had the management of every thing
political or civil in the republic, except the creating of
magiftrates, the enadling of laws, and the declarations
of war or peace, which were confined to the alfemblles
of the people,
SENATOR, in general, denotes a member of fome:
fenate.
The dignity of a Roman fenator could not be fup-
ported without the pofTeffion of 80,000 fefterces, or
about 7000 1. Engllfh money ; and therefore fuch as
fquandered away their money, and whofe fortune was
reduced below this fum, were generally ftruck out of
the lift of fenators. This regulation was not made In
the firft ages of the republic, when the Romans boafted
of their poverty. The feaators were not permitted to
be of any trade or profelfion. They were diftlnguiftied
from the reft of the people by their drefs j they wore
the latlclave, half-boots of a black colour, with a cref-
cent or filver buckle in the form of a C ; but this laft
honour was confined' only to the defcendants of thofe
hundred fenators who had been elefted by Romulus, as
the letter C feems to imply. See the preceding ar-
ticle.
Among us, fenator is a member of parliament. In-,
the laws of king Edward the ConfefTor, we are told
that the Britons called thofe fenators whom the Saxons
called aherwards a/dermen and. borough-majiers ; though
not for their age, but their wifdom; for fome of them,
were young men, but very well flcilled in the laws.
Kenulph king of the Mercians granted a charter, which
ran thus, vl^;. ConftUo et confenfu cplfcoporum et fenato-
rum gentis fua largttus fuU diSo mona/Ierio, &c.
In Scotland, the lords ©f feffion are called yewa/or/-
of the college of juftlce.
SENATUS AucTORiTASi See the next article.
SENAius ConfuItum, which made part of the Ro*
man law. When any public matter was introduced;
into the fenate, which was always called referre ad fe-
natuwy any fenator whofe opinion was aflied, was per-
mitted to fpeak upon it as- long as he pleafed, and on
that account It was often ufual for the fenators to pro-
tra£t their fpeeches till it was too late to determine.
When the queftion was put, they pafled to the fide of
that fpeaker whofe opinion they approved, and a majo-
rity of votes was eafily colleded, without the troubk
3 of
Senator,
Scnatus.
SEN [ 26
8enec». of counting^ the numbers. When the majority was
"'■'■v^' known, the matter was determined, and a fenatus conful-
tum was immediately written by the clerks of the houfe,
at the feet of the chief magiilrates, and it was figned
by all the principal members of. the houfe. When
■there was not a fufficient number of members to make
a fenate, the deciiion was called fenatus audorltas, but it
was of no force if it did not afterwards pafs into a
fenatus confultum.
The fenatus confulta v/ere at firll left in the cuftody
of the kings, and afterward of the confuls, who could
fupprefs or preferve them ; but about the year ot Rome
304, they w^cre always depofited in the temple of Ce-
res, and afterwards in the treafury, by the ediles of the
people.
SENECA (Lucius Annsus), a Stoic phllofopher,
was born at Corduba in Spain, about the beginning
of the Chriftian era, ®f an Equeft-im family, which
had probably been tranfplanted thither in a colony
from Rome. He was the fecond fon of Marcus An-
naus Seneca, commanly called the rhdorkiariy whofe
- remains are printed under the title of Suaforie Con-
iro'verfia^ cum Declamationum Excerptis; and his youngeft
brother Annaeus Mela (for there were three of them)
had the honour of being father to the poet Eucan.
He was removed to Rome, together with his father and
the reft of his family, while he was yet in his infancy.
There he was educated in the moft liberal manner, and
under the beft matters. He learned eloquence from his
father ; but his genius rather leading him to philofophy,
fee put himfclf under the ftoics Attalus, Sotion, and
Papirius Fabianus ; men famous in their way, and of
whom he has made honourable mention in his writings.
It is probable, too, that he travelled when he was young,
fince we find him, in feveral parts of his works, parti-
cularly in his ^aejiionss Naturaksy making very exaft
and curious oblervations upon Egypt and the Nile. —
But this, though entirely agreeable to his own hu-
mour, did not at ail correfpond with that fcheme or
plan of life which his father had drawn out for him ;
who therefore forced him to the bar, and put him upon
foliciting for pubHc employments ; fo that he afterwards
became qiraftor, praetor, and, as Lipfius will have it,
even conful.
In the firll year of tlie reign of Claudius, when Ju-
lia the daughter of Germanicus was accufed of adul-
tery by MelTalina, and banifhed, Seneca was baniflied
too, being charged as one of the adulterers. Corfica
was the ftat of his exile, where he hved eight years ;
« happy in the midft of thofe things which ufually
make other people miferable ; inter eas res beatus, qu<e
folent miferos facer e and where he wrote his books
of -confolation, addrefled to his mother Helvia, and to
his friend Polybius, and perhaps fome of thofe trage-
dies which go under his name ; for he fays, modo fe
kvioribus ftudiis ibi ohkaaffe. Agrippina being mar-
ried to Claudius, upon the death of MeflVilina, fllie pre-
•vailed with the emperor to recal Seneca from ba-
•nifhment ; and afterwards procured him to be tutor
to her fon Nero, whom (he defigned for the empire.
Africanus Burrhus, a prsetorian prsefeft, was joined
with him in this important charge : an^ thele two
preceptors, who were entruft'ed with equal autho-
rity, had tach his refpeftive department. By the
t>oinaty and generofity of hie royal pupil, Seneca ac-
4. ] SEN
quired that prodigious wealth which rendered him in %
manntr equal to kings. His houfes and walks were the
moft magnificent in Rome. His villas were innu-
merable : and he had immenfe fums of money placed
out at intereft in almoft every part of the world. The
hiftorian Dio reports him to have had 250,^00 1. Ster-
ling at intereft in Britain alone ; and reckons his call-
ing it in all at a fum, as one of the caufes of a war with
that nation.
All this wealth, however, together with the luxury
and effeminacy of a court, does not appear to have had
any ill effe6t upon the temper and dilpofition of Se-
neca. He continued abftemious, exadt in his manners,
and, above all, free from the vices fo commonly preva.
lent in fuch places, flattery and ambition. " I had ra«
ther (faid he to Nero) offend you by fpeaking the
truth, than pleafc you by lying and flattery : ma/uerim
verts ojfendere, quam placere odit/ondo." How well he
acquitted himfelf in quality of preceptor to his prince,
may be known from the five firft years of Nero's reign,
which have always been confidered as a perfeft pattern
of good government ; and if that emperor had but been
as obfervant of his mafter through the whole courfe of
it, as he was at the beginning, he would have been the
delight, and not, as he afterwards proved, the curfe and
deteftation of mankind. But when Poppsea and Ti-
gelliniis had got the command of his humour, and hur-
ried him into the moft extravagant and abominable vices,
he foon grew weary of his mafter, whofe life muft indeed
have been a conftant rebuke to him. Seneca, percei-
ving that his favour declined at court, and that he had
many accufers about the prince, who were perpetiially
whifpering in his ear the great liches of Seneca, his
magnificent houfes and fine gardens, and what a favou-
rite through means of thefe he was grown wth the
people, made an offer of them all to Nero. Nero re-
iufed to accept them ; which, however, did not hinder
Seneca from changing his way of life ; for, as Tacitus
relates, he " kept no more levees, declined the ufual civi-
lities which had been paid to him, and, under a pretence
of indifpofition, or fome engagement or other, avoided
as much as poffible appearing in public."
Nero, in the mean time, who, as it is fnppofed, had
dii','atched Burrhus by poifon, could not be eafy till
he had rid himfelf of Seneca alfo : For Burrhus was
the manager of his military concerns, and Seneca
conducted his civil affairs. Accordingly, he attempt-
ed, by means of Cleonicus, a freedman of Seneca, to
take him off by poifon ; but this not fucceeding, he
ordered him to be put to death, upon an information
that he was privy to Pifo's confpiracy againft his per-
fon. Not that he had any real proof of Seneca's be-
ing at all concerned in this plot, but only that he was
e;lad to lay hold of any pretence for deftroying him. —
He left Seneca, however, at liberty to cboofe his man-
ner of dying ; who caufed his veins to be opened immedi-
ately. His wife Paulina, who was very young in com-
parifon of himfelf, had yet the refolution and affvftion
to bear him company, and thereupon ordered her veins
to be opened at the fame time ; but as Nero was not
willing to make his cruelty more odious and infuppdrt-
at)le than there feemed occafion for, he gave orders to
have her death prevented : upon which her wounds were
bound up, and the bioed ftopped, in juft time enough
to fave her j tho', as Tacitus iiays, fhe leok^d fo mifer-
4 ^ »Wy
SEN t 2
ably pale and wan all her life after, that it was eafy to
read the lofs of her blood and fptrits in her counte-
nance. In the mean time, Seneca, finding his death
flow and lingering, dtfired Statius Annseus his phyfi-
cian to give him a dofe of poifon, which had been pre-
pared feme time before in cafe it {liould be wanted ; but
this not having its ufual effed, he was carried to a hot
bath, where he was at lenorth ftified with the fteamg.
He died, as IJpfius conjeftures, in the 6<d or 64 ih
year of his age, and in about the loth or i ith of Ne
ro's reign. Tacitus, on mentioning his death, obferves,
that, as he entered the bath, he took of the water, and
with it fprinkled fome of his neareft domeftics, faying,
" That he offered thofe libations to Jupiter the Deli-
verer." Thefe words are an evident proof that Seneca
was not a Chriftian, as fome have imagined him to
have been ; and that the 13 epiftles from Seneca to St
Paul, and from St Paul to Seneca, are fuppofititious
pieces. His philofophical works are well known. —
They confift of 124 epi/i/es and diftinft treatifes ; and,
except his books of phyfical queftions, are chiefly of the
moral kind, treating of anger, confolation, providence,
tranquillity of mind, conftancy, clemency, the Ihortnefs
of hfe, a happy life, retirement, benefits. He has
been juftly cenfured by Quintilian and other critics, as
one of the firft corrupters of the Rojnan ftyle ; but his
works are highly valuable, on account of the vaft. eru-
dition which they difcover, and the beautiful moral fen-
tiraents which they contain.
SENECIO, G RouNDSEL, in botany : A genus be-
longing to the clafs of fyngenefia, and to the order of
polygamia fuperflua ; and in the natural claffification
ranked under the 49th order, Compoftta. The recep-
tacle is naked ; the pappus fimple ; the calyx cylindri-
cal and calyculated. The fcales are equal and contigu-
ous, fo as to feem entire ; thofe at the bafe are few, and
have their apices or points decayed. There are ? 7 fpe-
cies. Of thefe, feven are Britifh, the vulgaris, vifcofus,
fylvatlcus, erucifoliui, jacobsea, paludofus, and farace-
nicus.
I. The -vulgansy or common groundfel, has its co-
rollse naked, its leaves feflile, fmooth, and finuated, their
fegments fhort, broad, and minutely ferrated; the flowers
are yellow, and without radii. This weed grows in
cultivated ground everywhere, and flowers in May. Its
leaves have been ufed in medicine externally as a vulne-
rary and refrigerant, and internally as a mild emetic ;
but they have little or no efficacy. 2. The vifcofus, or
cotton groundfel, has its corollas re volute, its leaves pin-
natifid, vifcid, and downy. The fcales of the calyx
are lax and hairy, and are of the fame length with
the perianthium. 3. The /yZ-Uf/^iVz/j, or mountain ground-
fel, has its corollae revolute, its leaves pinnatifid and
dentated, the item comrybous and ereft. It flowers in
July, and is frequent in woods and heaths. 4. The
erucifoliusy hoary perennial ragwort ; the coroUag are ra-
<Hant ; the leaves are pinnatifid, dentated, and downy
beneath ^ the ftem is ereft, and two feet high ; the flow-
ers are yellow, and grow in cluflers. I'his plant is fre-
quent in woods and hedges. 5. The jacobaa, common
ragwort ; the corollGe are radiant ; the leaves pinnated
and lyre-fliaped, and of a dark-green colour ; the ftalk
h ere<5t, round, and generally purplifli ; the flowers grow
in clullers on the tops of the ftalks. The leaves have
3 bitterilh fubacrid taile, and extremely naufeous. Si-
VoL. XVII. Part I.
i% 1 SEN
mon Paulli fays, that a decodion of them cured many Sen
foldiers of an epidemic dyfentery. 6. The paludofus,
marfli ragwort ; the corolla; are radiant ; the leaves
fword-lhaped, acutely ferrated, and fomewhat downy
underneath; the fl;em is ereft, branched towards the
top, and four or five feet high ; the flowers are large
and yellow. This plant is frequent in fens and ditches
in England. 7. The faracenicus, broad-leaved ragwort;
the corellas are radiant ; the leaves are lanceolated, fer-
rated, and fomewhat fmooth ; the fl:em is creft, fimple,
and four or five feet high ; there are feveral flowers on
each footftalk, v/hich are yellow, and grow in cluftera
on the top. The plant grows in moifl; paflntes in Eng-
land ; and flowers in July or Auguft.
SENEGAL, a part of Negroland in Africa, the
boundaries of which are not known. See Guinea.
IJle of Senegal, fometimes called Saint Louis, is a fmdll
ifland in the mouth of the river Senegal, and according
to Maflcelyne's tables is fituatcd in N. Lat 15. 1,-^.
W. Long. 16. 31. The Dutch were the firil Euro-
peans who fettled at Senegal ; but their colony was ex-
pelled by the French in 1687. It was taken by the
Englifli in 1692 ; and retaken by the French the year
following. It was a fecond time taken poffeflion of by
the Englifh in 1758; but in 1779 the French reco-
vered it, and it was ceded by the Britifli crown by the
treaty of i 783.
The belt account of this ifland which we have feen,
is given in the interefliing voyage of M. Saugnier to the
coaft of Africa. This adventurer vifited Senegal in
June 1785.
" The ifland (fays he), properly fpeaking, is only a
bank of fand in the middle of the river. It is 1000
geometrical paces lonsr, and about 60 in its greateft
width ; is almoit on a level with the river and with the
fea, being defended from the latter by Barbary point,
which is of greater elevation than the colony. The
eaftern branch of the river is the more confiderable of
the two, being about 400 toifes acrofs ; the weftern
branch is only from 50 to 2co toifes wide. The ifle
confiflis entirely of burning fands, on the barren furface
of which you fometimes meet with fcattered flints,
thrown out among their ballafl: by veflTels coming from
Goree, or with the ruins of buildings formerly erefted
by Europeans. There is fcarcely fuch a thing as
a garden upon the ifland ; European feeds in general
not thriving here. It is not furptifing that the foil is
fo^ unproduftive ; for the air is fl;rongly impregnated
with fea felt, which pervades every thing, and confumes
even iron in a very fliort fpace of time. The heats are
cxceffive, and rendered fliill more infupportable by the
reflexion of the fand ; fo that from ten in the morninsr
until four in the afternoon it is almofl; impollible to do
any work. During the months of January, February,
March, and April, the heats are moderated ; but in
Augufl; and the following months they become fo op-
preflive as even to aflfedl the natives thenifclves. What
effedl then muft they have upon the Europeans, fudden-
ly tranfported into this burning climate ? The nights are
a little lefs fultry ; not always, however, but only when
the fea-breeze fets in. It is' then that the inhabitants -
of the colony breathe a freflier air, for which they have
been longing the whole of the day ; but this air in our cli-
mate would feem aburning vapour. The nights are never-
thelefs troublef*jine, nolwithftanding the comforts of the
SEN
r 266 1
SEN
Sewgal. fea-brec7.e. The inftant the fun is fet, we are alTailed
•'"'■v^ |)y an infinity of gnats, which are called mufqu'itos ; their
ftings are very painful, and their multitudes incredible.
The inhabitants find but a poor defence in their gauze^
curtains. For ;ny own part, accuftomed as I had been
to live arnon;^ the Moors, I was but little annoyed by
thefe inieAs. Being half a fava je, I felt no defirc to
recominend myfelf to the favourable regard of the fair
fex, and \ was therefore under no necefiity of- takinjr
care of my perfon. In imitation of my former matters,
1 fmeared myftlf with butter, and this expedient pre-
feiv'ed me at all times from thefe impertinent ftingers,
thefe ipite'^ul enemies to the repofe of the human kind.
*' If the prolpeft of Senej^al is not agreeable to the
eye, much leis are its environs, which are covered over
only wnh fand, and over-run with mangles. It maybe
faid, without exa'jgeration, that there is not a more for-
lorn fituation to be found on the face of the inhabited
globe, or a place in which the comm.on necelfaries of
life arc prccmed with greater difficulties. Water, that
indiipenfable aliment of man, is here not potable. Wells
:>.re diiQ in the fand to the depth of five or lix feet, and
water is obtained by thefe means ; but whatever pains
are taken to frefiien it, it ever retains a brackilh talle.
I have di Hilled this water myfelf, and obferved that it
always had a difagreeable favour, which cannot fail to
be hurtful to the health : it is true, that when the ri-
ver is high, its ftreams arc frefh, but the water is only
the more dangerous. It proves the caufe of m.oit of
thofe maladies which carry off the Europeans fo rapid-
ly, that at the end of evei-y three years the colony has
a frefir fet of inhabitants. The blacks themfelves, al-
though accuflomed to the climate, are not in this feafon
free from difeafe."
The fort of St Louis is a quadrangle, and has two
baftions of confiderable ftrenoth ; but the greatefl fecu-
rity of the fort is its natural fituation. Tlie cannon of
the fort are numerous, and the arfenal well lupplied
with fmall anr.s and (lores. Befides this fort the
French had no other upon the liver, except Fort St
Jofeph, which Hands about four leagues below the ca-
taract at Govina, though they had a few fadlories in
different parts.
The principal commodityof this country is thatof gum
Senagal (fee GuM-Seuegal), which is a valuable branch of
commerce, as it is ufed in many aits and manufaftures,
particularly by the painters in water-colours, the filk
weavers, and dyers.
The French import from the river Senegal not only
cum-arabic, but elephants teeth, hides, bets-wax, gold-
duft, cotton, oilricli feathers, ambergris, indigo, and
civet.
Notwlthftanding the barrennefs of the fpot, Senegal
contains more than 6000 negroes, Including the cap-
tives o"f the 'J'apades, or negroes born of the black iri-
liabitants of the country. They are never put up to
f'cile, unlefs convifted of fome crime. Their huts, con-
flrufted in the form of bee-hives, and fupported upon
four flakes, furround the habitations of the negro inha-
bitants, l^he entire height of thofe huts may rife to
about 1 2 feet, the width in every direft ion is common-
ly from 10 to 12. The beds are compofed of hurdles
laid upon crofs-bars, fupported by forked flakes at the
height of about a foot irom the ground. Here the flaves
flccp promifcuoufly, men, women, girls, and boys, A
lire is made in the middle of the hut, which is filled
with fmoke, fufficient to flifle any man but a negro.
The men a'.e tall, and the women are accounted the
handfoinell negreffes of all Africa. 'J he Senega^ai;9
may be confidered as the moft couraijeous people of
that part of the world, without even excepting the
Moors. Tlieir coui-age, however, is more nearly allied
to temerity than to bravery. In the courfe of the voy-
age to Galam, they meet the {!;reate(l dangers with gaie-
ty and fong ; they dread neither mulket iidr cannon, and
are equally iearlefs of the cayrnan or crocodile fchoald
one of their companions be killed, and devoured by
thefe animals before their face, they are not deterred
from plunging into the water, if the working of the
fhip i-equire it. Thefe excellent qualifications which di-
flinguilh them, and on which they value themfelves fo
much, do not, however, preferve theai from the com-
* mon contagion of the country, which inclines them all
to rapine. They are emulous to furpafs one another
in all the arts of over-reaching and fraud. The con-
du6l of the Europeans has, no doubt, encouraged thefe
vices as much as the leffons of the marabous, who in-
culcate the duty of plundering the Chriftians to the ut>
moft of their power.
The Yolof negroes of Senegal ai-e either Chriftians
or Mahometans, or rather one and the other, or with
more truth neither ; religion being a matter of indiffe-
rence to them. Thofe on the continent are of the fame
way of thinking, and their rehgious pradlices are kept
up only for the fake of form. A bar of ii-on, *a
few beads, will make them change their opinion at will.
Jiy fuch means are they afted upon ; a fufficient proof
of their want of all rehgious principle. The marabous,
or priefts, and themen of their law, are no better than
the reft. " I have examined the charafter of feveral of
this order of men (fays M. Sangnier), and even among
the nation of the Poules, who are confidered as great
fanatics, I difcovered that they were only publicly at-
tached to their opinions. ' This white man (fay they)
does io ; he is better informed than I, and why fhpuld
not I imitate his example ?" This way of reafoning is
common to all that tracl of country.
The colony of Senegal is furrounded with iflands,,
which, on account of the proximity of the fea, are all-
moi-e unhealthy than that on which the town is built.
They are full of ftandlng pools, that, when dried up by
the fun, exhale a putrid vapour that carries mortality
with it, and defolates thefe iflands. It is doubtlels the
fame caufe that takes off fo many of the French at Se-
negal during the dangerous feafon of the year. This
alfo may be in part occafioned by the bad quality of
the water, which flows from the ponds in the neigh-
bourhood of the colony, and though incorporated with
that of the river, comes down little agitated by the cui--
rent, and is eafily dlitlnguiftied by a vapidnefa of tafte.
This particular is, in my opinion, effentially worthy of
notice, and if properly attended to by our medical men,
might become the means of preferving many lives.
HENKG^L-River, fee Niger. As fo little is known
refpedfing this river, which is one of the greateft in A-
frica, any additional information muft be interefting. We
fhall therefore prefent our readers with the account con-
tained in tlie communications prefented to the Aflbcia-
tion
SEN [ 2^
^1, tion for promoting the difcovery of th« Interior Parts
of Africa, which, as far as we know, is the lateft and
moft authentic.
The river known to Europeans by the name of Niger or
Senegal runs on the fouth of the kingdom of Cafina, in
itscourfe towards Tombuftou ; and if the report which
Ben AUi heard In that town may be credited, it is af-
terwards loll in the fands on the fouth of the country
of Tonibu-fcon, In the map (a), only the known part
of its courfe is m-n-ked by a line ; and the fuppofititious
part by dots. It may be proper to obferve," that the
Africans have two names for this river; that is, AW
i7 Abeed, or river of the Negroes ; and Neel il Kibeer., or
the great river. They alfo term the Nile (that is the
Ivryptian river) Neel IS hem ; fo that the term Neel^ from
whence our Nile, is nothing more than the appellative
of river ; like Ganges, or 8inde.
Of this river the rife and termination arc unknown,
but the courfe is from eaft to well. So great is its ra-
pidity, that no veilel can afcend its ftream ; and fuch
is the want of Ikill, or fuch the abfence of commercial
inducements among the nations who inhabit its borders,
that even with the current, neither veffels nor boats are
fccn to navigate. In one place, indeed, the traveller
finds accommodations for the paffage of himfelf and of
his goods ; but ev^en there, tho' the ferrymen, by the in-
dulgence of the fultan of CaOina, are exempted from aU
taxes, the boat which conveys the merchandife is no-
thing more than an ill-conftru£lcd raft ; for the planks
are faftened to th? timbers with ropes, and the feams are
clofed both withfn and without by a plalter of tough
clay, of which a large provifion is always carried on the
raft, for the purpofe of excluding the ftream wherever
its entrance is obferved.
The depth of the river at the place of paffage, which
is more than a hundred miles to the fouth of the city
of Cafhna, the capital ot the empire of that name, is
etlimated at or ,24 feet Engli(h. Its depth is from
10 to 12 peeks, each of which is 27 inches.
Its width is fuch, that even at the ifland of Gongoo,
where the ferrymen refide, the found of the loudefl voice
from the northern iliore Is fcarcely heard ; and at Tom-
huftou, where the name of Gnenva^ or black, is given to
the ftream, the width is defcribed as being that of
the Thames at Weflminfler. In the rainy feafon.it
fwells above its banks, and not only floods the adja-
cent lands, but often fweeps before it the cattle and
cottages of the fhort-fighted or too confident inhabi-
tants.
That the people who live in the neighbourhood of
the Niger fhould refufe to profit by its navigation, may
juftly furprii'e the traveller : but much greater is his
aftonifhment, when he finds that even the food which
the boimty of the ftream would give, is ufelefsly ofter-
rA to their acceptance ; for fuch is the want of fi^ill, or
fuch the fettled diflike of the people to this fort of pro-
vifion, that the fifh with which the river abounds are
left in undifturbed pofTeffion of its waters.
SENEKA, or Senega, Rattlefnake-root^ Milh-ivort^
a medicinal plant. See Polvgala.
7 1 , SEN
SENKSCHAX, (Senefchallus), derived from the Senefchal
German fein " a lioufe or place," and fcale " an of- g^j^Jj^^^,
ficer," is a fteward, and figniHes one who has the dif- _ ' ^ ' j
penfmg of juftice in fome particular cafes : As the
high fenefchal or fteward of England ; fenefchml de la
hotel de rot, " fteward of the king's houfehold, fenef-
chal, or fteward of courts, &c." Co. Lit. 61. Croke^s
Jurifd. loi. Kilch. 83. See Steward.
SENNA, the leaf of the caflia fenna of Linnreus.
See Cassia.
Senna appears to have been cultivated in England in
the time of Parkinfon (1640) ; and Miller tells us, that PVooiMlh't
by keeping thefe plants in a hot-bed all the fiurimer, Medkal &qm
he frequently had them in fiower ; but adds, it is very
rarely that they perfeft their feeds in England. There
can be little doubt, however, but that fome of the Bri-
tifli pofTcfrions may be found well enough adapted to
the growth of this vegetable, and that the patriotic
views of the Society for encouraging Arts, &c. which
has offered a reward to thofe who fucceed in the at-
teinpt, will be ultimately accompllfhed.
Senna, which is in common ufe as a purgative, was
firft known to the Arabian phyficians Serapion and
Mefue : the firil among the Greeks who takes any
notice of it is Ailuarius, but he only fpeaks of the
fruit, and not of the leaves. To remove the difagree-
able tafte of this m.edlcine, Dr Cullen recommends cori-
ander feeds; and, for preventing the gripings with which
it is fometimes attended, he thinks the warmer aroma-
tics, as cardamoms or ginger, would be more effedlual.
The Senna Italica, or blunt-leaved fenna, is a variety
of the Alexandrian fpecies; which, by its cultivation In
tlie fouth of France (Provence), has been found to af.
fume this change. It is lefs purgative than the pointed-
leaved fenna, and is therefore to be given in larger do-
fes. It was employed as a cathartic by Dr Wright at I.ond. MiJ.
Jamaica, where it grows on the fand banks near the fea. Jo"r-
SENNA AR, a country of Africa, bordering upon'"'" ^'
Abyffinia, with the title of a kingdom ; the prefent go-
vernment of which was eftablifhed in the i6th century
by a race of negroes named, in their own language,
Sh'illook. This country, together with all the northern
parts of Africa, had been over-run by the Saracens du-
ring the rapid conquefts of the khalifs ; but inftead of
creeling any dlftin6l principalities here, as in other
parts, they had incorporated themfelves with the old
inhabitants called Shepherds^ whom they found at their
arrival; had converted them to their religion, and become
one people with them. In 1504 the Shillook, a people
before unknown, came from the wellern banks of the
river Bahlar el Ablad, which empties itielf into the
Nile, and conquered the country ; allowing the Arabs,
however, to retain their poffeflions on condition of pay-
ing them a certain tribute. Thefe founded the city of
Sennaar, and have ever fince continued to carry on an
iutercourfe with Egypt in the way of merchandife.
At the eftabhfhment of their monarchy the whole na-
tion were Pagans, but foon after became converts to
Mohammedanifm, and took the name of Funge, an ap-
pellation figuifyiiig " lords or conquerors," and likc-
L 1 2 wife
(a) The map alluded to is that which accompanies the volume which contains the proceedings of the Afroci-
siiions. This work was printed in 1791.
SEN [ 268 ]
Scnnaar. wife free citizens. Mr Bruce, who pafled throui^h prehended,
^ this country in his return Irom Abylfinla, gives a iift
of 20 kings who have reigned in it finee the conqueft
of the Shillook.
This country is inhabited by a people fo barbarous
and brutiOi, that no hiftory of them can be expeited.
One of the moll remat'kable of their cuftoms is, that
the king afcends the throne with the expeftation of be-
ing murdered whenever the general council of the na-
tion thinks proper. The dreadful office of executioner
jBruce's
^raid's,
Voi. 4.
SEN
and put to death by the Sid el Coonj
in the manner already related. Women are excluded
from the foveieiguty here as well as in Abyifuna.
The princefles of Sennaar, however, are worfe off
than thole of Abyffinia, having no fettled income, nor
being treated in any degree better than the daugh-
ters of private perfons. 'I'he king is obliged, once'^in
his lifetime, to plough and fow a piece of ground ;
whence he is named Baady, the " countryman or pea-
fant a title as common among the monarchs of 8en-
r r - - - " — ^..^^...^.v^^.v.. -....^ , I. CIO aiinjii'.t^ lhc HlUUarcnS Ot OCU
belongs to one iingle officer, ftyled, in the language of naar as Casfar was among the Romans. The royal fa
the
the country, SiJ ei Coom ; and who is always a relation
of tlie monarch himfelf. It was from his regifters that
Mr Bruce took the lilt of the kings already mention-
ed, with the number of years they reigned, and which
may therefore be received as authentic. The Sid el
Coom in office at the time that Mr Bruce vifited this
country was named Achmet, and was one of his beil
friends. He had murdered the late king, with three
of his fons, one of whom was an infant at its mother's
■ breall ; he wns alfo in daily expeftation of performing
the fame office to the reigning fovereign. He was by
no means referved concerning the nature of his office,
but anfwered freely every queftion that was put to him.
When aflced by Mr Bruce why he murdered the king's
youiig fon in his father's prefence ? he anfwered, that
he did it from a principle of duty to the king himfelf,
who had a ri >;ht to fee his fon killed in a lawful and re-
gular manner, which was by cutting his throat with a
fword, and not in a more painful or ignominious way,
which the mahce of his enemies might poffibly have in-
flifted.
The king, he faid, was very little concerned at the fight
of his ion's death, but he was fo very unwilling to die
himfelf^, that he often preffed the executioner to let him
cfcape; but finding his intreatit s Ineffeftual, he fubmitted
at laft without redftance. On being allced, whether he
was not afraid of comin;r into the prefence of the king,
confidering the office he might poffibly have to perform?
he replied, that he was not in the leaft afraid on this
account; that it was his duty to be with the king every
morning, and very late in the evening ; tliat the king
knew he would have no hand in promoting his death ;
but that, when the matter was abfolutely "determined,
the reft was only an affair of decency ; and it would un-
doubtedly be his own choice, rather to fall by the hand
of his own relation in private than by a hired afiaffin,
an Arab, or a Chriftian flave, in the fight of the popu-
lace. Baady the king's father, having the misfortune
to be taken prifoner, was fent to Atbara to Welled
Hafian the governor of that province to be put to death
there. But the king, who was a ftrong man, and al-
ways armed, kept fo much upon his guard, that Welled
could find no opportunity of killing him but by running
mdy were originally negroes j but as the kings frequent-
ly marry Arab women, the white colour of the mother
is communicated to the child. This, we are told by
Mr Bruce, is invariably the cafe when a negro man of
Sennaar marries an Arab v/oman ; and it holds equally-
good when an Arab nian marries a negro woman; and
he hkewife informs us, that he never faw one black A-
rab all the time he was at Sennaar.
The foil and climate of this country is extrem.ely un-
favourable both to man and beaft. The men are ftrong
and remarkable for their iize, but fhort hved; and there-
is fuch a mortality among the children, that were it
not for a conftant importation of flaves, the metropolis
would be depopulated. The Ihortnefs of their lives,
however, may perhaps be accouiited for, from their in-
dulging themfclves from their infancy in every kind of
excefs. No horfe, mule, nor afs, will live at Sennaar
or for many miles round it. The cafe is the fame with
bullocks, fheep, dogs, cats, and poultry ; all of them
muft go to the foods every half-year. It is difficult to
account for this mortality ; though Mr Bruce afTures
us it is the cafe everywhere about the metropolis of this
country, where the foil is a fat earth durmg the firft
leafon of the rains. Two greyhounds which he brouglit
along with him from Atbara, and the mules he brought
from A^byffinla, lived only a few weeks after their arri-
val at Sennaar. Several ot the kings of Sennaar have
tried to keep lions, but it was always found impoffible
to preferve them alive after the rains. They will hve,
however, as well as other quadrupeds, in the fands, at
no great diftance from the capital. - No fpecies of tree
except the lemon flowers near this city ; the cultivation
of the rofe has often been attempted, but always with-
out fuccefs. In other refpefts, however, the foil of
Sennaar is exceedingly fertile, being faid to yield 3©o
fold ; but this is thought by Mr Bruce to be a great
exaggeration. It is all fown with dora or millet, which
is the principal food of the people ; wheat ?md rice are
alfo produced here, which are fold by the pound, even
in years of plenty. I'he foil all round is ftrongly im-
pregnated with fait, fo that a fufficient quantity to ferve
the inhabitants is extracted from it.
Sennaar, a city of Africa, the capital of the king-
, . , 1/^1 • 7 — — — '"'"""5 --'-..-"^.x, ^ ^.^y v/i .iiiiiLrt, Liic capital or tne K.ing-
hm\ througli the back with a lance as he was waffiing dom of that name. It ftands, according to Mr Bruce's
his hands. For this Welled himfelf was afterwards nut obfervations. in N. T.pt i^^ tr t
his hands. For this Welled himfelf was afterwards put
to death ; not on account of the murder itfelf, but be-
caufe, in the firft place, he, who was not the proper ex-
ecutioner, had prefumed to put the king to death ; and,
in the next, becaufe he had done it with a lance, where-
as the only lawful iuftrument was a fword.
On the death of any of the fovereigns of this coun-
try, his eldeft fon fucceeds to the throne of courfe ; on
which as many of his brothers as can be found are ap-
obfervations, in N. Lat. 13" 34' 36" E. Long. 33'
30' 30" on the weftern fide of the Nile, and clofe upon
the banks of it ; the ground on which it ftands being juft
high enough to prevent the inundation. The town Is
very populous, and contains a great many houfes. In
Poncet's time they were all of one ftory ; but now
moft of the officers have houfes of two ftories high.
They are built of clay mixed with a very little ftraw,
and have all flat roofs ; which fhows that the rains here
muft
SEN [2
mufl be much lefs in quantity than to the fouthward.
During the time of Mr Bruce's rchdence here, however,
there was one week of continual rain, and tlie Nile, af-
ter loud thunder and great darknels to the fouth, in-
creafed violently ; the whole Itream being- covered with
the wrecks or houfes and their furniture ; fo that he
fuppofed it had deftroyed many villages to the fouth-
ward. About 12 miles to the north-Vv cit ut Sennaar is a
coUeftion of villa'^es named Shadd/y, Irom a great faint
of that name, who conftrufted feveral granaries here.
Theie are no other than large pits dug in the ground,
and well plaftered in the infide with clay, then filled
with grain when it is at its loweft price, and afterwards
covered up and plallered again at top : theie pits they
call rmtamores. On any profpeft ot dearth they are
opened, and the corn fold to the people. About 24
miles north of Shaddly there is another fet of granaries
named lVed-/lboud, ftill greater than Shaddly; and upon
thefe two the fubfillence of the Arabs piincipally de-
pends : for as thefe people are at continual war with
each other, and direft their tury rather againft the crops
than the perfons of their enemies, the whole of them
would be unavoidably ftarved, were it not for this ex-
traordinary refource. Small villages ot foldiers are fcat-
tered up and down this country to guard the grain at-
ter it is fown, which is only that fpecies of millet named
JDora ; the foil, it is faid, being incapable of producing
any other. There are great hollows made in the earth
"at proper diftances throughout the country, which fill
with water in the rainy feafon, and are afterwards of
great ufe to the Arabs as they pafs from the cultivated
parts to the fands. The fly, which is fuch a dreadful
enemy to the cattle, is never feeu to the northward of
Shaddly.
To the weftvvard of thefe granaries the country is
quite full of trees as far as the river Abiad, or El-aice.
In this extenfive plain there arife two ridges of moun-
tains, one called yiobe! Moira, or the Mountain of ivater;
the other JMel Segud, or the Cold Mountain. Both of
them enjoy a fine climate, and ferve for a protedlion to
tlie farms about Shaddly and Aboud already mentioned.
Here alfo are fortreffes placed in the way of the Arabs,
which ferve to oblige them to pay tribute in their flight
from the cultivated country, during the rains, to the dry
lands of Atbara. Each of thefe diftrids is governed
by the defcendant of their ancient and native princes,
who long refifl;ed all the power of the Arabs. Sacri-
fices of a horrid nature are faid to have been offered up
on tffele mountains till about the year 1 554, when one
of the kings of Sennaar befieged firft one and then the
other of the princes in their mountains ; and having
forced them to furrender, he faftened a chain oi gold to
each of their ears, expofed them in the market-place at
Sennaar, and fold them for flaves at lefs than a iai thing
each. Soon atter this they were circumcifed, convert-
ed to the Mahometan religion, and reitorcd to their
kingdoms.
" Nothing (fays Mr Bruce) is more pleafant than
the country around Sennaar in the end of Auguft and
beoinning of September. The grain, being now fprung
up, makes the whole of this immenfe plain appear a le-
vel green land, interfperfed with great lakes of water,
and ornamented at certain intervals with groups of vil-
lages ; the conical tops of the houfes prefenting at a
diitancc the appearance of fmall encampments. Through
69 1 SEN
this very extenfive plain winds the Nile, a delightful Sennanr-
river there, above a mile broad, full to the very brim, — y—rf
but never overflowing. Everywhere on thefe banks
are feen herds of the moft beautiful cattle of various
kinds. 'I'he banks of the Nile about Sennaar refemble
the pleafanteft part of Holland in the fummer fea-
fon ; but fooii after, when the rains ceafe, and the fun
exerts its utmoft influence, the dora begins to ripen, the
leaves to. turn yell jw and to rot, the lakes to putrefy,
fmell, become full of vermin, and all its beauty fuddenly
diiappears: bare fcorched Nubia returns, and aU its ter-
rors of poifonous winds and moving fands, glowing and
ventilated with fultry blafts, which are followed by a
troop of terrible attendants ; epilepfies, apoplexies, vio-
lent fevers, obitinate agues, and hngering painful dyi'en-
teries, ftill more obftinate and mortah
" War and treafon feem to be the only employment
of this horrid peo^Me, whom Heaven has feparated by
almoil: impaflable del'erts from the reft; of mankind; con-
fining them to an accurfed fpot, feemingly to give them
an earneft in time of the only other courfe which he
has referved to them for an eternal hereafter."
With regard to the chmate of the country round
Sennaar, Mr Bruce has feveral very curious obferva-
tions. The thermometer rifes in the fhade to 1,19 de-
grees ; but the degree isdlcated by this inftrument does
net at all correfpond with the fenfatlons occafioned by
it; nor with the colour of the people who live under it..
" Nations of blacks (fays he) live within. latitude 13
and 14 degrees; about lo degrees fouth of them, nearly,
under the line, all the people are white, as we had an.
opportunity of obferving daily in the Galla Sennaar,
which is in latitude 1 3 degrees, is hotter by the ther.
mometer 50 degrees, when the fun is mofl: dillant from
it, than Gondar, which is a degree farther fouth, when
the fun is verticaL— Cold and hot (fays our author)
are terms merely relative, not determined by the lati-
tude, but elevation of the place. When, therefore, we
fay /jot, fomc other explanation is necelfary concerningthe
place where we are, in ordfer to give an adequate idea of
the fenfations of that heat upon the body, and the ef-
fects of it upon the lungs. The degree of the ther-
mometer conveys this but very imperfedtly ; 90 degrees
is exceffively hot at Loheia in Arabia Felix ; and yet
the latitude of Loheia i& but 15 degrees; whereas 90.
degrees at Sennaar is only warm as'to fenfe ; though.
Seimaar, as we have already faid, is in latitude 1 3 de-
grees.
" At Sennaar, then, I call it co/d, when one fully
clothed and at reft feels himfelf in want of fire. I call
it coo/y when one fully clothed and at reft feels he could
bear more covering all over, or in part, than he has at
that time. I call it temperate, when a man fo clothed,
and at reft, feels no fuch want, and can take moderate
exerciie, fuch as walking about a room without fweatr
ing. I call it warm, when a man, fo clothed, does not
fweat when at reft ; but, upon taking moderate. exercife,
fweats, and again cools. I call it hot, when a man at reft,
or with moderate exercife, fweats exceflTively. I call it
very hot, when a man with thin, or little clothing, fweats
much, though at reft. I call it excejfive hot, when a
man, in his ftiirt and at reft, fweats exceffively, when
all motion i& painful, and the knees feel feeble, as if af-
ter a fever. I call it extreme hot, when the ftrength
fails, a difpofition to faint comes on, a ftraitnefs is found
SEN C 27
ftetjnaar. in the temple3, as if a fraall cord was drawn tight about
V the head, the voice impaired, the flcin dry, and the head
feems more than ordinarily large and Hght. Thio, I
apprehend, denotes deatli at hand ; but this is rarely
or never effefted by the fun alone, without the addition
of that poifonous wind which purfued us through At-
bara, where it has, no doubt, contributed to the total
extinction of every thing that hath the breath of liie.
A thermometer, graduated upon this fcale, would exhi-
bit a figure very different from the common one ; for I
am convinced by experiment, that a web of the fined
muflin, wrapt round the body at Sennaar, will occafion
at raid-day a greater fenfation of heat in the body, than
a rife of 5 degrees in the thermometer of Fahrenheit.^
« At Sennaar, from 70 to 78 degrees of Fahrenheit's
thermometer is cool ; from 79 to 92 temperate ; at 92
degrees begins warmth. Although the degree of the
thermometer marks a greater heat than is felt by the
body of us ftrangcrs, it feems to me that the fenfations
of the natives bear itill a lefs proportion to that degree
than Oura. On the 2d of Auguft, while I was lying
perfectly enervated on a carpet in a room deluged with-
water at 12 o'clock, the thermometer at 116, I faw
feveral black labourers pulling down a houfe, working
with great vigour, without any fymptoms of being in-
commoded."
The drcfs of the pe?;ple of Sennaar confifts only of
a long fhirt of blue cloth, which wraps them up from
the under >)art of the neck to the feet. It does not,
however, conceal the neck in the men, though it does
in the women. The men fometim.es have a fafh tied
about their middle ; and beth men and women go bare-
footed in the houfes, whatever their rank may be. The
floors of their apartments, efpecially thofe of the wo-
men, are covered with Perlian carpets. Both men and
women anoint themfelves, at leafl once a-day, with ca-
mel's greafe mixed with civet, which, they imagine,
foftens their fkins, and prcferves them from cutane-
ous eruptions ; of which they are fo fearful, that they
confine themfelves to the houfe if they obferve the
fm'alleft pimple on their ikins. With the fame view
of preferving their fkins, though they have a clean
fhirt every day, they fleep with a greafed one at night,
having no other covering but this. Their bed is a
tanned bull's hide, which this conftant greafing foftens
very much ; it is alfo very cool, though it gives a fmell
to their bodies from which they cannot be freed by any
Tvaflaing.
Our author gives a very curious defcriptlon of the
queens and ladles of the court at Sennaar. He had
accefs to them as a phyiician, and was permitted to pay
his vlfit alone. He was firft fhown into a large fquarc
apartment, where there were about 50 black women,
all quite naked excepting a very narrow piece of cotton
rag about their waifts. As he was muling whether
thefe were all queens, one of them took him by the
hand, and led him into another apartment much better
lighted than the former. Here he faw three women
fitting upon a bench or fofa covered with blue Surat
cloth ; they themfelves being clothed from the neck to
the feet with cotton fhirts of the fame colour. Thefe
were three of the king's wives ; his favourite, who was
■one of the number, appeared to be about fix feet high,
and fo corpulent that our traveller imagined her to be
.the largeft creature he had feen next to the elephant
o 1 SEN
and rhinoceros. Her features pevfedly refembled thofe S«
of a negro: a ring of gold paifed through her lender lip,
and weighed it down, till, like a flap, it covered her
chin, leaving her teeth bare, which were fmall and very
fine. The iniide of her lip was mads black with anti-
mony. Her ears reached down to her fkoulders, and
had the appearance of wings : there was a gold ring in
each of tiiem about five inches m diameter, and lomc-
Vvhat imalier than a mane's little finger; the weight of
which had drawn down the hole where her ear was
pierced fo much that three fingers might eafily pafs
above the ring. She had a gold necklace like that
called EJdaviv^e, of feveral rows, one below another ;
to which weie hung rows of fequins pierced. She had
two manacles of gold upon her ancles lai ger than thofe
uied for chaining felons. Oar author could-not imagine
how it was poflible for her to walk v»'ith them, till he
was informed that they were hollow. '] he others were
drefl'ed much in the fame manner ; only there was one
who had chains coming from her ears to the outfide of
each noftril, where they were faftened. l\ ring was
alfo put through the grillle of her nofe, and which hung
down to the opening «jf her mouth; having all together
fomething of the appearance of a horfe's bridle ; and
Mr Bruce thinks that fhc mufl have breathed with dif-
ficulty.
The poorer fort of the people of Sennar live upon
the flour or bread of fnillet ; the rich make puddings
of this, toafling the flour before the fire, and putting
milk and butter into It ; befides which they ufe beef
partly roafted arid partly raw. They have v£ry fine
and fat horned cattle, but the meat commonly fold it\
the market is camel's flefii. The liver and fpare rib
of this animal are always eaten raw ; nor did our au-
thor fee one Inftance to the contrary all the time ht
was in the country. Hog's flefh is not fold in the
market ; but all the common people of Sennaar eat
it openly ; thofe in office, who pretend to be Maho-
metans, doing the fame in fecret.
There are no manufaftures In this country, and the
principal article of trade Is blue Slirat cloth. In for-
mer times, when caravans could pafs with fafcty, Indian
goods were brought in quantities from Jidda to Sen^
naar, and then dliperfed over the country of the blacks.
The returns weie made in gold, a powder called Tthhar^
civet, rhinocerofes horns, ivory, oftrlch feathers, and
above all flaves or glafs, more of thefe being export-
ed from Sennaar than from all the Eall of Africa.
This trade, however, as well as that of the gold and ivo-
ry, Is almofl deflroyed ; though the gold is {fill reputed
to be the befl and pureft in Africa, and is therefore
bought at Mocha to be carried to India, where it all
centres at laft.
SENNERTUS (Daniel), an eminent phyfician, was
born In 1 572 at Brcflaw ; and in 1593 he was lent to
Wittemberg, where he made great progrefs In phllo- '
fophy and phylic. He vlfited the unlveriities of JLeip-
fic, Jena, Francfort upon the Oder, and Berlin ; but
loon returned to Wittemberg, where he was promoted
to the degree of doftor of phyfic, and foon after to a
profefforfhip In the fame faculty. He was the firft who
introduced the lludy of chemlftry into that univerfity ;
he gained a great reputarion by his woiks and praftice,
and was very generous to the poor. He died of the
plague at Wittemberg, in 1637. He ralfed himfelf
enemiea
SEN [27
b enemies, by contradi<fi;n^7 the ancients. He thought the
feed of all livino; creatures animated, and that the (oul
^* of this feed produces orianizatlon.- He was accufed of
impiet)'- for afferting that the fouls of bcafts are not ma-
terial for this was affirmed to be the fanne thing with
afTatlng that they rie inimortal ; but he rejefted this
confequence, as he well might do. See Metaphysics,
Tart HI, ch^.p. vi.
SENONES, (anc. geog.), a people oF G.-Hia Cel-
tica, fituated on the Sequana to the fouih of the Panfii,
near the confluence of the jeauna or Yoniie with the
above-mentioned river. Their mefl confiderable ex-
ploit was their invafion of Italy, and taking and burn-
ing Rome, as related under that article. This was done
by a colony of them long before tranfportcd into Italy,
snd fettled on the Adriatic. Their capital, Agcndi-
cum in, Gaul, was in the lower age called Senoiies, now
Sens. In Italy the Scnones extended themfekes as far
as the river Aefis ; but were afterwards driven beyond
the Rubicon, which became the boundary of Gallia Ci-
falpina, (Polybius, Strabc.>
SENSATION, in philofcphy, the perception of
external dbjeds by means of the fenfes. See Meta-
physics, Pail I. chap. i.
SENSE, a faculty of the foul v/hereby it perceives
external objeAs by means of the impreffions they make
on certain organs of the body. See Metaphysics,
Part I. and Anatomy, n' 137, Sec
Common Sense, is a term that has been yarioufly
nfed both bv ancient and modern writers. With fome
it has been fynonymous with public fenfe ; with others
it has denoted prudence ; in certain inftances, it has been
confounded with fome of the powers of tafte ; and, ac-
cordingly, thofe who commit egre^;ious blundeis with
regard to decorum, faying and doing what is offenfive
to their company, and inconfiffent with their own cha-
rafter, have been charged with a defeft in common
fenfe. Some men are diftlnguifhed by an uncommon
acutenefs in difcovering the charafters of others ; and
this talent has been fometimes called common ftnfe ; fi-
milar to which is that ufe of the term, which makes
it to fignify that experience and knowledge of life
which is' acquired by living in fociety. To this mean-
ing Quintilian refers, fpeaking of the advantages of a
public "education : Senfum ipfum qui communis dicitur, nhi
(ii/'cet, cum fe a congreffuy qui non hominibus folum, Jed
mutis quoque animaiilus naturalis ejlt fegregarit ? Tib. 1.
cap. 2.
But the term common fenfe hath in modern times
been ufed to fignify that power of the mind which per-
ceives truth, or commands behef, not by progreffive ar-
gumentation, but by an inftantaneous, inftinftive, and
jrreilllible impulfp ; derived neither fvom education nor
from habit, but from nature ; acting independently of
our will, whenever its objetl is prefented, according to
an eftablifhed law, and therefore called fenfe ; and aft-
ing in a fimilar manner upon all, or at leaft upon a
great majority of mankind, and therefore called common
fenfe. See Metaphysics, n° i 27.
Moral Sense, is a determination of the mind to be
pleafed with the contemplation of thofe affediions, ac-
tions, or charadlers, of rational agents, which we call
good or virluous.
This moral fenfe of beauty in adions and affeflions
I ] S E N
may appear Rrange at firft view: fome oF our moralifta
themfclves are offended at it in Lord Shaftefbury, as be" _
Ing accuftomed to deduce every approbation or aveifion
from rational views of intereil. It is certain that his
Lordfhip has carried the influence of the moral fenfe
very far, and fome of his followers have carried it far-
iher. The advocates for the felfifli fyftem feem to drive
their opinions to the oppofite extreme, and we have elfe-
where endeavoured to fiiow that the truth lies between
the contending parties. See Moral Philosophy, .
27,-32.
Public Sense is defined by the noble author of the
CharaCteriilics to be an innate propennty to be pleafed
ivith the happinefs of others, and to be uneafy at their
mifery. It is found, he fays, in a greater or lefs degree
in all men, and was fometimes called ^'^fovon-^u^ or Jenfus
communis, by ancient writers.
Of the reality of this public fenfe w^e have great
doubts. The conduft of favages, who arc more under
the influence of ori-;-!nal inftinft than civihzed men,,
gives no countenance to it. Their affedlions fccra all
to be felnfli, or at leaft to fpring from felf-love variouf-
ly modified. For the happinefs of their wives they
have very little regard, conhdering them merely as in-
ilruments of their own pleafure, and valuing them for
nothing elfe. Hence they make them toil, while they
themfelves indulge in hfllefs idlenefs. To their children
we believe they exhibit ftrong fymptoms of attachraentj
as foon as they derive affiilance from them in war, or in
the bufinefs of the chace ; but during the helplefs years
of infancy, the child is left by the felfifh father wholly
to the care and protefiion of its wn-etched mother;
who, impelled by the forge of all females to their
young, cherifhes her offspring with great fondnefs. —
The favage is, indeed, fufceptible of ftrong attachm.ents,
fimilar to that which we call friendfhip ; but fuch at-
tachments arc no proofs of difinterefted benevolence, or
what his Lordfiiip calls the fe^fe. Two barbarous
heroes are probably firft linked together by the ob-
fervation of each other's prowefs in war, or their fiiill
in purfuing their game ; for fuch obfervation cannot fail
to fliow them that they may be ufeful to one another ;
and we have elfewhere fhown' how real friendOiip may
fpring from fentiments originally felfifii. The favage is
very much attached to his horde or tribe, and tliis at-
tachment refembles patriotifm : but patriotifm itfelf is
not a fentiment of pure benevolence delighting in the
happinefs of others, and giieving at their mifery ; for
the patriot prefers his own counti-y to all others, and is
not very fcrupulous with refpcft to the reft itude of the
means by which he promotes its intereft, or deprelfes its
rivals. The lavage purfues with relentlefs rigour the
enemies of himfelt or of the tribe to which he belongs;
fhows no mercy to them when in his power, but puts
them to the cruelleft death, and carries their fcalps to
the leader of his party. Thefe fafts, w'hich cannot be
controverted, are perfedly irreconcileable with innate
benevolence, or a public fenfe comprehending the whole-
race of men 5 and fliow the truth of that theory by
which we have in another place endeavoured to account:
for all the paffions, fecial as well as felfifh. See Pas-
sion.
SENSIBLE NOTE, in mufic, is that which confti^
tutcs a third major above the dominant, and a femi-
8, l»ons
Benfible,
SEN [2
S«nfibUUy tone beneath the tonic. St, or B, is the fenfible note
jn the tone of ut or C /o/ ^ ; or G flaarp, in the tone
of la or A.
They call it the /enable note on this account, that It caufes
to be perceived the tone or natural feries oF the key and
the tonic itielf ; upon which, after the chord of the do-
minant, the ■ fenfible note taking the (horteft road, is
Tinder a neceffity of riling ; which has made fome au-
thors treat this fenfible note as a major dilTonance, for
want of obferving, that diffbnance, being a relation,
, cannot be conftituted unlefs by two notes between which
it fubfifts.
It is not meant that the fenfible note is the feventh of
the tone, becaufe, in the minor mode, this feventh can-
not be a fenfible note but in afcending ; for, in defcend-
ing, it is at the diftance of a full note from the tonic,
and of a third minor from the dominant.
SENSIBILITY, is a nice and delicate perception of
pleafure or pain, beauty or deformity. It is very near-
ly allied to tafte ; and, as far as it is natural, feems to
depend upon the organization of the nervous fyftem.
It is capable, however, of cultivation, and is experien-
ced In a much higher degree in civilized than in favage
nations, and amongj peifons liberally educated than
among boors and illiterate mechanics. The man who
has cultivated any of the fine arts has a much quicker
and more exquHite perception of beauty and deformity
in the execution of that art, than another of equal or
even greater natural powers, who has but cafually in-
fpefted its produ£lions. He who has been long accuf-
tomed to that decorum of manners which charafterizes
the polite part of the world, perceives almoil Inftantane-
oufly the fmalleft deviation from it, and feels himfelf al-
moli as much hurt by behaviour harmlefs in Itfelf, as by
the grofleft rudenefs ; and the man who has long pro-
N ceeded fteadily in the paths of virtue, and often painted
to himfelf the deformity of vice, and the miferies of
which It is produdlive, is more quickly alarmed at any
deviation from reAItude, than another who, though his
life has been ftained by no crime, has yet thought lefs
upon the principles of virtue and confequences of vice.
Every thing which can be called fenfibllity, and is
• not born with man, may be refolved into aflbciatlon,
and Is to be regulated accordingly ; f®r fenfibllltles may
be acquired which are inimical to happlHeis and to the
praftice of virtue. The man Is not to be envied who
has fo accuftomed himfelf to the forms of polite addrefs
as to be hurt by the unafFe6ted language and manners of
the honeft peafant, with whom he may have occafion
to tranfadl bufinefs ; nor is he hkely to acquire much
ufeful knowledge who has fo feduloufly ftudied the
beauties of compofitlon as to be unable to read without
fliiguil a book of fclence or of hlftory, of which the ftyle
comea not up to his ftandard of perfection. That fen-
iiblllty which we cither have from nature, or neceffarlly
acquire, of the miferies of others, is of the greateft ufe
when properly regulated, a^ It powerfully impels us
to relieve their dillrels ; but If it by any means become
fo exquifite as to make ub ihun the fight of mifery, it
counteracts the end for which it was Implanted in our
nature, and only deprives us of happinefs, while it con-
tributes nothing to the good of others. Indeed there
is reafon to believe that all fuch extreme fenlibillties are
lelfiih affedations, employed as apologies for withholding
jVom the miferable that relief which it is in our power
72 ]
SEN
to give ; for there is not a fad better eftablilhed in the Senfih
fcience of human nature, than that paflive perceptions
grow gradually weaker by repetition, while adive ha-
bits daily acquire ftrtngth.
It Is of great importance to a literary man to culti-
vate his tatte, becaufe it Is the fource of mjjch elegant
and refined pleafure, (fee Taste) ; but there is a de-
gree of failidloufnefs which renders that pleafure impof-
fible to be obtained, and Is the certain indication of ex-
piring letters. It is necelfary to fubmit to the artificial
rules of politenefs, for they tend to promote the peace
and harmony of fociety, and are fometimes a ufeful fub-
ftitute for moral virtue ; but he who with refpeft to
them has fo much fenflbility as to be difgufted with all
whofe manners are not equally poliihed with his own, ia
a very troublefome member of fociety. It is every man's
duty to cultivate his moral fenfibilities, fo as to make
th em fubfervient to the purpofes for which they were
given to him ; but if he either feel, or pretend to feel,
the miferies of others to fo exqul/ite a degree as to be
unable to afford them the relief which they have a right
to expe£t, his fenfibilities are of no good tendency.
That the man of true fenfibllity has more pains and
more pleaiures than the callous wretch, is univcrfally ad-
mitted, as well as that his enjoyments and fufferings are
more exquifite in their kinds ; and as no man lives for
himielf alone, no man will acknowledoe his want oC
fenflbility, or exprefs a wifh that his heart were callous.
It Is, however, a matter of fome moment to diftlnguifh
real fenfibilities from ridiculous affeftions ; thofe which
tend to Increaie the fum of human happinefs from fuch
as have a contrary tendency, and to cultivate them all in
fuch amanner as to make them anfwer the ends for which
they were implanted in us by the beneficent Author of na-
ture. This can be done only by watching over them as
over other aflbclations, (fee Metaphysics, n^ 98.); for
exceffive fenfibllity, as It is not the gift of nature, is
the bane of human happinefs. " Too much tendernefs
(as Rouifcau well obferves) proves the bittereft curfe
inftead of the moft fruitful blefling ; vexation and dif-
appointment are Its certain confequences. The tempe-
rature of the air, the change of the feafons, the brilli-
ancy of the fun, or thicknefs of the fogs, are fo many
moving fprlngs to the unhappy pofTeiTor, and he becomes
the wanton fport of their arbitration."
SENSITIVE-PLANT. Sec M iMOsA, DiON^A, and
Hedysarum.
The fenfitlve plants are well known to poffefs a kind
of motion, by which the leaves and ftalks are contrad-
ed and fall down upon being flightly touched, or fhaken
with fome degree of violence.
The contradlion of the leaves and branches of the
fenfitlve plant when touched, is a very fingular phenome-
non. Dlflferent hypothefes have been formed by bota-
nifts in order to explain It ; but we are difpofed to be-
Ueve that thefe have generally been deduced rather from
analogical reafoning than from a colledtlon of fadls and
obfervations. We fhall therefore give an account of all
the important fads which we ha\^e been able to colled
upon this curious fubjed ; and then draw inch conclu-
fions as obvloufly refiilt from them, without, however, at-
tempting to fupport any old, or to eftabhfh a new, hy-
pothefis.
I. It is difficuh to touch the leaf of a heakhy fenfi-
tlve plant fo delicately that it will not immediately col-
7 lapfe
SEN [ i
ti^e. lapfe (a), the fol'idla o,r Httle leaves moving at their
' ^ bafe till they come into contaft, and then applying
themfelves clofe together. If the leaf be touched with
a little more force, the oppofite leaf will exhibit the
fame appearance. If a little more force be applied, the
partial footftalks bend down towards the common foot-
ilalk from which they ifTue, making with it a more acute
angle than before. If the touch be more violent ftill,
all the Jeavcs fituated on the fame fide with the one
that has been touched will inltantly collapfe, and the
partial footftalk will approach the common footllalk to
which it is attached,. in the fame manner as the partial
footftalk of the leaf apprc*aches the ftem or branch
^rom which it iffues ; fo that the whole !plant, from ha-
ving its branches extended, will immediately appear like
a weeping birch.
2. Thefe motions of the plant are performed by means
of three diftinft and fenllble articulations. The firft,
that of the foliola or lobes to the partial footftalk ; the
Jecond, that of the partial footftalk to the common one ;
^the third, that of the common footftalk to the trunk.
The primary motion of all which is the clofmg of the
leaf upon the partial footftalk, which is performed in
a fimilar manner, and by a fimilar articulation. This,
however, is much lefs vifible than the others. Thefe
motions are wholly independent on on-e another, as may
be proved by experiment. It appears that if the par-
tial footftalks are moved, and collapfe toward the petioli,
or thefe toward the trunk, the little leaves, whofe
motion is ufually primary to thefe, ftiould be affiefted
alfo ; yet experiment proves that it is poflible to touch
the footftalks in fuch a manner as to affe£t them
only, and make them apply themfelves to the trunk,
while the leaves feel nothing of the touch ; but this
cannot be, unlefs the footftalks are fo difpofed as that
they can fall to the trunk, without fuffering their leaves
to touch any part of the plant in their paffage, becaufe,
if they do, they are immediately affedtcd.
3. Winds and heavy rains make the leaves of the fen-
fltive plant contrail and clofe ; but no fuch effeft is
produced from flight ftiowers.
4. At night, or when expofed to much cold in the
day, the leaves meet and clofe in the fame manner as
when touched, folding their upper furfaces together,
and in part over each other, like fcales or tiles, fo as to
expofe as little as poflible of the upper furface to the
air. The oppofite fides of the leaves ( foliola j do not
come clofe together in the night, for when touched th,ey
apply themfelves clcjfer together. Dr Darwin kept a
fenfitive plant in a dark place for fome iiours after day-
break ; the leaves and fbotfta.lks were collapfed as in
its moft profound fleep; and, on expofing it to the light,
above 20 minutes pafled before it was expanded.
5. In the month of Auguft, a fenfitive plant was
carried in a pot out of its ufual place into a dark cave,
the motion that it received in the can iage fliut up its
leaves, and they did not open till 24 hours afteiwards ;
at this time they became moderately open, but were af-
VoL. XVn. Tart, 1.
73 ] SEN
rewards fubje^l to no changes at night or morning, but Scnfit
remained three days and nights with their leaves in the —nr
fame moderately open ftate. At the end of this time
they were brought out again into the air, and there re-
covered their natural periodical motions, fhutting every
night, and opening every morning, as naturally and as
ftrongly as if the plant had not been in this forced ftate ;
and while in the cave, it was obferved to be very little
lefs affe£led with the touch than wken abroad in the
open air.
6. The great heats of fummer, when there is open
funfliine at noon, aff'eft the plant in fome degree like
cold, caufing it to fhut up its leaves a httle, but never
in any very great degree. The plant, however, is leaft
of all aff"efted about nine o'clock in the morning, and
that is confequently the propereft time to make experi-
ments on it. A branch of the fenfitive plant cut off,
and laid by, retains yet its property of fliutting up and
opening in the morning for fome days ; and it holds it
longer if kept with one end in water, than if left to
dry more fuddenly.
7. The leaves only of the fenfitive plant ftiut up in the
night, not the branches^j; and if it be touched at this
time, the branches are affefted in the fame manner as
in the day, fliutting up, or approaching to the ftalk or
trunk, in the fame manner, and often with more force.
It is of no confequence what the fubftance is with which
the plant is touched, it anfwers alike to all ; but there
may be obferved a little fpot, diftinguifhable by its paler
colour in the articulations of its leaves, where the
greateft and niceft fenfibility is evidently placed.
8. Duhamel having obferved, about the 15th of
September, in moderate weather, the natural motion
of a branch of a fenfitive plant, remarked, that at nine
in the morning it formed with the ftem an angle of 1 00
degrees ; at noon, 112 degrees ; at three afternoon, it
returned to 100 ; and after touching the branch, the
angle was reduced to 90. 1 hree quarters of an hour
after it had mounted to 112; and, at eight at night, it
defcended again, without being touched, to 90. The
day after, in finer weather, the fame branch, at eight
in the morning, made an angle of 135 degrees with the
ftem ; after being touched, the angle was diminlftied to
80 ; an hour after, it rofe again to 135 ; being touch"
ed a fecond time, it defcended again to 80 ; an hour
and a half after, it had rifen to 145 ; and upon being
touched a third tinae, defcended to 135 ; and remained
in that pofition till five o'clock in the afternoon, when
being touched a fourth time it fell to 110.
9. The parts of the plants which have collapfed af-
terwards unfold themfelves, and return to their former
expanded ftate. The time required for that purpefe
varies, according to the vigour of the plant, the feafon
of the year, the hour of the day, the ftate of the at-
mofphere. Sometimes half an hour is requifite, feme-'
times only ten minutes. The order in which the parts
recover themfelves varies in like manner : fometimes it
is the common footftalk ; fometimes the rib to which
M m the
(a) As the nature of the fenfitive plant is curious, we wlfti to make the defcription of it intelligible to thofe
who are not acquainted with the technical language of botany. We have therefore ufed the word krif inftead of
Jo/io/utn, or lobe.
SEN [ 274 1 SEN
Senfitjve the leaves arc attached ; and fometimcs the leaves them- clufions maybe fairljr drawn : i. The contra£lion or
felves are expimdcd, before the other parts have made the parts of the fenfitive plant Is occafioned by an extcr-
any attempt to be reinftated in their fornner polition. nal force, and the contradion is in proportion to the
10. If, w^ithout fhakin^r the other fmaller leaves, we force. 2. All bodies which can exert any force affed
cut off the half of a leaf or lobe belonging to the laft the fenfitive plant; fome by the touch or by agitation,
pair, at the extremity or fummit of a wing, the leaf as the wind, rain, &c. ; fome by chemical influence, as
cut,^ and its antagonift, that is to fay, the firft pair, heat and cold. 3. Touching or agitating the plant pro-
bei;in to approach each other ; then the fecond, and fo duces a greater effeft than an incifion or cutting off a
on fucceflivcly, till all the lefTer leaves, or lobes of that part, or by applying heat or cold,
wing, have collapfed in like manner. Frequently, af- Attempts have been made to explain thefe curious
ter 12 or 15 feconds, the lobes of the other wings, phenomena. Dr Darwin, in the notes to his admired
which were not immediately affedled by the ftroke,lhut; poem, inti tied, 7 he Botanic Garden, lays it down as a
whiift the ftalk and its v/ing, beginning at the bottom, principle, that " the fleep of animals confifts in a fuC
and proceeding in order to the top, gradually recover penfion of voluntary motion ; and as vegetables are fub-
themfelves. If, Inftead of one of the lefler extreme je£t to fleep as well as animals, there is reafon to con-
leaves, we cut off one belonging to the pair that is next elude (fay& he) that the various aftion of clofmg their
the footilalk, its antagonift {huts, as do the other pairs petals and foliage may be juftly afcribed to a voluntary
fuccefiively, from the bottom to the top. If all the power ; for without the faculty of volition fleep would
leaves of one fide of a wing be cut off, the oppofite not have been neceflary to them." Whether this defi-
leaves are not affe£led, but remain expanded. With nition of fleep when applied to animals be juft, we fhall
fome addrefs, it is poflible even to cut off a branch not inquire; but it is evident the fuppofed analogy be^-
without hurting the leaves, or making them fall. The tween the fleep of animals and the fleep of plants has
common footftalk of the winged leaves being cut as led Dr Darwin to admit this aftonifliing conclufion, that
far as three-fourths of its diameter, all the parts which plants have volition. As volition prefuppofes a mind or
hang down collapfe, but quickly recover without ap- foul, it were to be wifhed that he had given us fome in-
pearing to have fuffered any confiderable violence by formation concerning the nature of a vegetable foul,
the ftiock. An incifion being made into one of the prin- which can think and wiU. We fufpeft, however, that
cipal branches to the depth of one-half the diameter, this vegetable foul will turn out to be a mere mechani'-
the branches fituated betwixt the feftlon and the root cal or chemical one ; for it is affeded by external forces
will fall down ; thofe above the incifion remain as be- uniformly in the fame way, its volition is merely paffive,
fore, and the leffer leaves continue open ; but this dl- and never makes any fuccefsful refiftance agalnft thofe
reftion is foon deftroyed, by cutting off one of the caufes by which it is influenced. All this is a mere
lobes at the extremity, as was obferved above. Laftly, abufe of words. The fleep of plants is a metaphorical
a whole wing being cut off with precaution near its in- expreffion, and has not the leall refemblance to the
fertion into the common footftalk, the other wings are fleep of animals. Plants are faid to fleep when the
not affefted by it, and its own lobes do not ftiut. No flowers or leaves are contratled or folded together ; but
motion enfues from piercing tkebranch with a needle or we never heard that there is any fimilar contraAion in
other fliarp inftrument. the body of an animal during fleep.
1 1 . If the end of one of the leaves be burned with The fibres of vegetables have been compared with
the flame of a candle, or by a burning glafs, or by the mufcles of animals, and the motions of the fenfitive '
touching it with hot iron, it clofes up in a moment, and plant have been fuppofed the fame with mufcular motion,
the oppofite leaf does the fame, and after that the Between the fibres of vegetables and the mufcles of ani-
whole feries of leaves on each fide of the partial or mals, however, there Is not the leaft fimilarlty. If mufcles
little footftalk ; then the footftalk itfelf ; then the branch be cut through, fo as to be feparated from the joints
or common footftalk ; all do the fame, if the burning to which they are attached, their powers are completely
has been in a fufiicient degree. This proves that there deftrojed ; but this is not the cafe with vegetable fibres.
13 a very nice communication between all the parts of The following very ingenious experiment, which was
the plant, by means of which the burning, which only communicated to us by a refpeftable member of the
is applied to the extremity of one leaf, diffufes its influ- Univerfity of Edinburgh, is decifive on this fubjed.
cnce through every part of the ftirub. If a drop of He felefted a growing poppy at that period of its
aquafortis be carefully laid upon a leaf of the fenfitive growth, before unfolding, when the head and neck are
plant, fo as not to ftiake it in the leaft, the leaf does bent down almoft double. He cut the ftalk where it
not begin to move till the acrid liquor corrodes the fub- was curved half through on the undtr fide, and half
'ftance of it ; but at that time, not only that particular through at a fmall diftance on the upper fide, and half
leaf, but all the leaves placed on the fame footftalk, through in the middle point between the two feftions,
ijofe themfelves up. The vapour of burning fulphur fo that the ends of the fibres were feparated from the
has alfo this effedl on many leaves at once, according as ftalk. Notwithftanding thefe feveral cuttings on the
jhey are more or lefs expofed to it ; but, a bottle of neck, the poppy raifed its head, and affumed a more
very acrid and fulphureous fpirit of vitriol, placed ereft pofition. There is, therefore, a complete diftinc-
under the branches unftopped, produces no fuch effeft. tion between mufcular motion and the motions of a plant,
Wetting the leaves with fpirit of wine has been obferved for no motion can take place in the limb of an animal
alfo to have no effeft, nor the rubbing oil of almonds when the mufcles of that limb are cut.
over them ; though this laft application deftroys many In fine, we look upon all attempts to explain the
plants. motions of plants as abfurd, and all reafoning from fupi-
From the preceding experiments the following con- pofed analogy between animals and vegetables as the
fource
SEN [ s
snce fource of wild conjefture, and not of found phllofophy.
I We view the contraAion and expanfion of the fenfitive
•"^"^ plant in the fame light as we do gravitation, chemical
attraftion, eleftricity, and magnetifm, as a Angular faft,
the circumftanccs of which we may be fully acquainted
with, but muft defpair of underftanding its caufe.
What has been faid under this article chiefly refers to
the mimofa fenjttiva and pvdica. For a full account of
the motions of vegetables in general, fee Vegetable Mo-
tion^ under the article Motion.
SENTENCE, in law, a judgment paffed in court
by the judge in fome procefs, either civil or criminal.
See Judgment.
Sentence, in grammar, denotes a period ; or a fet
of words comprehending fome pepfeft fenfe or fenti-
ment of the mind. The bufinefs of pointing is to di-
ftinguifh the feveral parts and members of fentences, fo
as to render the fenfe thereof as clear, diftinft, and
full as poflible. See Punctuation.
In every fentence there are two parts neceflarily re-
quired ; a noun for the fubjeft, and a definite verb :
whatever is found more than thefe two, alFeAs one of
them, either immediately, or by the intervention of fome
other, whereby the firft is affeAed.
Again, every fentence is either fimple or compound:
a fimple fentence is that confilling of one fingle fub-
jeft, and one finite verb. — A compound fentence con-
tains feveral fubjefts and finite verbs, either exprefsly
or implicitly.
A fimple fentence needs no point or dllHnftion ; only
a period to clofe it : as, " A good man loves virtue
for itfelf."— In fuch a fentence, the feveral adjunds af-
feft either the fubjeft or the verb in a different man-
ner. Thus the word good expreffes the quality of the
fubjeft, 'Virtue the objeA of the aftion, and for itfelf
the end thereof. — Now none of thefe adjunfts can be
feparated from the reft of the fentence : for if one be,
why fhould not all the reft ? and if all be, the fentence
will be minced into almoft as many parts as there are
words.
But if feveral adjundsbe attributed in the fame man-
ner either to the fubjeA or the verb, the fentence be-
comes compound, and is to be divided into parts.
In every compound fentence, as many fubjefts, or as
many finite verbs as there are, either exprelsly or im-
plied, fo many dittinftions may there be. Thus, " My
hopes, fears, joys, pains, all centre in you." And thus
Cat'il'ina abiit, excejfit, evajil, erupit. 'I'he reafon of
which pointing is obvious ; for as many fubjefts or fi-
nite verbs as there are in a fentence, fo many members
docs it really contain. Whenever, therefore, there oc-
cur, more nouns than verbs, or contrariwife, they are
to be conceived as equal. Since, as every fubjcd; re-
quires its verbs, fo every verb requires its fubjefl, where-
with it may agree ; excepting, perhaps, in fome figu-
rative exprelTions.
SEN'i'ICOS^ (from fenth, a " briar or bramble)
the name of the 35th order in Linnaeus's fragments of
a natural method, confifting of rofe, bramble, and other
plants, which refemble them in port and external ftruc-
ture. See Botany, page 465.
SENTIMENT, according to Lord Kames, is a
term appropriated to fuch thoughts as are prompted
by paflion. It difters from a perception ^ for a per-
ception fignifies the a£l by which we become confcioug
75 ] SEN
of external objefts. It differs from confcloufnefs of an ScPtlmentf
internal aftiou, fuch as thinking, fufpending thought,
inclining, refolving, wiUing, &c. And it differs from
the conception of a relation among objeils ; a concep-
tion of that kind being termed opinion.
Sentiments, in poetry. To talk in the languag*
of mufic, each paiTion hath a certain tone, to which
every fentiment proceeding from it ought to be tuned
with the greateft accuracy : wliich is no eafy work,
efpecially where fuch harmony ou^ht to be fupported
during the courfe of a long theatrical reprefentation.
In order to reach fuch delicacy of execution, it is ne-
ceflary that a writer affume the precife charafter and
paflion of the perfonage reprefented ; which requires
an uncommon genius. But it is the only difficulty ; .
for the writer, who, annihilating himfelf, can tluis be-
come another perfon, need be in no pain about the fen-
timents that belong to the aCTumed charadler : thefe
will flow without the leaft ftudy, or even preconcep-
tion ; and will frequently be as delightfully new to him-
felf as to his reader. But if a Hvely pifture even of a
fingle emotion require an effort of genius, how much
greater the effort to compofe a pafTionate dialogue with
as many different tones of paifion as there are fpeak-
ers ? With what dudility of feeling muft that writer
be endued, who approaches perfedlion in fuch a work ;
when it is neceffary to afl'ume different and even oppo-
fite charaders and paffions in the quickeft fucceffion ?
Yet this work, difficult as it is, yields to that of com-
pofing a dialogue in genteel comedy, exhibiting cha-
rafters without paflion. The reafoi^ is, that the diflFe-
rent tones of charaftcr are more delicate, and lefs in
fight, than thofe of palTion ; and, accordingly, many
writers, who have no genius for drawing charaAers,
make a fliift to reprelent, tolerably well, an ordinary
paflion in its fimple movements. But of all works of
this kind, what is truly the moft difiicult, is a charac-
teriftical dialogue upon any philofophical fubjeft ; to
interweave charafters with reafoning, by fuiting to the
charader of each fpeaker a peculiarity not only of
thought but of expreflion, requires the perfedion of
genius, tafte, and judgment.
How difficult dialogue-writingis, will be evident, even
withoiit reafoning, from the miferable compofitions of
that kind found without number in all languages. The
art of mimicking any Angularity in gefture or in voice,
is a rare talent, thoug;h direfted by fight an*l hearing,
the acuteft and moft lively of our external fcnfes : how
much rtiore rare muft that talent be, of imitating cha-
ra£lei-s and internal emotions, tracing all their diffe-
rent tints, and reprefenting them in a lively maimer by
natural fentiments properly exprefled ? 'I he truth is,
fuch execution is too delicate for an ordinary genius; .
and for that reafon the bulk of writers, inftoad of ex-
prefling a paifion as one does who feels it, content
themfelves with defciibing it in the language of a fpec-
tator. To awake paflion by an internal effort merely,
without any external caufe, requires great fenfibility ;
and yet that operation is neceffary, not lefs to the wri-
ter than to the aftor ; becaufe none but tliofe who ac-
tually feel a paflion can reprefent it to the life. The
writer's part is the more complicated : he muft add
compofition to paffion : and muft, in the quickeft fuc-
ceffion, adopt every different chaiafter. But a very
humble flight of imagination may ferve to convert a
M m 2 writer
SEN
SffttJments. writer into a fpeftator, fo as to fijrure, In fome obfciire
^■"V^ manner, an aftion as paffing in his fight and hearing.
In that figured fituatlon, heina^ led naturally to write
like a fpeftator, he entertalna his readers with his own
refie£lions, with cool defcription, and florid declama-
tion ; inftead of making them eye-witnefles, as it were,
. to a real event, and to every movement of genuine paf-
fion. Thus moft of our plays appear to be caft in the
fame mould ; pcrfonages without charafter, the mere
outlines of pafiion, a tirefome monotony, and a pompous
declamatory ftyle.
This defcriptive manner of reprefenting paffion is a
very cold entertainment ; our fympathy is not raifed
by defcription ; we muft firft be lulled into a dream of
reality, and every thing mull appear as paffing in our
light. Unhappy is the player of genius who afts a
part in what may be termed a defcript'we tragedy ; af-
ter affuming the very paffion that is to be reprefented^
how is he cramped in aftion, when he mull utter, not
the fentiments of 'the paffion he feels, but a cold de-
fcription in the language of a byftander ? It is that im-
perfeftion, undoubJ^edly, in the bulk of our plays,
which confines our itage almoft entirely to Sliakefpeare,
notwithftanding his many irregularities. In our late
Englifli tragedies, we fometimes find fentiments tole-
rably well adapted to a plain paffion : but we muft not
in any of them expefi: a fentimcnt expreffive of cha-
ra6ter ; and, upon that very account, our late perform-
ances of the dramatic kind are for the moft part into-
lerably infipid.
But it may be proper to illuftrate this fubjeft by ex-
amples. The firft examples fhall be of fentiments that
appear the legitimate offspring of paffion ; to which
fhall be oppofed what are defcriptive only, and illegiti-
mate : and in making this comparifon, the inftances fhall
be borrowed from Shakefpeare and Corneille, who for
genius in dramatic compofition ftand uppermoft in the
rolls of fame.
I. Shakefpeare (hall furnifti the firft example, being
of fentiments diftated by a violent and perturbed paf-
fion :
[ 276 ]
SEN
J^ear. Filial ingratitude !
Is it not as if this mouth ftiould tear this hand
For lifting food to't ? — But I'll punifh home ;
No, I will weep no more. In fuch a night,
To ftiut me out i Pour on, I will endure.
In fuch a night as this ! O Regan, Gonerill,
Your old kind father,, whofe frank heart gave all' —
O ! that way madnefs lies ; let me ftiun that j
No more of that.
Kent. Good, my lord, enter here.
Lear^ Prithee, go in thyfelf, feek thine own eafe,
This tempeft will not give me leave to ponder
On things would hurt me more : — but I'll go in ;
In, bey, go firft. You houfelefs poverty
Nay, get thee in j I'll pray, and then I'll ITeep —
Poor naked wretches, wherefoe'er you are.
That bide the pelting of this pitilefs ftorm !
How fhall your houfelefs heads, and unfed fides,
Your loop'd and window'd raggednefs defend you
From feafons fuch as thefe ! O I have tu-en
Too httle care of this ! take phyfic, Pomp ;
Expofe thyfelf to feel what wretches feel,
That thou may'ft fliake the fuperflux to thetn,
And fliow the heav'ns more juft.
King Lear, aSi $./<:■ $•
With regard to the French author, truth obliges u&
to acknowledge, that he defcribes in the ftyle of a fpec-
tator, inftead of expreffing paffion like one who feels
it ; which naturally betrays him into a tirefome mono-
tony, and a pompous declamatory ftyle. It is fearce
receffary to give examples, for he never varies from
that tone. We fhall, however, take two pafTages at a
venture, in order to be confronted with thofe tranfcrl-
bed above. In the tragedy of Cinna, after the con-
fpii acy was difcovered, Emilia, having nothing in view
but racks and death to herfelf and her lover, receives
a pardon from Auguftus, attended with the brighteft
circumftances of magnanimity and tendernefs. This is
a lucky iituation for reprefenting the paffions of fur-
prife and gratitude in their different ftages, which feem
naturally to be what follow. Thefe paffions, raifed at
once to the utmoft pitch, and being at firft too big for
utterance, muft, for fome moments, be exprefted by
violent geftures only : fo foon as there is vent for words,,
the firft expreffions are broken and interrupted : at laft,
we ought to expedl a tide of intermingled fentiments,
occafioned by the flufluation of the mind between the
two paffions. -Emilia is made to behave in a very dif-
ferent manner : with extreme coolnefs fhe defcribes her
own fituation, as if ihe were merely a fpeilator ;. of ra-
ther the poet takes the taflc off her hands :
Et je me rends. Seigneur, a ces hautes bontes :
Je recouvre la vue anpres de leurs clartes.
Je connois mon forfait qui me fembloit juftice ;
Et ce que n'avoit pu la terreur du fupplice,
Je fens naitre en mon ame un repentir puifTant,
Et mon coeur en fecret me dit, qu'il y confent.
Le ciel a refolu votre grandeur fupreme ;
Et pour preuve. Seigneur, jc n'en veux que moi-meme»
J'ofe avec vanite me donner cet eclat,
Paifqu'il change mon coeur, qu'il veut changer I'etat.
Ma haine va mourir, que j'ai crue immortelle j
Elle eft morte, et ce coeur devient fujet fidele ;
Et prenant deformais cette haine en horreur,
L'ardeur de vous fervir fuccede a fa fureur.
So much in general upon the genuine fentiments of
paffion. We proceed to particular obfervations. And^
lirft, paffions feldom continue uniform any confiderable
time : they generally fluftuate, fwelling and fubfiding
by turns, often in a quick fucceffion ; and the fenti-
ments cannot be juft unlcfs they correfpond to fuch fluc-
tuation. Accordingly, a climax never fliows better than
in expreffing a fwelling paffion ; the following pafiages
may fuffice for an illuftration.^
Almeria, How haft thou charm'd
The wildnefs of the waves and rocks to this ;
That thus relenting they have giv'n thee back
To earth, to light and hfe, to love and me ?
Mourning Bride, ad l.fc. 7,
I would not be the villain that thou think'ft
For the whole fpace that's in the tyrant's grafp,
And the rich ewth to boot.
Macbeth-, aa /\.fc. 4.
.• The
Sent
1
SEN [2
THc following paflage cxprefTes finely the progrefs of
convi^lion.
Let me not flsr, nor breathe, left I di|rolve
That tender, lovely form, of painted air,
So like Almeria. Ha ! it fiiiks, it falls ;
I'll catch it e'er it goes, and grafp her fhade.
'Tis life ! 'tis warm ! 'tis flie !^ 'tis flie herfclf !
It is Almeria ! 'tis, it is my wife !
Mourning Bride, a3. 2. fc, 6.
In the progrefs of thought our refolutioirs become-
more vii^orous as well as our paflions.
If ever I do yield or give confent,
By any aftion, word', or tbovxght, to wed'
Another lord; may then jull heaven fhow'r down,,&c.
Mourning Brides a£l \ . fc. I .
And this leads to a fecond cbfervation, That the dif-
ferent ftages of a palTion, and its different directions,
from birth to extindtion, muft be carefully reprefented
in their order; becaufe otherwife the fentiraents, by
being niiiplaced, will appear forced and unnatural. —
Refentment, for example, when provoked by an atro-
cious injury, difcharges itfelf firft upon the author :
fentimeuts therefore of revenge come always firft, and
muft in fome meafure be exhaufted before the perfon
injured think of grieving for himfelf. In- the Cid of
Corneiile, Don Diegue having been affronted in a cruel
manner, expreffes fcarce any fentiment of revenge, but
is totally occupied, in contemplating the low fituation
to which he is reduced by the affront :
O rage ! 6 defefpoir ! 6 vlellleiTe ennemie !
N'ai-]e done tant vecu que pour cettc intamie?
Et ne fuis-je blanchi dans les travaux guerriers,
Que pour voir en un jour fletrir tant de lauriers ?
Mon bras, qu'avec refpeft tout I'Efpagne admire,
Mon bras qui tant de fois a fauvc cet empire,
Tant de fois affermi le trone de fon roi,
Trahit done ma querelle, et ne fait rien pour mol !
O cruel fouvenir de ma gloire pafle !
Oeuvre de tant de jours en un jour eflFacee !
Nouvelle dignite fatale a mon bonheur !
Precipice eleve d'ou tombe mon honneur I
Faut-il de votre eclat voir triompher le comte,
Et mourir fans vengeance, ou vivre dans la honte ?
Comte, fois de mon prince a prefent gouverneur,
Ce haut rang n'admet point un homme fans honneur ;
Et ton jaloux orgueil par cet affront infigne,
Malgre le choix du roi, m'en a fu rendre indigne.
Et toi, de mes exploits glorieux inftrument,
Mais d'un corps tout de glace inutile ornement,
Fer jadis tant a craindre, et qui dans cette offenfe,
M'as fervi de parade, et non pas de defenfe,
Va, quitte deformais le dernier des humains,
Pafle pour me venger en de meilleures mains.
Le Cid, a9 i. fc. 7.
Thefe fentlments are certainly not the firft that are
fuggefted by the pafhon of refentment. As the firft
movements of refentment are always direfted to its ob-
jeft, the very fame is the cafe of grief. Yet with rela-
tion to the fudden and fevere diftemper that feized
Alexander bathing in the river Cydnus, Qiiintus Cur-
tius delcribes the firft emotions of the arir.y as directed
to themielves, lamenting that they were left without a
leader, far. from home, and had fcarce any iitpcs of re-
7 ] SEN
turning in fafety : their king's diftrefs, which mufl na- Sentiments,
turally have been their firft concern, occupies them but -— "v~~~^.
in the fecond place according to that author. In the
Aminta of Taffo, Sylvia, upon a repsrt of her lover's
death, which fhe beheved certain, inftead of bemoaning
the lofs of her beloved, turns her thoughts upon herlelt,
and wonders her heart does not break :
Ohime, ben fon di fafTo,
Poi che quefta novella non m'uccide. j49. d^. fc, 2,
In the tragedy of Jane Shore, Alicia, in the full pur-
pofc' of deftroying her rival, has the following reflec-
tion :
■^^
Oh Jealoufy ! thou bane of pleafing friendfhip.
Thou worft invader of our tender bofoms ;
How does thy rancour poifon all our fbftnefs,
And turn our gentle nature into bitternefs !
See where fhe comes I Once my heart's deareft blefling^ -
Now my chang'd eyes are blafted with her beauty.
Loathe that known face, and ficken to behold her.
Ja^.fc.u
Thefe are the refleftrons of a cool fpeflator. A paflion,
while it has the afcendant, ' and is freely indulged, fug-
gefts not to the perfon who feels it any fentiment to its
own prejudice : refleftions like the foregoing occur not
readily till the paffion has fpent it& vigour.
A perfon fometimes is agitated at once by different
pafTions ; and the mind in that cafe, vibrating like a pen-
dulum, vents itfelf in fentiments that partake of the fame
vibration. This we give as a third obfervation :
^cen. Would I had never trod this Englifh earth.
Or felt the flatteries that grow upon it !
Ye've angels faces, but heav'n knows your hearts.
What fhall become of me now ? wretched lady J
I am the moft unhappy woman living.
Alas I poor wenches, where are now your fortunes ?
£'7*0 her ivomeni
Shlpvvreck'd upon a kingdom, where no pity.
No friends, no hope, no kindred, weep for me !
Almofl no grave allow'd me.
Henry Will, atl 7,.fc.l.
Othello. Oh devil, devil !
If that the earth could teem with woman's tears.
Each drop ftie falls would prove a crocodile.
Out of my fight !
Dfdemona. I will not ftay t'offend you. \,Golng,
JLodovico. Truly, an obedient lady :
I do beieech your lordfhip, call her back.
0th. Miftrefs-^
Def. My lord.
0th. What would you with her, Sir?
Lad. Who, I, my lord I
Olh. Ay; you did wifh that I would make her turn.
Sir, fhe can turn and turn, and yet go on ;
And turn again. And fhe can weep. Sir, weep ;
And fhe's obedient : as you fay, obedient :
Very obedient — proceed you in your tears —
Concerning this. Sir,— oh well painted palTion !-~
I am commanded home — get you away,
I'll fend for you anon — Sir, I obey the mandate.
And will return to Venice.— -Hence, avaunt !
f Exit Defdemona
Othello^ all 4. fc. 6-.
SEN [ 278 ] S
Scntimems. JEmii'ia. Oh ! my good lord, I would fpeak a word too late, make a fourth,
^"^ 'C.. with you.
Othello. Yes, 'tis Emilia — By and by.— She's dead.
'Tis like fhe comes to fpcak of Caflio's death ;
The noife was high. — Ha ! nfo more mpving ?
Still as the grave. Shall flie come in ? wer't good ?
I think {he ftirs again — No — what's the beft ?
If (he come In, (he'll, fure, fpeak to my wife :
My wife ! my wife ! what wife ? I have no wife ;
oh infupportable ? oh heavy hour 1
Othello^ aa i-fc^.
A fourth obfervation is. That nature, which gave us
paflions, and made them extremely beneficial when mo-
derate, intended undoubtedly that they Ihould be fub-
je£ted to the government of reafon and confcience. It
is therefore againft the order of nature, that palTion in
any cafe (hould take the lead in contradiftion to reafon
and confcience : fut:h a ftate of mind is a fort of anarchy
which every one is afhamed of and endeavours to hide
or dilfemble. Even love, however laudable, is attended
vTith a confcious Ihame when it becomes immoderate :
it is covered from the world, and difclofed only to the
beloved obje£t :
Et que I'amour fouvent dc rcmors combattu
Paroiffe une foiblelfe, et non une vertu.
Boileau, I ^ Art Poet, chant. 3
E N
Vicious fentiments cxpofedSent
in their native drefs, inftead of being concealed or dif-
guifed, itiake a fifth. And in the laft clafs (hall be col-
leAed fentiments fuited to no character nor paffion, and
therefore unnatural.
The frji clafs contains faulty fentiments of various
kinds, which we fliall endeavour to diftinguiih from each
other.
I . Of fentiments that are faulty by being above the
tone of the pa{fion, the following may fcrve as an ex-
ample ;
Othillo. O my foul's joy !
/. 101.
O, they love ieaft that let men know they love.
Ttuo Gentlemen of Verona^ a3 l.fc. 3'
Hence a capital rule in the reprefentation of immode-
rate paflions, that they ought to be hid or diffembled
^s much as polTible. A nd this holds in an efpecial man-
ner with relpcft to criminal paflions : one never coun-
fels the commiflion of a crime in plain terms ; guilt
muft not appear in its native colours, even in thought ;
the propofal mutt be made by hints, and by reprefent-
ing the aftion in fome favonrable light. Of the pro-
priety of fentiment upon fuch an occafion, Shakefpeare,
in the Tempejl^ has given us a beautiful example, in a
fpeech by the ufurping duke of Milan, advifing Se-
baitian to murder his brother the king of Naples :
Antonio* ■
-What might,
Worthy Sebaftian, — O, what might — no more.
And yet, methinks, I fee it in thy face
What thou fhouldft be : the occaiion fpeaks thee, and
My ftrong imagination fees a crown
Dropping upon thy head. AS z.fc. 2.
A pifture of this kind, perhaps ftill finer, is exhibited
in King John, where that tyrant fohcits {aS ^-fc 5.)
Hubert to murder the young prince Arthur ; but it is
too long to be inferted here.
II. As things are belt illuftrated by their contraries,
we proceed to faulty fentiments, difdaining to be in-
debted for examples to any but the moft approved au-
thors. The firit clafs fhall confift of fentiments that ac-
cord not with the paflion ; or, in other words, fenti-
ments that the paffion does not naturally fuggeft. In
the fecond clafs ftiall be langed fentiments that may be-
long to an ordinary paflion, but unfuitable to it as tinc-
tured by a Angular chara«Sler. Thoughts that properly
are not fentiments, but rather defcriptioas, make a
third. Sentiments that belong to the paflion repre-
feoted, but are faulty as being introduced too early or
If after every tempeft come fuch calms,
May the winds blow till they have waken'd death :
And let the labouring bark climb hills of feas
Olympus high, and duck again as low
As hell's from heaven ? Othelloy aS 2. fc. 6.
This fentiment may be fuggefted by violent and infla-
med paflion ; but is not fuited to the fatisfaAion, how-
ever great, that one feels upon efcaping danger.
2. Inftance of fentiments below the tone of the paf-
fiori. Ptolemy, by putting Pompey to death, having
incurred the difpleafure of Cisfar, was in the utmoft
dread of being dethroned : in that agitating fituation,
Corneille makes him utter a fpeech full of cool reflec-
tion, that is in no degree expreflive of the paffion.
Ah ! fi je t'avois crii, je n'aurois pas de maitre,
Je ferois dans Ic trone ou le ciel m'a fait naitre ;
Mais c'efl; une imprudence aflez commune aux rois,
D'ecouter trop d'avis, et fe tromper au choix.
Le Deftin les aveugle au bord du precipice,
Ou fi quelque lumiere en leur ame fe ghfle,
Cette fauffe clarte dont il les eblouit,
Le plonge dans une gouff"re, et puis s'evanoult.
La Mart de Pompe, a£i ^.fc. r.
3. Sentiments that agree not with the tone of the
paflion ; as where a pleafant fentiment is grafted upon
a painful paffion, or the contrary. In the following
inttances, the fentiments are too gay for a ferious paf-
fion :
No happier taflc thefe faded eyes purfue ;
To read and weep is all they now can do.
Eloifa to Alelard. I. 47.
Again ;
Heav'n firfl: taught letters for fome wretch's aid.
Seme banifli'd lover, or fome captive maid :
They hve, they fpeak, they breathe what love infpires.
Warm from the foul, and faithful to its fires ;
The virgin's wifli without her fears impart,
Excufe the blufla, and pour out all the heart ;
Speed the foft intercourfe from foul to foul,
And waft a figh from Indus to the pole.
Eloifa to Abe/ardy /. 51.
Thefe thoughts are pretty : they fuit Pope, but not
Eloifa.
Satan, enraged by a threatening of the angel Gabriel,
anfwers thus :
Then when I am thy captive, talk of chains,
Proud limitary cherub ; but ere then
Far heavier load thyfelf expedf to feel
From my prevailing arm, though heaven's King
6 Ride
SEN [
' Ride on thy winjjs, and thou with thy compeers,
Ua'd to the yoke, draw'ft his triumphant wheels
In progrefs thro' the road of hQav''n ^ar-pav'fl.
Paradife Lojl, b. 4,
The concluding epithet forms a grand and delightful
image, which cannot be the genuine offspring of rage.
4. Sentiments too artificial for a ferious paflion. The
fit ft example is a fpeech of Percy expiring.
O, Harrfy thou hall robb'd jne of my growth :
1 better brook the lofs of brittle life,
Than thofe proud titles thou haft won of me ; {^flefh.
They wound my thoughts worfe than thy fword my
But thought's the Have of life, and life time's iool j
And time, that takes furvey of all the werld,
Muft have a ftop.
Firjl Part, Henry IF. aS $.fc. 9.
The fentiments of the Mourning Bride are for the
moll part no lefs deb'cate than juft copies of nature :
in the following exception the pifture is beautiful, but
too artful to be fuggefted by fevere grief.
Almeria. O no I Time gives increafe to my afRic-
tions.
The circling hours, that gather all the woes
Which are diffus'd throuo^h the revolving year.
Come heavy laden with th' oppreffive weight
To mc ; with me, fuccefllvely, they leave
The iighs, the tears, the groans, the leftlefs cares,
And all the damps of grief, that did retard their flight;
They fliake their downy wings, and fcatter all
The dire collefled dews on my poor head ;
Then fly with joy and fwiftnefs from me. AB l. fc. I ,
In the fame play, Almeria feeing a dead body, which
ftie took to be Alphonfo's, expreffes fentiments ftrained
and artifecial, which nature fuggefts not to any perfon
upon fuch an occafion :
Had they or hearts or eyes, that did this deed ?
Could eyes endure to guide fuch cruel hands ?
Are not my eyes guilty alike with theirs,
That thus can gaze, and yet not turn to ilone ?
— IMo not weep ! The fprings of tears are dry'd,
And of a fudden I am calm, as if fder'd }
AW. things were well ; and yet my hufband's mur-
Yes, yes, I know to mourn : I'll ftuice this heart,
The i'ource of wo, and lei the torrent in.
Pope's elegy to the memory of an unfortunate lady,
expreffes delicately the moft tender concern and forrow
that one can feel for the deplorable fate of a perfon of
worth. Such a poem, deeply ferious and pathetic, re-
jefts with difdain all fiflion. Upon that account, the
following pafTage deferves no quarter ; for it is not the
languanje of the heart, but of the imagination indulging
its flights at eafe, and by that means is eminently dif-
cordant with the fubjeft. It would be a flill more fe-
vere cenfure, if it fhould be afcribed to imitation, copy-
ing indifcreetly what has been faid by others :
What tho* no weeping loves thy afhes grace,
Nor polifh'd marble emulate thy f ace ?
What though no facred earth allow thee room.
Nor hallow'd dirge be mutter'd o'er thy tomb
79 1 SEN
Yet fhall thy grave with rifing flow'rs be dreft, Senti-mentj"
And the green turf lie lightly on thy breaft : -- »
There fhall the morn her earliefl tears beftow,
There the firft rofes of the year fhall blow ;
While angels with their filver wings o'erfhade
The grouBd, now facred by thy relics made.
5. Fanciful or finical fentimervts. Sentiments that
degenerate into point or conceit, however they may
amufe in an idle hour, can never be the offspring of
any ferious or important paflion. In the Jerufalem of
Taffo, Tancred, after a fingle combat, fpent with fa-
tigue and lofs of blood, falls into a fwoon ; in which
fituation, underftood to be dead, he is difcovered by
Erminia, who was in love with him to diftrafkion. A
more happy fituation cannot be imagined, to raife grief
in an inflant to its hioheft pitch ; and yet, in venting
her forrow, fhe defcends moft abominably into antithefii
and conceit even of the loweft kind :
E in lui verso d'inefficabil vena
Lacrime, e Toce di fofpiri mifta.
In che mifero punto hor qui me mena
Fortuna ? a che veduta amara e trifta ?
Dopo gran tempo i' ti ritrovo a pena
Tancred i, e ti riveggro, e non fon vifta
Vifta non fon da te, benche prefente
T trovando ti perdo eternamente.
Getnto ig.Ji. 105.
Armida's lamentation refpefting her lover Rinaldo is ia-
the fame vicious tafte. Fid. canto 20. ftam 124, izj,
126.
^een. Give me no help in lamentation,
I am not barren to bring forth complaints :
All fprings reduce their currents to mine eyes.
That I, being govern'd by the wat'ry moon.
May fend forth plenteous tears to drown the world.
Ah, for my hufband, for my dear lord Edward.
King Richard III. aS. z.fc.2,
Jane Shore utters her laft breath in a witty conceit :
Then all is well, and I fhall fleep in peace
*Tis very dark, and I have loft you now
Was there not fomething I would have bequeath'd you?
But I have nothing left rne to beftow.
Nothing but one fad figh. Oh mercy, Heav'n ! [_D}es.
Aa 5,
Gilford to Lady Jane Gray, when both were conw
deraned to die ;
Thou ftand'ft unmov' J ;
Calm temper fits upon thy beauteous brow ;
Thy eyes that flow'd fo faft for Edward's lofs.
Gaze unconcern'd upon the ruin round thee.
As if thou had'ft refolv'd to brave thy fate.
And triumph in the midft of defolation.
Ha ! fee, it fvvells> the liquid cryilal rifes,
It ftarts in fpitc of thee but I v/ill catch if,.
Nor let the earth be wet with dew fo rich.
Lady Jane Gray^ aB 4. near the end.
The concluding fentiment is altogether finical,, unfuit-
able to the importance of the occafion, and even to th«
dignity of the palTion of love,
Corneille,
SEN [ a
Sentiments, CorncHIe, in his Emmen of the Ctd, anfvrcring an ob-
*.je£tion, That his fentiments are fometimcs too much re-
fined for pcvfons in deep diltrtfs, ebferves, that if poets
did not induloe fentiments more ingenious or refined than
are prompted by paffioii, their performances would of-
ttn be low, and extreme grief would never fuggeft but
exclamations merely. This is in plain language to af-
fert, that forced thoughts are more agreeable than thofe
' that are natural, and ought to be preferred.
The fecond clafs is of fentiments that may belong to
an ordinary paflion, but are not perfectly concordant
with it, as tin^ured by a fingular charafter.
In the laft a£t of that excellent comedy The Carelefs
Hujband, Lady Eafy, upon Sir Charles's reformation,
is made to exprefs more violent and turbulent fenti-
ments of joy than are confiilent w^ith the mildnefs of her
. charafter.
Lady Eafy. O the foft trcafure ! O the dear reward
of long-defiring love. — Thus ! thus to have you mine,
is fomething more than happinefs ; *tls double life, and
madnefs of abounding joy.
The following Inftances are defcriptions rather than
' fentiments, which compofe a third clafs.
Of this defcriptive manner of painting the paffions,
there is in the Hippolytus of Euripides, a3 v. an illu-
ftrious inftance, viz. the fpeech of Thefeus, upon hear-
ing of his fon's difmal exit. In Racine's tragedy of
Efther^ the queen hearing of the decree iffued againft
her people, inftead of exprefling fentiments fuitable to
the occafion, turns' her attention upon herfelf, and de-
fcribes with accuracy her own fituation.
Jufte ciel ! tout mon fang dans mes veines fe glace.
AEti.fc.^.
Again,
Aman. C'en eft fait. Mon orgueil eft force de plier.
L'inexorable Aman eft reduit a prier.
Eflher, aa ^. fc. s-
Athalie. Quel prodige nouveau me trouble et m'em-
barraffe ?
!La douceur de fa voix, fon enfance, fa grace,
Font Infenfiblement a mon inimitle
Succcder Je ferois fenfible a la pitle >.
Athalie, aSl./c. 7.
Tituf. O de ma paflion fureur defefperee !
Brutus of V oltaire, a8 ^.fc. 6.
What other are the foregoing inftances but defcribing
the paflion another feels ?
The fourth clafs is of fentiments «xpreffed too early
or too late.
Some examples mentioned above belofig to this clafs.
Add the following from Venice Prefers'' d^ ^. at the
clofe of the fcene between 'Belvidera and her father
Priuli. The account given by Belvideraof the danger
■fhe was in, and of her hufband's threatening to murder
her, ought naturally tx> have alarmed her relenting fa-
ther, and to have made him exprefs the moft perturlied
fentiments. Inftejid of which, he diflblves into tender-
jiefs and love for his daughter, as if' he had already de-
livered her from, danger, and as if thete were a perfeft
tranquillity. :
80 1 SEN
Canft thou forgive me all my follies paft !
I'll henceforth be indeed a father ; never.
Never more thus expofe, but cherifli thee,
Dear as the vital warmth that feeds my hfe,
Dear as thofe eyes that weep in fonduefs o'er thee j
Peace to thy heart.
Immoral fentiments expofed in their native colours,
inftead of being concealed or difguifed, compofe the Jifih
clafs.
The Lady Macbeth, proje6^ing the death of the
king, has the following foliloquy :
The raven himfelf's not hoarfe
That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan
Under my battlements. Come, all you fpirits
"That tend on mortal thoughts, unfex mc here.
And fill me from the crown to the to€, top full
Of direft cruelty ; make thick my blood,
Stop up th' accefs and paflage to remorfc,
That no cornpundlious vifitings of nature
Shake my fell purpofe. Macbeth^ ad \.fc. 7.
This fpeech is not natural. A treacherous murder was
»ncver perpetrated even by the moft hardened mifcreant
without compun6llon : and that the lady here muft
have been in horrible agitation, appears from her invo-
king the infernal fpirits to fill her with cruelty, and to
ftop up all avenues to reraorfe. But in that ftate of
mind it is a never-failing artifice of felf-deceit to draw
the thickeft veil over the wicked aftlon, and to exte-
nuate it by all the clrcumftances that imagination can
fuggeft : and if the crime cannot bear difgulfe, the next
attempt is to thruft it out of mind altogether, and to
rufli on to aftion without thought. This laft was the
hufband's method.
Strange things I have in head, that will to hand ;
Which muft be afted ere they muft be fcann'd.
Adi-fct,
The lady follows neither of thefe courfes, but in a de-
liberate manner endeavours to fortify her heart in the
commifllon of an execrable crime, without even attempt-
ing to colour it. This, we think, is not natural ; we
hope there is- no fuch wretch to be found as is here re-
prefentai.
The /a/? -clafs comprehends fentiments that are unna-
tural, as being fuited to no charadler nor paflion. Thefc
may be fubdivided into three branches : firft, fentiments
unfultable to the conftltution of man, and to the laws
of his nature ; fecond, inconfiftent fentiments; third,
fentiments that arc pure rant and extravagance.
When the fable is of human affairs, every event, eve-
ry incident, and every circumftance, ought to be natu-
ral, otherwllc the imitation is ImperfeH. But an im-
perfe£l imitation is a venial fault, compared with that
of running crofs to nature. In the Hippolytus of Euri-
pides i^nil iv. fc. 5.), Hippolytus, wiflu'ng for another
felf in his own fituation, " How much (fays he) fhould
I be touched with his misfortune !" as if it were natu-
ral to grieve more for the misfortune of another than
for one's own.
Ofmyn. Yet I behold her— yet— and now no more.
Turn your lights inward, eyes, and view my thought ;
So (hall you ftill behold her— 'Twill not be.
O
SEN
nests. O im|?ptffneeof fight ! mechanic ffnfe,
Which to exterior objefts ow'ft thy faulty,
Not feeing of eleftion, but neceiTity.
Thus do our eyes, as do all common mirrors,
Succeflively refleA fucceeding images.
Nor what they would, but muft ; a itar or toad }
JuH i»s the hand of chance adminifters !
Mourning Bridcy a8 l.fc, 8,
Nomsn, inhis fenfes, ever thought of applying his
eyes to difcover what pafles in his mind ; far lefs of bla-
ming his eyes for not feeing a thought or idea. In Mo-
liere's / 'Avare {nB iv. fc].) Harpagon, being robbed
of his money, feizes himfelf by the arm, miftaking it
for that of the robber. And again he expreffes himfelf
as follows :
Je veux aller querir la juftice, et faire donner la que-
flion a toute ma maifon ; a fervantes, a valets, a fils, a
fille, et a moi auffi.
This is fo ai)furd as fcarce to provoke a fmile, if it be
not at the author.
Of the fecond branch the following example may
fuffice :
■ Now bid me run.
And I will ftrive with things impojfibley
Yea, get the better of them.
Julius Cafar, aS l.fc. 3.
Of the third branch, take the following famples. Lu-
can, talking of Pompey's fepulchre,
;; Romanum nomen, et omnc
Imperium magno eft tumuli modus. Obrue faxa
Crimine plena deum. Si tota eft HcrcuHs Oete,
Et juga tota vacant Bromio Nyfeia ; quare
Unus in Egypto Magno lapis ? Omnia Lagi
Rura tenere pottft, fi nullo cefpite nomen
Hslerit. Eiremus popuH, cinerumque tuorura,
Magne, metu nullas Nili calcemus arenas,
^ . „ -^^ viii, /. 79 8«
Thus, m Rowe's tranflatlon :
Where there are feas, or air, or earth, or fla'es.
Where'er Rome's empire ftretches, Pompey lies.
Far be the vile memorial then convey d I
Nor let this ftone the partial {jods upbraid.
Shall Hercules all Oeta's heights demand.
And Nyfa's hill for Bacchus only ftand ;
While one poor pebble is the warrior's doom
That fought the caufe of libeity and Rome ?
If Fate decrees he muft in Egypt lie,
Let the whole fertile realm his tjrave fupply,
Yield the wide country to his awful (hade,
Nor let us dare on any part to tread, C
Fearful we violate the mighty dead. 3
The following pafTages are pure raat. Coriolanus,
"peaking to his mother,
What is this ?
Your knees to me > to your cerrefted fon ?
1 hen let the pebbles on the hungry beach
Fillop the ftars : then let the mutinous winda
Strike the proud cedars 'gainft the fiery fun :
Murd'ring impofllbility, to make
What cannot be, flight work.
Coriolanuit a3 c. fc. t.
yo;^.. XVII. Part I. ' ^
£ 281 1
SEP
Cafar. ---^ Danger knows full well.
That Caefar is more dangerous than he.
We were two lions litter'd in one day, ,
And I the elder and more terrible.
Julius Cafar, off 2, fc. 4,
Vmiidius, But you, ere love mifled your wand'ring
eyes.
Were furc the chief and beft of human race,
FramM in the veiy pride and boaft of nature,
So perfea, that the gods who form'd you wonder'd
At their own flcill, and cry'd, A lucky hit
Has mended our defign. Dryden, All for Love, aa r.
Not to talk of the impiety of this fentiment, it is ludi-
crous inftead of being lofty.
The famous epitaph on Raphael Is not lefe abfurd
than any of the foregoing paflages :
Raphael, timuit, quo fofpite, vinci,
Rerura magna parens, et moriente mori.
Imitated by Pope, ia his epitaph on Sir Godfrey Knel-
Living, great Nature fear'd he might outvie
Her works ; and dying, fears herlelf may die.
Such is the force of imitation; for Pope of himfelf
would never have been guilty of a thought fo extrava-
gant, °
SENTINEL, or Sentrv, In military affairs, «
private foldier placed in iome poft to watch the ap-
proach of the enemy, to prevent furprifes, to flop fucli
as would pafs without orders or difcovering who the-r
are. I hey are placed before the arms of all guards
at the tents and door^ of general officers, colonels of
regiments, &c.
^ SENT! HI Perdu, a foldler ported near an enemy, or
in fome very dangerous poft where he is in hazard of
being loft.
All fentinels are to be vigilant on their pofts ; neither
are they to fing, fmokc tobacco, nor fuffer any noifc ta
be made near them. They are to have a watchful eye
over the things committed to their charge. They are
rot to fuffet any light to remain, or any fire to be
made, near their pofts in the nighr-time ; neither is any
icntry to be relieved or removed from his poft but bv
the corporal of the guard. They are not to fuffer ani
one to touch or handle their arms, or in the night-time
to come within ten yards of their poft.
No perfon is to ftrike or abufe a fentry on his ooft t
but when he has committed a crime, he is to beVelie-
ved, and then puniftied according to the rules and ar-
ticles of war.
A fentinel, on his poft in the night, Is to know no.
body but by the counter, fion: when he challenges,
and IS anfwered, Relief, he calls out. Stand, relief ' aZ
vance, corporal ! upon which the corporal halts his men.
and advances alone within a yard of the fentry's fire-
Jock (firft orderiniT his party to reft, on which the
ientry does the fame), and gives him the counter-fign.
taking care that no one hear it.
SEPIA, the CvTTLE-FisH, a genus belonging to
the order of vermes molufca. There are ei-ht bra-
chia mteifperfed on the interior fide, with little round
ferrated cups by the contraftion of which the animal
laya taft hold of any thing. Befides thefe eight arms,
Nh it
It
Sepia.
S E P [ 2i
Sepia, it has two tentacula longer than the arms, and frequent-
""V^ ly pedunculated. The mouth is lituated in the centre
of the arms, and is horny and hooked, like the bill of a
hawk. The eyes are below the tentacula, towards the
body of the animal. The body io flefhy, and received
into a (heath as far as the bread. Their food are tun-
•Hies, fprats, lobllers, and other fliell-fifh. With their arms
end trunks they fallen themfelves, to refill the motion
of tlie waves. Their beak is Uke that of a parrot.
The females are diftinguiflied by two paps. They co-
pulate as the polypi do, by a mutual embrace, and lay
their eggs upon fea-weed and plants, in parcels like
bunches of grapes. Immediately after they are laid
they are white, and the males pafs over and impregnate
them with a black liquor, after which they grow lar ger.
On opening the egg, the embryo-cuttle is found alive.
The males are very conftant, accompany their females
eveiywhere, face every danger in their defence, and
refcue them intrepidly at the hazard of their own lives,
'ilie timorous females fly as foon as they fee the males
wounded. The noife of a cuttle-tifh, on being dragged
out of the water, refembles the grunting of a hog.
When the male is purfued by the fea-wolf or ©ther
ravenous fifh, he Ihuns the danger by flratageni. He
Iquirts his black liquor, fometimes to the quantity of a
dram, by which the water becomes black as ink, under
{lielter of which he bafHes the purfuit of his enemy.
This ink or black liquor has been denominated by Mr
le Cat athiops animal, and is referved in a particular
gland. In ics liquid ftate it refembles that of the cho-
void in man ; and would then communicate an inde-
lible dye ; when dry, it might be taken for the produfl
f)f the black liquor in negroes dried, and made a preci-
pitate by fpirit of wine. This sethiops animal in ne-
j^roes as well as in the cuttle-fifli, is more abundant
jiVter death than even during life. It may ferve either
for writing or printing ; in the former of which ways
the Romans ufed it. It is faid to be an ingredient in
the compofition of Indian ink mixed with rice. I'here
are five fpeclt-s.
T . I'he loligo, or great cuttle, with Oioit arms and
lonff tentacula ; the lower part of the body rhomboid
and"pianutcd, the upper thick and cylindric. They in-
liablt all our feaa, wheie having blackened the w?.ier by
the effufion of their ink, they abfcond, und_ with their tail
leap out of the water. They are gregarious and fwift
in their motions : they take their prey by means of
their arms; and embracing it, bring it to their central
sijouth. ITiey adhere to the rocks, when they wifh to
bb quiefcent, by means of the concave difos that are pla-
ced along their arms.
2. The oftopodia, with eight arms, connefted at
their bottom by a membrane. This is the polypus of
Pliny, which he diftinguifhes from the loligo and fepia
by the want of the tail and tentacula. They inhabit
our feas, but are moft at home in the Mediterranean.
In hot climates thefe are found of an enormous fize.
The Indians af&rm, that fome have been feen two fa-
thoms broad over their centre, and each arm nine
fathoms long. When the Indians navigate their little
boats, they go in dread of them ; and left thefe animals
fhould fling their arms over and fink them, they never
fail without an ax to cut them off. When ufed for
food they are ferved up red from their owu liquor,
2 1 SEP
which from boillnjy with the addition of nitre becomes Sep
red. Barthol. fays, upon cutting one of them open, fo ^^P'
great a light broke forth, that at night, upon taking
away the handle, the whole houfe feemed to be in a
bhze.
3. The media, or middle cuttle, with a long, (lender,
cylindric body ; tail finned, pointed, and carinated on
each fide ; two long tentacula ; the body almoft tranfpa-
rent, green, but convertible into a dirty brown ; con-
firming the remark of Pliny*, that they change their
colour through fear, adapting it, chameleon-like, to
that of the place they are in. The eyes are large and
fmaragdine.
4. The fepiola, or fmall cuttle, with a fliort body,
rounded at the bottom, has a round fin on each fide and
two tentacula. They are taken off Flintfhire, but chiefly
inhabit the Mediterranean.
5. The officinalis, or officinal cuttle, with an ovated
body, has fins along the whole of the fides, almoft
meeting at the bottom; and two long tentacula. The
body contains the bone, the cuttle-bone of the fhops,
which was formerly ufed as an abforbent. The bones
are frequently flung on all our fhores ; the animal veiy
rarely. The conger eels bite off their arms, or feet ;
but they grow again, as doss the hzard's tail (Plin. ix.
29). They are preyed upon by the plaife. This fifli
emits (in common with the other fpecies), when fright-
ed or purfued, the black liquor which the ancients fup.
pofed darkened the circumambient wave, and concealed,
it from the enemy.
The endanger'd cuttle thus evades his fears,
And native hoards of fluid fafety bears.
A pitchy ink peculiar glands fupply,
Whofe (hades the fharpeft beam of light defy.
Purfu'd, he bids the fable foHntalns flow,
And, wrapt in clouds, eludes th' impending foe.
'jlie fifh retreats unfeen, while felf-born night.
With pious (hade befriends her parent's flight.
The ancients fometimes made ufe of it inftead of infeo
Perfius mentions the fpecies in his defcription of the.
noble ftudent.
yam liber, et hlcolor pojttls membrana capilllst
Jnque manus charta, nodafque venit arunrlo.
T um querimur, crocus calamo quod pendeat humor ;
Nigra quodinfufa venefcat fepia lympha.
At length, his book he fpreads, his pen he takes j.
1 lis papers here in learned order lays,
And there his parchment's fmoother fide difplays-
But oh ! what crolfes wait on ftudious men !
The cuttle's juice hangs clotted at our pen.
In all my life fuch Jlujf I never kneioy
So gummy //j/ci— Dilute it, it will do.
Nay, noiu 'tis water I Dryden.
This animal was efteemed a delicacy by the ancients,.,
and is eaten even at prefent by the Icallafls. Rondele-
tius gives us two receipts for the dreffing, which may
be continued to this day. Athenaeus alfo leaves us
the method of making an antique cattle-fifti faufage ;
and we learn from Ariftotle, that thofe animals are in
higheft feafon when pregnant.
SEPIARI^, (from/e/>fj, '* a hedge"), the name
of the 4.4th order of Linnseus's Fragments of a Natural
^ Method,
SEP [ ^
Method, confifti'ng of a beautiful colledlon ef woody
plants, feme of which, from their fize and elegance, are
very proper furniture for hedges. See Botany, p. 467.
SEPS, in zoology, a fjjecits of Lacerta.
SEPTARI^, in natural hiftory, a large clafs of
fofllls, commonly known by the names of ludus Hd-
montii and ivaxen veins.
They are defined to be foflils not inflammable, nor
foluble in water ; of a moderately firm texture and
dufky hue, divided by feveral fepta or thin partitions,
and compofed of a fparry matter greatly debafed by
earth ; not giving fire with fteel ; fermenting with
acids, and in great part difTolved by them ; and calci-
ning in a moderate fire.
Of this clafs there are two diftinft orders of bodies,
and under thofe fix genera. The feptarige ot the firlt
order are thofe which are ufually found in large maf-
fes, of a fimple uniform conftruftion, but divided by
large fepta either into larger and more irregular por-
tions, or into fmallcr and more equal ones, called talc.
The genera of this order are four. i. Thofe divided
by fepta of fpar, called fecomiee ■; 2. 'J hofe divided by
fepta of earthy matter, called gaiop/jragmi a : 3. Thole
divided by fepta of the matter of the pyrites, called />yri-
tercia : And, 4. Thofe divided by fepta of fpar, with
an admixture of cryital, called diuugophragmia.
Thofe of the fecond order are fuch as aie ufually
found in fmaller mafies, of a cruftated ftrufture, form-
ed by various incruftations round a central nucleus, and
divided by very thin fepta. Of this order are only
two genera, i. Thofe with a fhort roundilh nucleus,
incloled within the body of the mafs ; and, 2. I'hofe
with a long nucleus, {landing out beyond the ends of
the mafs.
SEP TAS, in botany : A genus of plants belonging
to the order of Heptagynioy and the clafs of Heptandria ;
and in the natural fyftem ranged under the 1 3th order,
Succulenta. The calyx is divided into feven parts ; the
petals are feven ; the germens feven : the capfules are
aifo feven, and contain many feeds. There is only one
fpecies, the Capenjisy which is a native of the Cape of
Good Hope, is round-leaved, and flowers in Augufl;
or September.
SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of the year, con-
fifting ot only thirty days ; it took its name as beings
the feventh month, reckoning from March, with which
the Romans began their year.
SEPTENNIAL, any thing lafting feven years.
Septennial hltSions, Blackftone, in his Commen-
taries, Vol. 1. p. 189. fays, (atter obferving that the
utmoll extent of time allowed the fame parliament to
iit by the ftat. 6 W. and M. c. 2. was three years),
" But, by the ftatute i Geo. I. ft. 2. c. 38, (in or-
der profeffedly to prevent the great and continued ex-
pences of frequent eledlions, and the violent heats and
aniiRofities confequent thereupon, and for the peace and
fecurity of the government, jull then recovering from
the late rebellion j, this term was prolonged to feven
years ; and what alone is an iuilance of the valt au-
thority of parliament, the very lame houfe that was
chofen for three years enafted its own continuance for
feven."
SEPTENTRID, in aftronoroy, a conftellation, more
ufually called urja minor.
83 ] SEP
In cofmography, th? tetm feptentrlo Atnotes the fame Septic*,
with north v and hence feptentrional is applied to any Sep'iz. n.
thing belonging to the north ; as ftptenti tonal figns, pa^ • y--^
rail els, &c.
SEPTICS, are thofe fubftances which promote pu-
trefaflion, chiefly the calcareous earths, magnefia, and
teftaceous powders. PVom the many curious experi-
ments made by Sir John Pringle to afcertain the Jtptir.
and antijept'ic virtues of natural bodies, it appears that
there are very few fubftances of a truly fepttc nature;.
Thofe commonly reputed fuch by authors, as the al-
caline and volatile falts, he found to be no wife f ptic.
However, he difcovered fome, where it feemed leail
likely to find any fuch quality ; thefe were chalk, com-
mon fait, and teftaceous powders. He mixed twenty
grains of crabs eyes, prepared with fix drams of ox's
gall, and an equal quantity of water. Into another
phial he put an equal quantity of gall and water, but no
crabs-eyes. Both thefe mixtures being placed in the
furnace, the putrefaction began much fooner, where
the powder was, than in the other phial. On making-
a like experiment with chalk, its fepttc virtue was found,
to be much greater than that of the crabs-eyes: nay,
what the doftor had never met with before, in a mixture
of two drams of flefli, with two ounces of water and
thirty grains of prepared phalk, the flelh was refolved
into a perfeft mucus in a few days.
To try whether the teftaceous powders would alfo
diffolve vegetable fubftances, the dodlor mixed them
with barley and water, and compared this mixture with
another of barley and water alone. After a long ma-
ceration by a fire, the plain water was found to fwell
the barley, and turn mucilaginous and four ; but that
with the powder kept the grain to its natural fize, and
though it foftened it, yet made no mucilage, and re*
mained fweet.
Nothing could be more unexpefted, than to find fea
fait a haftener of putrefaftion ; but the fa6l is thus ; one
dram of fait preferves two drams of frefli beef in two
ounces oF water, above thirty hours uncorrupted, in a
heat equal to that of the human body ; or, which is
the fame thing, this quantity of fait keeps flefh fweet
twenty hours longer than pure water ; but then half a
dram of fait does not preferve it above two hourj
longer. I'wenty-five grains have Httle or no antifeptit:
virtue, and ten, fifteen, or even twenty grains, manifeft-
ly both haften and heighten the corruption. The
quantity which had the moft putrelying quality, was
found to be about ten grains to the above proportion of
flefli and water.
Many inferences might be drawn from this experi-
ment : one is, that fince fait is never taken in aliment
beyond the proportion of the corrupting quantities, it
would appear that it is fubfervient to digeftio,n chiefly
by its jej^tic .virtue, that is, by fo^tening and re[olvin'>-
meats ; an aftion very different from what 'n commonly
believed.
It is to be ob{"erved, that the above experiments
were made with the fak kept lor domeftic u!ei. See
Pringle's Obfei-v. on the Diieafes of the army, p. ^^f?,
et feq.
SEPTIZON, or Septizonium, in Roman antlqui.
ty, a celebrated maufoleum, built by Septimus Severus,
in the tenth region of the city of Rome : it was fo
N n 2 called
SEP [2
Septnagc- called from /ejtem and zona, by reafon it confifted of
Se nm-".'it ^^^^^ ftorles, each of which was furrounded by a row of
' ■" columns.
SEPTUAGESIMA, In the kalendar, denotes the
third Sunday before Lent, or before Quadragefima
Sunday : fuppofed by feme to take its name from its
beinjr a^bout feventy days before Eaftcr.
SEPTUAGINT, the name yiven to a Greek ver-
Con ot the books of the Old Teftament, from its being
fuppofed to be the work of feventy two Jews, who are
ufually called the feventy interpreters, becaufe feventy is
a round number.
The hillory of this verfion is exprefsly written by
Ariftaeas, an officer of the guards to Ptolemy Philadel-
phus, the fubftance of whofe account is as follows :
Ptolemy having erefted a fine library at Alexandria,
which he took care to fill with the moft curious and
■valuable books from all parts of the world, was inform-
ed that the Jews had one containing the laws of Mofes,
and the hillory of that people ; and being defirous of
enriching his hbrary with a Greek tranflation of it, ap-
plied to the high prieft of the Jews ; and to engage
him to comply with his requeft, fet at liberty all the
Jews whom his father Ptolemy Soter had reduced to
flavery. After fuch a ilep, he eafily obtained what he
defired ; Eleazar the Jewifli high-prieft fent back his
ambalfadors with an exadt copy of the Mofaical law,
written in letters of gold, and fix elders of each tribe,
in all feventy-two ; who were received with marks of
refpedt by the king, and then condufted into the ifle
of Pharos, where they were lodged in a houfe prepared
for their reception, and fupplied with every thing ne-
celfary. They fet about the tranflation without lofs of
time, and finifhedit in feventy-two days: and the whole
being read in the prefence of the king, he admired the
profound wifdom of the laws of Mofes ; and fent back
the deputies laden with prefents, for themfelves, the high-
prieft, and the temple.
Ariftobulus, who was tutor to Ptolemy Phyfcon,
Philo who. lived in our Saviour's time, and was contem-
porary with the apoftles, and Jofephus, fpeak of this
tranflation as made by 72 interpreters, by the care of
Demetrius Phalereus in the reign of Ptolemy Philadcl-
phus. All the Chriftian writers, during the firft 15
centuries of the Chriftian era, have admitted this ac-
count of the Septuagint as an undoubted fafit. But
fmce the reformation, critics have boldly called it in
queftion, becaufe it was attended with circumftances
which they think inconfiftent, or, at leaft, improbable.
Du Pin has afked, why were 72 interpreters employed,
fince 12 would have been fufficient ? Such an objeftion
is trifling. We may as well aflc, why did king James I.
employ 54 tranflators in rendering the Bible into Eng-
iifh, fmce Du Pia thinks 12 would have been fuffi-
cient ?
J . Prideaux objects, that the Septuagint 's not writ-
ten in the Jewifti, but in the Alexandrian, dialtft ; and
could not therefore be the work of natives of Paleftine.
But thefe dialefts were probably at that time the fame,
for both Jews and Alexandrians had received the Greek
languaoe from the Macedonians about 50 years before.
2. Prideaux farther contends, that all the books of the
Old Teftament could not be tranflated at the fame time;
fer they exhibit great differeace of fl.yk. To this it 13
SEP
fufficient to reply, tliat they were the work of 72 men,Sepftt
each of whom had ieparate portions affigned them. "
3. The Dean alfo urges, that Ariftsas, Ariftobulus,
Philo, and Jofephus, all direftly tell us, that the law was
tranflated without mentioning any of the other factei
books. But nothing was more common among writer?
ot the Jewifti nation than to give this name to the Scrip.
tBres as a whole. In the New Teftament law is ufed
as fynonymous with what we call the Old Teftament,
Befides, it is exprefsly faid by Ariftobulus, in a frag»
ment quoted by Eufebius [Pr^ep. Etmn. I. i.), that the
whole Sacred Scriptiue was rip.htly tranflated through
the means of Demetrius Phalereus, and by the command
of Philadelphus. Jofephus indeed, fays the learned
Dean, aflerts, in the preface to his Antiquities, that the
Jewifh interpreters did not tranflate for Ptolemy the
whole Scriptures, but the law only. Here the evi.
dence is contradictory, and we have to determine, whe-
ther Ariftobulus or Jofephus be moft worthy of credit.
We do not mean, however, to accule either of forgery,,
but only to inquire which had the beft opportunities of
knowing the truth. Ariftobulus was an Alexandrian
Jew, tutor to an Egyptian king, and lived within 100
years after the tranflation was made, and certainly had
accefs to fee it in the royal hbrary. Jofephus was a
native of Paleftine, and lived not until 300 years or
more after the tranflation was made, and many years,
after it was burnt along with the whole library of A-
lexandria in the wars of Julius Csefar. Suppofing the
veracity of thefe two writers equal, as we have no proof
of the contrary, which of them ought we to confider a*
the beft evidence? Ariftobulus furely. Prideaux, indeed,,
feems doubtful whether there was ever fuch a man ; and
Dr Hody fuppofes that the Commentaries on the five
books of Mofes, which bear the name of Ariftobulus,,
were a forgery of the fecond century. To prove the:
cxiftenceof any human being, who lived 2000 years be-
fore us, and did not perform fuch works as no mere
man ever performed, is a taflc which wc are not difpofed
to undertake ; and we believe it would not be lefs dif-
ficult to prove that Philo and Jofephus exifted, than:
that fuch a perfon as Ariftobulus did not exift. If the
writings which have paffed under his name were a for-
gery of the fecond century, it k furprifing that they
fhould have impofed upon Clemens Alexandrinus, who
hved in the fame century, and was a man of abilities, ,
learning, and well acquainted with the writings of the
ancients. Eufebius, too, in his Prap. Evan, quotes,
the commentaries of Ariftobulus. But, continues the
learned Dean, " Clemens Alexandrinus is the firft au-
thor that mentions them. Now, had any fuch commen-
taries exifted in the time of Philo atid Jofephus, they
would iurely have mentioned them. But is the cir-
cumftance of its not being quoted by every fucceeding
author a fufficient reafon to difprove the authenticity?
ot any book? Neither Philo. nor Jofephus undertook
to^ive a lift of preceding authors, and it was by na
means the uniform pradlice of thefe times always ta
name the authors from whom they derived their in for.
mation.'^
4. Prideaux farther contends, that the fum which.
Ptolemy is faid to have given to the interpreters is too
great to be credible. If his computation were juft, it
certainly would be fo. He makes it L. ^,ooo,0' q
Sterlings
SEP [ 2i
jii-.t. Sterling, but other writers* reduce it to L- 85,421,
and feme to L. 56,947 neither of which is a fum fo
r In ^^^y extraordinary in fo great and magnificent a prince
en. as Philadelphus, who fpent, according to a paflage in
Athenseus (hb. v.), no lefs than 10,000 talents on the
furniture of one tent ; which is fix times more than
what was fpent in the whole of the embaffy and tranf-
latlon, which amounted only to 1552 talents.
5. Prideaux fays, " that what eonvifts the whole ftory
of Ariiteas of falfity u, that he makes Demetrius Pha-
lereus to be the chief a'dtor in it, and a great favourite
of the king ; whereas Philadelphus, as foon as his father
was dead, caft him into prifon, where he foon after
r- died." But it may be replied, that Philadelphus reign-
ed two years jointly with his father Lagus, and it is
not faid by Hermlppus that Demetrius was out of fa-
vour with Philadelphus during his father's life. Now,
if the Septuagint was tranflated in the beginning of the
rei^n of Philadelphus, as Eufeblus and Jerome think,
the difficulty will be removed. Demetrius might have
been librarian d'jring the reign of Philadelphus, and yet
imprifoned on the death of Lagus. Indeed, as the
caufe of Philadelphus 's difpleafure was the advice which
Demetrius gave to his father, to prefer the fons of Ar-
finoe before the Ion of Berenice, he could fcarcely {how
it till his father's death. The Septuagint tranflation
mioht therefore be begun while Philadelphus reigned
jointly with his fether, but not be finifhed till after bis
father's death.
6. Befides the objeftions which have been confidered,
there is only one that dcfcrves notice. The ancient
Chriftians not only differ from one another concerning
uxs jjjg ^jjjjg vvhich Ariftobulus lived, but even contra-
di6t themfclves in different parts of their works. Some-
times they tell us, he dedicated his book to Ptolemy
Philometer, at other times they fay, it was addreffed to
Philadelphus and his father. Sometimes they make
him the fame perfon who is mentioned in 2 Maccabees,
chap r. and fometimes one of the 72 interpreters 152
years before. It is difficult to explain how authors fall
into fuch inconfillencies, but it is probably occafioned
by their quoting from memory. This was ceitainly
the pradlice of almofl all the early Chrillian writers,
and fometimes of the apollles themfelves. Mittakes
were therefore inevitable. Jofephus has varied in the
circumftances of the fame event, in his antiquities and
wars of the Jews, probably from the fame caufe ; but
we do not hence coHcIude, that every circumftance of
fuch a relation is entirely falfe» In the account of the
Matquis of Argyle's death in the reign of Charles II.
we have a very remarkable contradidtion. Lord Cla-
rendon relates, that he was condemned to be hanged,
which was performed the lame day : on the contrary,
Burnet, Woodrow, Heath, Echard, concur in ftating,
that he was beheaded; and that he was condemned
ra/>£. upon the Saturday and executed upon the Monday f .
Was any reader of Englifh hiltory ever Iceptic enough
to raife from hence a queftion, whether the Marquis of
Argyle was executed or not ? Yet this ought to be
left in uncertainty according to the way of reafoning in
which the fads refptdting the tranflation of the Septu-
agint is atten.ipted co be dliproved.
" Such ai e the objettlons which the learned and inge-
nious Prideaux has taifed againft the common account
©f the Septuagint tranflation, and fucii are the aniwers-
5 ] SEP
which maybe given to them. We have chofen to fup- Septuagint^
j>ort that opinion which is fanftioned by hiftorical evi- »
dence, In preference to the conjedtures of modern critics
however ingenious; being perfuaded, that there are ma»
ny things recorded in hiftory, which, though perfedtly
true, yet, from our imperfe£l knowledge of the conco»
mitant circumftances, may, at a diftant period, feem li-
able to objedlions. To thofe who require pofitive evi-
dence, it may be ftated thus. Ariftseas, Ariftobulus,
Philo, and Jofephus, affure us, that the law was tranf^
lated. leaking the law in the moft reftrided fenfe, wc
have at leaft fufBcient authority to affert, that the Pen-
tateuch was rendered into Greek under Ptolemy Phila»
delphus. Ariftobulus affirms, that the whole Scrip-
tares were tranflated by the 72. Jofephus confines
their labours to the books of Mofes. He therefore
who cannot determine to which of the two the greatefl
refped is tfue, may fufpend his opinion. It is certain,
however, that many of the other books were tranflated
before the age of our Saviour; for they are quoted both
by him and his apoftles : and, perhaps, by a minute exa-
mination of ancient authors, in the fame way that Dr
Lardner has examined the Chriftian fathers to prove
the antiquity of the New Teftament, the preclfe period
in which the whole books of the Septuagint were com*
pofed might, with confiderable accuracy, be afcertain-
ed.
For 400 years this tranflation was in high eftimation-
with the Jews. It was read in their fynagogues in pre-^
ference to the Hebrew ; not only in thole places where
Greek was the common language, but in m my fyna-
gogues of Jerufalem and Judea. But when they faw
that it was equally valued by the Chriftians, they be-
came jealous of it, and at length, in the fecond century,,
Aquila, an apoftate Chriftian, attempted to fubftitute
another Greek tranflation^ in its place In this work
he was careful to give the ancient prophecies con-
cerning the Meffiah a different tiirn from the Septua-
gint, that they might not be applicable to Chrlft. In-
the fame de;fign he was followed by Symmachus and
Theodotion, who alfo, as St Jerome informs us, wrote
out of hatred to Chriftianity.
In the mean time, the Septuagint, from the ignorance,,
boldnefs, and careleffnefs of tranfcribers, became full of-
errors. To corred thefe, Origen publlfhed a new edi-
tion in the beginning of the third centuiy, in which he
placed the tranflations of Aquila, Symmachus, ami The-
odotion. This edition was called /eltuplay the tranfla-
tions being arranged oppofite to one another in four
columns. He alfo added one column, containing the
Hebrew text in L-jebrew letters, and another exhibiting';
it in Greek. In a fecond edition he publiflied two ad-
ditional Greek verfions; one of which was found at Ni-
copohs, and the other at Jericho: this was called the
Hexapla By comparing fo many tranflations, Origen =
endeavoured to form a corre6t copy of the Scriptures.
Where thej; all agreed, he confidered them right. The
pafl'ages which he found in the LXX, but not in the
Hebrew text, he marked with an obehfk ;■ what he
found in the Hebrew, but not in the LXX, he marked
with an afteriflc St Jerome fays, that the additions
which Origen mad« to the LXX, and marked with aa^
afterifk, were taken "rom Tiieodotion. From this valu-
able work of Origen the verfion of the LXX waS'
tranicribcd in a ie^jarate volume,, with the afteriflts andi
obcli|k»^
SEP
[ 285 1
^$«pt«aglnt*6beliflca for the ufe of the churchea ; and from this c'r-
" cumftance the great work itfelf was neglected and loft.
About the year 300 two new editions of the LXX
werepubHihed'; the oneby Hefychius an Egyptian bifhop,
and the other by Lucian a prefbyter of Autioch. But
as thefe authors did not mark with any note of diftinc-
tion the alterations which they had made, their edition
does not poflefs the advantages of Oiigen's.
The bell editioa of the LXX is that of Dr Grabe,
which was publifhed in the beginning of the prefent
centuiy. He had accefs to two MSS, nearly of equal
antiquity, the one foimd in the Vatican library at
Rome, the other in the Royal library at St James's,
which was prefented to Charles 1. by Cyril, patriarch of
Alexandria, and hence is commonly called the Alexan-
drine MS. Anxious to difcover which of thefe was
accordino^ to the edition of Origen, Dr Grabe colledcd
the fragments of the Hexapla, and found tliey agreed
with the Alexandrian MS. but not with the Vatican
where it differed with the other. Hence he concluded
lhat the Alexandrine MS. was taken from the edition of
Origen. By comparing the quotations from fcripture
in the works of Athanafuis and St Cyril (who were pa-
triarchs of Alexandria at the time St Jerome fays He-
Tychlus's edition of the LXX was there ufed) with the
Vatican MS. he found they agreed fo well that he juit-
ly inferred that that MS. was taken from the edition of
Hefychius.
This verfion was in ufe to the time of our blefled
Saviour, and is that out of which moft of the citations
in the New Tcftament, from the Old, are taken. It
was alfo the ordinary and canonical tranflation made
ufe of by the Chriilian church in the earlieft ages ;
and it ftill fubfifts in the churches both of the eaft and
weft.
Thofe who defire a more particular account of the
Septuagint tranflations may confult Hody de Bibliorum
Textibusy Prideaux's Connexions, Owen's Inquiry into
the Septuagint Verfion, Blair's Lefturcs on the Canon,
and Michaelis's Introdu&ion to the New Teftament,
laft edition.
Septuagint Chronology^ the chronology which Is
formed from the dates and periods of time mentioned
in the Septuagint tranflation of the Old Teftament. It
reckons 1 noo years more from the creation to Abraham
than the Hebrew bible. Dr Kennicot, in the difTerta-
tion prefixed to his Hebrew bible, has ftiown it to be
very probable that the chronology of the Hebrew fcrip-
tures, fmce the period juft mentioned, was corrupted by
the Jews, between the year-s 175 and 200, and that the
chronology of the Septuagint is more agreeable to
truth. It is a faft, that during the fecond and third
centuries the Hebrew fcripturcs were &lmoft entirely
in the hands of the Jews, while the Septuagint was con-
fined to the Chriftians. The Jews had therefore a
very favourable opportunity for this corruption. The
following is the reafon which is given by oriental writers:
It being a ver)- ancient tradition, that the Meffiah was
to come in the fixth chiliad, becaufe he was to come in
the laft days (founded on a myftical application of the
iix days creation), the contrivance was to^Jhorten the age
of the ivorld from about 5500 to 3760,' and thence to
frove that ye/us could not be the MeJJiah. Dr Kennicot
^dds, that fonie Hebrew copies having the larger chro-
S E Q„
nolflgy were extant till the time of Eufebius, and fom«
till the year 700.
SEPTUM, in anatomy, an inclofure or partition ; a
term applied to feveral parts of the body, which ferve to
feparate one part from another ; as, feptum narium, or
partition between the noftrils, &c.
SEPULCHRAL* fomething belonging to fepul-
chres or tombs : thus a fepulchral column is a columa
erefted over a tomb, with an infcription on its fhaft ;
and fepulchral lamps, thofe faid to have been found
burning in the tombs of feveral martyrs and others.
See Lamp.
SEPULCHRE, a tomb or place deftined for the
interment of the dead. This term is chiefly ufed ii^
fpeaking ef the burying-plates of the ancients, thofe of
the moderns being ufually called tombs.
Sepulchres were held facred and inviolable ; and the*
care taken of them has always been held a religious
duty, grounded on the fear of God, and the belief of
the foul's immortality. Thofe who have fearched or
violated them have been thought odious by all na-
tions, and were always feverely punilhed.
7"he Egyptians called fepulchres eternal haufes, in con-
tradiftinilion to their ordinary houfes or palaces, which
they called inns, on account of their fhort ftay in the one
in comparifon of their long abode in the other. See
Tomb.
Regular Canons of St Sepulchre, a religious order,
formerly inftituted at Jerufalem, in honour of the holy'
fepulchre, or the tomb of Jefws Chrift.
Many of thefe canons were brought from the Holy-
Land isto Europe, particularly into France, by Louis
the Younger ; into Poland, by Jaxa, a Polifti gentle-
man ; and into Flanders, by the counts thereof ; many
alfo came into England. This order was, however,
fuppreffed by pope Innocent VIII. who gave its i^eve-
nucs and effefts to that of our Lady of Bethlehem:
which alio becoming extin£t, they were beftowed on
the knights of St John of Jerufalem. But the fup-
prefllon did not take effe£l in Poland, where they ftill
fubfift, as alfo in feveral provinces of Germany. Thefe
canons follow the rule of St Auguiline.
Knights of the Holy Sepulchrs, a military order,
eftabliflied in Paleftinc about the year 1 1 14.
The knights of this or'der in Flanders chofe Phi-
lip II. king of Spain, for their maftcr, in 19,8, and
afterwards his fon ; but the grand-mafter of the order
of Malta prevailed on the laft to refign ; and when
afterwards the duke of Nevers affumed the fame qua-
lity in France, the fame grand-mafter, by his intereft
and credit, procured a like renunciation of him, and
a confirmation of the union of this order to that of
Malta.
SEQUANI, a people anciently forming a part of
Gallia Celtica, but annexed to Bdgica by Auguftus,
feparated Irom the Helvetil by mount Jura, with the
Rhine on the eaft (Strabo), bordering on the iEdui,
and Seguftiano to the fouth, and Lingones to the weft
(Tacitus^. Now Franche Comte.
SEQUESTRATION, in common law, is fet ting
afide the tiring in controverfy from the pofteflion of
both the parties that contend for It. In which fenle
it is either voluntary, as when done by the content of
the parties ; or neceffary, as where it is done by the
Z jiidp.
Se
s E Q_ r =
judge, 6f his own authority, whether the parties will
or not.
Sequestration, in the civil law, is the a6l of the
ordinary, difpofini; of the goods and chattels of one
deceafed, whofc eftate no man will meddle with.
A widow is alfo faid to fequefter, when fhe difclaims
having any thing to do with the eftate of her deceafed
hufband.
Among the Romanifts, in queftions of marriage,
where the wife complains of impotency in the hufband,
fhe is to be fequeftered into a convent, or into the hands
of matrons, till the procefs be determined.
Sequestration is alfo ufed for the ad of gathering
the fruits of a benefice void, to the ufe of the next in-
cumbent.
Sometimes a benefice is kept under fequellration for
many years, v/hen it is of fo fmall value, that no cler-
gyman tit to ferve the cure will be at the charge of ta-
kin^T It by inftitution ; in which cafe the fequeftration
is committed either to the curate alone, or to the curate
and church-wardens jointly. Sometimes the profits of
a living in controverfy, either by the confent of the par-
ties, or the judge's authority, are fequeftered and pla-
ced for fafety in a third hand, till the fuit is determi
ned, a minitter being appointed by the judge to ferve
the cui-e, and allowed a certain falaiy out of the pro-
fits. Sometimes the profits of a living are fequeftered
for negleC\ of duty, for dilapidations, or for fatisfying
the debts of the incumbent.
Sequestration, in chancery, is a coramifTion ufu-
?Jly direfted to feven perfons therein named, empower-
ing them to feize the defendant's pcrfonal eftate, and
the profits of his real, and to detain them, fubjedl to
the order of the court. It iffues on the return of the
ferieant at arms, wlierein it is certified, that the defend-
ant had fecreted hlmfelf.
Sequeftrations were firft introduced by Sir Nicholas
Bacon, lord keeper in the reign of Qiieen Elizabeth ;
before which the court found fomc difficulty in enfor-
cing its procefs and decrees ; and they do not feem to be
in the nature of procefs to bring in the defendant, but
only intended to enforce the performance of the court's
decree.
A fequeftration is alfo made, in London, upon an
a£lion of debt ; the courfe ot proceeding in which cafe
is this : The aftion being entered, the officer goes to
the defendant's (hop or warehoufe,.when no pcrfon is
there, and takes a padlock, and hangs it on the door,
uttering thefe words : ** I do fequefter this warehoufe,
and the goods and merchandize therein, of the defend-
ant in this adlion, to the ufe of the plaintiff," Sec. after
which he fets on his feal, and makes a return of the fe-
queftration in the compter ; and four days being palfed
after the return made, the plaintiff may, at the next
court, have judgment to open the fliop or warehoufe,
and to have the goods appraifed by two freemen, who
ate to be fworn at the next court held for that comp-
ter ; and then the ferjeant puts his hand to the bill of
appraifement, and the court grants judgment thereon;
but yet the defendant may put in bail before fatisfac-
rion, and by that means diflblve the fequeftration ; and
jJter fatisfaclion, may put in bail to difprove the debt,
/.3 the time of the civil wars, fe^iieftratioii was ufed
87 ] S E R
for a feizing of the eftates of delinquents for the ufe of Sequeftra-
the commonwealth.
Sequestration, in Scots law. See Law, p. 683. scragHo.
SEQUIN, a gold coin, ftruck at Venice, and in fe- ■ „i
veral parts of the Grand Signior's dominions. In Tur-
key it is called dah.iby or piece of gold, and according
to Volney is in value about 6s. 3d. Sterling. It va-
ries, however, confiderably in its value in different coun-
tries. At Venice it is equal to about 9s. 2d. Sterling.
The Venetian fequins are in great requeft in Syria,
from tlie finenefs of their ftandard, and the praftice
they have of employing them for womens trinkets.
The fafiiion of thefe trinkets does not require much art ;
the piece of gold is fimply pierced, in order to fufpend
it by a chain, likewife of gold, which flows upon the
breaft. The more feqm'ns that are attached to this
chain, and the greater the number of thefe chains, the
more is a woman thought to be ornamented. This is
the favourite luxur)', and the emulation of all ranks.
Even the female peaiants, for want of gold, wear
piaftres or fmaller pieces ; but the women of a certain
rank difdain filver ; they will accept of nothing but fe-
quins of Venice, or large Spanifti pieces, and crufadoes.
Some of them wear 200 or 300, as well lying flat, as
ftrun^ one on another, and hung near the forehead, at
the edge of the head-drefs. It is a real load : but they
do not think they can pay too dearly for the fatisfac-
tion of exhibiting this treafure at the public bath, be-
fore a crowd of rivals, to awaken whofe jealoiify confti-
tutes their chief pleafure. 'i'he effedl of this luxury on
commerce, is the withdrawing confiderable fums from
circulation, which remain dead ; befidesj that when any
of thefe pieces return into common ufe, having loft
their weight by being pierced, it becomes neceflary to
weigh them. The pra£fice of weighing money is ge-
neral in Syria, Egypt, and all Turkey. No piece,
however effaced, is refufed there ; the merchant drawd
out his fcales and weighs it, as in the days of Abra-
ham, when he putchafcd his fepulchre. In confider-
able payments, an agent of exchange is fent for, who
counts paras by thoulands, rejefts a great many pieces
of falfe money, and weighs all the fequins, either fepa-
ratcly or together.
SERAGLIO, formed from the Perfian word feraWy
or Turkifti word farm, which fignifies a houfe, and is
commonly ufed to exprefs the houfe or palace of a
prince. In this fenfe it is frequently ufed at Conftan-
tinople ; the houfes of foreign ambaffadors are called fe-
rnglios. But it is commonly ufed by way of eminence
for the palace of the grand fignior at Conftantinople,
where he keeps his court, and where his concubines are
lodged, and where the youth are trained up for the chief
polls of the empire.
It is a triangle about three Italian miles round, whol-
ly within the city, at the end of the promontory Chry-
foceras, now called the Seraglio Point. The buildings
run back to the top of the hill, and from thence are
gardens that reach to the edge of the fea. It Is inclo-
fed with a very high and ftrong wall, upon which there
are fevcral watch towers : and it has many gates, fome
of which open towards the fea-fide, and the reft into the
city ; but the chief gate is one of the latter, which is •
conftantly guarded by a company of capoochees, or
porters ; and in the night it is w^-ll guarded towards
the
SEE f
teMgllo, f outward appearance Is not very b?auti.
' "' ful, the architedlure being irregular, coniifting of iepa-
rate edifices In the form of pavilions and doT.es.
The ladies of the feraglio are a colleftion of beauti-
ful young women, chiefly fent as prefents from the pro.
\inces and the Greek iflands, moft of them the children
of Chrlftlan parents The brave prince HeracHus hath
for fome years paft abolifhed the infamous tribute of chil-
dren of both fexes, which Georgia formerly paid every
year to the Porte. The number of women in the harem
<iepend8 on the tafte of the reigniner monarch or fultan.
Sellm had 2000, Achmet had but 300, and the late
fultan had nearly i6oo. On their admiflion they are
committed to the care of old ladies, taught fewing and
embroidery, mufic, dancing, and other accomplifhments,
and furnifhed with the richeft clothes and ornaments.
They all fleep in feparate beds, and between every
iifth there is a prectptrefs. Their chief governefs is
called Katon Kiaga^ or governefs of the noble young
ladles. There is not one fervant among them, for they
are obliged to wait on one another by rotation ; the
lafl that is entered ferves her who preceded her and her-
felf. Thefe ladies are fcarcely ever fuffered to go a-
broad, except when the grand figuior removes from
one place to another, when a troop of black eunuchs
conveys them to the boats, which are inclofed with lat-
tices and linen curtains ; and when they go by land
they are put into clofe chariots, and fignals are made
^t certain diftances, to give notice that none approach
the roads through which they march. The boats of
the harem, which carry the giand fignior's wives, are
manned with 24 rowers, and have white covered tilts,
fhut alternately by Venetian blinds. Among the em-
peror's attendants are a number of mutes, who aft and
converfe by figns with great qulcknefs, and fome
dwarfs, who are exhibited for the diverfxon of his ma-
jefty.
When he permits the women to walk m the gardens
of the feraglio, all people are ordered to retire, and on
every fide there is a guard of black eunuchs, with fa-
jjres in their hands, while others go their rounds in
order to hinder any perfon from feeing them. If, un-
fortunately, any one is found in the garden, even thro*
ignorance or inadvertence, he is undoubtedly killed,
and his head brought to the feet of the grand fignior,
who gives a great reward to the guard for their visi^i.
lance. Sometimes the grand fignior pafles into the
gardens to amufe himfelf when the women are there j
and it is then that they make ufe of their utmoft efforts,
by dancing, tinging, feducing geftures, and amorous blan-
difhments, to enfnare the affedlions of the monarch. It
is not permitted that the monarch fhould take a virgin
to his bed, except duringf the folemn feftivals, and on
occafion of fome extraordinaiy rejoicings, or the arrival
of fome good news. Upon luch occafions, if the ful.
tan choofes a new companion to his bed, he enters into
the apartment of the women, who arc ranged in files
by the governeffes, to whom he fpeaks and intimates
the perfon he likes beft: : the ceremony of the handker-
chief, which the grand fi.^nior is faid to throw to the
girl that he elcfts, is an idle tale, without any founda-
tion. As foon as the grand fi jnior has chofen the girl
that he has deftined to be the partner of his bed, all the
others follow her to the bath, wafhing and perfuming
fccr, aad drcfling her fuperbly, conducting her lingin^,
8 ] S E R
dancing, and rejoicing, to the bed^chainber of ik^ S("
grand fignior, who is generally, on fuch an occafion, al-
ready in bed. Scarcely has the new-eledted favourite
entered the chamber, introduced by the grand eunuch
who is upon guard, than fhe kneels down, and when
the fultan calls her, fhe creeps into bed to him at the
foot of the bed, if the fultan does not order her, by
efpecial grace, to approach by the fide : after a certain
time, upon a fignal given by the fultan, the governefs
of thfe girls, with all her fuite, enter the apart:, lent, and
take her back again, condufting her with the fame ce-
remony to the woraens apartments ; and if by good
fortune fhe becomes pregnant, and is deliveved of a boy,
file is c iUed afaki fuhanefs, that is to fay, fultanefs-mo-
ther ; for the firfl fon fhe has the honour to be crown-
ed, and fhe has the hberty of forming her c )urt.
Eunuchs are alfo aflirrned for her guard, and for her
particular fervice. No other ladies, thou^^h delivered
of boys, are either crowned or maintained with fuch
coftly diflindtion as the firil ; however, they have
their fervice apart, and handfome appointments. Af-
ter the death of the iultan, the mothers of the male
children are fhut up in the old feraglio, from whence
they can never come out any more, unlefs any of
their fons afcend the throne. Baron de Tott in-
forms us, that the female fl vve who becomes the mo-
ther of a fultan, and lives long enough to fee her fon
mount the throne, is the only woman who at that period
alone acquires the diftinftion of fuhana-moth-r ; fhe is
till then in the interior of her prifon with her fon. The
title of bache kadunj principal woman, is the fii ll digni-
ty of the grand fignior's harem ; and fhe hath a larger
allowance than thole who have the title of fecond, third,
and fourth woman, which are the four free women the
Koian allows.
This is a defcription of the grand fignior's feraglio :
we fhall now add an account of the feraglio or harem^
as it is often called, of the emperor of Morocco, from
the very interefting tour of Mr Lempriere. This gen-
tleman being a furgeon by profeffion, was admitted into
the harem to prefcribe for fome of the ladies who were
indifpofed, and was therefore enabled to give a pai ticu-
lar account of this female prifon, and, what is ftill more
curious, of the manners and behaviour of its inhabi-
tants.
The harem forms a part of the palace. The apart-
ments, which are all on the ground Hoor, are fquare,
very lofty, and four of them inclofe a fpacious fquarc
court, into which they open by means of large folding
doors. In the centre of thefe courts, which are floor-
ed with blue and white checquered tiling, is a foun-
tain, fupplied by pipes from a large refcrvoir on the
outfide of the palace, which ferves for the frequent ab-
lutions recommended by the Mahometan religion, as
well as for other purpofes. The whole the harena
confifts of about twelve of thefe fquare courts, commu-
nicating with each other by narrow paffages, which af-
ford a *ree accefs from one part of it to another, and
of which all the women are allowed to avail thcmlelves.
The apartments are ornamented on the outfide with
beautiful carved wood. In the infide moll of the
rooms arc hung with rich damafk of various colpu' s ;
the floors are covered with beautiful carpeti, and there
are matreffes difpofed at different dittaneea, for the pur-
pofes of fitting and keeping.
X Befidet
S E R r 23
Bcfides thefc, the apartments are furnSfhed at each
extremity with an elegant European mahogany bed-
ftead, hung with damalti, havnig on it feveral matrefles
placed one over the other, wlfich are covered with va-
rious coloured filks ; but thefe beds are merely placed
there to ornament the room. In all the apartments,
without exception, the ceiling is wood, carved and
painted. The J)rincipal ornaments In fome were large
and valuable looking-glaffes, hung on different parts of
the walls. In others, clocks and watches of different
iizes, in glafs cafes, were difpoled in the fame manner.
The fultana Lalla Batoom and another favourite
were indulged with a whole fquare to themfelves ; but
the concubines were only each allowed a fingle room.
Each female had a feparate daily allowance from the
emperor, proportioned to the eftimation in which they
were held by him. Tlie late emperor's allowance was
very trlHing : Lalla Douyaw, the favourite fultana, had
very little more than half-a-crown Engllfh a-day, and
the others lefs in proportion. It muft be allowed, that
the emperor made them occafional prefents of money,
drefs, and trinkets ; but this could never be fufficient
to fupport the number of domeftics and other expences
they mull incur. Their greateft dependence therefore
was on the prefents they received from thofe Europeans
and Moors who vlfited the court, and who employed
their influence in obtaining fome particular favour from
the emperor. This was the mofl fuccefsful mode that
could be adopted. When Mr Lempriere was at Mo-
rocco, a Jew, deftrous of obtaining a very advantage-
ous favour from the emperor, for which he had been a
long time unfuccefsfully foliciting, feat to all the prin-
cipal ladles of the harem prefents of pearls to a very
large amount ; the confequence was, that they all went
in a body to the emperor, and immediately obtained
the wifhed-for conceffion.
The ladies feparately furnifh their own rooms, hire
their own domeftics, and, in faft, do what they pleafe
in the harem, but are not permitted to go out without
an exprcfs order from the emperor, who very feldom
grants them that favour, except when they are to be re-
moved from one palace to another. In that cafe, a
party of foldiers is difpatched a little diftance befoie
them, to difperfe the male paffengers in particular, and
to prevent the poflibllity of their being feen. I'his
previous ilep being taken, a piece of linen cloth is tied
round the lower part of the face, and afterwards thefe
miferable females cover themfelves entirely with their
haicks, and either mount mules, which they ride like
tnen, or, what is more ufual, are put into a fquare car-
riage or litter, conftrufted for this purpofe, which by
its lattice-work allows them to fee without being feen.
In this manner they fetoff, under the charge of a guard
of Hack eunuchs. This journey, and fgmetime« a walk
within the bounds of the palace, with which they are,
however, feldom indulged, is the only exerclfe they are
permitted to take.
The late emperor's harem confifled of between 60
and 100 females, befides their domeftics and flaves,
which were very numerous. Many of the concubines
were Moorlfh women, who had been prefented to the
emperor, as the Moors confider it an honour to have
their daughters In the harem ; feveral were European
flaves, who had either been made captives, or pui'cha-
^ed by the emperor ; and fome were Negroes.
VoL.XVn. Part i.
9 } S E R
In this group the Europeans, or their defcendatita, Se
had by far the greateft claim to the charafter of hand- —
fome. There was one in particular, who was a native
of Spain, and taken into the harem at about the fame
age as Lalla Douyaw, who was indeed a perfeft beau-
ty. Nor was this lady quite fingular in that refped,
for many others were almofl equally hatldfome.
The eunuchs, wlio haVe the entire charge of the
women, and who In fad live always among them, are
the children of Negro flaves. l^ey are generally ei-
ther very fliort and fat, or elfe tall, deformed, and lame.
Their voices have that particular tone which is obfer--
vable in youths who are juft arriving at manhood ; and
their perfons altogether afford a difgufting image of
weaknefs and effeminacy.
The fame gentleman gives us a very curious account
of the manners and ignorance of tliefe Immured females,
from his own obfcrvation, when vifiting the prince's ha*-
rem. Attended by an eunuch (fays he), after pafling
the gate of the harem, which is always locked, and un-
der the care of a guard of eunuchs, we entered a nar*
row and dark paflage, which foon brought us to the
court, into which the womens chambers open. We
here faw numbers of both black and white women and
children ; fome concubines, fome (laves, and others hired
domeftics.
" Upon their obferving the unufual figure of an Eu-
ropean, the whole multitude in a body furrounded me,
and expreffed the utmoft aftonifhment at my drefs and
appearance. Some flood motlonlefs, with their hands
lifted up, their eyes fixed, and their mouths open, in
the ufual attitude of wonder and furprife. Some burft
into immoderate fits of laughter ; while others ajrain
came up, and with uncommon attention eyed me from
head to foot. The parts of my drefs which feemed
raoft to attraft their notice were my buckles, buttons,
and ftockings ; for neither men nor women in this coun-
try wear any thing of the kind. With refped to the
club of my hair, they feemed utterly at a lofs in what
view to confider it ; but the powder which I wore they
conceived to be employed for the purpofe of deftroy-
Ing vermin. Mofl of the children, when they faw me,
ran away in the moft perfeft confternation ; and on the
whole, I appeared as fingular an animal, and I dare fay
had the honour of exciting as much curlofity and at-
tention, as a lion or a man-tiger juil imported from
abroad, and introduced into a country town in England
on a market-day. Every time I vlfited the harem, I
was furrounded and laughed at by this curious mob,
who, on my entering the gate, followed me clofe to the
very chamber to which i was proceeding, and on my
return univerfally efcorted ine out.
** The greateft part of the women were uncommonly
fat and unwieldy ; had black and full eyes, round faces,
with fmall nofes. 'I'hey were of different complexions;
fome very fair, fome fallow, and ^oLliers again perfect
Negroes.
" One of my new patients being ready to receive me,
I was defired to walk into her roo.-n ; where, to my
great furprife, I faw nothing but a curtain drawn quite
acrofs the apartment, fimilar to that of a theatre which
feparates the flage from the audience. A female do-
mellic brought a very low ftool, placed it near the cur-
tain, and told me I was to fit down there, and feel her
miflrefs's j)ulfe.
O G « 'I hc
S E R [ 2(
ftcragllo." it The lady, who had by this time fummoncd up^coiu
'"•"■"Y—^ rage to fpeak, introduced her hand from the bottom of
the curtain, and defired me to inform hev of all her com-
plaints, which (he conceived I might perfedly do by
merely feeling the pulfe. It was in vain to afl< her
where her pain was feated, whether in her ftomach,
head, or back } the only anfwer I could procure was a
requeft to feel the pulfe of the other hand, and then
point out the feat of the difeafe, and the nature of the
pain. . . .
»' Having neither fatisfied my curlofity by exhibiting
her face, nor made me acquainted with the nature of
her complaint, I was under the neceffity of informing
her in pofitive terms, that to underftand the difeafe, it
was abfolutely neceffary to fee the tongue as well as_ to
feel the pulfe ; and that without it I tfould do nothing
for her. My eloquence, or rather that of my Jewifh inter-
preter, was, hQWever, for a long time exerted in vain ;
And I am perfuaded fhe would have difmifled me vi^ithout
any further inquiry, had not her invention fupplied her
with a happy expedient to remove her embarraffment.
She contrived at laft to cut a hole through the curtain,
through which fhe extruded her tongue, and thus com-
plied with my injun£lion as far as it was neceffary in a
medical view, but moft tffcdually difappointed my cu-
riofity.
'< I was afterwards ordered to looli at another of the
prince's Wives, who was afftfted with a fcrophulous
fwelling in her neck. This lady was, in the fame man-
ner as the other, at firft excluded from my fight ; but
as (he was obliged to fhow me her complaint, I had an
opportunity of feting her face, and obferved it to be
very handfome."
It is curious to obferve the ftrange and childifh no-
tions of perfons who have been totally fecluded from
the world. All the ladies of the harem expefted that
our author fhould have inftantly difcovered their com-
plaints upon -feeling the pulfe, and that he could cure
every difeafe initantaneoufly . He found them proud
and vain of their perfons, and extremely ignorant. A-
mong many ridiculous queftions, they alked my inter-
preter (fays Mr Lemprlere) if I could read and write ;
upon being anfwered in the affirmative, they cxprefled
the utmoil furprife and admiration at the abihtles
of the Chrlftians. There was not one among them who
r.ould do either ; thefe rudiments of learning are indeed
only the lot of a few of their men, who on that ac-
count are named T iilbs, or explainers of the Mahome-
tan law."
It is melancholy to refle£l on the fztuation of thefe
unfortunate women. Being confidercd as the mere in-
llruments of pleafure, no attention is paid to the im-
provement of their minds. They have no employment
to occupy their- time. Their needle- work is performed
by jewclfes ; theirfood is dreffed, and their chambers
taken care of, by flaves and doraeilics. They have no
amufement but a rude and ku-barous kind of melan-
choly mufic, without melody, variety, or taile ; and
conveifatlon with one another, which muft indeed be
■very confinecl, imiform, and inanimate, as they never
fee a new object. Excluded from the enjoyment of
irefh air and exercife, fo neceffary for the lupport of
health and life ; deprived of all fociety but th?,t of their
fellow fuf^'erers, a fociety to which mofl of them would
prefer folitude itfeli ; they are only to be confidercd as
10 ] S R
the mod abjeA of flaves— flaves to the vices and ca-
price of a licentious tyrant, who exadls even from his
wives themfelves a degree of fubmifTion and refped
which borders upon idolatry, and which God and na.
ture never meant fliould be paid to a mortal.
SERAI, a building on the high-road, or in large ci-
ties in India, ereded for the accommodation of travel-
lers.
SERAPH, or Seraphim, a fpirit of the highefi
rank in the hierarchy of angels; who are thus called
from their being fuppofed to be mofl inflamed with di-
vine love, by their nearer and more immediate atteif-
dance at the throne of God, and to communicate their •
fervour to the remoter and inferior orders. See An-
gel.
SERAPHIC, burning or inflamed with love or zealj .
like a feraphim : thus St Bonaventure is called the /«"
raphic dollar, from his abundant zeal and fervour.
SERAPJAS, in botany : A genui of plants belong-
ing to the order of diandria, and to the clafs of gynan-
dria ; and in the natural fyflem arranged under the 7 th
drder, Orchtde^e, The neftariura is egg-fhaped and gib-
bous, with an egg-fhaped lip.. The fpecics, according
to Linnseus, ar<: ten. I. Lati folia ; 2. Longifolia 5
3, Grandiflora, or enfiFolia ; 4. Lancifolia j 5. Rubra |
6. Lingua ; 7. Cordigera ; 8. Capenfis ; 9. Ere6b j
10. Falcata. The three firft are natives of Britain,
I . The Latifoliay or broad-leaved helleborine, is di-
flingulfhed by fibrous bulbs, by ovate ftem-clafping •
leaves, and pendulous flowers. The flalk is crcft,
about a cubit high, and furnlfhed with fix or eight-
nervous oval leaves ; the fpike is about fix inches long ;
the three upper petals are of a green colour, and of an oval
acute form ; the lateral ones are a little flaorter, and of
a white colour, with a little tinge of green. 2. The
Palnjlrts, or marfh helleborine, grows In rough boggy?
paftures and marfhes, and flowers in July. It is diftin-
gnlfhtd by fibrous bulbs, fword-fhaped fefhle leaves,
pendulous flowers ; and the lip of the nedtarium is ob-
tufe, fomewhat ferrated, and longer than the petals.
The flowers grow to the number of 15 or 70 in a loofe-
fplke. The three exterior petals are green mixed with
red ; the kteral ones are white with a red blufh ; and
the nedarium is marked with, red lines and yellow tu-.
berculous fpots. 3. The Grandiflora^ or white-flov^fercd
helleborine, grows in woods, and flowers in June. Its
charafteriflics are, fibrous bulbs, fvi^ord-fhaped leaves,
ered flowers; and the lip of the neftarium is obtufe and
fliorter than the petals. The flowers are large and ere£l,
and confifllng of fix or eight in a thin fpike ; the petals
are all white, and connive together ; the lip of the
ne£tarium is inclofed within the petals, is white and
ftreakcd with three yellow prominent lines.
SERAPION, a phyfician of Alexandria. He and
Phlllnus of" the Ifle of Cos were both fcholars of Hero-
phi lus, and were founders of the empiric fed ; which
happened about 287 B. C.
SERA PIS, in mythology, an Egyptian deity, who
was worfiilpped under various names and attributes, aa
the tutelary god of Egypt In general, and as the patron
of feveral of their principal cities. Tacitus informs us,
that he was wovfhipped as a kind of unlverfal deity that
reprefented Efculaplus, Ofiris, Jupiter, and Pluto ; and
he was fometimes taken for Jupiter Ammon, the Sun,
and Neptune : and the honours that were rendered to
bim
r
8 E R C
him ^1 AlfH^ndpia weremor? fplgmn M CJJtiwfery
than thpfe qF any other plage. .
pUitarch an4 Clemens of Alexandria, u well as Ta»
j.citus*, inform us, that while the firft Ptolemy was em»
!v ployed in fortifyiner Alexandria with walls, adorning it
^'A'- 'vvith temples 8,nd (lately buildings, there appeared to
him in his fieep a youn;^ man of extraordinary beauty,
of a flature moK than human, adrnonirhing hiin to dif-
patch into Pontus fome of his moft truftj fnenda to
bring from thence his ftatue s he aiTured him, that the
pity and ifingdom which poflfeffed it fhould prove
happy, glorious, and powerfu'. The yoimg xnm ha,'
ving thu5j fpoke, difappeared, mounting i;p into heaven
in a blaze of fire,
Ptolemy difcovered hia vifion to the priefts i but find'
ing them ignorant of Pontus, he had recourfe to an A-
-thenian, who informed him that near Sinope, a city of
Pontug, there was a temple much reforted to by the
natives, which was confecrated to Pluto, where he had
ftatue, near which ilood that of a woman. Ptokmyi
negieding the injunctions of the apparition, it apm
fippcEired to him in a menacing attitude | and the king
immediately difpatched ambatTadora to the Serapian
monarch, loaded with prefents. The king of Sinope
CQufentsd 5 but his fubjed? oppofed the removal of tbe
i|.atue» The god, however, of his own accord, aa we
are informed, conveyed himfelf to the ambaifad^ov's fhipj
and in thxxe; days landed in Alexandria, The ilatue of
Berapia was ercfted in one of the fuburbs of the city,
jiYhsre a magnificent temple was afterwards reared.
The ftatue of Scrapie, according to Macrobiua, was
of a human iorm, with a bafltet or bufhd on hia head,
fiffnifying plenty 5 his right hand leaned on the head
oi^a ferpent, whofe body was wound round a figure
.with three h^ads, of a dog, a lion, and a wolf } in hia
left hand he held a meafure of a cubit length, aa it were
to take the height of the waters of the Nile. The figure
of St'rapis h found on many ancient medab,
The famous temple of Serapig at Alexandria wai
deftroyed by order of Theodofms } and the celebrated
Ustue of this deity was broken in pieces, and its limbs
carried firft in triumph by the Chriftians through the
city, and then thrown into ft fierce fire-, kindled for that
purpofe in the amphitheatre. A§ the Egvptiana afcri^
Jbed the overflowing of the Nile, to which was owing^
the fertility of their country, to the benign influence of
their god Serapis, they concluded, that now he was
^eftroyed, the river would no longer overflow, md th-^t
a general famine would enfne } but when they obferved,
on the contrary, that the Nile fwelled to a greater
height than had been known in the memory of man,
iind thereby produced an immenfe plenty of all kinds
©f provifionB, many of the pagans renouncing the wor^
(hip of idols, adored the God of the Chriftians.
SERENA GUTTA, the fame as amaurc/tu See Me-
BiciNF, 360. ^ . , . ,
SERENADE, a kind of concert given in the night
ty a lover to bis miftrcfa, under her window. Thefe
fometimes' only confift of inftrumental mufic, but at
other times voices are added ; the mufic and fongs com'
pofed for thefe occafions are ^Xio oMidferenodes,
SERENE, a title of honour given to fevej al princes
end to the principal magiflirates of republics. The king
of Britain, the republic and doge of Venice, and the
4;hildr€n of the king of Spain, are called moji Jmm i
)i 3 S E R.
an4 when the ^ops or the facrcd college write to the
emperor, to kings, or to the doge, they give them no ^^^^
other title, In like manner, the emperor gives no other
title to any king, except to the king of France,
SERENU3 (Samrrionicua), a celebrated phyficiau
Jn the reigna of the emperor Severua and Caracalla, xs\
and about the year aoo. Pie wrote feveral treatifea on
hiftory and the works of nature 5 but there ia only one
of them extant, which is a very indilFerent poera^on the
Remedies of Difeafea, He waa murdered at a feftival
by the order of Caracalla, He had a library that con-
tained 63,000 volumes, which Quintua Serenua Sam»
monicus hia fon gave to Gordian the Younger, to whom
he v/as preceptor.
SERES (Ptolemy) \ a people of the Farther Afia j
bounded on the weft by Scytbia extra Imaum 5 on th«
north and eaft, by Terra Incognita \ and on the fouth,
by India extra Gangem. According to thefe hmtts,
their country anfwera nearlv to Cathoy or North China.
Other authors vary greatly in placing them, though
the generality agree in placing them far to the eaft.
Mela places mem between the Indi and Scythje 5 and
perhaps beyond the Indi, if we diftinguiih the_ Sinw
from them. The ancienta commend them for their cot-
ton manufaaures, different from the produce of the
bombyees or filk-worma, called fms by the Greeks 1
whence ferka <* fdk."
SERGE,- a woollen cjuilted fluffy manufaaured on a
loom with four treddles, after the manner of rateens,
and other fluffs that have the whale. The goodnefs of
ferges ii known by the quilting, aa that of cloths by
the fpinning. Qf ferges there are various kinds, deno«
minated either from the different qualities thereof, or
from the placea where they are wrought. The moft
confiderable ia the London fcrge, now highly vedued
abroad, particularly in France, where a manufadure \%
carried on with confiderable fuccefa, under the title of
ferge facon de hondres,
' The method of making the London ferge wc fhaU
now defcribe ; For wool, the longeft is chofen for the
warp, and the fhortefl for the woof; Before either kind
is ufed, it is firft. fcoured, by putting it in a -copper of
liquor, fomewhat more than lukewarm, compoled of
three parta of fair water and one of urine. ^ After
having flayed long enough therein for the liquor to
difTolve, and take off the greafe, Ice it is flirred brifldy
about with a wooden peel ; taken out of the liquor,
drained, and wafhed in a running v/ater, dried in the
fhade, beaten with flicks on a wooden rack to drive
out the coarfer dufl and filth, and then picked clean
with the handa. Thus far prepared, it is greafed with
oil of olives, and the longefl part, deflined for the waip,
18 combed with large combs, heated in a little furnace
for the purpofe. To clear off the oil again, the wool
is put in a hquor compofed of hot water, with foap
melted tlrerein .1 whence being taken out, wrung, and
dried, it is fpun on the wheel-
As to the Ihorter wool, intended for the woof, it
is only carded an the knee with fmall cards, and then
fpun on the wheel, without being fcoured ef its oil.
It muil be remarked, that the thread for the warp ia al-
ways to be fpun much finer, and better twiiled than
that of the <vQof, The wool both for the warp and
the woof being fpun, and the thread divided into mains,
that of the woof is put on Ipools (unkfa it have been
0 o a fp«a
S E R C 29
^5ergc, fpun upon them) fit for the cavity or eye of the ihuttle;
^^^'"S^^^' and that for the warp is wound on a kind of wooden
* bobbins to fit it for warping. When warped, it is ftiff-
cned with a kind of fize, whereof that made of the
fhreds of parchment is held the bell j apd when dry is
put on tlie loom.
When mounted on the loom, the workman raifing
and lowering the threads (which are p.iffed through a
reed), by means of four treddles placed underneath the
loom, which he makes to adl tranfverfely, equally, and
alternately, one after another, with his feet, in propor-
tion as the threads are raifed and lowered, throws the
fhuttle acrofs from one fide to the other ; and each
time that the ff.uttle is thrown, and the thread of the
woof is crofied between thofe of the warp, ftrikes it
with the frame to which the reed is faftened, through
thofe teeth the threads of the warp pafs ; and this
ftroke he repeats twice or thrice, or even more, till he
judges the croffing of the ferge fufKciently clofe : thus
he proceeds till the warp is all filled with woof.
The ferge now taken off the loom is carried to the
fuller, who fcours it in the trough of his mill with a
kind of fat earth, called fuller^ s earth, firft purged of all
Hones and filth. After three or four hours fcouring,
the fuller's earth is wafhed out in fair water, brought by
little and little into the trough, out of which it is taken
when all the earth is cleared ; then, with a kind of iron
pincers or plyers, they pull off all the knots, ends,
flraws, &c. {ticking out on the furface on either fide ;
and then returning it into the fulling trough, where it
is worked with water fomewhat more than lukewarm,
with foap difiblved therein for near two hours : it is
then wafhed out till fuch time as the water becomes
quite clear, and there be no figns of foap left ; then it
is taken out of the trough, the knots, &c. again pulled
off, and then put on the tenter to dry, taking care as
fail as it dries to ftretch it out both in length and
breadth till it be brought to its jufl diraenfions. When
well dried, it is taken off the tenter, and dyed, fiiorn,
and prefied.
SERGEANT, or Serjeant at Laiv, or of the Coif,
is the higheft degree taken at the common law, as
that of Doftor is of the civil law ; and as thefe are
fuppofed to be the moft learned and experienced in the
practice of the courts, there is one court appointed for
them to plead in by themfelves, which is the common
pleas, where the common law of England is mod ftrift-
ly obferved : but they are not reftrifted from pleadino-
in any other court, where the judges, who cannot have
that honour till they have taken the degree of fcrjeant
at law, call them broihers.
Sf.KGE4N'r at Arms, or Mace, an officer appointed to
attend the perfen of the king ; to arreft traitors, and
fuch perfpns of quality as offend ; and to attend the lord
high fteward, when fitting in judgment on a traitor.
Of thefe, by ftatute 13 Rich. II. cap. 6. there are
not to be above 30 in the realm. There are now nine
at court at L. 100 per annum falary each ; they are
called the kitig^s Jergeants at arms, to diflinguifh them
from others : they are created with great ceremony,
the perfon kneeling before the king, his majefty lays the
mace on his right flioulder, and fays, Rife up, fergeantat
arms, and efquire for ever. They have, befides, a pa-
tent for the office, which they hold for life.
They have their attendance in the prcfence-chamber,
Serg
2 ] S E R
where the band of gentlemen-penfioners wait ; and, re
ceiving the king at the door, they carry the maces be
fore him to the chapel door, whilft the band of penfion-
ers ftand foremofl, and make a lane for the king, as
they alfo do when the king goes to the houfe of lords.
There are four other fergeants at arms, created in the
fame manner ; one, who attends the lord chancellor ; a
fecond, the lord treafurer ; a third, the fpeaker of the
houfe of commons ; and a fourth, the lord mayor of
London on folemn occafions.
They have a confiderable fhare of the fees of honour,
and travelling charges allowed them when in waiting,
vi%. five fhilhngs per day when the court is within ten
miles of London, and ten (hillings when twenty miles
from London. The places are in the lord chamberlain'3
gift.^
There are alfo fergeants of the mace of an inferior
kind, who attend the mayor or other head officer of a
corporation.
Common Sergkant, an officer in the city of London,
who attends the lord, mayor and court of aldermen on
court days, and is in council with them on all occafions,
within and without the precinfts or liberties of the city.
He is to take care of orphans cftates, eithtr by taking
account of them, or to fign their indentures, before their
pairing the lord mayor and court of aldermen : and he
was likewife to let and manage the orphans eftates, ac-
cording to his judgment to their beft advantage. See
Recorder.
Sergeant, in war, is an uncommiffioned officer in a
company of foot or troop of dragoons, armed with an
halbert, and appointed to fee difciphne obfeived, to
teach the foldiers the exercife of their arms, to order,,
ftraiten, and form their ranks, files, &c. He receives
the orders from the adjutant, which he communicates
to his officers. Each company generally has two fer-
geants.
SERGEANTY (Serjeantia), fignifies, in law, afer-
vice that cannot be due by a tenant to any lord but the
king ; and this is either ^ranJ fergeanty, or pttit. The
firft is a tenure by which the one holds his lands of the
king by fuch fervices as he ought to do in perfon to the
king at his coronation ; and may alfo concern matters
militar)', or fervices of honour in peace ; as to be the
king's butler, carver. Sec. Petit fergeanty is where a
man holds lands of the king to furnifh him yearly with
fome fmall thing towards his wars ; and in effeft pay-
able as rent. Though all tenures are turned into foccage
by the 12 Car. II. cap. 24. yet the honorary fervices of
grand fergeanty ftill remain, being therein excepted. See
I gut- Service.
SERIES, in general, denotes a continual fucceffion
of things in the fame order, and having the fame rela-
tion or connexion with each other : in this fenfe we
fay, a feries of emperors, kings, bilhops, &c.
In natural hiftory, a feries is ufed for an order or fub-
divifion of fome clafs of natural bodies ; comprehending
all fuch as are diftinguifhed from the other bodies of
that clafs, by certain charaders which they poffefs in
common, and which the rett of the bodies of that caft
have not.
Series, in arithmetic and algebra, a rank or num-
ber of terms in fucceffion, increafing or diminifhing in
fome certain ratio or proportion. There are feveral vgrioil
kinds, of feries ; as ariibmeiica/, geomeH-'icali infnite, &c. kinds
3 The
Seii
efe-
S E R t 2
The two firft of thefe are, however, more generally
known or diftinguilhed by the names of arithmetical and
geometrical progrefton. Thefe feriefes have already been
explained and illuftrated in the article Algebra, par-
ticularly the two firft : it therefore only remains, in
this place, to add a little to what haa already beea
done to the lafl: of thefe ; namely,
Infinite Series,
Is formed by dividing the numerater of a fraftion
by its denominator, that denominator being a compound
quantity ; or by extra<5ting the root of a furd.
An infinite feiies is either converging or diverging.
rging A converging feries is that in which the magnitude
'^^ of the feveral terms gradually diminifh ; and a direr-
ging feries is that in which the fuccefiive terras increaCe
in magnitude.
fan The law of an infinite feries is the order in vpWcU
f fe- the terms are obferved to proceed. This law is often
eafily difcovered from a few of the firft terms of the
feries ; and then the feries may be continued as far a«
may be thought necelfary, without any farther divifioii,
t>r evolution.
An infinite feries, as has already been obferved, is
obtained by divifion or evolution ; but as that method
is very tedious, various other methods have been pro-
pofed for performing the fame in a more cafy manner ;
as, by afluming a feries with unknown coefficient*, by
the binomial theorem, &c.
I. 0/ the Method of Series by Divifion and Evolution.
Rule.
of Let the divifion or evolution of the given fraftlon,
tinp which is to be converted into an infinite feries, be per-
i^'nal formed as in Chapters I. and IV. of our article Alge-
'X BRA, and the required feries will be obtained,
n in- ' ^
Examples.
iHon, J
1. Convert the frailion into an infinite feries ?
I —x
1— (i4-x + x'-{.«'-f x% &c.
I — X
93 1 S E R
a y , Seri'esi
2, Let the fraftlon — ; — be converted into «n infi-
I -J-
nite feries I
iJ^x)ay {ay — ayx-\^ay x*-—ayx^'^ay «V&c.
ay-^a y x
—ay X — ay x*
Hence the fraftlon ^11^= i -f .v x^-f x-*, &c.
From infpcAion of the terms of this feries, it appears
that each term is formed by multiplying the preceding
term by x ; and hence it may be continued as far as
may be thought neccflary without continuing the <iivi-
ayx^
ey x^-^-a y .v J
— ay X'
— ay x' — ay
ay
ay x*-\.ay
— ay x^
ay
Hence ^ = <ty y. i — x-{-x^ — oc^ + x*, &c.
and the law of the feries is obvious.
w^ + x'. , ...
Reduce the fraftion — ; — into an infinite feries ?'
m -f- X
2x^ 2x^ 2x*
m4.x)m'+«* (m — x + — — + — j* &c«
m x-i-x^
X X
2.v«
m
Hence
Tn^+x'_
= m—x-\-—x- &:c. and
m-tx m 1 m nr
the law of the feries is evident,
. • /. . '
4. Convert the quantity. ay-^y^ into an infinite
feries ?
' ■''•''1, , ^ a * a 03' '
— 2ay—y
"^Zay-^^y
s
Whence
S E R
C 3
Series,
Whence
a--\-2ay-\-y a a* 4?; '
each term is found by multiplying the precediAg by
- and mcreafing the coefficient by unity.
Andevolu- ^ be converted into an Infinite f?ries.?
94 ] a E R
Let the affumfd f$rieg be ^-^-f B.v + Cj'+JSj'^,
which muUiplied bv -f 2 1 j — e^ivea
'c*==:c' A+t^ Bjv4-f' C/^4-£^Dj'', &e.
— A/ Jky\
Now, by equating the coefficients of the homologous
terms, we have Aj f B 4- 2 c A r::^ 0, C
B — A=o> D-{- 3 ^ C B f, 5 whence A^
+
4«'
X*
)-
"43^ 83*"^ 640'^
5«8
64'fl«+64aa 256^
Hence the fquarc rootof
, ss-^-Yj^c^} whence ,5^-.——
f' ^^H-a-^j-j*
3, Required the fquare root of o*— 'x' ?
Let fl*^^. ^ = A + B C H O x% &c.' which
being i'quared gives
— x' = A^+2 ABx*+B* x*+zADx\ &c,
+ ^AC^c^+2BCx^
Hence A* = fl% zAB + irro, B*+2AC=:<!>,
2 A D + 2 B C = &c. Then A = B = —
rX"" 2a* zA'^^a^* ^ A^ x(5a5*
&c. J whence ^-.^.^^^ ==«--.^-^^^g™~-,'
2a 8a^' J(ja^
I28x
:, &C.
In continuing the operation, thofe terms may be ne-
glefted whofe dimenfions exceed thofe of the laft term
to which the root is to be continued.
Jl. Of the Method of Series by ajfuming a Series with un-
known Coejic'tents.
]By means RuLE. Aflume a feries with unknown coefficients
^faijaffum. to reprefent that required. Let this feries be multiplied
icd ferics; or involved, according to the nature of the queition ;
and the quantities of the fame dimenfion being put
equal to each other, the coefficients will be determined}
and hence the required feries will be known.
EiAMPLSs. I. Let JL_ be converted into an infi-
a-x
nite feries ? Affume -i- = A + Bw + C«» + DxJ +
E**, &c.
Then this affumed feries, multiplied by a — «, gives
1 = <?A +aB;< + flCjc*+flI>«*+<«ExS &c.
— A« — B »(» — C ^ D X*, &c.
Now, by equating the coefficients of the fame powers
,«f X, we have <? A = i, a B — A = 0, a C — B=r«>, a D
— C = o,oE— D=o, &c. HAceA= B =
= i-,C = 5.= i-, D=^=i., £ = £^=1
o* a a a* a 0*'
&c. ; whence, by fubftitution, we have -JL-=r— 4-^
in. Of the Method of reducing a fra^lmal ^antity int§
an Infinite Series by the Binomial Theorem .
As this method has already been illuft rated in thcA.
article Alobbra, we fhall therefore briefly ftatethelft
theoreni, and add a few examples.
Binomial Theorem,
J X X . ~X<? " i?S&c.
n 3 « 3 «
m
I. Let ^
X\ ^ b , m ni'-n 3'
I+-~-X ~+ X—
« an 2n a
.m^tn — n m — 2« b^
H — X - — _x X— !■» &c.
Examples,
ries ? Now __f
J. be converted Into an infinite fe-
(IX— X
~ I =: a X aw — x*l = , X
1' ax\i
X
— a
X
T
X
1— -
a
X
X »-
"a
a-—x a a
n* /j' /iS
• And this laft expreffion, being
compared with the general theorem, gives ^-zz*—^ hiss
a "
— I, «=:2. Hence, by fubftitution, we have
a a
a
2. Convert the quantity - —
ax — x^]'^
^te {cries I
intoan_infi-
•1—2 «*
S E R
SEE
1 2 —I 4 X
2a^8 a'
J^^—rlllrXrVTr = 0.00000008
lO fl» • 128 a'
2. Required the fquare root of a^+x^'t
By comparing this with the general theorem, we
havea = a*, b = x^f m=zl, n=2. Hence, by fubftitu-
X* 1—2
tion, the feries becomes aXi+iX-^ + tX
935.y
iT=TfH7XrTTr = 0.0000000 1
Sum of the pofitive terms, 1.05763968
Sum of the negative terms, 0.00331885
Difference^
1.05429083
2X2
^ 2X 2 3 X 2 "
2a
Cube root of 600, rr" 8.43432664-
Ih operations of this kind, the ncareft power to the
X
''^ ■ 5 5jc. And a* — = givennumber, whether greater or lefs than it, is to be ufed,
5 a* 16 a*^ 128 fl^' as by that means the feries will converge more quickly.
^» ^ ' x'^ 5 «^ An infinite feries may be involved to any given involution
~ — — ' ' power, or any propofed root of a given feries may be^"'^ evolu^
Tn order to apply this to numbers, let the fquare extraded by means of the follovnng general theorem. J;;^,?/, f^,
• Iquare rootof 85 z '^X(a-{-l>x + cx^+dx^^ex\Scc.)'"=tz'",,i^,,
root of 85 be required ? Now, the Iq
sz 's/ 81 + 4 » hence az=^g, and = 4
multiplied by
Then i
2a» 2X81
X* 4X4
8V ~ 8X81X81
x'^ 4 X 4 X 4
j67 ~"
16x81X81X81
1. 000000
0.024691
0.000304
0.000007
1.024394
9
9.2i954*5»
m , , m— I , rn — i m — 2
a +mDa x-f-m. .a b
2
■\-m a c
w — I m — 2 m — 3
4- »»
m — 2 , ^ x'
-•2 a V c ;
Square root of 85 =
true except the laft decimal.
3. Required the cube root of a*-f^' ?
This being compared with the general theorem gives
a = x', l>=y\ m - i, « — 3. Ijence a - + <^Mt-= .
m — I m
2 w— 3 4,^1
. a
+ «
3 4
I m — 2 m — 3,,
— - . 3«
3 - 1,^;'?
I m—- 2 S 2b d \
'-K 1!, &c, = X i +JL--^^
6 Six9
, m — 1 m — 2 m — \m — 4 m — 5..
2345
243^
&c. Aad«'-^3|3^,.Xi-^-^-
+ m .
wj — I — 2 m — 3 ^ — 4
b\
Let the cube root of 600 be required ? Now 6ooIt
s^SXH^lf Then j-^ = 88, x'=5i2> =
and n =3>
^ — 3 X5 '2
4a
m- — I m — 2 m — 3
3-
m—\ m — 2 V^ri
+ m . 2<J
' 2
, m— I ^
Tic*
Scd I
I
1 .00000000
3^
512
5/
o 05729166
0.003 28233'
m
234 5
'3*4
5'
2 3 4 5
81 x»
243 X
^54 J '
— , 10 V _ -
0.00031341
0.00003591
O.COOOO453
m — I
m~2
zee
6j6i
— — y-^^-^l'^ = — O.CQOOC060'
fW I
6cc,
J
Now.
S E R I 2g6 J S E R
. .^ow each term of the gltsn ferles is to be compared above theorem ; and by fubftltutlon I'n the fecond, the S(
"^"v with the correfpondent terms in the firft part of the feveral terms of the required feriea will be obtained. ' —
ExAMPXES.
ifl. Whait is the fquare of the ferles^ — •y+J'" — y''-{-8cc. ?
By comparing this with the general theorem, we find z=:y, 0 = 1, 5=0, f = — i, J=o, g.=: i, &c. and
m=2i whence J— /-fy— =/X (i ~ 2a«* + c*x* — 2ccx«N, &c. =yx(x— 2 f-^Sy'—^f),
kc. = jf* — 2y * + 3/ — 4>8, &c.
2d. Required the fourth power of the ferles I -f"*+«;*+«3, &c. ?
Here «= I, (2= I, b zz i, c— ly d— i, Sc m=zt\.
Then i + « ^- x% &c. |* = i + ^bx+6Px^+ 4^«J-f l,*x\ Sfc»
+ 4«
= I +4X + 10 AT* + 20 + 35 &C.
34 What is the fquare of-^-f — 4"'^+'^' ^c.
In this cafe »=:--•, «=~» i» ^= '» f= i» ^=i> & m=: 2.
« « w* I * \ * * *
4- 2 e
12 ^ 4 5
What Is the fquare root of ^ — g 5
The quaatitf reduced Is I- x r ^-r— — 5
* 47»—6? + 8?'
In this example»=— , * = a*, ^ = * = — ^» ^ = = — 6 r^' ~2 » '",.T.1,= ^
3 — J. 3 _ _ J. &c
4 3 04 ^
_JL^^4-^4-^4
Then ^i-^ .rr-XV^-r^^.-r^,,, T,"^
J
"^Sr* 33 r'
I
+
12 r"
7, &c.
#• 4rj 32/-* 384r' J
Of anhar- Harmonic Series, a feries of terras formed in harmoni- Again, let x be the fourth term, to find which irtThe i
monical fe- cal proportion. It has been already obferved in the terms of a and 5, we have thodj
ci"' article Proportion, that if three numbers be in har- ab ab J^ndii
raonical proportion, the firft is to the third as the dif- bixi:o 2. a^b 2 a-^b *
ference between the firft and fecond is to the difference a b ab^
between the fecond and third. _ Then bx — — I^- = J^ZT/l — ^ *
Let fl, 5, and x be three terms in haimonlcal pro- jai— 2 5* _ ah^
portion : then axxwa — 5:5 — — a^—b ' " 2 a 5
whence fl.-tf — bxz=.ab-^ax* ^yi ^
and zax — bx =z ab
^ ta — 5' 3^5 — 25* 3J — zb
*^^'"* = 7— Hence the three ti^erefore the four firft tertns«re«. 5.^JLL,
firft terms of this feries is a, 5, . ^^Tienee the law of the feries is obvious, and it may be
* 0 eontinUed
2a — 5 3^ — 25
S E R [
continued as follows, a. b. -it- -
za — b* 3<j — 2b* 4a — 3^'
&c. and the n^^ term is '^'^
ft
he
and
the
v\\\
t lie*
the
be
1 th(?
!s ai-
Lve
!C1-
of
h-
l
If-
har
tion
If, in a feries of terms in harmonical proportion, a and
b be two affirmative quantities, and fuch that a^b ;
then this feries, which is pofitive at firft, will become
negative as foon as n — 2 .b exceeds n — i . a. But if
a~:^b, the feries will converge, and although produced
to infinity will not become negative.
Let a and b be equal to 2 Rnd i refpeftively ; then
this feries becomes t- t-t-t* &c. and fince, if each term
an harmonical feries be divided by the fame quantity,
the feries will ftill be harmonical. Therefore 4-' 4^.
&c. is an harmonical feries: whence the denominators of
this feries form a feries of numbers in arithmetical pro-
greffion ; and converfely, the reciprocals of an arithme-
tical progrefRon are in harmonical proportion.
Recurring Sf.kias, a feries of which any term is form-
ed by the addition of a certain number of preceding
terras, multiplied or divided by any determinate numbers
whether pofitive or negative. Thus 2.3. 19. loi. 543.
2917. 1 567 I, &c. is a recurring feries, each term of
which is formed by the addition of the two preceding
tt^ms, the firft of which being previoufly multiplied by
theconftant quantity 2 and the other by 5. Thus the
third term 19=2X24.3X5; the fourth term ioi =
3X2+19X5, &c.
The principal operation in a feries of this nature is
that of finding its Ann. — For this purpofe, the two firft
and two laft terms of the feries muft be given, together
with the conftant multipliers.
Let a, by r, dy e, fy See. be any number of terms of a
feries formed according to the above law, each fuc-r
ceffive term being equal to the fum of the produfts
cf the two preceding terms, the firft being mnUiplied
by the given quantity and the other by the given
quantity n. Hence we will have the following feries
of equations c= ma ^ p />, d=mb^nc, ez^mc -f-
n dyf— md ^ncy &c. Then, adding thefe equations,
we obtain c 4- d + £ + f=m X a ^ b + c + d + n X
b+ c + d-i-e. Now the firft member of this equation
is the fum of ^11 the terms except the two firft ; the
quantity by which is multiplied in the fecond mem-
ber is the fiun wf all the terms except the two laft ; and
that by v/hich n is multiplied is the fum of all the terms
e;vccpt the firft aitd laft. Now let j<=: fum of the feries.
then s~a — b=mx s — e-f^nX s':^~f '
Hence s= !l2il±f±!lJ^JL±l:ZAllIy
m -\- n — \
Let the fum of the firft feven terms of the above
It'n'es be required ?
115671
1 2917
18588
2
Two laft terms
Sum
Firft term 2
Laft term 1 567 r
m
— 2+3
37176
115541
5
597 1 S E R
Reverjon of Sekif.s is the method of finding the Serieji.
value of the quantity whofe feveral powers are involved ""^ v-r
in a feries, in terms of the quantity which is equal to
the given feries.
^ In order to this, a feries muft be affumed, which be-
ing involved and fubftituted for the quantity equal to
the feries, and its powers, negleftinj thofe terms whofe
powers exceed the higheft power to which it is pro-
pofed to extend the feries. - - ,
Let it be required to revert the feries ax + bx*-h
c xs+dx^^ex!,8cc.=y i or, to find x in an infinite
feries expreffed in the powers of y.
Subftitute for x, and the indices of the powers of ■
y in the equation will be «, 2 n, 3 n, &c. and i, there-
fore n= I ; and the differences are o. i. 2. 3. 4. 5. &c.
Hence, in this cafe, the feries to be affumed is Ay-^-By't
+ Cy3-{-l)y\ Sec. which being involved and fubftitu-
ted for the refpeftive powers of x, then we have
ax = aAy + aBy'' + aCy3'\'aDy\8cc.'^
bx2=z +iA='y^ + 2bABy3-^2bACy4\ . \
-{■bB^y^S } =y
'^f = + c A^y^ 4- icA^By*y &c. J
Whence, by comparing the homologous terms, we
have aAy =y; therefore A J= — , B = C
2 b AB +cA^\^ _ ^''b^ a^l
(= 2 ^ A C -f 5 B» + ^ ^ B -f ,/ A4
-, &c. and confequently .v =r — —
a' ^ s Xy3 ~ .
Examples,
i/f,Let«---4.--.__ There^be,
in this cafe equal to i, 3 = — . — , ^ — , d-=z :
&c. we fhall, by fubftituting thefe values, ha've x - y V
2 +T
Jd. Let . - + + .
In this example we have x = sr. a — i h
f = I, d-=z — . I, &c. ; whence x = ^ + -L ,
--5+5--1 ^
&c.
y, &c. =j- -f y
3-2', Let a-=zr — — -4- ~- —
2 r ' 24/^^
&c. to find X ?
x8
7 20r^ "*"4032
Put r — a = then t? = — .
2 r
+
2+5 — 1=6 1115536
Voi.XVIL Pjtxt I.
24H • 720r5
403 2 r^' comparifon we find * = =
— — h- —
720 r** — ^n,^-.7.», ^C.
403 2r7-'
Hence
SIR
I 298 ]
S E R
S<in8».
I^ence x*^ 2rv
— I
I
288r<5 I44br'
A.'
32r>
8CC. =t3r^ + -7^*+^,'«^ + ^^
— \ ^ 12 r • i6or'
I*, &c.
Summation 0/ 5ifR/£5 is the method of finding the
fum of the terms of an infinite feries produced to in-
jinlty, or the fum ©f any number of terms of fuch a
Hteries. ... 1,3
The value of any arithmetieal feries, as i + ^* + 3
4.* ...... . n*, varies according as («) the number
•f its terms varies ; and tha-efore, if it can be exprefs-
«d in a general manner, it muft be explicable by n and
its powers with determinate coefRcients r thofe
powers, in this cafe, muft be rational, or fuch whofe
indices are whole pofitive numbers; becaufe the progref-
lion, being a whole number, cannot admit of furd quan-
tities. Laftly, it will appear that the greateft of the
faid indices cannot exceed the common index of the
feries by more than unity : for, otherwife, when n 13
taken indefinitely great, the higheft power of n would
be indefinitely greater than the fum of all the reft, of
the terms.
Thus the higheft power of «, in an expremon exhi-
biting the value of l» + 2' + 3^ + 4*...«% cannot be
^rreater than ; for 1' -|- 2' -f 3* 4 4'— is mamieft-
ly lefs than n' , or + + +, Sec. continued to «
terms ; but n\ when n is. indefinitely great, is mdefi-
nltely greater than n%, or any other inferior power of
«, and therefore cannot enter into the equation. This
being premifed, the method of invtftigation may be as
follows ;
Examples.
1. Required the fum of « terms of the fenes i + 2 +
3+4 •
Let A n* + B « be affumed, according to the fore-
jroing obfervations, as an unlverfal expreflion for the
value of I + 2 + 3 + 4---"> where A and B repre-
fent unknown but determinate quantities. Therefore,
fince the equation is fuppofed to hold^ univerfally,
whatfoever is the number of terms, it is evident, that if
the number of term* be increafed by unity, or, which
iJj the fame thing, if n 4- i be wrote therein inftead of
n, the equation will ftiU fubfift ; and we fhall have
Ax7+ir+Bx«+ 1=1+24-3+4 «+«—!•
Trom which the firft equation being fubtra<£led» there
remains AXn+ A «3 4.B X n— i — Bfl=n+ U
this contradcd will be 2 An + A + B— n + i >
■whence we have 2A— i X«+A+B — 1=01
Wherefore, by taking 2 A — 1=0, and A + B — - i
= 0, we have A = 4i aftd B = 4^ ; and confequently
I + 2 + 3 + 4"— » ( = -^«' + S«) = 7 + 2~
« X n + I
What 18 the fum of the ten firft terms ©f the fenes
i + 2+3> ^c. ?
* ^, . r .1. »»Xn + i_loXll_
■iB-thiS cafe n = ro, then . ■ — =3^^ 55.
2. Required the fum of the feries i' + 2*+,3»
or I, + 4 + 9 + x6 n i , . '
I^et A + B «^ + C «, according to the aforefaid
obfervations, be affumed = + 2'' + 5^.....n^ > then^
as in the preceding cafe, we (hall have A X « + if
+ B X ^T^Y +C X«+ I = 1^ + 2^ + 3*
„ 4. ] p . that is, by involving « + i to its feveral pow*
crs, A «^ + 3 A «^ + 3 A « + A + B«' + 2 B « + B
+ Cn + C = i* + 2^ + 3\..«^ + « + i 1m from which
fubtrafling the former equation, we obtain 3 A «^ +
3A« + A+2B«_+B+C (-»4-in-«' + 2"+i;
and confequently 3A — i Xn*-}-3A + 2B — 2Xft
+ A+B + C — 1=0; whence 3 A — 1 = o, 3A
+ 2B — 2 = 0, andA + B+ C— 1 = 0; therefor?
A=r|, B = — -^ = 4, C = i-A-B = |.
^ 1 *
and confequently i + 4 + 9 "f" "5 »* = ^ z* ' 6,
R • n + I • 2 n + r
or : —
6 '
What is the fum of the ten firft terms of the fericf
1^4-2^-f 3% &c.? ,
«'^^-2« + I 10X11X21
Here «= 10, then ^ = '
= 385 ♦
3. Required the fam of the feries 1^ + 2' +3^+4'
or I -f 8 + 27 + 64. ..^n^ ?
By putting A«^ +B«^^+ Cr' + D« = 1+ 8 +
27 -j. 64... ; and proceeding as above, we fliall have
4 A n?+6 a »^+4 a /»+A +3 B n» + 3 B n + B + 2 C n
-j- C + D ( = n 4> iP) =n' + 3 n +_^and therefore
4 A— I Xn' + 6A+3B — 3X«'+4A+3B-t-aC— i
Xn + A + B + C +I>- I =o- Hence A =
, 3_6A\ = ^ ^/ 3 — 4 A - 3B\ _ ,
D (= I — A— B — C) =0 ; and therefore 1'+ 2*
+ 3^ + 4^
z= - + - + ^ or =
4 f 4' 4
In the very Came manner it will be found, that
«
I*+2*+3**--"*"* = 7-33
t^ + *' + 3^
n' n° n
+ + 3 « =-7 + 7+1- 6+^'
What is the fum of the ten firft terms of , the ferie*
l3+2^ + 3^&C^J
X n + il* 100 X 121 ^
«= 10, then — ■ = — = 25 X lai
4 4
4. Required the fum of - a terms of the feries of tri.
angular numbers o, i, 3> 6, lo «. ?
Let A n^ + B« * 4. C n = o, 1, 2, 3 », = s
Now the n 4- ith term of this feries, by Example 2. is
—+-. Then A. n + iP + B .« + ij* . C .
2
n + i=:/ + -j' + — . Now, the firft eqpiatton be-
ing fubtrafted from this, we have 3 A n* + 3 A + 2 B
X«+A ^ B+C= ~+^. Or, 3 An* + 3 Aa +
A
S E R
299 1 S ^ R
The difference of thefe fencs is — — — X
Whence» by equating the homologous terras, we
have 5 A = 4-» and A = ^: i — 2 H =: $ A', whence
2B=4— 4:= «, A+C= — B. HenGeC=--y.
Kov/, thefe values being fubftituted in the above
equation, gives
the fum =
n + I
and If n -j- 1 be put for the
Turn of n tenns of this feries will be ^ — ■-
I , 2 . 3
By proceeding in the fame manner, the fum of n
terms of pyramidal numbers, 4, 10, 20, 35, &c
n will be found = -
And
1.2 .3 . 4
the fum of any feries of figurate mimbers is determined
by a like formula, the law of continuation being ob^rl-
ous.
What is the fum of the ten firft terms of triangular
numbers i, 3, 6, 10, 15, &:c. ?
n.n -\- I . n + 2 10X11X12
Here « =: lO; then
conti-
1.2 .3
~ 220.
I 2 3
^. Let the fum of the feries "^"^ "^i
nued to « terms be required ?
If we multiply this feries indefinitely continued by
2 R -f- I, the produft Is R; there-
R
and
R — ijS or R
fore the amount ©f the indefinite feriee is
R-ij
the fum of « terms may be found by fubtrafting the
terms after the nth from that amount. Now, the terms
n -f- I » 4" 2
after the nth. are ^ ^ + R"
he- divided into the two following feries :
rirft, j^u X Hi -\- R3»&c. _ ^X
R^
1 I 2
Uecomd, RpX ^ -h g7 +
Now, if we write a for
R^*
I
R'
&c. =
R— i'
R"^R —
and r for R — T« and
fubtrail the fiim of thefe two feries from the amount
of the propofed feries indefinitely continued, the remain-
der will be found
a ^ na
XR— — .
r
6. Let the fum of the feries
I »
R T «R^^«R^
&c. be required ?
This feries is equal to the difference of the two fol-
lowing.
n m n III
R
I — a
^cond,' — D +
n It
Ice. = -X
nR
I —
R
-+;
R^R*^R^'
,&c. = ixp; +
xR—
R
tam>
which reduced becomes
To proceed farther would lead us far beyond the li-
mits affigned for this article ; we muft therefore refer
thofe who require more information on this fubje£l to
the following authoi-s.— Bertrand's D'lviloppeminty &c.
vol. I ; Dodfon's Mathematical Repofitory, vol. I ; E«
merfon's Algebra ; Appendix to Gravefend's Algebra ;
Hutton's Paper on Cubic Equations and Infinite Se-
ries, in the Phiiofophlcal Tranfaiftions for i 78o>^, Mac-
laurin's Fluxions; Malcolm's Arithmetic ; Mafere's An-
nuities ; and Scrlptores Lo^artlhmici, &c. ; De Molvre's
Doftrlne of Chances, and a Paper by the fame author in
the PhiloCophical Tranfadlions, nO 240; Simpfon's Air
gebra, Effays, Fluxions, apd Mlfcellanies ; Sterling's
Summatto et Interpolatio Serkrum ; Syntagma Mathefios,
&c.
SERINGAPATAM, the capital of Myfore, the
dominions of Tippoo Sultan, is fitu'ated m an ifl'and ©f
the Cavery river, about 290 or 390 miles from Ma-
dras. The ifland, upon furvey, appeared to be about
four miles In length by one and a half in breadth,
acrofs the middle, wliere it Is likewlfe higheft, whence
it gradually falls and narrows towards the extremities.
The weft end of the ifland, on which there Is a fort of
confiderable ftrength, flopes more, efpccially towards
the north ; and the ground rlfing on the oppofite fide
of the river commands a diftinft view of every part of
the fort. The fort and outworks occupy about a mile
of the weft end of the ifland, and are diftlngulflitd by
magnificent buildings, and ancient Hindoo pagodas,
contrafted with the more lofty and fplendid monuments
lately raifed In honour of the Mahometan faith. The
great garden, called the Laul Baugy covers about as
much of - the eaft end of the ifland as the fort and out-
works do of the weft ; and the whole intermediate fpace,
except a fmali inclofure on the nortli bank near the fort,
was, before the laft war, filled with houfes, and formed
an extenfive fuburb, of which the greateft part was dc-
ftroyed by Tippoo to make room for batteries to de-
fend the Ifland when attacked by the combined forces
of Earl Cornwallis and the Mahratta chiefs in Februa-
ry 1792. This fuburb, or town of modern ftrufture,
is about half a mile fquare, divided into regular crofs
llreets, all wide, and fliaded on each fide by trees, ft
is furrouF.ded by a ftrong- mud wall, contains many good
houfes, and feems to have been preferved by the Sultan
for the accommodation of merchants, and for the con-
venience of troops ftationed on that part of the ifland
for its defence. A little to the eaft ward of the town
is the entrance to the great garden, which was laid out
in regular ftiady walks of large cyprefs trees, and
abounding with fruit-trees, flovveis, and vegetables of
every defcrlption. It pofleffed all the beauty and ele-
gance of a country retirement, and was dignified by
the maufoleum of Hyder the late fultan, and a fuperb
new palace built by his fon. This noble garden was
devoted to deftruftion ; and the trees which had fliaded
their proud matter, and contributed to his pleafures,
were formed into the means of protefting his enejnies
in fubverting his ernpiie. Before that event, fo glori-
ous to the arms of England, this infulated metrop oils
Pp^ (fays
S E R
ath (fays Major Dirpm) myft h^ve been the richeft, moft
convenient, and beautiful fpot poffefied in the prefent
age by any native prince in India ; but when the allies
left it, the Sultan's fort and city only remained in re- .
pair amidft all the wrecks of His former grandeur, the
ifland prefcnting nothing but the appearance of wretch-
ed barrennefs. Tippoo is a man ot talents, enterprife,
and great wealth ; but, in the opinion of our author,
t^e remaining years of his ill-fated life will be unequal
to renew the beauties of his terreftriai paradife. N. Lat.
12^ 31' 45". E. Long. 96° 46' 45".
SERINGHAM, an ifland of Indoftan, formed
about fix milcj north- well of Trinchinopoly by the river
Cavery, which divides itfelf into two branches : that to
the northwart'd takes the name of Cokroon, but the
fouthern branch prcferves its old name the Cavery.
Each of thefe rivers, after a coui fe of about 90 miles,
empty themfelves into the fea ; the Coleroon at Devi-
cottah, and the Cavery near Trauquebar, at about 20
miles diftance from one another. In this ifland, facing
Trinchinopoly, flood a famous pagoda fun-ouoded by
feven fqiiare walls of Itone, 25 feet high and four feet
thick. The fpace between the outward and fecond
walls meafured 310 ftet, and fo proportionably of the
reft. Each inclofure had four large gates, with a high
tower; which were placed, one in the middle of each
[ ]
S E R
who, together with the Siphnii, joined Greece againft Ser*
Xerxes, were almoft the only iflanders who refnfed „ J
to give him earth and water in token of fubmiffion, ^"^^
(Herodotus). Seriph'ia Rana, a proverbial fayii^ con.
cerning a perfon who can neither flng nor fay; frogs in
this ifland being fald to be dumb, (Pliny).
SERMON, a difcourfe deUvered in public, for the
purpofe of religious inftruftion and improvement.
Funeral Skrmon. See Funeral Oraiioris.
SERON OF ALMONDS, is the quantity of two hun-
dred weight; of anlfe feed, it is from three to four hun-
dred; of Caftlle foap, from two hundred and an half to
three hundred and three quarters.
SEROSITY, in medicine, the watery part of the
blood.
SERPENS, in aftronomy, a conftellatlon in the
northern hemifphere, called more particularly Serptv.s
Ophiuchi. The ftars in the condellation Serpens, in
Ptolemy's catalogue, are 18 ; in Tycho's, 13 ; in He-
velius's, 22 ; and in the Britannic catalogue, 64.
Serpens. Biceps, or Double-headed Snake ; a monfter
®f the ferpent kind, there being no permanent fpecies
of this conformation. That reprefented on Plate
CCCCXLIX. and copied from Edwards, came from
the ifland of Barbadoes ; and "was faid to have been ta-
ken out of an egg of the hze cf a fmall pullet's egg by
fide of the inclofure, and oppofite to the four cardinal a man who found it under-ground as he was digging,
points. The outward wall was about four miles in cir- The heads were not in an horizontal poflticui ^l^en the
cumference, and its gateway to the fouth was ornament-
ed with pillars., fome oi which -were fiugle ilones 33 feet
in length and five in diameter ; while thofe that formed
the loot were ftlU larger ;- and in the inmofl; inclofure
were the chapels. — About half a mile to the call was
fnake lay on its belly, but inclined to each o'Uier on
their uHder-fides, leaving an opening for the throat to
come in between the two heads underneath, as is ^x-
prefled at A. The upper-fide, tor the whole length,
was covered with fmall fcales, falling one over another ;
another large pagoda called jfumbikiflna, which had but the. belly was covered with fmgle fcales running acr(,)f&
one inclofure
The pagoda of Seringham was held in great venera-
tion, from a belief that it contained the identical image
of the god Wiftnou worfliipped by Brama; and pilgrims
came here from all parts of India with offerings of mo-
ney to procure abfolution. A large part of the reve-
nue of the ifland was allotted for the maintenance of
the Bramlns who inhabited the pagoda; and thefe, with
their families, formerly amounted t© no fewer than
40,000 perfons, all maintained by the fuperllitious li-
berality of the adjacent country. ^
SERIOLA, in botany: A genus of plants belonging
to the order of polygamia asqualis, and to the clafs of
fyngcnefia ; and in the natural fyilem ranged under the
49th order, Compofitis. The receptacle is paleaceous ;
the calyx Ample ; and the pappus is fomewhat plumofe.
There are four fpecies ; i . The Levigata. 2. iEthnen-
iis. 3. Cretenfis. 4. Urens. The firft is a native
pf the ifland of Candia, and flowers in July and AugiuT;;
the fecond is a native of Italy ; and the fourth is a na-
tive of the fouth of Europe.
SERIPHIUM, in botany; a genus of plants belong-
ing to the order of monogamia, and to the clafs of fyn-
genefia. The calyx is imbricated; the corolla is mo-
nopetalous and regular, with one oblong feed under it.
There is only one fpecies, the cinereum, which is a na-
tive of the Cape of Good Hope.
SERIPHUS (anc. geog.), one of the Cyclades or
iflands in the -^gean fea, called Saxum Seriphium by
Tacitus, as if all a rock ; one of the ufual places of ba-
nifliment among the Romans. The people, Seriphiii
it, in the form of half r/mgs. It was all over of a yel-
lowifli colour, without any fpots or variation. Mr Ed-
wards alfo informs us, that a perfon brought to hiiii
a common Englifli fnake, which had two heads quite
feparate from each other, the necks parting about an
inch from the head.
Serpens, Serpent, in the Linnasan fyftem of zoo-
logy, an order of animals belonging to the clafs of am-
phibii, and comprehending fix genera, viz. the crotalus,
or rattle-fnake ; the boa, ii^cluding ten fpecies ; the co-
luber, or viper; the angu's, or fnake ; the amphijbana, or
annulated fnake, the body and tail of which are ccm-
pofed of annular fegments ; and the cac'dia, or tentacu-
lated Inake, the body and tail of which are wrinkled,
without fcales, and the upper part furnifhed with two
feelers ; and including two fpecies. See an account of
thefe genera under their refpeftive names.
The charafters of ferpents, according to Linn^ug, Difti
are thele : They are amphibious animals, breathing?"'*^
through the moiith by means of lungs only ; having a"^^^^!
tapering body, no dillintEl neck ; the jaws not articula-
ted, but dilatable, and deftitute of feet, fins, and ears.
The ferpent has from the beginning been the enemy Geix
of man; and it has hitherto continued to terrify and*^''^^'
annoy him, notwithflanding all the arts which have""
been praAifed to deftroy it. Formidable in itfelf, it
deters the invader from the purfuit ;. and from its fi-
gure, capable of finding flielter in a little fpace, it Is
not ealily difcovered by thofe who would venture to
encounter it. Thus pofleficd at once of potent arms,,
and inacceffible or fecure retreats, it baffles all the
arts
S E R
[ 3^^ 3
S E R
arts of man, though ever fo earneftly bent upon its
deftruftion. For this reafon, there is fcarce a country
in the world that does not ftiU give birth to this poi-
fonous brood, that feems formed to quell human pride,
and reprefs the boafts of fecurity. Mankind have dri-
ven the lion, the tiger, and the wolf, from their vicini-
ty ; but the fnake and the viper ftill defy their power.
Their numbers, however, are thinned by human af-
fiduity ; and it is pofiible fome of the kinds are whol-
ly deftroycd. In none of the countries of Europe are
they fufficiently numerous to be truly terrible. The
various malignity that has been afcribed to European
ferpents of old is now utterly unknown ; there are not
above three or four kinds that are dangerous, and
their poifon operates in all in the fame manner. The
drowl'y death, the Itavting of the blood from every
pore, the infatiable and burning thidt, the melting
down the folid mafs of the whole form into one heap
of putrefaftion, faid to be occafioned by the bites of
African ferpents, are horrors with which we are entire-
ly unacquainted.
But though we have thus reduced thefe dangers, ha-
ving been incapable of wholly removing them, in other
parts of the world they ftill rage with all their ancient
malignity. In the warm countries that lie within the
tropics, as well as in the cold regions of the north,
where the inhabitants are few, the ferpents propagate
in equal proportion. But of all countries thofe re-
gions have them in the greateft abundance where the
•helds are unpeopled and fertile, and where the climate
fupplies warmth and humidity. All along the fwampy
banks of the river Niger or Oroonoko, where the fun
is hot, the forefts thick, and the men but few, the fer-
pents cling among the branches of tlie trees in infinite
numbers, and carry on an unceafing war againll all
other animals in their vicinity. Travellers have affured
us, that tliey have often feen large fnakes twining
round the trunk of a tall tree, encompafllng it like a
wreath, ai-id thus rifing and defcending at pleafure. —
We are not, therefore, to rejed as wholly fabulous the
accounts left us by the ancients of the terrible devafta-
tions committed by a fuigle ferpent. It is probable, in
early times, when the ai-ts were little known, and man-
kind were but thinly fcattered over the earth, that fer-
pents, continuing undifturbed poffeffors of the forell,
grew to an amazing magnitude ; and every other tribe
©f animals fell before them. It then might have hap-
pened, that ferpents reigned the tyrants of a diftrift
for centuries together. To animals of this kind, grown
by time and rapacity to loo or 150 feet in length, the
lion, the tiger, and even the elephant itfelf, were but
feeble opponents. That horrible foet9r, which even the
commonell and the moil harmlefs fnakes are ftill found
to diffufe, might, in thefe larger ones, become too
powerful for any living being to withftand ; and while
tliey preyed without diltinftion, they might thus alfo
have poifoned the atmofphere around them. In this
manner, having for ages lived in the hidden and un-
peopled foreft,and finding, as their appetites were more
powerful, the quantity of their prey decreafmg, it is
pofiible they might venture boldly from their retreats
into the more cultivated parts of the country, and carry
sonfternation among mankind, as they had before de-
folation among the lower ranks of nature. We have
many hiftoiies of antiquity, prefenting us fuch a pic-
ture, and cxhibitinj* a whole nation finking under the ScrpfM.
ravages of a fingle ferpent. At that time man had not - » '
learned the art of uniting the efforts of mar^y to efle£l
one great purpofe. Oppofing multitudes only added
new vidHms to the general calamity, and increafed mu-
tual embarraflmeHt and terror. The animal was there-
fore to be fmjffly oppofed by hira who had the greateft
ftrength, the beft armour, and the moft undaunted cou-
rage. In fuch an encounter, hundreds muft have fal-
len ; till one, more lucky than the reft, by a fortunate
blow, or by taking the monfter in its torpid intefVal,
and furcharged with fpoil, might kill, and thus rid his
country of the deilroyer; Such was the original oc-
cupation of heroes ; and thofe who firft obtained that
name, from their deflroying the ravagers of the earth,
gained it much more defervedly than their fucceflbrs,
who acquired their reputation only for their flcill in de-
ftroying each other. But as we defcend into more en-
lightened antiquity, we find thefe animals lefs formi-
dable, as being attacked ih a more fuccelsful manner.
We are told, that while Regulus led his army along the
banks of the river Bagrada in Africa, an enoiTnous fer-
pent difputed his pafTage over. We are aifui-ed by Pliny,
that it was 1 20 feet long, and that it had deftroyed many
of the army. At laft, however, the battering engines
were brought out againft it ; and thefe affailing it at a
diftance, it was foon deftroyed. Its fpoils were car-
ried to Rome, and the general was decreed an ovation
for his fuccefs. There are, perhaps, few fafts better
afcertained in hiftory thau this : an ovation was a re-
markable honour ; and was given only for fome fignal
exploit that did not deferve a triumph : no hiftorian
would offer to invent that part of the ftory at leatt,
without being fubjeft to the moft ftiameful detection.
The flcin was kept for feveral years after in the Capi-
tol; and Pliny fays he faw it there. At prefent, in-
deed, fuch ravages from ferpents are fcarce feen in any
part of the world ; not but that, in Africa and Ame-
rica, fome of them are powerful enough to brave the
affaults of men to this day.
l^equent expler't corda tuendo
Verrib 'tks oculos vlUofaque fetis peSore,
If we take a furvey of ferpents in general, they have
marks by which they are diftinguiflied trom all the reft
of animated nature. They have the length and the fup-
plenefs of the eel, but want fins to fvvim with ; they
have the fcaly covering and pointed tail of the lizard,
but they want legs to walk 'with ; they have the
crawling motion of the worm, but, unlike that animal,
they have lungs to breathe with: like all the reptiie
kind, they are refentful when offended ; and nature has
fupplied them with terrible arms to revenge every in-
jury.
Though they are poflefted of very different degrees
of malignity, yet they are all formidable to man, and
have a ftrong fimililude of form to each other. With
refpedl to their conformation, all ferpents have a very
wide mouth in proportion to the lize ot the head ; and,
what is very extraordinary, they can gape and fwallow
the head of another animal which is three times as big
as their own. However, it is noway furprifing that
the fliin of the fnake fhould ftretch to receive fo large
a morfel ; the wonder feems how the jaws eould take It
ia.
7,
Conforms,
tion of
their
moulh.
S E R
4
Tlieir
tteth.
5
Eyes.
6
7
Gullet.
Lunps and
lieart.
jn. To explain tUU, it mtift hs ohtsrvei, th^i the ja^wg
of this animal do not open as ours, in the manner of a
pair of hinojes, where bones are apph'ed to bones, and
play upon one another : on the contrary, the ferp<;nt's
jaws are held together at the roots by a ftretching; muf.
cular fkin ; by which means they open as widely as the
»nimSl choofes to ftretch them, and admit of a prey
much thicker than the fuake's own body. The throat,
iike ftretching leather, dilates to admit the morfel ;
the ftomach receives it in part, and the reft remains in
the gullet, till putrefaftion and the juices of the ferpent's
body unite to diffolve it.
Some ferpents have fangs or canine teeth, and others
are without them. The teeth in all are crooked and
hollow ; and, by a peculiar contrivance, are capable of
being erefted or depreffed at pleafure.
The eyes of all ferpents are fmall, if compared ttf
the length of the body ; and though differently co-
loured in different kinds, yet the appearance of all is
malign and heavy ; and, from their known qualities,
they ftrike the imagination with' the idea of a creature
meditating mifchief. In fome, the upper eyelid is
wanting, and tlie ferpent winks only with that below,;
in others, the animal has a niftitating membrane or
{Idn, rcfembling that which is found in birds, which
keeps the eye clean and preferves the fight. The fub-
ilance of the eye in all is hard and horny ; the cryftal-
iine humour occupying a great part of the globe.
The holes for hearing are very vifible in all : but
there are no conduits for fmelling ; though it is proba-
ble that fome of them enjoy that fenfe in tolerable per-
•feftion.
The tongue in all thefe animals is long and forky.
It i« compofed of two long flefliy fubflances, which
tertninate in lhai-p points, and are very pliable. At
the root tt is connefted very ftrongly to the neck by two
tendons, that give it a variety of play. Some of the vi-
per kind have tongues a fifth part of the length of their
^iodies ; they are contia=iually darting them out ; but they
are entirely harmlefs, and only terrify thofe who are ig-
norant of the real fituation of their poifon.
If from the jaws we go on to the gullet, we fhall
find it very wide for the animal's fize, and capable of
bein^ difl ended to a great degree ; at the bottom of
this lies the ftomacli, which is not fo capacious, and
receives only a part of the prey, while the refl conti-
nues in the gullet for digeflion. When the fubftance
in the ftomach is diffolved into chyle, it pafles into the
inteftines, and fi'om thence goes to nourifhment, or to
be excluded by the vent.
Like moft other animals, ferpents are furniCied with
lungs, which we fuppofe are ferviceable in breathing,
though we cannot perceive the manner in which this
opetation is performed ; for though ferpents are often
feen apparently to draw in their breath, yet we cannot
■find tlie fmallclt figns of their ever refpiring it again.
Their lungs, however, are long and large, and doubt-
lefs are neceflary to promote their languid circulation.
The heart is formed as in the tortoife, the frog, and
the lizard kinds, fo as to work without the afTiltance
of the lungs. It is lingle ; the greateft part of the
blood flowing from the great velti to the great artery
by the fhorteft courfe. By this contrivance of nature
we eafily gather two confequences ; that fnakes are
aeiphibious, being equally capable vf living on land
![ 303 1 S E R
and in the wtier i ' and that alfo they arie torpid In win-
ter, hke the bat, the Uzard, and other animals formed
in the fame manner. 9
The vent in thefe animals ferves for the emifHon of Mode
the urine and the faeces, and for the piirpofes of gene-^*^"^"^*
ration. The inftrument of generation in the male ie
double, being forked hke the tongue: the ovaries in
the female are double alio ; and the aperture is very
large, in order to receive the double inftrument of the
male. They copulate in their retreats ; and it is faid
by the ancients, that in this fituation they appear like
one ferpent with two heads.
As the body of this animal is long, (lender, and ca- Numb
pable of bending in every direftion, the number ofJ""^^*
joints in the back-bone are nimierous beyond what one [j^^^ *
would imagine. In the generality of quadrupeds, they
amount to not above 30 or 40 ; in the ferpent kind
they amount to 145 from the head to the vent, and 25
more from that to the tail. The number of thefe joint«
muft give the back-bone a furpriiing degree of pliancy;
but this is ftill increafed by the manner in which each
of thefe joints are locked into the other. In man and
quadrupeds, the flat furfaces of the bones are laid one
againft the other, and bound tight by linews ; but in
ferpents, the bones play one within the other like ball
and focket, fo that they have full motion upon each
other in every diretlion. rt
Though the number of joints in the back-bone fsNumbj
great, yet that of the ribs is ftill greater; for, from'''^''
the head to the vent, there are two tibs to e^evj joint, \
which makes their number 290 in all. Thefe ribs are
furnifhed with mufcles, four in number; which being
infcrted into the head, run along to the end of the tail, ;
and give the animal great ftrength and agility in all its
motions.
The flcin alfo contributes to its motions, being com-
pofed of a number of fcales, united to each other by a
tranfparent membrane, which grows harder as it grows
older, until the animal changes, which is generally done
twice a-year. This cover then .burfts near the head,
and the ferpent creeps from it by an undulatury mo-
tion, in a new flcin, much more vivid than the former.
If the old flough be then viewed, every fcale will be
diftinftly feeiY hke a piece of net-work, and will be
found greateft where the part of the body they covered
was largeft.
There is much geometrical neatnefs in the difpofal of
the ferpent's fcales, for afliftiiig the animal's finuous
motion. As the edges of the toremoft fcales lie oyer
the ends of their following fcales, fo thofe edges, when
the fcales are erefted, which the animal has a power of
doing in a fmall degree, catch in the ground, like the
nails in the wheel of a chariot, and fo promote and fa-
cilitate tlie animal's progrellive motion. I he erecting
thefe fcales is by means of a multitude of diftinft mufcles
with which each is fupptitd, and one end of which ;is
tacked each to the middle of the foregoing.
In fome of the ferpent kind there is the cxafteft fyip-
metry in thefe fcales ; in others they arc difpofed more
in'egularly. In fome there are larger fcales on the bel-
ly, and often anfwering to the number of ribs ; in others,
however, the animal is without them. Upon this flight
difference, I^innaeus has founded his difl.iaftions of t\\c
various clafTcs of the ferpent tribe. ,
When w€ came to compare ferpents with each other, Thei
Snl
the
S E R [3
th< firft f?real diftinAion appears In tKeIr fi?fc ; no other
tribe of animals dlfFering fq widely in this particular.
This tribe of animals, like that of firties, feems to have
no bounds put to their growth : their bones are In a
great meafure cartilaginous, and they are confequently
capable of great extenfion : the older, therefore, a fer-
pent becomes, the larger it grows ; and as they feem to
Uve to a great age, they arrive at an enormous fize.
Leguat affures us, that he faw one in Java that was
50 feet long-. Carli mentions their growing to above
40 feet ; and we have now the flcin of one in the Bri-
tifh Mufaeum that meafures 32* Mr Wentworth, who
had large concerns in the Berbices in America, affures
us, that in that country they grow to an enormous
fcngth. He one day fent out a foldier, with an Indian,
to kill wild-fowl for the table ; and they accordinijly
went fome miles from the fort : in purluiug their game,
the Indian, who generally marched before, beginning
to tire, went to rcR himfelf upon the fallen trunk of a
tree, as he fuppofed it to be ; but when he was juft
going to fit down, the enormous monfter began to
move ; and the poor favage perceiving that he had ap-
pi-oached a boo, the greatett of all the ferpent kind,
di-opped down in an agony. The foldier, who percei-
ved at fome diftance what had happened, levelled at
the ferpent'a head, and by a lucky aim (hot it dead :
however, he continued his fire until he was allured that
the animal was killed ; and then going up to refcue bis
companion, who was fallen motionlefs by its fide, he,
to his aftonifhment, found him dead likewife, being
Ic^illed by the fright. Upon his return to the fort, and
telling what had happened, Mr Wentworth ordered
the animal to be brou<^ht up, when it was meafured,
and found to be 36 feet loag. He had the flcin ilufF-
ed, and then fent to Europe as a prefent to the prince
of Orange, in whofe cabinet it was lately to be feen at the
Hague : but the fl<in is fhrunk, by drying, two or three
feet. In the Eaft Indies they grow alfo to an enormous
fize, particularly in the ifland of Java, where, we are af-
fured, that one of them will deftroy and devour a buf-
falo. See Boa.
But it is happy for mankind that the rapacity of thefe
frightful creatures is often their punifliment ; for when
ever any of the ferpent kind Have gorged themfelves in
this manner, whenever their body is feen particularly
diftended with food, they then become torpid, and may
be approached and deftroyed with fafety. Patient of
hunger to a furprifing degrce,^ whenever they feize and
fwallow their prey, they feem, like fiirfeited gluttons,
unwieldy, ftupid, helplef«, and fleepy : they at that
time feek fome retreat, where they may lurk for feye-
ral days together, and digeft their meal in fafety : the
fmalleft effort at that time is capable of deftroying
them ; they can fcarce make any refiftance 5 and they
are equally unqualified for flight or oppofition : that iff
the happy opportunity of attacking them with fuccefs ;
at that,time the naked Indian himfelf does not fear to
affail them. But it is otherwife when this fleepy in-
terval of digeflion is over ; they then iffue, with fa-
miflied appetites, from their retreats, and with accu-
mulated terrors, while every animal of the fprefl: flies
befibre them.
But though thefe animals are of all others the moft
voracious, and though the morfel which they fwallow
without chewing.,, is greater thao what any other ,cfea>
16
Food*
03 ] S E R
ture,^ cither by land or water, can devpur } yet no ani.
mals upon earth bear abilinence To long as they. , A
fingle meal, with many of the fiiake kind, feems to be
the adventure of a fcafon ; it is an occurrence, of wliicU
they have been for weeks, nay foinetimes for months, \xx
patient expeftation. When they have feized their
prey, their induflry for fcveral v/eeks is entirely difc -♦i-
trnued ; the fortunate capture of an hour often fatisfie$
them for the remaining period of their annual activity.
As their blood is colder than that of mofl; other terref^
trial animals, and as it circulates but 'flowly throu<!;H.
their bodies, fo their powers of digeftion are but feeble.
Their prey continues, for a long time, partly in tl;c
ftomach, partly in the gullet, and is often feen in part
hanging out of the mouth. In this manner it dlgefls
by degrees ; and in proportion as the part below is dil-
folved, the part above is taken in. It is not therefor^
till this tedious operation is entirely performed, that
the ferpent renews its appetite and its activity. ^ But ,
fhould any accident prevent it from ilfuing once more
from its cell, it ftill can continue to bear famine for «
weeks, months, nay for years together. Vipers * are of- * Bte. Ai»
ten kept in bo.Kes for fix or eight months, without zny ftinence.
food whatever ; and there are httle ferpents fometimca
fent over to Europe from Grand Cairo, that live for
feveral years in glaffcs, and never eat at all, nor even
ftain the glafs with their excrements.
Other creatures have a choice in their provifion : but
the ferpent indifcrimiuately preys upon allj the buf-
falo, the tiger, and the gazcUe. One would think that
the porcupine's quills might be fufficient to protedl it ;
but whatever has life ferves to appeafc the hunger of
thefe devouring creatures : porcupines, with all their
quills, have frequently been found in their fl:omachs
when killed and opened ; nay, they moil frequently are
feen to devour each other.
A life of favage hoflihty in the fore ft offers the ima- Places'
gination on-e of the moft tremendous pidlures in nature, which ihef
In thofe burning countries, where tlie fun dries up eve- fi'^l^euu
ry brook for hundreds of miles round ; when what had
tlie appearance of a great river in the rainy feafon, be-
comes, in fummer, one dreary bed of fand ; in thofe
countries, a lake that is never dry, or a brook that ii
perennial — is-confidered by every animal as the greatelt
convenience of nature. When they have difcovered
this, no dangers can deter them from attempting tQ
flake their thiril. Thus the neighbourhood of a rivu-
let,, in the heart of the tropical continents, is generally
the place where all the hoftile tribes of nature draw up
for the engagement. On the banks of this little envied
fpot, thoufauds of animals of various kinds are feen ven-
turing to jjuench their thirfl:, or preparing to feize their
prey. The elephants are perceived in a long line, march-
ing from the darker parts of the foreft ; the buffaloes
are there, depending upon_ numbers for fecurity ; the
gazelles relying folely upon their fwiftnefs ; the lion and
tiger waiting a proper opportunity to feize ; but chief-
ly the larger ferpents are upon guard there, and defend
the acceffes of the lake. Not an hour paflTes without
fome dreadful combat ; but the ferpent, defended by i.ta
fcales, and naturally capable of fuflaining a multitude
of wounds, is, of all others, the mofl formidable. It
ia the moll wakeful alfo ; for the whole tribe fleep
with their eyes open, and are confequently for ever
upon the watch : fo that, tiU their rapacity is fatisfied,.
S E R
[ 304 1
S E R
19
How they
xnove.
Serpens few other animals will venture to approach their fta-
TheV)und ^" comparing ferpents as to their voices, fome are
wliich thty found fiient, fome have a peculiar cry ; but hiffing is
utt«r. the found which they moil commonly fend forth, ei-
ther as a call to their kind, or as a threat to their ene-
mies. In the countries where they abound, they are
generally filent in the middle of the day, when they
are obliged to retire from the heat of the climate ; but
as the cool of the evening approaches, they are then
heard iffuing from their cells with continued hilfings ;
and fuch is the variety of their notes, that fome have
affured us tkey very much referable the mufic of an
Enghfh grove. This fome will hardly credit ; at any
rate, fuch notes, however melodious, can give but very
little delight, v^^hen we call to mind the malignity of
the minftrel. If confidered, indeed, as they anfwer the
animal's own occafions, they will be found well adapt-
ed to its nature, and fully anfwering the purpofes. of
terrifying fuch as would venture to offend it.
With refpedl to motion, fome ferpents, particularly
thofe of the viper kind, move flowly ; while others
dart with amazing fwiftnefs. The motion in all is fi-
tnilar ; but the ftrength of body in fome gives a very
different appearance. The viper, that is but a flow
feeble-bodied animal, makes way in a heavy undulating
manner ; advancing its head, then drawing up its tail
behind, and bending the body into a bov/ ; then from
the fpot where the head and tail were united, advan-
cing the head forward as before. This, which is the
motion of all ferpents, is very different from that of
the earth-worm or the naked fnail. The ferpent, as
was faid above, has a back-bone, with numerous joints;
and this bone the animal has a power of bending in
every direftion, but without being able to fhorten or
lengthen it at pleafure. The earth-worm, on the other
hand, has no back-bone ; but its body is compofed of
rings, which, like a barber's puff, it can lengthen or
fliorten as it finds neceffary. The earth-worm, there-
fore, in order to move forward, lengthens the body ;
then by the fore part chngs to the ground where it has
reached, and then contrafts and brings up its rear :
then, when the body is thus fliortened, the fore-part is
lengthened again for another progreffion, and fo on.
The ferpent, inftead of fhortening the body, bends it
into an arch ; and this is the principal difference between
ferpentine and vermicular progreffion.
We have inftanced this motion in the viper, as moft
eafiiy difcerned ; but there are many ferpents that dart
with fuch amazing fwiftnefs, that they appear rather
to leap than crawl. It is moft probable, however, that
no ferpent can dart upon even ground farther than its
own lertgth at one effort. Our fears indeed may In-
creafe the force of their fpeed, which is fometimes
found fo fatal. We are told by fome, that they will
dart to a very great diftance ; but this we have never
been able to afcertain. The manner of progreffion in
the fwifteft ferpent we know, which is the jaculus, is
by inftantly coiling itfelf upon its tail, and darting
from thence to its full extent : then carrying the tail,
as quick as lightning, to the head ; coiling and dart-
ing attain ; and by this means proceeding with extreme
rapidity, without ever quitting the ground. Indeed,
if we confider the length and the weaknefs of the
back-bone in all thefe aoimals ; if we regard the make
of the vertebra*, in which we fhall find tlie junAures -t^'
all formed to give play, and none to give power ; we "^'^
cannot be of opinion that they have a faculty of fpring-
ing from the-ground, as they entirely want a fulcrum^
if we may io exprefs it, from whence to take their
fpring ; the whole body being compofed of unfup-
ported mufcles and joints that are yielding.
Though all ferpents are amphibious, fome are muchThou
fonder of the water than others ; and though deftitute^.'^''''^
of fins or gills, remain at the bottom, or fwim along j^-^. \
the furface, with great eafe. From their internal ftruc-imme
turc, we fee how well adapted they are for either ele-'n w!|
ment : and how capable their blood is of circulating at
the bottom as freely as in the frog or the tortoife.
They can, however, endure to live in frefh water only;
for fait is an effeftual bane to the whole tribe. The
greateft ferpents are moft ufually found in freih water,
either choohng it as their favourite element, or finding
their prey in fuch places in the greateft abundance.
But that all will live and fwim in liquids, appears from
an experiment of Redi ; who put a ferpent into a large
glafs vcffel of wine, where it lived fwimming about fix
hours ; though, when it was by force immerfed and
put under that liquid, it lived only one hour and an
half. He put another in common water, where it
lived three days ; but when it was kept under water,
it hved only about 12 hours. Their motion there,
however, is pcrfeftly the reverfe of what it is upon
land ; for, in order to fupport themltlves upon an ele-
ment lighter than their bodies, they are obligtd to in-
creafe their furface in a very artificial manner. On earth
their windings are perpendicular to the furface ; in wa-
ter they are parallel to it : in other words, if a perfon
fhould wave his hand up- and down, it will give an idea
of the animal's progrefs on land ; if to the right and
left, it will give fome Idea of its progrefs on the water.
Some ferpents have a moft horrible fcEtor attending Fo
them, which is alone capable ef intimidating the brave.
This proceeds from two glands near the vent, like thofe
in the weafel or polecat ; and, like thofe animals, in
proportion as they are excited by rage or by fear the
fcent grows ftronger. It would feem, however, that-
fuch ferpents as are moft venomous are leaft offenfive in
this particular ; fince the rattlefnake and the viper have
no fmell whatever ; nay, we are told, that at Calecut
and Cranganon, In the Eaft Indies, there are fome ve-
ry noxious ferpents, who are fo tar from being difa-
grecable, that theit exci -jments are fought after, and
kept as the moft pleafing perfume. The Efculapian
ferpent is alfo of this number.
Some ferpents bring forth their young alive, as theSnme
viper; fome bring' forth eggs, which are hatched by^'T*'"
the heat of their fituation, as the common black fnake,"'
and the majority of the ferpent tribe. When a reader,^"**
ignorant of anatomy, is told, that fome of thofe ani-
mals produce their young alive, and that fome produce
eggs only, he is apt to fuppofe a very great difference
in the internal coHformation, which makes fuch a varie-
ty in the manner of bringing forth. But this is not
the cafe : thefe animals are internally alike, in what-
ever manner they produce their young ; and the variety '
in their bringing forth is rather a flight than a real dlf-
criminatlon. The only difference is, that the viper
hatches her eggs, and brings them to maturity, within
her body ; the fiiake is more premature in her produc-
tions.
S E R
ttons, and fends tier eggs into the light fame time be-
fore the young ones are capable of leaving the fliell.
Thus, if either are opened, the eggs will be found in
the womb, covered with their membranous (hell, and
adhering to each other like large beads on a firing. In
the eggs of both, the young ones will be found, though
at different ftages of maturity : thofe of the viper will
crawl and bite in the moment the fhell that inclofes
them is broke open : thofe of the fnake are not yet ar-
rived at their perfect form.
Father Labat took a ferpent of the viper kind that
Vvas nine feet long, and ordered it to be opened in his
prefence. He then faw the manner in which the eggs
of thefe animals He in the womb. In this creature there
were fix eggs, each of the fize of a goofe egg, but
longer, more pointed, and covered with a membranous
ficin, by which alfo they were anited to each other.
Each of thefe eggs contained from 13 to 15 young
ones, about fix inches long, and as thick as a goofe-
qullh Though the female from whence they were ta-
ken was fpotted, the young feemed to have a va-
riety of colours very different from the parent ; and this
led the traveller to fuppofe that the colour was no cha-
rafteriflic mark among fetpents. Thefe little mifchie-
vous animals were no fooner let loofe from the fliell,
than they crept about, and put themfelves into a threat-
ening poflure, coihng themfelves up and biting the flick
with which he was deflroying them. In this manner he
killed 74 young ones ; thofe that were contained in one
of the eggs efcaped at the place where the female was
killed, by the burfting of the egg and their getting
among the bufhes.
The fafcinating power afcribed to ferpents, efpecially
•"^^ to rattlefnakes, by which they are faid to draw animals
to to them, is very curious. It has been defcribed by fo
S E R
many different perfon
feen inflances of it, and h
10 affirmed that they had
been believed by fo many
men of penetration and difcernment, that it deferves at
leaft to be mentioned. The rattlefnake fixes its eyes
upon any animal, fuch as a bird or fquirrel. When the
animal fpies the fnake, it flcips from fpray to fpray, ho-
vering and approaching nearer the enemy ; defcending,
with diftrafted geflures and cries, from the top of the
loftieft trees to the mouth of the fnake, who opens his
jaws, and in an inftant fwallows the unfortunate ani-
mal.
The following inflances of fafcination have fo much
the appearance of fiftion, that it would require a very
uncommon degree of evidence to render them credible.
They are extradled from a paper in the Gentleman's
Magazine for the year i 765, p. 5 11. which was com-
municated by Mr Peter Collinfon from a correfpondent
in Philadelphia.
" A perfon of good credit was travelling by the fide
of a creek or fmall river, where he faw a ground fquirrel
running to and fro between the creek and a great tree
a few yards diflant ; the fquirrel's hair lookiag very
rough, which fhowed he was feared, and his returns being
fhorter and fhorter, the man flood to obfcrve the caufe,
and foon fpied the head and neck of a rattlefnake point-
ing at the fquirrel through aliole of the great tree, it
being hollow ; the fquirrel at length gave over running,
and laid himfclf -quietly down with his head clofe to
the fnake's ; the fnake then opened his mouth wide, and
took in the fquirrel's head ; upon which the man gave
Vol, XVII. Part I.
the fnake a whip aerofs the neck, and fo the fquirrel be-
ing releafed, he ran into the creek.
" When I was about 1 3 years old, I lived with Wil-
liam Atkinfon, an honefl man in Bucks county, wl/),
returning from a ride in warm weather, told us, that
while his horfc was drinking at a run, he lieard the cry
of a blackbird, which he fpied on the top of a faphng,
fluttering and flraining the way he feemed unwilling to
fly, and holding fo fail the (prigs he was perched upon
that the fappling top bent. After he had viewed the
bird a few minutes, it quitted the place, and made a
circle or two higher in the air, and then refumed its
former flanding, fluttering and crying : Thereupon
William rode the way the bird flrained, and foon fpied
a large black fnake in coil, fleadily eyeing the bird. He
gave the fnake a lafh with his whip, and this taking off
the fnake's eye from his prey, the charm was broken,
and away fled the bird, changing its note to a fong of
joy-
" Mr Nicholas Scull, a furveyor, told me, that when
he was a young man, as he happened once to be lean-
ing upon a fence, and looking over it, he faw a large
rattlefnake in coil, looking flcdfaftly at him. He found
himfelf furprifed and liftlefs immediately, and had no
power for about a minute (as he thinks) but to look at
the fnake, and then he had the refolution to pufh him-
felf from the fence, and turn away, feehng fuch horror
and confufion as he would not undergo again for any
confideration.
" Do6lor Chew tells me, a man in Maryland was
found fault with by his connpanion that he did not
come along ; the companion flepping towards him, ob-
fcrved that his eyes were fixed upon a rattlefnake which
was gliding flowly towards him, with his head raifed as
if he was reaching up at him ; the man was leaning to-
wards the fnake, and faying to himfelf, he will bite me!
he Kviil bite me! Upon which his companion caught him
by the fhoulder, and pulled him about, and cried out.
What the devil ails you? He tvill bite you Jure enough!
This pian found himfelf very fick after his inchant-
ment."
The fafcinating power of ferpents was believed by
Dr Mead and other eminent men, who certainly thought
they had fufhcient evidence for admitting it. Incredible
therefore as it appears, it ought not" to be rejefted
without examination % though being of a very extraor-
dinary nature, it cannot be received without unqueflion-
able evidence. Scepticifm is no lefs abfurd than incre-
dulity ; and the true philofopher will carefully avoid
both. Human knowledge is founded on obfervation
and experience ; not, however, on every man's perfonal
obfervation and experience, but on the united ob-
fervatioH and experience of all mankind. But this
prefuppofes the credibility of human teftimony in every
cafe that does not involve an impolTibility. All the
laws of nature are not yet known, nor all the wonder-
ful powers of which fhe is poffefTed. It is not more in-
credible h priori, that the eye of a ferpent fhould at-
tra6l an animal than that a magnet fliould attraft a
piece of iron, or a piece of iron attract eleftrical mat-
ter. The evidence of thefe fads refts entirely on per-
fonal obfervation or authentic teflimony. The only
thing requifite with refpeft to objefts of teftimony is,
when the fa6t is fo extraordinary as has not fallen within
the obf<;rvation of the generality of men, the ftrength
CLq of
«3
How rheir
S E R [ .'506
of the evidence muft be in proportion to the extraordi- bile
nary nature of the {?.&.. To apply this to the prefent
cafe : We have the telllmony of many perfons that
fortie ferpents have a power of fafcination ; but the ge-
nerality of men have never obferved this ; it is there'^ore
an cxtraordinaiy fad, and requires extraordinary evi-
dence. But the evidence is not fatisfaAory ; therebre
we do not receive it as a fad : oq the other hand, it is
ilnpliilofnphical to reject it a priori.
No fubieft has excited more philofophic^.l controver-
■fy than the poifon of ferpents, with regard to its na-
ture and mode of operating. Antiquity has not been
fparing in conjedure and fiftion upon this fubjedt, and
its errors have been retained with the moil reverential
obftinacy by the vulgar : among thcfe we are to rec-
kon the hftltions fting fixed in the tail of the ferpent, as
the painters fometimes have groundlefsly enough repre-
fwited it ; feme have invented a fimilar fiftion of a black
forked tonwue, which the ferpent vibrates on both fides,
and have aicribed its power of producing fuch noxious
efveft to this ; while others, affefting an air of fuperior
difcei-nment, have, upon equally good reafons, afcribed
it to the teeth in general : thefe are all errors of a mag-
nitude that the mod defultory attention to the fubjeft
would have been fufficient to have removed^ There is
a very fmall bone clofely fixed to the upper jaw, in the
iafide of the lip of a poifonous ferpent, which has a
power of moving backward or forward ; to this two or
three fan?,s ai'e annexed larger than the teeth, which
the ferpent, by its afliftance, when enraged, darts for-
ward, or withdraws and conceals at his pleafure, in a
] S E R
they applied this fit\Ion without hefitatlon to iht
prefent fubjeCt, and founded an hypothelis upon it, to
accovmt for the effects of the b!te of an incenfed fer-
pent ; pretending to have difcovered an ideal canal
which condtifted the bile from its veficle to the mouth
of the ferpent, whence it flowed into the part bitten,
and produced the moll fatal fymptoms. But tow^ird
the end of the lail century, this fubjeCl was greatly il-
hiftratcd under the aufpice? of Ferdmnnd II. Great
Duke of Tufcany : This prince, defirous of inquiring
into that niyflerious queilion, the nature of ferpents, in-
vited Steno, Rhedi, and fome other ph'lofophers of the
firtl eminence, to his court ; and a multitude of the
niofl poifonous ferpents being colledled, Rhedi made fe-
vcral experiments upon them, which difcovered to hirn-
a number of particulars before unknown ; of which the
following feem to have the bell claim to our attcntioq.
When he either cauied a hving viper to bite a do'.r, or
wounded him with the teeth of one newly dead (the
poifonous veficle remaining unbroken \ the event was
the fame. If the bite was repeated, its effeft became
weaker, and at had was lofl, the poifon contained in th«
veficle being totally exhaufled. Tliat the teeth of fer-
pents, when extended to bite, were nioiftened over with
a certain liquor; and when -the veficle at the bafe waj
prefTed, a drop of poifori flowed to the point of the.
fang. When the poifon thus ^ic^wing from the veficle-
was received in foft bread or a fponge, an animal bitten,
by the ferpent received no more harm from the wound ;
than from being pricked by a needle, till aitex a (evf-
days, when the venom was reflored ?ifrefh : but when an
fimilar manner to the claws of a cat : thefe fangs, which animal was wounded with the point of a needle dipped",
the common people name the large teeth of the ferpent, in the poifon, it s«-as tormented with the fame pains as if it;
are excellently defcribed by Tyfon in the anatomy of had been bitten by the viper ilfelf. Prcferving fome of
the rattlefnake, which he has given in the Philofo- this poifon in a glafs, and totally evaporating the moif-
phical Tranfadtions. " In thefe (the fangs) we obfer- ture in the fun, when the jfefiduum was diluted again'
ved a confiderable cavity near the bafe ; and near the with water, and the point of a needle dipped in the fo-
point a very difcernible fiffure of fome length like the lution, Rhedi found to his great furprife that it had the
Hit of a pen : the part of the tooth from the fiffure to fame effed as when recent. But the boldnefs of Toz-
the root was manifeftly channelled, which we firfl dif- zi, one who charmed vipers, flung all thefe men wha.
covered by hghtly prefiing the gums ; we then faw the were deeply verfed in natural philofophy into the ut-
polfon afcend through the cavity of the fang and flow mofl aflonifliment. They happening to fall into dif-
out of the fiffure ; and as thefe fangs are fo very acute, courfe (while the prince was prefent) upon the certain
fo firm and folid toward the point (the fiffure being on death which would attend any perfon's fwallowing this
the external and convex, not the internal fide), nothiiig poifon of the viper by miftake, inflead of fpirit of win*
eould be conceived more convenient either for infliding or water ; Tozzi, confiding in his art, drank a confi-
a wound, or to infure the infufion of the poifon." derable portion of it without hefitation : they were all
Each of the fan:r8 is farrounded with a veficle furnifh- aflonilhed at his apparent raihnefs, and predided inftant
ed with glands fecreting a certain fluid ; which, upon death to the man ;. however, he efcaped as fafely as if he
the veficle being preffed, feems to flow out of the point had drunk only fo much water. This event, which
©f the fang. The ferpent when incenfed, raifing his flruck the prince and his illuftrious affociates in thefe
head, extends the fmall bone armed with the fangs philofophical inquiries by its. novelty, was well knowij
mentioiied above ; and attacking his enemy with a force to the ancients. Lucan, in the 9th book of the Phar-
combined of the weight of his body and the adion of falia, fpeaking of the ferpent, fays»
the rnufcles, he wounds him with tlie expanded fangs.
and the veficle being compreffed iht poifon immediately
flows into the wound : this- is clear from the experience
of thofe who, having broken off their fangs with a pair
of forceps, handled the ferpent thus difarmed without
any hurt. The North Americans, after carefully exr
trading thcfe venomous fangs, fufier the rattlefnake to
bite and gnaw theni with his teeth till the blood flows
freely, with total impunity.
Antiquity amufed itfelf with a fable deflitutc of all are perfedly acquainted with the property of the poi-
appearance of trathj that anger was excited by black fon of ferpents by which it retains its deadly power af.
ter
J^ox'ia ferpentum eji adm'tjlo f anguine peflis
Morfu virus habent el fatum dente minnntur,
Pocula morle carent. Phar. 1. 9. v. 6 1 4^
Mix'd with the blood that venom flays alone,
His bite is poifon ; death is in his fang ;
Yet is the draught innoxious.
Nor raufl we omit obfervlng, that barbarous nations
S E R r 5
tPf It has been long kept : they have bwn poftcffcd of
this fatal fecret for ages pall ; it being then- ciiftom to
tinge the points of their arrows with the jaice of fpurge,
putrid fiefh, or oil of tobacco, but more particularly
with the poifon of vipers. Some modern Indians con-
tinue the pradlice to this day ; and we have the tefti-
inony of Pliny, in his Natural Hiftory, that the Scy-
thians had lon^ ago the fame cuftom : " The Scythians
{fays that author) dip their arrows in the poifon of vi-
pers and human blood ; a horrid pratJtice, as the (light-
eft wound inlllcied by one of them defies all the art of
medicine."
Tlie poifon of ferpents produce? fatal effefts only by
mixing \<^ith the blood. To confirm this principle, the
Florentine philofophers collefted a quantity ot poifon,
and gave it to different animals without producing the
kaft inconvenience ; but when apph'ed to. an external
wound, every one of thofe horrid fymptoms which ac-
company the' real bite followed, viz. infianmiatcry and
malignant fevers, ending in death, unlefs nature, by a
fjjontaneous hemonhage, or forae other evacuation, dif-
•harged this poifon. With rtfpeft to the experiments
of Rhedi, every one of his obfervations prove, that the
liquid prefTed out of the veficle which moiftens the
fangs of the ferpents is only noxious by being convey-
ed into the blood, by means of a punfture or wound ;
and the cafe of Tozzi, who drank a confideiable quan-
tity of this poifon without fuffering injury, proves that
it hurts the blood only when externallj^ mixed with it.
The fymptoms of the bite of the viper have already
»i« been deferibed under Medicine, n''4o8. with the cures
J. recommended by Dr Mead for the bite of ferpents in
general. Under the article Poison, p. 26p. we have
mentioned the Abbe Fontana's method of cure, -viz. li-
gatures, and the beneficial eifedls of the volatile alkali.
We fhall now therefore fupply what has been omitted
in thefe articles, by defcribing the fymptoms which ac-
company the bite of other ferpents.
The fymptoms attending the bite of the co/uier pref-
ter, a native of Sweden, are, pain in the wound, tumor,
thirft, afthma, anxieties, convulfions, and death.
There is a ferpent ftill more dreadful than any of the
former, found in Sweden, called coluber cnrcia. The
bite of this is followed by immediate change of colour,
coldnefs, ftupor, palpitation of the heart, acute pain all
over t-he body, and death. Linnseus tried oil in this
caCa, but it proved ineffeftual.
The c' otalus homdus of Linnaeus, the ratclefnake,
kills in a very fudden manner ; his bite ufually produ-
cing death within twelve hours.
The following account of the poifon ferpent of the
Eaft Indies is given by M. d'Obfonville. " Among the
ferpents of India, thai which I beheve to hz moll for-
midable is but about two feet long, and very fmall. Its
ftixn is freckled Miith little traits of brown or pale red,
and contrafted with a ground of dirty yellow : it is
•moftly found in dry and rocky places, and its bite mor-
tal in lefs than one or two minutes. In the year i 759,
and in the province of Cadapet, I faw leveral inftances
of it ; and among others, one very fmgular, in the midft
of a corps of troops commanded by M. de BulTy. An
Indian Gentoo merchant perceived a Mahometan fol-
<dier of his acquaintance going to kill one ol thefe rep-
t.iks, which he had> found fleeping under hia packet,
07 ] SEE
the Gentoo flew to beg its life, protefting it would do ^trf>et.t.
no hurt if it was not fiift provoked; pafiing at the "
fame time his hand under its belly to carry it out of the
camp, when fuddenly it twilled round, and bit his little
finger ; upon which this unfortunate martyr of a fana-
tic charity gave a fhriek, took a few fteps, and fell
down infenfible. They flew to his afliftance, applied
the ferpent -Hone, fire, and fcarifications, but they vvere
all ineffeftual, his blood was already coagulated. About
an hour after, I faw the body as they were goin<i; to
burn it, and.I thought I perceived fome indications of
a coinplete difiblution ot the blood.
" The ferpens brulans, or burning ferpent, is neai-ly of
the fame form with the laft mentioned ; its fkin is not
quite of fo deep a brown, and is fpeckled with dark
green fpots ; its poifon is almoft as dangerous, but it is
lefs aftive, and its effedls are very different : in fome
perfons it is a devouring fire, which, as it circulates
through the veins, prefently occafions death ; the blood
difTolves into a lymphatic liquor, refembling thin broth,
without apparently having palTcd through the interme-
diate Hate ot coagulation, and runs from eyes, nofe, and
ears, and even through the pores. In other fubjects,
the poifon feems to have changed the very nature of the
humours in dilTolving them ; the fldn is chapped and
bec-omes fcaly, the hair falls off, the members are tume-
fied, the patient feels <\\ over his body the mofi: racking
pains, numbnefs, and is not long in perifhlng. It is
laid, however, that people have been cured by remedies
well and foon applied. Be that as it may, it feems to
me that the poifon of thefe different reptiles is in gene-
ral more powerful the more they live in hot and dry
places, where they feed upon infedls that are full of fa-,
line, volatile, and acrimonious particles."
We are ignorant of what fpecie the hemorrhois was,
which is deferibed by Lucan as caufing by its bite a
flux of blood from every part of the body. But the
bite of an American ferpent named de la crux kills in
the fame manner.
The dipfafas is at prefent likewife unknown. Lu-
can informs us, that the perfon wounded by it was at-
tacked by an unquenchable thirft. This is finely paint,
ed by him ; where A. Tufcus, ftandard-bearer of Cato,
is deferibed as bitten by that ferpent ;
Non decus imperil, non maejli jura C atoms
Ardentem ttnuere •virum, quin fpargere Jtgna
Auderet, totljque furem exquircret agris
Sluas pofcebat aquas Jitiens in corde venerium.
Pharfal. 1. 9.
His wild impatience, not his honour'd flate,
Nor fdrrowing Cato's high command, reftrain ;
Furious, diihonour'd in the duft, he flings
His facred eagle, and o'er all the fields
Rapid he burfts to feek the cooling itream,
Tu quench the thirfty poifon in his breaft.
And a few verfes after :
Sirutatur vtnas penitus fqualentis or erne
Nunc redit ad Syrtesy el jiuSus accipit ore^
jiquoreafque placet , Jed nun Jibi fujfi'. tt humor^
Nec jeniit fatique genus, murt-mque veneni,
Sed put at ejje jiiim ; ferroque aperire tumentes
Sujiinuit vmas, atque ot impiere cruore.
Qji 2 Now
S E R [
Serpent. Now tearing xip the fands, fome latent vein
""""V""^ Fruftrate he feeks ; now to the Syrtes fliore
Return'd, he fwallows down the briny flood
Mix'd with its rolling fands ; nor knows his fate
And the fad poifon's death, but calls it thirft ;
Then with his fword Opens his fpouting veins,
And drinks the burfting blood.
The phytasy or amodyfes of Linnseus, or, according
t© ethers, the coluber a/pis, feems to have been the fer-
pent made ufe of by Cleopatra to deflroy herfelf. This
woman, to terminate a diffipated life with an eafy death,
ordered her phyficians to prepare a poifon for her which
might beft effeft this purpofe. Having tried a num-
ber of different experiments upon condemned criminals,
they at laft difcovered this fpecies of afp, which brings
on death without any previous appearance of diftemper
or hiccough : the face feems in a flight perfpiration, an
eafy infenfibility and lethargy creeps upon the whole
frame, and the perfon bitten feems almoft totally igno-
rant of his approaching dilTolution. Having acquaint-
ed the queen with their difcovcry, flie applied the afp
either to her bofom or her arms ; or, according to fome
authors, dipping the point of a needle in the poifon,
and pricking herfelf with it, Ihc expired in an eafy
fleep.
The bite of the naja is fo fatal, that a man dies by
it in the fpace of an hour, his flefli entirely falling off
his bones in a femidilfolved putrid ftate : this makes it
probable that it is the fame ferpent which the ancients
named .the fepe.
The experiments of Rhedi have not, in the opinion
of fome celebrated philofophers, fo far cleared the the-
ory of the operation of the poifon of the viper, as to
leave nothing further to be dcfired upon that fubjeft.
Fontana and Carminati hare endeavoured to inveftigate
its operations more clearly. Carminati, from 1 1 expe-
riments, deduces the following conclufions : i. That if
poifon be inflilled into a nerve, the animal wounded dies
almoft inftarttly ; and the whole nervous fyftem, to
which it is rapidly conveyed, is deprived of its quality
called fenjibillty. 2. If a mufcle be wounded, it is de-
prived of its irritability. This is confirmed by the ex-
periments of Fontana. 3. The poifon injedled into a
wounded mufcle or tendon is confiderably longer in kill-
ing an animal than that introduced into a nerve. 4.
The fymptoms which precede the death of the animal
bitten are, a ftupor, lethargy, tremors, convulfions, pa-
ralyfis of the legs (part wounded), entire diflblution of
the limbs. The blood is not always coagulated, nor its
crafis diffolved. Marks of inflammation are fometimes
difcovered in certain parts of the animal after death,
fometimes not : thefe are the effefts of fpafms and con-
vulfions, not of the poifon. 5. Not the leaft fign of
the jaundice was difcoverabk in the eyes of any of the
animals upon which Carminati made his experiments.
6. The fl;omach in every one of them was very much
inflated ; a fymptom remarked only by Fallopius and
Albertini. 7. A ligature applied inftantly above the
part bitten, if it be fo placed as. to admit one, was
found by fome experiments a good preventative againft
the diffufion of the poifon : its compreffion ftiould be
confiderable, but not exceffive.
As few ferpents, comparatively fpeaking, are poifon-
ous^ it may be interefting to our readers to know what
308 ] S E R
are the charaftcriftics which diftinguiih polfonous from Si
harmlefs ferpents. The external charafteriftics of the
poifonous tribe are thefe :
" I . A broad head, covered with fmall fcales, though [
it be not a certain criterion of venomous ferpents, is, j;
with fome few exceptions, a general charadler of them, (ei
*' 2. A tall under one-fifth of the whole length^'-'
is alfo a general charafter of venomous ferpents ; but, "'^
fince many ot thofe which are not venomous have tails
as ftiort, little dependence can be placed upon that cir-
cumft;ance alone. On the other hand, a tail exceeding
that proportion, is a pretty, certain mark that the fpe-
cies to which it belongs is not venomous.
" 3. A thin and acute tail is by no means to be con-
fidered as peculiar to venomous ferpents ; though a thick
and obtufe one is only to be found among thofe which
are not venomous.
" 4. Carinated fcales are, in fome meafure, charafter-
iftic of venomous ferpents, fince in them they are more
common than fmooth ones, in the proportion of nearly
four to one ; whereas fmooth fcales are, in thole fer-
pents which are not venomous, more common, in the
proportion of nearly three to one.
" Upon the whole, therefore, it appears, that though
a pretty certain conjefture may, in many inttancee, be
made from the external characters, yet, in order to de-
termine with certainty whether a ferpent be venomous
or not, it becomes neceflary to have recourfe to fome
certain diagnoftic. This can only be fought for in the
mouth : we mutt therefore next confider how the fangs,
with which the mouths of venomous ferpents are fur-
nifhed, are to be diftinguifhed from common teeth.
" To thofe who form their ideas of the, fangs of a
venomous ferpent, from thofe of the rattlefnake, or even
from thofe of the Engllfli viper, it will appear ftrange
that there fliould be any difliculty in diftinguifliing
thofe weapons from common teeth ; and indeed the di-
ftindlion would really be very eafy, were all venomous
ferpents fumiflied with fangs as large as thofe of the
fore-mentioned fpecies. But the fa£l is, that in many
fpecies the fangs arc full as fmall as common teeth, and
confequcntly cannot, by their fize, be known from them ;
this is the cafe with the coluber laticaudatus, iaSeusj
and feveral others."
Linnaeus thought that the fangs might be diftin-
guiilied by their mobility and fituation ; but other na^
turalifl;s have not found it a general fadl that fangs are
loofe in their fockets, nor have they obferved any diffe-
rence in fituation between the fangs of venomous fer-
pents and the teeth of others. The following dittinc-
tion is eftablifhed by Dr Gray in a paper inferted in the
Philofophical Tranfafilions, Vol. Ixxix. yf// venomous fer-
pents have only tnuo fows of teeth in the upper jaw, and
all others have four.
In the preface to the Mufeum Regis, and in the in-
troduftion to the clafs amphibia in the Syjtema Natura,
Linnaeus fays, that the proportion of venomous ferpents
to others is one in ten ; yet, in the Syjlema Nature, of
which the fum total in fpecies is 131, he has marked
23 as venomous, which is fomewhat more than one in
fix. How he came to be fo much at variance with
himfelf, it is not eafy to fay ; but the laft mentioned
proportion feems to be not far from the truth, as Dr
Gray, after examining 154 fpecies of ferpents, found
only 26 that feemed to be venomous.
The
S E R
[ 3
The eoluher Jiolatus and rnvBerizanSy though mark-
ed by Linnaeus, we arc affured by Dr Gray are not poi-
lonous : he thinks the fame may be faid of the lebens
and dypfas. On the other hand, he obferves, that the
boa contortrix, coluber cerafies, lat'icaudalus, and cola'
her fuhus, none of which are marked in the S^i/lema
Natura, are all poifonous.
In addition to the method of cure mentioned in the
articles referred to above, we lhall fubjoin the prefcrip-
tion of a new author, Di Mofeley*, who fpent 1 2 years
in the Weft Indies, and whofe abilities and extenfive
pradlice very juftly intitle his opinion to a place in
this work, to the attention of the public, and to all me-
dical gentlemen going to the Weft Indies.
" 'i'he bites and ftings of all venomous animals are
cured by the fame local means ; which are very fimple,
if they were always at hand. The injured part muft
be inltantly deftroyed or be cut out. Deftroying it is
the moft fafe, and equally certain : and the beft appli-
cation for that purpofe is the lapis infernalis or the but-
ter of antimony. — Thefe are preferable to an hot iron,
which the ancients ufed, becaufe an hot iron forms a
cruft, which a£ls as a defence to the under parts, in-
ftead of deftroying them. The lapis infernahs is much
better than any other cauftic, as it melts and penetrates
during its application. The bitten part muft be de-
ftroyed to the bottom, and where . there is any doubt
that the bottom of the wound is not fufficiently expo-
fed, butter of antimony (hould be introduced into it on
the following day, as deep as poffible ; and incifions
fliould be made to lay every part open to the adion of
thefe applications. Befides deftroying, burning, or cut-
ting out the part, incifions ftiould be made round the
wound, to prevent the communication of the virus. The
wound is to be dreffed for fome time with poultices, to
alTuage the inflammation eaufed by the cauftics ; and
afterwards with acrid dreflings and hot digeftives to
drain the injured parts.
" Where the above-mentioned cauftics cannot be
procured, corrofive fubhmate, oil of vitriol, aquafortis,
Ipirit of fait, common cauftic, or a plafter made of
fruicklime and foap, may be appHed to the wound.
Gunpowder laid on the part, and fired, has been ufed
with fuccefs. When a perfon is bitten remote from
any affiftance, he ftiould make a tight ligature above
the part, until proper apphcation can be made. The
Spanifli writers fay, that the habil/a de Carihagena, or
Carthagena bean, is a fpecific for poifonous bites, taken
inwardly.
" UUoa fays, it is * one of the moft effeftual anti-
dotes known in that country (Carthagena) againft the
bites of vipers and ferpents : for a little of it being
eaten immediately after the bite, it prefently ftops the
effefts of the poifon ; and accordingly all who frequent
the woods, either for felling trees or hunting, never fail
to eat a little of this habilla fafting, and repair to their
work without any apprehenfion.
' The natives tell you, that this habilla being hot in
the higheft degree, much of it cannot be eaten j that
09 ] S E R
the common dofe of it is lefs than the fourth part of a Serpent,
kernel ; and that no hot liquor, as wine, brandy, &c. " ^
muft be drunk immediately after taking it.'
" The Carthagena bean, or habilla, is found in great
abundance in the Weft Indian iflands, where it is gene-
rally known by the name of Antidote or Cocoon, or An-
tidote Cocoon. In fmall dofes it is ftomachic and dia-
phoretic ; and in large dofes emetic and purgative. In
feveral diforders it is a powerful remedy ; but its virtues
are not fufficiently known, except among the Indiana
and negroes, who chiefly ufe an infufion or tinfture of
it made in rum. This is externally as well as internally
ufed for many complaints (a).
" I have been informed by fome intelligent Indians,
that any of the red peppers, fuch as bird pepper, or
bell pepper, or what is called Cayenne pepper, powdered
and taken in a glafs of rum as much as the ftomach can
poflibly bear, fo as to caufe, and keep up for fome time,,
great heat and inflammation in the body ail^ a vigorous
circulation, will ftop the progrefs of the poifon ot fer-
pents, even after its effefts are vifible ; and that the
bitten part only afterwards mortifies and feparates, and
that the patient, with bark, wine, and cordials, foon re-
covers.
" This fiery praftice Is certainly agreeable to that of
the ancients, and probably the only internal treatment
that can have any good tflfcft ; as in thefe cafes the
powers of life, and the aftion of the heart, ai-e fuddenly
enfeebled, and the pulfe in ftrength and frequency ob-
ferves almoft a regular declenfion from the time of the
bite until it entirely ceafes in death."
Polygala fenegOy or rattlefnake-root, was formerly -yyj^y fome-
confidered as a fovcreign remedy for the bite of the ferpents are
rattlefnake ; but this opinion is now exploded* poifonous.
If it be aflced for what purpofe were ferpents created
with fuch deftru£live weapons ? we anfwer, that they
were given for felf-defence. Without thefe, ferpents,
of all other animals, would be the moft expofed and de-
fencelefs ; without feet for efcaping a purfuit, without
teeth capable of inflidling a dangerous wound, or with-
out ftrength for refiftance ; incapable, from their (ize,
of finding fecurlty in very fmall retreats like the earth-
worm, and difgufting all from their deformity, nothing
was left for them but a fpeedy extirpation. But fur-
nifhed as they are with powerful poifon, every rank of
anirnals approach them with dread, and never feize them
but at an advantage. Nor Is this all the benefit they
derive from it. The malignity of a few ferves for the
proteflion of all. Though not above a tenth of their
number are aftually venomous, yet the fimilitude they
all bear to each other excites a general terjror of the
whole tribe ; and the uncertainty of their enemies
about what ferpents are poifonous, makes even the moft:
, harmlefs formidable. Thus Providence feems to have
afted with double precaution : it has given fome of
them poifon for the general defence of a tribe naturally
feeble ; but it has thinned the numbers of thofe which
are venomous, left they ftiould become too powerful for
the reft of animated nature.
From
(a) " This bean is the feed of \ht Fevillea foliis cordatis of Flumier, Ed. Burmanni, p. 203. tab.. 209,'
FeviUea foliis cordatis, angulatis, of Linnseus, Spec. P. Fevillea foliis craffioribus, glabris, quandoque cordatis**
quandoque trilobis, or Antidote Cocoon, of Brown, p. 374."
S E R
bus
5 ^ee
i^SVLLI.
Some per-
foi s fa-
mous for
charitiing
then].
. ^'''^'^ noxious qualities in the ferpent kind, it
no wonder that not only man, but bealls and birds,
Enemlc* of Cany on aH unceafmg war againil them. The ichneii-
fdrj ents. nion of the Indians, and the peccary * of America, de-
*See Vi- .ftroy them in great numbers. i hcfe animals have the
VERRA ai d art of feizing them near the head ; and it is faid tiiat
they can (kin them with great dexterity. The vulture
and the eagle alfo prey upon"»them in great ?.bundance ;
end often, foufing down from the clouds, drop upon a
long ferpent, which they fnatch up ftruggling and wri-
thing in the air. Dogs alfo are bred up to oppofe
them. Father Feuillce tells us, that being in the woods
•of Martlnlco, he was attacked by a large ferpent, which
he could not cafily avoid, when his dog immediately
came to his relief, and fei; - d the affdilant with great
■courage. The ferpent entwined him, and prefled him
fo violently, that the blood c?.me out of his mouth, and
yet the dog never ceafed till he had torn it to pieces.
The dog was not fenfible of his wounds during the
fight ; but foon after his head fwelled prodigioufly, and
he lay on the ground as dead. But his maiter having
found a banana ti-ee hard by, he applied its juice mixed
vith treacle to the wounds, which recovered the dog,
and qiu'ckly healed his fores.
The Pfylli of old were famsus for charming and de-
ftroying ferpents ^. Some moderns pretend to the
fame art. Cafaubon fays that he knew a man who
could at any time fummon loo ferpents together, and
draw them into the fire. Upon a certain occafion,
when one of them, bigger than the reft, would not be
brought in, he only repeated his chaim, and it came
forward, like the reft, to fubmit to the flames. Philo-
ftratus defcribes particularly how the Indians charm fer-
pents, " They take a fcarlet robe, embroidered with
golden letters, and fpread it before a ferpent's hole. —
The golden letters have a fafcinatln^ power ; and by
looking ftedfan:ly, the ferpent's eyes are overcome and
laid afleep." Thefe and many other feats have been of-
ten praftiled upon thefe animals by artful men, who had
lirft prepared the ferpents for their exercife, and then
exhibited them as adventitioufly affcmbled at their call.
In India there is nothing fo common as dancing fer-
pents, which are carried about in a broad flat veflel,
fomewhat refembling a fieve. Thefe ere£l and put
themfelves in motion at the word of command. When
their keeper fings a flow tune, they fcem by their heads
to keep time ; when he flngs a quicker meafure, they ap-
pear to move more briflc and lively, n 11 animals have
a certain degree of docility ; and we find that ferpents
themfelves can be brought to move and approach at the
voice of their mafter. From this trick, fuccefsfully
praftifed before the ignorant, it is moft probable has
arifen moll of the boafted pretenflons whidi fome have
made to charming of ferpents ^ an art to which the na-
tive Americans pretend at this very day, but the exiit-
ence of which we are affured of by Mr Halftlquitl
30 amongft the native Egyptians.
Regarded Though the generality of mankind regard this for-
with vene- ridable race with horror, yet there have been fome na-
fome coun-^'°"^' '^"^ ^'^^'^^ fome at this day, that confider them
Srfes» wath veneration and regard. The adoration paid by
the ancient Egyptians to a ferpent is well known :
many of the nations at prefent along the wtftern coaft
of Africa retain the fame unaccountable veneration. Up-
1
6 E R
on the gold and flave coafls, a fl ranger, upon enterlagf
the cottages of the natives, is often furprifed to fee the
roof fwarming with ferpents, that cling there without
molefting and unmolefted by the natives. But his fur*
prife will increafe upon going farther fouthward to the
kingdom of Widah, when he finds that a ferpent is the
god of the country. This animal, which travellers de-
fcribe as a huge overgrown creature, has its habitation,
its temple, and its priefts. Thefe imprefs the vulgar
with an opinion of its virtues ; and numbers are daily
feen to offer not only their goods, their provifions, and
their prayers, at the flirine of their hideous deity, but
alio their wives and daughters. Thefe the priells rea-
dily accept of, and after fome days of peaance return
them to their fnppliants, much benefited by the ferpent's
fuppofed embraces.
Serpent, a muftcal inftrument, ferving as a bafs
to the cornet, or Jmai! fiaivm, to fuftain a chorus
of fingers in a large ediiice. It has its name ferpent
from its figure, as confifling of feveral folds or wreaths,
which ierve to reduce its length, which would other-
wife be fix or feven feet.
It is ufu?,lly coveied with leather, and confifts of
three parts, a mouth-piece, a neck, and a tail. It has
fix holes, by means whereof it takes in the compafs of
two oftaves.
Merfennus, who has particularly dcfcribed this in-
ftrument, mentions fome peculiar properties of it,
c. gr. that the found of it is fbrong enough to drown
2 0 robuft voices, being animated merely by the breath
of a boy, and yet the found of it may be attempered to
the foftnefs of the fweeteft voice. Another peculiarity
to this inftrument is, that great as the diftance between
the third and fourth hole appears, yet whether the
third hole be open or fhut, the difference is but a tone.
Serpent, in mythology, was a very common fymbol
of the fun, and he is reprefented biting his tail, and
with his body formed into a circle, in order to indicate
the ordinary courfe of this luminary, and under this
form it was an emblem of time and eternity. The fer-
pent was alfo the fymbol of medicine, and of the gods
which prefided over it, as of Apollo and ^fculapius :
and this animal was the objeft of very ancient and gene-
ral worfiiip, under various appellations and charaders.
In moft of the ancient rites we find fome alluiion to
the ferpent, under the feveral titles of Ob, Ops, Py-
thon, &c. Th IS idolatry is alluded to by Mofes, (XjCv.
XX. 27.) The woman at Endor who had a familiar fpi-
rit Is called Oub, or Ob, and it is interpreted Pythonif-
fa. The place where fhe refided, fays the learned Mr
Bryant, feems to have been named from the worfhip
then inftituted ; for Endor is compounded of En^ador^
and fignifies/c/«x Pyilr vh, " the fountain of light, the
oracle of the god Ador, which oracle was probably
founded by the Canaanites, and had never been totally
fuppreffed. His pillar was alfo called /Ibbadir, or /tb-
adir, compounded of ab and adir, and meaning the
ferpent deity Addir, the fame as Adorus.
In the orgies of Bacchus, the perfons who partook
of the ceremony ufed to carry ferpents in their hands,
and with horrid fcreams call upon Eva ! Eva ! Eva
being, according to the writer juft mentioned, the fame
as epha, or opha, which the Greeks rendered opbis^
and by it denoted a ferpent. Thefe ceremonies and
4 this
S E R [3
this fymbolic worfbip began among the Magi, who
were the ff.qis of Chus j and by them they w^re propa-
gated in various parts- Wherever the Amonians found-
ed any places of worfhip, and introduced their rites,
there was generally ioroe flory of a ferpent. There was
s legend about a ferpent at Colchis, at Thebes, and at
JDelphi ; and hkewife in other placets. The Greeics
•called Apollo himlelP Python, which is the fame as
Opis, Oupia, and Oub.
In Egypt there was a ferpent named Thermuthis,
which was looked upon as very facred ; and the natives
are faid to have n^ade ufe of it as a royal tiara, with
•which they omamentcd the ftatues of Ifis. The kings
pf Egypt wore high bonnets, terminating in a round
ball, and furrounded with figures of afps ; and the
priefts likewife had the reprefentation of ierpents upon
their bonnets.
Abadon, or Abaddon, -mentioned in the Revelations
xx. is fuppofed by Mr Bryant to have been the name
of the Ophite god, with whofe worfhip the world bad
been fo long infedled. This worfhip began among the
people of Chaldea, who built the city of Ophis upon
the Tigris, and w ere greatly addicled to divination*, and
to the worfhip of the ferpent. From Chaldea the wor-
fhip paffed into Egypt, where the ferpent deity wa«
called Canoph, Can-eph, and C'neph. It had alfo the
name of Ob or Oub, and was the fame as the Bafihfcus
or royal ferpent, the fame as the Thermuthis, and made
ufe of by way of ornament to the ftatues of their gods.
The chief deity of Egypt is faid to have been Vulcan,
vho was ftyled Opas. He was the fame as Ofiris, the
Sun, and hence was often called Ob el, or Pytho-fol ;
and there were pillars facred to him, with curious hie-
roglyphical infcriplions bearing the fame name; whence
amolng the Greeks, who copied from the Egyptians,
every thing gradually tapering to a point was ftyled
©belos, or obelifcus.
As the worfhip of the ferpent began amontr the fons
of Chus, Mr Bryant conjeclures, that from thence tliey
Vv'ere denominated Ethiopians and Aithiopians, from
Atk-ooe or Ath-opes, the god whom they worfhipped,
and not from their complexion : the Ethiopes brought
thefe rites into Greece, and called the ifland where they
firft eftablifhed them EUopia, So/is Serpenth inj'u/a, the
fame with Euhaa, or Oubaia, i. e. the ferpent illand.'*
The fame learned writer difcovers traces of the ferpent
worfhip among the Hyperboreans, at Rhodes, named
Ophiufa, in Phrygia, and upon the Hellefpont, in the
ifland Cyprus, in Crete, among the Athenians, in the
jiame of Cecrops, among the natives of Thebes in Bceo-
tla, among the Lacedemonians, in Italy, in Syria, &c.
and in the names of many places, as well as of the peo-
ple where the Ophites fettled. One of the moft early
herefies introduced into the Chriftian church was that
©f the Ophitae. Bryant's Analyfis of Ancient My-
thology, vol. i. p. 43, &c.^p. 473, &c. _
Skrpsnt Stones. See Goi^nu /Immonis.
Sea-SERPENT. See SeA-Serpent.
SERPENTARIA, snake-root ; a fpecies of
Aristolochia.
SERPENT A RIUS, in aftronomy, a conftellauoii
i>f the northern hemifphere, called aho Ophiuchus, and
anciently ^fculapius The ftars in the conftcUation
Scrpeutarius, in Ptolemy'^ catalogue, are 29 ; in Tycho's
II ] S E R
15 ; in Hevelius'e 40 ; In the Brltamiic ccLalojuc they lerpr^itir-e.
are 74. v """^
SL^RPENTINE, in general, denotes any thing that
refembles a ferpent ; hence the worm or pipe of a ftijl,
twifted in a ipiral manner, is termed a ier[)eniine worm.
SnRPKNTiNn Siow, a gcuus oF juagnefi?.;! earths, of
which there are different fpecies; 1. The nbrofus, com-
pofed of librous and coherent particles. This refem-
bles the afbeftos fu much that it might be confounded
with it, were not the fibres of the ierpentlne fo clofely
coherent, that they cannot be diftinouiihed when the
ftone is cut or poliuied. The fibres themftlves are
large, and feem to be twifted. I'here are two varieties,,
a dark green and a light one; the former from Ger-
many, the latter from Sweden. 2. The zoeblitz fer-
pentine, found near that place, of many different co-
lours, as black, deep green, liglit green, red,,"fclulfli-grey^
and white ; but the gieen colour is moft predominant.
3. Porcelain earth mixed v/ith Iron. It is met with
either difFufible in water or indurated, "i'he former i&
found of a red colour from China and Montmartre,
The water-clinkers, imported from fom.e places in Ger-
many, feem to be made of this kind of earth. There
are two varieties of the indurated kind, viz. the mar-
tial foap-earth, of a red colour, from Jafberg and other
places in Norway, or black from fome parts of Sweden.
4. The telgftou of the Swedes, the fame with the la-
pis ollaris. It is found in various plnces of Norway,
as light grey, dark grey, whitifii-ycllow, and dark
green. It is employed with great advantage for build-
ing fire-places, furnaces, &c the extremities of the ftra-
ta being turned towards the nre when it is flaty^
M. Magellan obferves, that there is a great variety
of colour as well as compofition in this kind of ftones
it being found chher white, green, brown, yellow, light-
blue, black, fpotted, or llreaked with veins of difierent
c;.lours. Its texture is either indiftln£i, obfcuiely la-
minar, or i brous. The fpecific gravity is from 2400
to '265c.' ; and it is harder than, foap-rock or fleatites ;
though not hard enough to ftrike fire with fteel ;
being Icfs fmooth to the touch than fteatites, but fuf-r
ceptible of a good polifh, looking like marble ; and
often met with in thin Icmitranfparent plates. It melts
in a ftrong heat without addition, and corrodes the cru-
cibles, but hardens in a lower degree of heat. It is
ilowly and partially foluble in acids, but does not effer-
vefce with them. According to Bayon's analyfis, 100
parts of it contain about 4 1 or fjlex, or ratlier mica;
33 of magnefia ; JO oi: ar^allaceous earth ; 1 2 of water,
aiid about 3 of iron. That brought from Corflca
contains a greater proportion of argil, and a fmaller one
of filex. The ferpcntine commonly fo called, accord-
ing to Fabroni, is a true lapis ollaris ; but has its name
from being variegated with green, yellowifh, and brown
fpots, like the Qdn oi fome ferpents ; great quantities
of it are found in Italy and Swrtztrland, where it i$
frequently worked into difhes and otlier vefTels.
Serpentine verjes^ are fuch as begin and end with
the fame word. As,
Amlo jiorentes dtatibus^ /Arcades amboi
Serpentine, in the Manege. A horfc is faid to>
have a ferpcntine tongue, if it is always friflcing and
moving, and fonietipies paffing- over the bit, inftead of
keeping
S E R
E 3
S E R
RfH-picula keepinw In the void fpace, called the liberty of the
w-Y«w SERPICULA, ill botany; a genus of plants be-
lonsfing to the clais of monoecia, and to the order of te-
trandia. The male calyx is quadrldentate, and the co-
rolla confills of four petals : The female calyx is divided
into four parts, and the pericarpium is a tomentofe nut.
There are two fpecies, the verticillata and repens.
SERPIGO, in furgery, a kind of herpes, popularly
called z tetter or ringworm. See Surgerv.
SERPULA, in natural hiftory ; a genus belong,
ing to the clafsof vermes, and to the order of tedacea.
The ih ell is ftngle,tubular, and adhering to other bodies.
The animal which inhabits it is the terebella.
SERRANUS (Joannes), or John de Serres, a learn-
ed French Proteftant, was born about the middle of the
fixtcenth century. He acquired the Greek and Latin
languages at Laufanne, and grew very fond of the phi-
lofophy of Ariftotle and Plato. On'his return to France
he Itudied divinity. He began to diltiHguifh hirafelf
in 1 5 7 2 by his writings, but was obliged to forfake
his country after the dieadful maffacre of St Bartho-
lomew. He became minifter of Nifmes in 1582, but
•was never regarded as a very zealous Calvinift : he has
even been fufpefted, though without reafon, of having
aftually abjured the Protellant religion. Pie was one
of the four clergymen whom Henry IV. confulted about
the Romiih religion, and who returned for anfwer, that
Catholics might be faved. He wrote aftenvards a trea-
tife in order to reconcile the two communions, entitled
Ue jide Cathobca, five de prlncipus re/igionis Chrijlianie,
communl omnium Chri/lianorum confenfu, femper et ub'ique
ratis. This work was difliked by the Catholics, and
received with fuch indignation by the Calvinifts of Ge-
neva, that many writers have affirmed that they poifon-
ed the author. It is certain at leaft that he died at
Geneva in 1598, at the age of 50. His principal
works are, r. A Latin tranflation of Plato, publiftied
by Henry Stephens, which owes much of its reputation
to the elegance of the Greek copy which accompanies
it. 2. A Treatlfe on the Immortality of the Soul.
3. De Jlatu re/igionis et reipuhlica in Francia, 4. Me-
moir e de la 3 tite guerre civile et dernier s troubles de France
fous Charles IX. i^c. 5. Inventaire general de I'Ni^
Jloire de France^ illujlre par la conference de I'Eglife et
de I' Empire, Iffc, 6. Recueil de chofe memorable avenue en
France fous Henri IL Frangois II. Charles IX. Henri III.
Thefe three hiftorical treatifes have been juflly accufed
of partiality and paffion ; faults which it is next to im-
poUible for a contemporary writer to avoid, efpecially if
he bore any part in the tranfaftions which he defcribes.
His ftyle is exceedingly incorreft and inelegant ; his mif-
takes too and misftatements of fa£ts are very numerous.
SERRATED, in general, fomething indented or
notched in the manner O'f a faw ; a term much ufed in
the defcription of the leaves of plants. See Botany.
SERRATULA, saw-wort, in botany A genus
of plants belonging to the clafe of fyngenefia, and to the
/)rder of polygamia sequalis. In the natural fyitem It is
. ranged under the 49th order, Compqfita. The calyx is
fubcyllndricalj imbricated ; the fcales of it pointed, but
not fpinous. There are 15 fpecies : The tiniloria, al-
pina, arvenfis^ coronata, japonica, falicifolia, multiflora,
noveboracenfis, prsalta, glauca, fquarrofa, fcariofa, fpi-
cata, amara, and cciitauroidcs. The three firft fpecies
are Britifli. I, The tincforia h diftingui'flied by a S
ftem ereft and flcnder, branched at the top, and three
feet high. The leaves are fmooth, pinnatilid, and fer-'^^''
rated ; The flowers are purple, in umbels, and terminal.
'I'he down of the feed is gloffy, with a brown or gold
tinge. It grows in woods and wet paftures. It dyes
cloth of an exceeding line yellow colour, which Hands
well when, fixed with alum. Goats eat this plant ;
horfes are not fond of it ; cattle, fwine, and fhcep, leave it
untouched. 2. The alpina, or mountain faw-vvort. The
root and ftem are woody ; the latter being from one
to two feet high. The leaves are numerous, triangu-
lar, long, pointed, fubftantial, dark green above, white
beneath, and ferrated, with i-ound intervals between
the teeth, on footftalks. The flowers are purple. The
fcales of the calyx are very fhort and downy. It
grows on high mountains, and flowers commonly ia
July or Auguft. 3. The arvenfis, corn faw- wort, or
way-thiftle. The ftem is generally ere6t, branched,
and two or three feet high. The leaves are finuatcd,
ferrated, and fpinous ; thofe above being almoft entire.
The flowers are of a pale purple ; the down is very long.
This plant grows in cultivated grounds and by way-
fides, and flowers in July or Auguft. When burned
it yields good aflies for making glafs or fixed alkali.
SERRATUS, in anatomy, a name given to feve«
ral mufcles, from their refemblance to a faw. See' A-
NATOMY, Table of the Mufcles.
SERTORIUS.(Qu^intus), an eminent Roman ge-
neral ; (fee Spain), under the hiftory of which his ex-
ploits are related.
SERTULARIA, in natural hiftory, a genus belong-
ing to the clafs of vermes, and to the order of zoophy-
ta. The ftem is radicated, fibrous, naked, and jointed ;
the florets are hydrae, and there is one at each joint.
This genus comprehends 42 fpecies of corallines.
SERVAL, mountain cat. See Feus, xvi.
SERVANDONI (John Nicolas), was born at Flo-
rence in 1695. He rendered himfelf famous by his
exquifite tafle in architcfture, and by his genius for
decorations, fetes, -and buildings. He was employed
and rewarded by moft of the princes in Europe. He
was honoured in Portugal with the order of Chrift : In
France he was architeft and painter to the king, and
member of the different academies .ertabliflied for the ad-
vancement of thefe arts. He received the fame titles
from the kings of Britain, Spain, Poland, and from
the duke of Wirtemberg. Notwithftanding thefe ad-
vantages, his want of economy was fo great, that he
left nothing behind him. He died at Paris in 1766.
Paris is indebted to him for many of its ornaments.
He made decorations for the theatres of London and
Drefden. The French king's theatre, called /a falls
des Machines, was under his management for fome time.
He was permitted to exhibit? ftiows confifting of fimple
decorations : Some of thefe were aftonifliingly fuhllme ;
his " Defcent of -^neas Into Hell" in particular, and his
" Enchanted Foreft," are well known. He built and
embelliflied a theatre at Chambor for Marefchal Saxe ;
and furnifhed the plan and the model of the theatre royal
at Drefden. His genius for fetes was remarkable ; he
had the management of a great number in Paris, and
even in London. He condufted one at Lifbon given
on account of a vidlory gained by the duke of Cumber-
land. He was employed frequently by the king of
3 Portugal,
S E R I 3
Portugal, to whom he prefented feveral elegant plans
and models. The prince of Wales, too, father to the
prefent king, engaged him in his fervice ; but the death
of that prince prevented the execution of the defigns
■ which had been projefted. He prefided at the mag-
nificent fete given at Vienna on account of the marriage
of the archduke Jofeph and the Infanta of Parma.
But it would be endlefs to attempt an enumeration of
all his performances and exhibitions.
SERVANT, a term of relation, fignifying a perfon
•who owes and pays obedience for a certain time to
snother in quality of a mafter.
As to the feveral forts of fervants : It was obferved,
' under the article Liberty, that puie and proper flavery
does not, nay cannot, fubfift in Britain : fuch we mean
whereby an abfolute and unhmited power is given
to the mafter over the Ufe and fortune of the flave.
And indeed it is repugnant to reafon, and the principles
of natural law, that fuch a ftate fhouid fublift anywhere.
See Slavery.
The law of England therefore abhors, and will not
endure, the exiftence of ilavery within this nation: fo
that when an attempt was made to introduce it, by
ftatute I Edw. VI. c. 3. which ordained, that all idle
vagabonds fhouid be made flaves, and fed upon bread,
water, or fmall drink, and refufe-meat ; fhouid wear a
ring of iron round their necks, arms, or legs ; and fhouid
be compelled, by beating, chaining, or otherwife, to
perform the work affigned them, were it ever fo vile ;
the fpirit of the nation could not brook this condition,
even in the moft abandoned rogues ; and therefore this
ftatute was repealed in two years afterwards. And
BOW it is laid down, that a flave or negro, the inllant
he lands in Britain, becomes a freeman ; that is, the
law will proteft him in the enjoyment of his perfon
and his property. Yet, with regard to any right
which the mafl:er may have lawfully acquired to the
perpetual fervice of John or Thomas, this will remain
exactly in the fame ftate as before : for this is no
more than the fame ftate of fubjeftion for life which
every apprentice fubmits to for the fpace of feven years,
or fometimes for a longer term. Hence, too, it follows,
that the infamous and unchriftian pratlice of withhold-
ing baptifm from negro-fervants, left they fhouid there-
by gain their liberty, is totally without foundation, as
well as without excufe. The law of England afts
upon general and extenfive principles : It gives liberty,
rightly underftood, that is, protection, to a Jew, a
Turk, or a Heathen, as well as to thofc who pro.efs
the true religion of Chrift ; and it will not diflolve a
civil obligation betvveen mafter and fervant, on account
of the alteration of faith in either of the parties ; but
the flave is entitled to the fame protedlion in England be-
fore as after baptifm ; and, wliatever fervice the Heathen
negro owed of right to his American mafler, by general,
not bv local law, the fame (whatever it bc)iis he bound
to render when brought to England and made aChriftian.
r. The firft fort of fervants, therefore, acknowledged
by the laws of England, are menial fervants ; fo called
from being intra mania, or domeftics. The contraft
between them and their mafters arifes upon the hiring.
If the hiring be general, without any particular time
limited, the law conftrues it to be a hiring for a year;
upon a principle of natural equity, that the fervant fhall
ferve and the mafter maintain him, throughout all the
Vol. XVII. Parti.
13 ] S E R
revolutions of the refpedive feafons ; as well when there Servant,
is work to be done, as when there is not : but the con- """""V"""^
traft may be made for an^-- larger or fmaller teriti. All
fingle men between 1 2 years old and 60, and married
ones under 30 years oF age, and all fingle women between
1 2 and 4c, not having any vifible livelihood, are com-
pellable by two juftices to go out to fervice In huf-
bandry or certain fpecilic trades, for the promotion of
honeft induftry ; and no mafter can put away his fer-
vant, or fervant leave his mafter, after being fo retained,
either before or at the end of his term, without a quar-
ter's warning ; unlefs upon reafonable caufe, to be allow*
ed by a juftice of the peace : but they may part by con-
fent, or make a fpecial bargain.
2. Another fpecies of fervants are called apprentices ,
(from appr'emlre, to learn j ; and are ufually bound fof
a term of years, by deed Iiwiented or indentures, to
ferve their maflers, and be maintained and inftru£led
by them. This Is ufually done to perfons of trade. In
order to learn their art and myftery ; and fometimes
very large fums are given with them as a premium for
fuch their inftruftion : but it may be done to hufband*
men, nay, to gentlemen and others. And children of
poor perfons may be apprenticed out by the overfeers,
with confent of two juftices, till 24 years of age, to
fuch perfons as are thought fitting ; who are alfb com*
pellable to take them : and it is held, that gentlemen
of fortune, and clergymen, are equally liable with
others to fuch compulfion : for which purpofes ouf
ftatutes have made the indentures obligatory, even
though fuch parifh-apprentice be a minor. Apprentices
to trades may be difcharged on reafonable caufe, either
at the requefl of themfelves or mafters, at the quarter-
feffions, or by one juftice, with appeal to the felTions j
who may, by the equity of the ftatute, If they think it
reafonable, diredl reftltutloa of a rateable fhare of the
m6ney given with the apprentice : and parifh-appren-
tices may be difcharged in the fame manner by two
juftices. But if an apprentice, with w^hom lefs than 10
pounds hath been given, runs away from his mafter, he
is compellable to ferve out his time of abfence, or make
fatlsfaftlon for the fame, at any time within feven years
after the expiration of his original contraft. See Ap-
prentice and Apprenticeship.
3. A third fpecies of fervants are labourers, who
are only hired by the day or the week, and do not live
intra mania, as part of the family ; concerning whom
the ftatutes before-cited have made many very good re-
gulations ; I . DireAing that all perfons who have nd
vifible effefts may be compelled to work : 2. Defining
how long they mull continue at work In fummer and in
winter: 3. Punifliing fuch as leave or defert their
work : 4. Empowering the juftices at feflions, or the
fheriff of the county, to fettle their wages : and, 5. In-
flifiling penalties on fuch as either give or exaA more
wages than are fo fettled.
4 There Is yet a fourth fpecies of fervants, if they
mj.y be fo called, being rather in a fuperior, a iriiiiiltc-
rial, capacity ; fuch as Jle*viia'<h, faftors, and bailiff's ;
whom, however, the law confiders as fervants />/-o tern-
pore, with regard to fuch of their afhs as aflect thc.Ir
mafter's or employer's property.
As to the manner in which this relation affefts tlte
mafter, the fervant himfelf, or third parties, fee the ar-
ticle Master and Servant.
R r Fbr
S E R [ 3U 1 S E R
Ser^etift*, Por the condition of fervants by the law or Scotland, high eulogies of the reformers, nor were they fufficicnt Serv
Serveiuf. f^g Law, to convince him of his errors. He continued, however,
' ' SERVETI3TS, a name <yiven to the modern An- to confuh him ; and for this purpofe lent from Lyons to
titrinitarians, from their being fnppofed to be the fol- Geneva three queftions which refpected the divinity of
lowers of Michael Servetus ; who, 'in the year 1553, Jefus Chrift, regeneration, and the neceffity of baptifm.
was burnt at Geneva, together with his books. To thefe Calvin returned a civil anfwer. Servetus treat-
SERVETUS (Michael), a learned SpaniAi phyfi- ed the anfwer with contempt, and Calvm replied with
cian, was born at Villaneuva, in Arragon,in 1509. He warmth. From re^foning he had recourfe to abufive
was fent to the univerfity of Touloufe to ftudy the civil languag e; and this produced a polemical hatred, the moft
law. The Reformation, which had awakened the moft implacable difpofition in the world. Calvin having ob-
pollfhed nations of Europe, direfted the attention of taiiied fome of Servetus's papers, by means, it is faid,
thinking men to the errors of the Romifh church and not very honourable, fent them to Vienne along with
to the fiudy of the Scriptures. Among the reft Ser- the private letters which he had received in the courfe
vetus applied to this ftudy. From the love of novelty, of their correfpondence. The_ confequence was, that
or the love of truth, he carried his inquiries far beyond Servetus was arrefted ; but having efcaped from prifon,
the other reformers, and not only renounced the falfeopi- he refolved to retire to Naples, where he hoped to
nions of the Roman Catholics, but went fo far as to praftife medicine with the fame reputation which he had
queftion the doftrine of the Trinity. Accort Vngly, af- fo long enjoyed at Vienne. He imprudently took his
ter fpending two or three years at Touloufe, he deter- route through Geneva, though he could not but know
mined to go into Germany to propagate his new opi- that Calvin was his mortal enemy. Calvin informed th^
nions, where he could do it with moft fafety. At Ba- magiftrates of his arrival ; Servetus was apprehended,
fil he had fome conferences with Oecolampadius. He and appointed to ftand trial for herefy and blafphemy.
went next to Strafburg to vifit Bucer and Capito, It was a law at Geneva, that every accufer fhould fur-
two eminent reformers of that town. From Strafburg render himfelf a prifoner, that if the charge fhould be
he went to Hugenau, where he printed a book, intitled found falfe, the accufer fliould fuffer the puniftiment in
De Trinttat'ts Errorihus,j in 1531. The enfuing year which he meant to involve the accufed. Calvin not choo-
he publifhed two other treatifcs on the fame fubjeft: in fing to go to prifon himfelf, fent one of his domeitics to
an advertifement to which, he informs the reader that prefent the impeachment againft Servetus. I'he articles
it was not his intention to retrad any of his former fen- brought againft him were coUefted from his writings with
timents, but only to ftate them in a more diftinft and great care ; an employment which took up three days,
accurate manner. To thefe two publications he had the One of thefe articles \yas, that Servetus had denied
courage to put his name, not fufpefting that in an age that Judaea was a beautiful, rich, and fertile country ; and
when liberty of opinion was granted, the exercife of affirmed, on the authority of travellers, that it was
that liberty would be attended with danger. After poor, barren, and difagreeable." He was alfo charged
pubHihinii; thefe books, he left Germany, probably find- with corrupting the Latin Bible, which he was em-
ing his doftrines not fo cordially received as he expeft- ployed to correft at Lyons, by introducing imperti-
ed. He went firft to Bafil, and thence to Lyons, where nent, trifling, whim.fical, and impious notes of his own
he lived two or three years. He then removed to Pa- through every page."^ But the main article, which
ris, where he ftudied medicine under Sylvius, Fernelius, was certainly fatal to him, was, " that in the perfon of
and other profeffors, and obtained the degree of matter Mr Calvin, minifter of the word of God in the church
of arts and doAor of medicine. His love of controverfy of Geneva, he had defamed the doftrine that is preach-
involved him In a ferious difpute with the phyficians of ed, uttering all imaginable injurious, blafphemous wot ds
Paris ; and he wrote an ,A pology, which was fupprefled againft it."
'by an edid of the Parliament. The mifunderftanding ' Calvin vifited Servetus in prifon, and had frequent
which this difpute produced with his colleagues, and the conferences with him ; but finding that, in oppofition
chagrin which fo unfavourable a termination occafioned, to all the arguments he could employ, the prifoner re-
made him leave Paris in difguft. He fettled two or mained inflexible in his opinions, he left him to his fate,
three years in Lyons, and engaged with the Frellons, Before fentence was pafled, the magiftrates of Geneva
eminent printers of that age, as a correftor to their confulted the minifters of Bale, of Bern, and Zurich ;
prefs. At Lyons he met with Pierre Palmier, the and, as another account informs us, the magiftrates of
archbifliop of Vienne, with whom he had been ac- the Proteftant Cantons of Switzerland. And to ena-
quainted at Paris. That Prelate, who was a great en- ble them to form a judgment of the criminality of Ser-
courager of learned men, prefled him to accompany him vetus, they tranfmitted the writings of Calvin, with his
to Vienne, offering him at the fame time an apartment anfwers. The general opinion was, that Servetus ought
in his palace. Servetus accepted the ©ifer, and might to be condemned to death for blafphemy. He was ac-
have lived a tranquil and happy life at Vienne, if'' he cordingly fentenced to be burnt alive on the 27th of
could have confined his attention to medidne and Hte- Oftober 1553. As he continued alive in the midft of
rature. But the love of controverfy, and an cagernefs the flames more than two hours, it is faid, finding his
to eftablifh his opinions, always poffefTed him. At this torment thus protrafted, he exclaimed,^ " Unhappy
time Calvin was at the head of the reformed church at wretch that I am ! Will the flames be infufficient to
Geneva. With Servetus he had been acquainted at Pa- terminate my mifery ! What then I Will the hundred
ris, and had there oppofed his opinions. For 16 years pieces of gold, and the rich collar which they took from
■Calvin kept up a correfpondence with him, endeavour, me, not purchafe wood enough to confume me more
ing to reclaim' him from his errors. Servetus had read quickly ! " Though the feiitence of death was pafled
the works of Calvin, but did not think they merited the againft Servetus by the magiftrates of Geneva, with the
appro-
S E R . f 3^
approbation of b preat number of the magiftiates and
minifters of Switzerland, yet it is the opinion of molt
hiftorians that this dreadful fentence was impofed at the
inftigation of Calvin. This a£l of feverity for holding a
fpeculative opinion, however erroneous and abfiird, has
left a ftain on the charafter of this illuftrious reformer,
which will attend the name of Calvin as long as hiftory
(hall preferve it from oblivion. The addrefs and art
which he ufed in apprehending Servetus, his inhuma-
nity to him during his trial, his diflimulation and ma-
levolence atter his condemnation, prove that he was as
much influenced by perfonal hatred as by a defire to
fupport the intereft of religion, though probably, du-
ring the trial, Calvin beHeved he was performing a very
pious aftion. This intolerant fpirit of Calvin and the
magiftrates of Geneva gave the Roman Catholics a fa-
vourable opportunity to accufe the Proteftants of incon-
ftdency in their principles, which they did not fail to
embrace. " How could the magiftrates (fays the au-
thor of the D'tdwnnaire des H£reftes)yVi\xo acknowledged
jio infallible interpretation of the Scriptures, condemji
Servetus to death becaufe he explained them differently
from Calvin ; fmce every man has the privilege to ex-
pound the Scripture, according to his own judgment,
without having recourfe to the church ? It is a great
injuftice to condemn a man becaufe he will not fubmit
to the judgment of as enthufiaft, who may be wrong
as well as himfclf."
Sci-vetus was a man of great acutenefs and learning,
^md well verfed in the arts and fciences. In his own
profefiion his genius exerted itfelf with fuccefs. In his
traft int\t\ed.Chrlflianifmi i2£/?/Va/io,publifhed in 1553, he
remarks, that the whole mafs of blood paffes through
the lungs by the pulmonary artery and vein, in oppofi-
tion to the opinion which was then, uuiverfally enter-
tained, that the blood paffes through tlie partition which
divides the two ventricles. This was an important ftep
towards the difcovery of the circulation of the blood.
His works confift of Controverfial Writings concern-
ing the Trinity ; an edition of Pagninus's Verfion of the
Bible, with a preface and notes, pubhfhed under the
name of Michael ViUanevanus ; an Apology to the
Phyficians of Paris ; and a book intitled Ratio Syrupo-
rum. Mofheim has written in Latin a Hiftory of the
Herefy and Misfortunes of Servetus, which was publifli-
€d at Helmftadt, in 4to, in 1728. Prom the curious
details which it gives it is extremely interefting.
SERVIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, boi^nd-
cd on the north by the rivers Danube and Save, which
feparate it from Hungary ; on the eaft, by Bulgaiia ;
on the weft, by Bofnia ; and on the fouth, by Albania
and Macedonia. It is about 1 90 miles in length from
eaft to weft ; 95 in breadth from north to fouth ; and is
divided into four fangiacates. Two of thefe were ceded
■to the Chriftians in 17 18, who united them into one.
This continued till 1739, when the Turks were vidori-
ous ; and then they were abaadoned to the Turks by
the treaty of Belgrade. Belgrade is the capital town.
SERVICE, in law, is a duty which a tenant, on
account of his fee, owes to Ms. lord.
There arc many divifions of fervices ; as, i . Into
perfonal, where fomething is to be done by the tenant
in perfon, as homage and fealty. 2. Real, fuch as
wards, marriages, &c. 3. Accidental, including he-
riots, reliefs, and the like. 4. Entire, where, on the
5 ] S E R
alienation of any part of the lands by a tenant, the Ser^e.
fervices become multiplied. 5. Frank- fer vice, which —
was performed by freemen, who were not obliged to
perform any bafe fervice, but only to find a man and
horfe to attend the lord into the army or to court.
6. Knight's fervice, by which lands were anciently held
of the king, on paying homage, fervice in war, &c.
As in every free and well regulated fociety there
muft be a diverfity of ranks, thei-e muft be a great num-
ber of perfons employed in fervice, both in agriculture
and domeftic affairs. In this country, fervice is a contradl
into which the fervant voluntarily enters ; and the mafter's
authority extends no farther than to the performance of
that fpecies of labour for which the agreement was made.
" The treatment of liervants (fays that refpeftable mo- p^/ry'j
ralift Mr Paley), as to diet, dlfcipline, and accommoda- Moral ani
tion, the kind and quantity of work to be required of Political
them, the intermiflion, liberty, and indulgence to be al- ^i>'M°th*
lowed them, muft be determined in a great meafure by^'
cuftom ; for where the contrail involves fo many parti-
culars, the contraAing parties exprefs a few perhaps of
the principal, and by mutual underftanding refer the
reft to the known cuitom of the country in like cafes.
** A fervant is not bound to obey the unlawful com-
mands of his mafter ; to minlfter, for inftance, to his un-
lawful pleafures ; or to affift him in unlawful practices
in his profefiion ; as in fmuggllng or adulterating the ar-
ticles which he deals in. For the fervant is bound by
nothing but his own promife ; and the obligation of a
promlfe extends not to things unlawfiU.
" For the fame reafon, the mafter's authority does not
juftlfythe fervant in doing vi^rong ; for the fervant's
own promife, upon which that authority is founded,
would be none.
" Clerks and apprentices ought to be employed entire-
ly in the profefiion or trade which they are intended ta
learn. Inftruftion is their wages ; and to deprive them
of the opportunities of inftruftion, by taking up their
time with occupations foreign to their bufmefs, is to
defraud them of their wages. ■
*' The mafter is refponiible for what a fervant does in
the ordinary courfe of his employment ; for it is^one
xmder a general authority committed to him, which is
in juftice equivalent to a fpecific direftlon. Thus, if
1 pay money to a banker's clerk, the banker is ac-
countable : but not if I had paid it to his butler or his
footman, whofe bufinefs it is not to receive money.
Upon the fame principle, if I once fend a fervant to
take up goods upon credit, whatever goods he after-
wards takes up at the fame fliop, fo long as he conti-
nues in ray fervice, are juftly chargeable to my ac-
count.
" The law of this country goes great lengths in in-
tending a kind of concurrence in the mafter, fo as to
charge him with the confequences of his fervant's con-
duft. If an innkeeper's fervant rob his guefts, the
innkeeper muft make reftitutlon j if a farrier's fervant
lame your horfe, the farrier muft anfwer for the da-
mage ; and ftlU farther, if your coachman or carter
drive over a pafTenger in the road, the paffenger may
recover from you a fatisfaftion for the hurt he fuffers.
But thefe determinations ftaud, I think, rather upon
the authority of the law, than any principle of natural
juftice."
There is a grievance which has long and juftly
R r a beea
S E R [31
Ser^^ce. been complained of, the giving of good charafters to
* bad fervants. This is perhaps owing to careleffnefs,
to a defire of getting rid of a bad fervant, or to mifta-
ken compaffion. But fuch careleffnefs is inexcufable.
When a man gives his fan£lIon to the charafter of a
bad 1 crvant, he ought to refle£l on the nature and confe-
quences of what he is doing. He is giving his narae
to a falfehood ; he is deceiving the honelt man who con-
fides in his veracity ; and he is deliberately giving a
knave an opportunity of cheating an honeft man. To
endeavour to get quit of a bad fervant in this way, is
furely not lefs criminal than concealing the faults and
difadvantages of an ellate which i-s advertifed for fale,
and afcribiug to it advantages which it does not poffefs.
In this cafe, we know the fale would be reduced, and
the advertifer difgraced. Many matters give charaftcrs
to fervants out of compaffion ; but it is to this miftakcn
compaffion that the diforderly behaviour of fervants is
perhaps principally owing : for if the punifhment of
dilhonefty be only a change of place (which may be a
reward inftead of a punifhment), it ceafes to be a fer-
vant's Intereft to be true to his trufi.
We have faid above that a mafter^s authority over
his fervant extends no farther than the terms of contrail;
by which we meant, that a mafter could give no unrea-
fonable orders to his fervant, or fuch as was inconliftent
with the terms of contraft. But the relation between
a malter and fervant is certainly cloier than the mere
■terms of a contraft : it is a moral as well as a legal
relation. A mailer of a family ought to fuperintend
the morals of his fervants, and to reftrain them from
vices. This he may do by his example, by his influ-
ence, and authority. Indeed every man poffeffed of
authority is guilty of criminal negligence if he does not
exert his authority for promoting virtue in his inferiors;
and no authority is fo well adapted for this purpofe as
that of mailers of famihes, becaufe none operates with
an influence fo immediate and conft,ant. It is wonder-
ful how much good a nobleman or gentleman of for-
tune can do to his domeftics by attending to their mo-
rals ; and every mafter may be a bleffing to individuals
and to fociety, by exerting prudently that influence
which his fituatlon gives him over the conduct of his
fervant.
Choral Seri^ice, in chnrch-hiftory, denotes that part
of religious worfhip which confifl:s in chanting and hng-
ing. The advocates for the high antiquity of finging,
as a part of church-mufic, urge the authority of St
Paul in its favour (Ephef. chap. v. ver. 19. and Co-
lof. chap. ill. ver. 16). On the authority of which paf-
fages it is afferted, that fongs and hymns were, from the
eilablilhment of the church, fung in the affemblies of
the faithful ; and it appears from undoubted teftimony,
that finging, which was praftifed as a facred rite among
the Egyptians and Hebrews, at a very early period, and
which likewife conftituted a confiderable part of the re-
ligious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans, made a
part of the rehgious worfhip of Chriftians, not only before
churches were built, and their religion eftabliflied by
law, but from the firft: profeffion of Chriftianity. How-
ever, the era from whence others have dated the intro-
duftion of mufic into the fervice of the church, is that
•period during which Leontius governed the church of
Antioch, i. e. between the year of Chrift 347 and 356.
See Antiphoni{»
6 ] S E R
From Antioch the pradllce foon fpread through the
other churches of the Eaft; ; and in a few ages after its
firft introduftion into the divine fervice, it not only re-
ceived the fanftion of public authority, but thofe were
forbid to join in It who were ignorant of mufic. A
canon to this purpofe was made by the council of Lao-
dicea, which was held about the year and Zona-
nas Informs us, that thefe canonical fingers were rec-
koned a pai-t of the clergy. Singing was introduced
into the weftern churches by St Ambrofe about "the
year 374, who was the inftitutor of the Ambrofiaii
chant eflabhlhed at Milan about the year 386; and
Eufebius (lib. ii. cap. 1 7.) tells us, that a regular choir,
and method of finging the fervice, were lirll eilablii'hed,
and hymns ufed, in the church at Antioch during the
reign of Confhantine, and that St Ambrofe, who had
long refided there, had his melodies thence. This was
about 230 years afterwards amended by pope Gregory
the Great, who eftablifhed the Gregorian chant ; a
plain, unifonous kind of melody, which he thought
confillent with the gravity and dignity of the fervice to
which it was to be applied. This prevails in the Ro-
man church even at this day : it is known in Italy by
the name of canto fermo ; in France by that of r>/atn
chant ; and In Germany and moft other countries by
that of the cantus Gregorianus. Although no fatisfaftory
account has been given of the fpecific diiference between
the Anibrofian and Gregorian chants, yet all writers oi>
this fubjedl agree in faying, that St Ambrofe only ufed
the four authentic modes, and that the four plagal were
afterwa;:ds added by St Gregory. Each of thefe had
the fame final, or key-note, as its relative authentic ;
from which there Is no other difference, than that the
melodies In the four authentic or principal modes are
generally confined within the compafs of the eight
notes above the key-note, and thofe in the four plagal
or relative modes, within the compafs of the eight notes
below the fifth of the key. See Mobe.
Ecclefiattical writers feem unanimous In allowing
that Pope Gregory, who began his pontificate in 590,
colledled the mufical fragments of luch ancient pfalms
and hymns as the firft fathers of the church had appro-
ved and recommended to the firft Chrillians ; and that
he feledled, methodized, and arranged them in the or-
der which was long continued at Rome, and foon a-
dopted by the chief part of the weftern church. Gre-
gory Is alfo faid to have banlflied from the church the
canto figuratOy as too light and diffolute ; and It Is add-
ed, that his own chant was called canto fermo, from its
gravity and fimpliclty.
It has been long a received opinion, that the eccle-
fiaftical tones were taken from the reformed modes of
Ptolemy ; but Dr Burney obferves, that it is difficult
to difcover any connexion between them, except in
their names ; for their number, upon examination, is
not the fame ; thofe of Ptolemy being feven, the ec-
clefiaftlcal eight ; and Indeed the Greek names given to
the ecclefiaftical modes do not agree with thofe of Pto-
lemy in the fingle Inftance ef key, but with thofe of
higher antiquity. From tthe time of Gregory to that
of Guido, there was no other diftin6lion of keys than
that of authentic and plagal ; nor were any femitones
ufed but thofe from E to F, B to C, and occalionally
A to B^.
With refped to the mufic of the primitive phurch, it
S R R I 3
may be obferved, that though itv'conrifled in the fingin^^
of pfalms and hymns, yet it was performed in many dif-
ferent ways ; fometimea the pfalms were fung by one
perlon alone, whiUl the rell attended in filence ; fome-
times they were lung by the whole alFembly ; fometinies
alternately, the conereiration being divided into fepa-
rate choirs ; and fometimes by one perfon, who repeated
the /irll part of the verfe, the reft joininjr in the clofe ot
it; Of the fo'.ir different methods of fmging now recit
ted, the fecond and third were pioperly diftinguifhed by
the names of fymphony and atit phony ; and the latter was
fometimes called refporfaria, in which women were al-
lowed to join. St Ignatius, who, according': to So-
crates (lib. vi. cap. 8.), converfed with the apolUes, is
f^enerally fuppofed to have been the firll who fugsrefted
to the primitive Chrillians in the Eaft the method of
fmging hymns and pfalms alternately, or in dialogue ;
and the cuitom foon prevailed in every pkce where
Chriftianity was ellablifhed ; though Theodoret in his
hiftory (lib. ii. cap. 24.) tells us, that this manner of
faiging was firft praftifed at Antioch. It llkewlfe ap-
pears, that almoft from the time when mufic was firll
introduced into the fervice of the church, it was of two
kinds, and confifted in a gentle inflexion of the voice,
which they termed plain fong, and a more elaborate
and artificial kind of mufic, adapted to the hymns and
folemn offices contained in its ritual ; and this diftinc-
tion has been maintained even to the prefent day.
Although we find a very early diftinflion made be-
tween the manner of finging the hymns and chanting
the pfalms, it is, however, the opinion of the learned
Martini, that the mufic of the firfl five or fix ages of
the church confifted chiefly in a plain and limple chant
of unifons and oftaves, of which many fragments are
ftill remaining in the canto fcrmo of the Romifh miffals.
For with refpeft to mufic in parts, as it does not ap-
pear, in thefe early ag;esj that either the Greeks or Ro-
mans were in pofTefTion of harmony or counterpoint,
which has been generally afcribed-to Guido, a monk df
Arezzo in Tufcany, about the year 1022, though other?
have traced the origin of it to the eighth century, it is
in vain to feek it in the church. The choral mufic,
which had its rife in the church of Antioch, and from
thence fpread through Greece, Italy, France, Spain, and
Germany, was brought into Britain by the fingers who
accompanied Auftin the monk, when he came over, in
the year 596, charged with" a commiflion to convert the
inhabitasts of this country to Chriftianity. Bede tells
us, that when Auftin and the companions of his mif-
liou had their firft audience of king Ethelbert, in the
ifle ofThanct, they approached him in'proceflion, fing-
ing Htanies; and thai afterwards, when tliey entered the
city of Canterbury, they fung a litany, and at the end
ef it Allelujah. But though this was the firfl time the
Anglo-Saxons had heard the Gregorian chant, yet Bede
likewife tells us, that our Eritifh anceftors had been in-
flrufted in the rites and ceremonies of the Galilean
church by St Germanus, and heard him fing Allelujah
many years before the arrival of St Auftin. In 680,
John, praecentor of St Peter's in Rome, was fent over
by pope Agatho to inftruft the monks of Weremouth
in the art of finging; and he was prevailed upon to open
fchools for teaching mufic in other places in Northum-
berland. Benedift Bifcop, the preceptor of Bede, Adrian
the monk, and many others, cpntributed to diiieminate
17- 1 S E R
the knowledge of th€ Rqman chant. At length the fuc- Service,
ceffors of Sc Gregory, and of Auftin his mifTionary,
having eftabliflied a fchool for ecclefiaftical mufic at Can-
terbury, the reft of the ifiand was furniflied with ma-
tters from that feminary. The choral fervice was firft:
introduced in the cathedral church of Canterbury ; and
till the arrival of 'i'heo:!ore, and his fcttlement in that v:
fee, t})e pradlice of it feems to have been confined to the
churches of Kent ; but after that, ii fpread over the :
whole kinodoin ; and we meet with records of very -
■ am.ple endowments for the fupport of this part of public -
worflvip. This mode of reliinous worfhip prevailed in .
all the European churches tilt the time of the Reforma-
tion : tlie firft deviation from it is that which followed ;
the Reformation by Luther, who, being himfelf a lover
of mufic, formed a Hturgy, which was a mufical fervice, ■
contained in a work entitled P/o/mo^/m, h. e. Cantka
facta V(terts Ed-fij: feledu, printed at Norimberg in .
1 53, and at Wittember-g in 1561. But Calvin, in his
cttabhftiment of a church at Geneva, r-educed the whole
of divine fervice to prayer, preaching, and finging ; the
latter of which he reftrained. Fle excluded the offices
of the antiphon,. hymn, and motet, of the Romifh ler-
vice, with that artificial and elaborate mufic to which
they were fung ; and adopted only that plain metrical
pfalmody, which is now in general ufe among the re-
formed churches, and in the parochial churches of our
own country. For this purpofe he made ufe of Marot's
verfion of the Pfalms, and employed a mufician to fet
them to eafy tunes only of one part. In 1553, he di-
vided the Pfalms into paufes or fmall portions, and ap-
pointed them to be fung in churches. Soon after they
were bound up with the Geneva catechifm ; from which
time the Catholics, who had been accuftomed to fin^
them, were forbid the ufe of them, under a fevere pe-
nalty. Soon after the Reformation commenced in Eng-
land, complaints were made by many of the dignified
. clergy and others of the intricacy and difSculty of the.
church-mufic of thofe times : in confequencc of which
it was once propofed, that organs and curious finging
fhould be removed from our churches. Latimer, in his
diocefe «f Worceftei", went ftill farther, and iflued in-
junftions to the prior and convent of St Mary, forbid-
ding in their fervice all manner of finging. In the reigii
of Edward VI. a commiffion was granted to eight bi-
fhops, eight divines, eight civilians, and eight common
lawyers, to compile a body of fuch ecclefiaftical laws as
fhould in future be obferved throughout the realm. The
relult of this compilation was a work firft publifhed by
Fox the martyrologili, in 1 5 7 1 , and afterwards in 1 6409
under the title ot Reformatio Legum Ecclefiafiktirum,
I'hefe 32 commifTioners, inftead of reprobating church-
mufic, merely condemned figurative and operofe mu-
fic, or that kind of finging which abounded with
fugues, refponfive pafTages, and a commixture of various,
and intricate proportions ; which, whether extemporary
or written, is by muficians termed defant. However,
notwithftanding the objeftions againft choral mufic, and :
the pr-aftice of fome o! the reformeJ churches, the com-
pilersof the Englifii liturgy in 1548, and the king him-
ielf, determined to retain mufical fervice.. Accordingly .-
the ftatute 2 & 3 Edw. VI. cap. j . though it contains .
no formal obligation on the clergy, or others, to ufe or
join in either vocal or inftrumental mufic in the comnioa .
prayer, does clearly recognife the practice of finging j .
5 and ,1
S E R
gcrvke
Serum.
r II
and in lefs than two years after the compiling of King
Edward's liturgy, a formula was compofed, which con-
tinues, with fcarce any variation, to be the rule for cho-
ral fervlcc even at this day. The author of this work
was John Marbecke, or Marbeike ; and it was printed
by Richard Grafton, in 1550, under the title of the
Book of Common Prayer, noted. Queen Mary labour-
ed to re-eftablifh the Romifh choral fervice ; but the ac-
ceffion of Elizabeth was followed by the aft of unifor-
rnity ; in confequence of which, and of the queen's in-
junftions, the Book of Common Prayer, noted by Mar-
becke, was confidered as the general formula of choral
fervice. In 1560, another mufical fervice, with fome
additions and improvements, was printed byJoUn Day;
and in 1565, another colleftion of offices, with mufical
notes. Many objeftions were urged by Cartwright and
other Puritans againft the form and manner of cathe-
dral fervice, to which Hooker replied in his Ecclefiafti-
cal Polity. In 1664, the ftatutes of Edward VI. and
Elizabeth, for uniformity in the Common Prayer, were
repealed ; and the Direftory for Public Worfhip, which
allows only of the finging of pfalm?, eftablifhed. But
upon the relloration of Charles II. choral fervice was
again revived, and has fince uniformly continued. See
on this fubjeft Hawkins's Hiftory of Mafic, vol. i.
p. 404. vol. ii. p. 264. voL iii. p. 58 — 468, &c. vol.
iv. p. 44—347-
SEsricK-Tree. See Sorb us.
SERVITES, a religious order in the church of
RoiT.e, founded about the year 1233, by feven Floren-
tine merchants, who, with the approbation of the bifliop
of Florence, renounced the world, and lived together in
a religious community on mount Senar, two leagues
from that city.
SERVITOR, in the univerfity of Oxford, a ftu-
dent who attends on another for his maintenance and
learning. See Sizar.
SERVITUDE, the condition of a fervant, or ra-
ther flave.
Under the declenfion of the Roman empire, a new
kind of fervitude was introduced, different from that of
the ancient Romans ; it confifted in leaving the lands of
jubjugated nations to the firft owners, upon condition
of certain rents, and fervile offices, to be paid in ac-
knowledgment. Hence the names of fervi cenfti, a-
fcript'ttii, and adtliSi ghba ; fome whereof were taxable
zt the reafonable difcretion of the lord ; others at a
certain rate agreed on ; and others were mainmortable,
who, having no legitimate children, could not make a
will to above the value of five pence, the lord being
lieir of all the reft ; and others were prohibited marry-
ing, or going to live out of the lordfhip. Moft of thefe
fervlces exifted lately in France ; but they were long
ago abolifhed in England. Such, however, was the ori-
ginal of our tenures, &c. See Slave.
Servitude, in Scots law. See Law, Part III.
Seft. ix.
SERVIUS (Maurus Honoratus), a celebrated gram-
marian and critic of antiquity, who flourifhed about the
time of Arcadius and Honorius ; now chiefly known
by his Commentaries on Virgil. There is alfo extant
a piece of Servius upon the feet of verfes and the quan-
tity of fyllables, called Centimetrum.
SERUM, a thin, tranfparent, faltifh liquor, which
8 ] S E S
makes a confidcrabk part of the mafa of blood. Set
Anatomy, n° 126. and BtooD.
SESAMOIDEA ossa, certain fraall bones fome-
what refembling the feeds of fefamum, whence their
name. They are placed at the under part of the bones
of the laft joints of the fingers and toes.
SESAMUM, OILY GRAIN, in botany ; A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of didynamia, and to
the order of angiofpermia ; and in the natural fyf-
tem ranging under the 20th order, Lurida, The ca-
lyx is divided into five parts. The corolla is cam-
panuiated, the tube of which is nearly the length of
the calyx ; the throat is inflated, and very large ; the
border is divided into five parts, four of which are
fpreading and nearly equal ; the fifth is the loweft and
largeft. There are four filaments, and the rudiments of
a fifth. The ftigma is lanceolated, and the capfule has
four cells. There are only tv/o fpecies, the or'ientak
and indicum. i. The orientale has ovate,, oblong, entire
leaves. It is an annual, and grows naturally on the coaft
of Malabar and in the ifland of Ceylon ; rifing with
an herbaceous four-cornered ftalk, two feet high, fend-
ing out a few fhort fide-branches ; the leaves are ob-
long, oval, a little hairy, and ftand oppofite. The
flowers terminate the ftalks in loofe fpikes ; they are
fmall, of a dirty white colour, fhaped fomewhat like
thofe of the fox-glove. After the flowers are paft,
the germen turns to an oval acute-pointed capfule with
four cells, filled with oval compreffed feeds, which ri-
pen in autumn. 2. The indicum, with trifid lower
leaves, grows naturally in India : this is alfo an annual
plant ; the ftalk rifes taller thaa that of the former ; the
lower leaves are cut into three parts, which is the only-
difference between them.
The firft fort is frequently cultivated in all the eaft.
cm countries, and alfo in Afi'ica, as a pulfe ; and of
late years the feeds have been introduced into Carolina
by the African negroes, where they fucceed extremely
well. The inhabitants of that country make an oil
from the feed, which will keep good many years,
witheut having any rancid fmell or tafte, but in two
years become quite mild ; fo that when the warm
tafte of the feed, which is in the oil when firft drawn,
is worn off, they ufe it as a falad-oil, and for all the
purpofes of fweet oil. The feeds of this plant are alfo
ufed by the negroes for food ; which feeds they parch
over the fire, and then mix them with water, and ftew
other ingredients with them, which makes an hearty
food. Sometimes a fort of pudding is made of thefe
feeds, in the- fame manner ,as with millet or rice, and
is by fome perfons efteemed, but is rarely ufed for thefe
purpofes in Europe. This is called benny or bonny in
Carohna. In England thefe plants are preferved in bo-
tanic gardens as curiofities. Their feeds muft be fown
in the fpring upon a hot-bed ; and when the plants are
come up, they muft be tranfplanted into a freffi hot- bed
to bring them forward. After they have acquired a
tolerable degree of ftrength, they ftiould be planted into
pots, and plunged into another hot-bed, managing
them as hath been direfted for amaranths j for if thefe
plants are not thus brought forward in the former part
of the fummer, they will not produce good feeds ia
this Country.
From nine pounds of this feed which came from Ca--
6 rolina.
S E S
C 3>
rol'nu, there were upwards of two quarts of oil drawn,
which is as great a quantity as hath been obtained from
any vegetable whatever. This might occafion its be-
ing called the oily grain.
SESELT, MEADOW SAXIFRAGE, in botany : A ge-
nus of plants belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and
to the order of digynia ; and in the natural fyftem
ranging under the 45th order, Umbellatx. The umbels
ar«; globular ; the involucrum confifts of one or two
leaflets ; the fruit is egg- fh aped and ftreaked. There
are i \ fpeeies, the pimpine/Ioides, montanum, glaucum, an-
nuum, avimoides, tortuofum, iurbtthf hyppomarathrum^ py-
rcnaum, faxlfraguniy and e /at um. The montanum grows
naturally in France and Italy ; the glaucum is a native
of France ; the ammoides and tortuofum grow in the
fouth of Europe ; and the hyppomarathrum is a native
of Auflria.
SESOSTRIS, king of Egypt. See Egypt, p.
368.
SESQUI, a Latin particle, fignifying a whole and
a half ; which, joined with altera, terza, quarta, &c. is
much ufed in the Italian mufic to exprefs a kind of ra-
tios, particularly feveral fpecIes of triples.
S Es Qu 1- Alter ate ^ in geometry and arithmetic, is a ra-
tio between two lines, two numbers, or the like, where
one of them contains the other once, with the addition
of a half.
Thus 6 and 9 are in a fefqui-alterate ratio ; fince
9 contains 6 once, and 3, which is half of 6, over;
and 20 and 30 are in the fame ; as 30 contains 20,
and half 20 or 10.
Sessw I- Duplicate ratio, is when of two terms the great-
er contains the lefs twice, and half the lefs remains ; as
15 and 6 ; 90 and 20.
SRS^yui-Tertional proportion, is when any number or
quantity contains another once and one third.
SESSILE, among botanills. See Botany,
SESSION, in general, denotes each fitting or aflem-
bly of a council, &c.
Session of Parliament, is the feafon or fpace from its
meeting to its prorogation. See Parliament.
Kiri-SESsioN, the name of a petty ecclefiaftical court
in Scotland. See KiRx-SeJ/ion.
Sessions for weights and meafures. In London,
four juftices from among the mayor, recorder, and al-
dermen (of whom the mayor or recorder is to be one),
may hold a felfion to inquire into the offences of felling
by falfe weights and meafures, contrary to the ftatutes ;
and to receive indiftmcnts, punifli offenders, &c. Char,
king Charles I.
Court of Session. See Law, Part III. Seft. ii.
Court of ^arter-SsssiONS, an Englifh court that mud
be held in every county once in every quarter of a year;
which, by Statute 2 Hen. V. c. 4. is appointed to be in
the firft week after Michaelmas- day, the firft week after
the epiphany, the firfl week after the clofe of Eafter,
and in the week after the tranflation of St Thomas the
martyr, or the 7th of July. It is held before two or
more juftices of the peace, one of which muft be of the
quorum. The jurifdiftion of this court, by 34 Edw.
III. c. I. extends to the trying and determining all fe-
lonies and trefpaffes whatfoever ; though they feldom,
if ever, try any greater offence than fmall felonies with-
in the "benefit of clergy ; their commiffion providing,
that if any cafe of difficulty arifes, they fhall not pro-
9 ] S E S
ceed to judgment, but in the prefence of one oF the Seffion,
juftices of the courts of king's-bench or common-pleas, Sefterce;
or one of the judges of affize : and therefore murders, *
and other capital felonies, are ufually remitted for a'
more folemn trial to the afllzes. They cannot alfo try
any new-created offence, without exprefs power given
them by the ftatute which creates it. But there are
many offences and particular matters which, by parti-
cular ftatutes, belong properly to this jurifdiclion, and
ought to be profecuted in this court ; as, the fmall-
er mifdemeanors againR the public or commonwealth,
not amounting to felony ; and efpccially offences rela-
ting to the game, highways, alehoufes, baftard children,
the fettlement and provifion for the poor, vagrants, fer-
vants wages, and Popifh recufants. Some of thefe are
proceeded upon by indictment : others in a fummary
way, by motion, and order thereupon ; which order
may for the moft part, unlefs guarded againft by parti-
cular ftatutes, be removed into the court of king's-bench
by writ of certiorari facias, and be there either quafhed
or confirmed. The records or rolls of the feflions are
committed to the cuftody of a fpecial officer, denomi-
nated cufios rotulorum, who is always a juftice of the
quorum ; and among them of the quorum (faith Lam-
bard) a man for the moft part efpecially picked out,
either for wifdom, countenance, or credit. The nomi-
nation of the cufios rotulorum (who is the principal offi-
cer in the county, as the lord-lieutenant is chief in mi-
litary command) is by the king's fign-manual : and to
him the nomination of the clerk of the peace belongs ;
which office he is exprefsly forbidden to fell for mo-
ney.
In moft corporation-towns there are quarter-feffions
kept before juftices of their own, within their refpec-
tive limits ; which have exactly the fame authority as
the general quarter-feffions of the county, except in a
very few inftances ; one of the moft confiderable of
which is the matter of appeals from orders of removal
of the poor, which, though they be from the orders of
corporation-juftices, muft be to the fefiions of the coun-
ty, by ftatute 8 and 9 W. III. c. JG. In both corpo-
rations and counties at large, there is fometimes kept a
fpecial or petty feflion, by a few jufti-^es, for difpatch-
ing fmaller bufinefs in the neighbourhood between the
times of the general feffions ; as for licenfing alehoufes,
paffing the account ®f parifh-officers, and the like-
SESTERCE, Sestertius, a filver coin, in ufe a-
mong the ancient Romans, called alfo fimply nummus^
and fometimes tfunmus feflertius. U'he feftertius was the
fourth part of t 'le denarius, and originally contained two
afles and a half. It was at firft denoted by LLS ; the
two L's fignifying two librae, and the S half. But the
librarii, afterwards converting the two L's into an H,.
expreffed the feftertius by HS. The word feflertius was
firft introduced by way of abbreviation for fm'iflertius,
which fio nlfies two, and a half of a third, or, liv-rally,
only half a third ; for in expreffing half a third, it was
underftood that there were two before.
Some authors make two kinds of fefterces ; the lefs
called fefiertiusfm, the malculine gender ; and the great
one, called fejlertium, in the neuter : the firft, that we
have already defcribed ; the latter containing a thoufand
of the other. Others will have any fuch diftinflion of
great and little fefterees unknown to the Romans : fif-
tertiusy fay they, was an adjeftive, and fignified as fefler-
tius^
S E S [ 3:
ScQcrcc. t'tui, or two afTes and a half ; and when ufed in the phiral,
as m quinquaginta fejlerthim^ or fejlertia, it was only by
way of abbreviation, and there was always underftood
> centena, mlllia. Sec.
This matter has been accmately ftated by Mr Raper,
■ in the following n\anner. The fubftantive to which
feftertius referred is either as^ or psndus ; zn^fefiertius as
is two afies and a half ; fejlert'ium pondusy two pondera
and a half, or two hundred and fifty denarii. When
the denarius pafled for ten affes, the fellertius of two afles
and a half was a quarter of it ; and the Romans conti-
nued to keep thei:>e.ccounts in thefe fefterces long- after
the denarius paffed for fixteen afles ; till, growing rich,
they found it more convenient to reckon by qiiarters of
the denarius, which they called nutnm't^ and ufed the
words nummus and ftjiert'ius indifferently, as fynonymous
terms, and fometimes both together, as fejiertius num-
tnus ; in which cafe the word fejiertius, having loft its
original fignification, was ufed as a fubftantive ; for fej-
iertius nummus was not two nummi and a half, but a
fingle nummus of four affes. They called any fum un-
der two thoufand fefterces ib many feftertii'm the mafcii-
: line gender ; two thoufand fefterces they called duo or
bina fejlertia, in the neuter ; fo many quarters making
five hundred denarii, which was twice the feftertlum ;
and they faid dena, vicena^ Sec. /e/lertia, till the fum a-
-inounted to a thoufand feftertia, which was a million of
fefterces. But, to avoid ambiguity, they did not ufe the
renter fjlertium in the fingular number, when the whole
fum amounted ^o no more than a thoufand fefterces, or
: one feftertiunj. They called a million of fefterces decies
nummilm, or dedes fejlertlum, for decies centena millia nvm-
morum, or feflertiorum '{\n the mafcuhne gender), omit-
■ ting centena millia for the fake of brevity. They like-
■ wife called the fame fum decies fejlertium {In the neuter
gender) for decies centies fejlertium, omitting centies for
->the fame reafon; or fimply decies, omitting centena millia
J'ejlertium, or centies fejlertium ; and with the numeral ad-
verbs decies, •vicies, centies, millies, and the like, either
centena millia or centies was always underftood. Thefe
were their moft ufnal forms of exprefiion ; though for
- tina, dena, viceiia feflertia, they frequently faid bina, dena,
n)icena millia nummum. If the confular denarius cdntain-
- ed 60 troy grains of fine filver, it was worth fomewhat
more than eight-pence farthing and a half fterling ; and
the as, of 16 to the denarius, a little more than a half-
penny. To reduce the ancient fefterces of two affes and
a half, when the denarius paffed for 16, to pounds fter-
ling, multiply the given number by 5454, and cut off
fix f gures on the right hand for decimals. '1 0 reduce
num'tm [efterlii, or quarters ef the denarius, to pounds
fterling ; if the given fum be confular money, multiply
it by 8727, and cut oft" fix figures on the right hand for
decimals; but for imperial money diminifh the faid pro-
duct by one-eighth of itfelf. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixi.
part ji. art, 48.
To be quahfied for a Roman knigiit, an eftate of
400,000 feflerces was required ; and for a fenator, of
8oc,oco.
Authors alfo mention a copper fejlerce, worth about
-one-third of a. penny EngKfh.
SssTRkCF.,' or fejiertius, was alfo ufed by the ancients
for a thing, containing two wholes and an half of auo-
*?the,r, as «j .was taken for any whole or integer.
50 ^ S E T
SE.STOS,' a noted fcJrtrefg of European Turkey, fi.
tuated at the entrance of the Hcllefpont or Dardanelles,
24 miles foutli-welt of Gailipoli, This place^ is famous
for the loves of Hero and Leander, fung by the poet
Mufaeus.
SESUVIUM, in botany ; a genus of plants belong-
ing to the clafs of icofandria, arid to the order of trlgy-
nia. The calyx is coloured and divided into five parts;
there are no petals ; the capfule is egg-fliaped, thr<!e-
celled, opening horizontally about the middle, and con-
taining many feeds. There is only one fpecies, the portu-
lacajlrum, purflane-leaved fefuvium, which is a native of
the Weft Indies,
SET, or Sets, a term ufed by the farmers and gar-
deners to exprefs the young plants of the white thorn
and other flirubs, with which they ufe to laife their
quick or quick-fet hedges. The white thorn is the beft
of all trees for this purpci' ; and, under proper regula-
tions, its fets feldom fail of anfwering the fanner's utmoft;
expeftations,
SET-off, in law, is an aft whereby the defendant ac-
knowledges the juftice of the plaintiff''s demand on the
one hand ; but, on the other, fets up a demand of his
own, to counterbalance that ot the plaintiff, either in
the whole, or in part : as, if the plaintiff fues for lol.
due on a note of hand, the defendant may fet off 9 L
due to himfelf for merchandife fokl to the plaintiff^ ;
and, in cafe he pleads fuch fet-off, muft pay the remain-
ing balance into court. This anfwers very nearly to
the compenfatio or ftoppage o\ the civil law, and depends
upon the ftatutes 2 Geo. II. cap. 2-2. and 8 Geo. II,.
cap. 24,
SETACEOUS WORM, in natural hiftory, a name
given by E)r Lifter to that ' long and flender water-
worm, which fo much refembles a horfe-hair, that it
has been fuppofed by the vulgar to be an animated haii
of that creature. Thefe creatures, fuppofed to be Hvin »
hairs, are a peculiar'fort of Infedls, which are bred and non
rlftied within the bodies of other infedts, as the worms ot
the ichneumon flies are in the bodies of the caterpillars.
Aldrovand defcribes the creature, and tells us it was
unknown to the ancients ; but called feta aquatica, and
vermis fetarius, by the moderns, either from its figure
refembling-that of a hair, or from the fuppofition of its
once having been the hair of fome animal. We gene-
rally fuppefe it, in the imaginary ftate of the hair, to
have belonged to a horfe ; but the Germans fay it was
©nee the hair of a calf, and call it by a name fignifying-
Vilnius aquaticus, or the water calf."
Albertus, an author much reverenced by the common
people, has declared that this animal is generated of
a liair j and adds, that any hair thrown into ftanding
water, will, in a very little time, obtain life and motion.
Other authors have diftcnted from this opl.i^on, and fup-
.pofed them generated of the fibrous roots of water-
plants ; and others, of the parts of grafshoppers fallen
into the water. This laft opinion is rejected by Al-
drovand as the moft improbable of all. Standing anc3
foul waters are moft plentifully ftored with them ; but
tliey are fometimes found in the elearefi: and pureft:
fprings, and fometimes out of the water, on the leaves
of trees and plants, as on the fruit-trees in our gardenst
and the elms in hedges. They are from three to five
- inclies long, of the thicknefs of a large hair; and are
brownj
3 E V t 3
brewn upon the back, and white under the belly, and
the tail is white on every part.
: SETH, the third fon of Adam, the father of Enos,
was born 3874 B. C. and lived 912 years.
SETHI A NS, in church-hiltory, Chriftian heretics;
fo called becaule they paid divine worfhip to Seth,
whom they looked upon to be Jefus Chriil the fon of
God, but who was made by a third divinity, and fub-
ftituted in the room of the two families of Abel and
Cain, which had been deflroyed by the deluge. Thefe
heretics appeared in Egypt in the fecond century ; and
as they were addifted to all forts of debauchery, they
did not want followers ; and continued in Egypt above
200 years
SETIMO, a town of Italy, in the province of Pied-
rnoHt, fituated on the river Po, eight miles north of
Turin.
SETON, in fbrgery, a few horfe hairs, fmall threads,
or large packthread, drawn through the Ikin, chiefly the
neck, by means of a large needle or probe, with a view
to reilore or preferve health.
We find by experience, that fetons are very ufeful in
catarrhs, inflammations, and other diforders, particularly
thofe of the eyes, as a gutta ferena, cataradl, and inci-
pient fuff'ufion ; to thefe we may add intenfe headachs,
with ftupidity, drowfmefs, epilepfies, and even the apo-
plexy itfelf.
SETTEE, in fea-laiiguage, a vefltl very common in
the Mediterranean with one deck and a veiy long and
{harp prow. They carry fome two malls, fome three,
without top-mafts. They have generally two mails,
equipped with triangular fails, commonly called lateen
fails. The lead of them are of 60 tons burden. They
ferve to tranfport cannon and provifions for ihips of war
and the like. Thefe veffels are peculiar to the Medi-
terranean fea, and are ufually navigated by Italians,
Greeks, or Mahometans.
SETTING, in aftronomy, the withdrawing of a liar
or planet, or its finking below the horizon. Aftrono-
mers and poets make three different kinds of fetting of
the rtars, viz. the Cosmical, Acronycal, and Heli-
acal. See thefe articles.
Setting, in the fea-language. To fet the land or
the fun by the compafs, is to obferve how the land
bears on any point of the compafs, or on what point
of the compafs the fun is. Alfo when two fliips fail in
fight of one another, to mark on what point the chafed
bears, is termed fetting the chace by the compafs.
Setting, among fportfmen, a term ufed to exprefs
the manner of taking partridges by means of a dog
peculiarly trained to that purpofe. See Shooting.
Act OF SETTLEMENT, in Brltifh hiftoryj a
name given to the ftatute 12 and iT, W. III. cap. 2.
\vhereby the crown was limited to his prefent majeily's
jiluflrious houfe ; and f&me new provifions were added,
iit the fame fortunate era, for better fecuring our reli-
pion, laws, and liberties ; which the ftatute declares to
be the birthright of the people of England, accordin^r
to the ancient doftrine of the common law.
SEVENTH, in mufic, an interval called by the
Greeks heplachordon. ' See Interval.
SEVERANCE, in law, the hnghng or fevering two
or more that join or are joined in the fame writ ox ac-
tion. As if two join in a writ, de libertate probanda^
.ii-id the one be afterwards nonfuited j here feverance is
Vou XVII. Parti.
ail S E V
permitted, fo as notwithftanding the nonfuit the one, 3evarl»
the other may feverally proceed. II
There is alfo feverance of the tenants in affize; when
one, two, or more difleifees appear upon the writ, and ^"^^
not the other. And feverance in debt, where two exe-
cutors are named plaintiffs, and the one refufes to pro-
fecute. _We alfo meet with feverance of fummons, fe-
verance in attaints, &c. An eftate in joint tenancy may
be fevered and deftroyed by deftroying any of its uni-
ties. I. That of time, which refpetts only the original
commencement of the joint eftate, cannot indeed (beiu'r
now part) be affefted by any fubfequent tranfaftion.
But, 2. The joint-tenants eftate may be deftroyed with-
out any alienation, by merely difuniting their pofleflion,
3. The jointure may be deftroyed, by deftroying the uni-
ty of title. And, 4. By deftroying the unity of intereft.
SEVERIA, a province of the Ruffian empire, with
the title of a duchy, bounded; on the north by Smo-
lenflfo and Mufcovy, on the eaft by Vorotinfbi and the
country of the Coflkcks, on the fouth by the fame,
and on the weft by Zernegovia. It is a country over-
run with woods, and on the fouth part is a foreft of
great length. Novogrodec, or Novogorod, is the ca-
pital town.
St SEVERINA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, and in Lower Calabria, with an archbifliop's
fee. It is very w^ell fortified, and feated on a craggy
rock, on the river Nectoj in E. Lo*ig. 17. 14. N. Lat
39- > 5.
SEVERING, a town of Italy, in the territory of
the church, and in the Marche of Ancona, with a bi.
ftiop's fee. It has fine vineyards, and is feated be-
tween two hills on the river Petenza, in E. Lona-. i x
6. N. Lat. 43. 16. ^
SEVERN, a river which rifes near Plimlimmon-
Hill in Montgomery fture, and before it enters Shrop.
Ihue receives about 30 ftreams, and paflbs down to
Laudring, where it receives the Morda, that flows
from Ofweftry. When it arrives at Monford, it re-
ceives the river Mon, paffing on to Shrewftjury, which
It almoft furrounds, then to Bridgeworth ; afterwards
It runs through the fkirts of Staffbrdfhire, tn^tx^^ ox- Lucmle\
cefterfture, and paflbs by Worcefter ; then it runs to ^"-^^'^
Tewkeftjury, where it joins the Avon, and from thence
to Gloucefter, keeping a north-wefterly courfe, till it
falls into the Bnftol Channel. It begins to be naviga-
ble for boats at Welchpool, in Montgomeryfhire, and
takes in feveral other rivers in its courfe, belides thofe
already mentioned, and is the fecond in England. By
the late inland navigation, it has communication with
the rivets Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Gufe, Trent, Dcr-
went, Humber, Thames, Avon, &c. which naviga-
tion, including its windings, extends above 500 miles
in the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York Lau-
cafler, Weflmor eland, Che tier, Stafford, Warwick
Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c. A canal from
Stroud- Water, a branch of the Severn, to join the
I'hames, has lately been undertaken, by which great
undertaking of conveying a tunnel 16 feet high and 16
feet wide, under Sapperton Hill and Hayley-Wood
(very high ground), for two miles and a quarter in
length, througli a very hard rock, lined and arched
with brick, i& entirely completed, and boats paffed
through it the 2ift of May .789. By this opening, ■
a commuaication is made between the river Severn at
S 8 Frami.
S E V
[
!1
Severus. ITamiload and the Thames near Lechlade, and will be
continued over the Thames near Inglefham, into deep
* water in the Thames below St Jolm-Bridge, and fo to
Oxford, &c. and London, for conveyance of coals,
(Toods, &c. It is now navigable from the Severn to
Themsfotd, hy way of Stroud, Cirencefter, Crick,
lade, &c. being fdled with water for that purpofe near
^.0 miles.
SEVERUS (Cornelius), an ancient Latin poet of
the Auquftan age ; whofe JEtnti, toprether with a frag-
ment De mnrte Ciceron'ts, were publiflied, with notes
and a profe interpretation, by Le Clerc, i zmo. Am-
ilerdam, 1703. They were before inferted among the
Cnlalean Virgilii publiflied by Scaliger ; whofe notes,
with others, Le Clerc has received among his own.
Severus (Septimus), a Roman emperor, who has
been fo much admired for his military talents, that
iome have called him the moft warlike of the lloman
emperors. Asa monarch he was cruel, and it has been
obferved that he never did an a^ of humanity or for-
gave a fault. In his diet he was temperate, and he
always fhowed himfelf an open enemy to pomp and
fplendor. He loved the appellation of a man of let-
ters, and he even compofed an hiftory of his own reign,
which fome have praifed for its corrcdlnels and veracity.
However cruel Severus may appear in his punifliments
and in his revenge, many have endeavoured to exculpate
him, and obferved that there was need of feverity in
an empire where the morals were fo corrupted, and where
no lefs than 3000 pcrfons were accufed of adultery du-
ring the fpace of 17 years. Of him, as of Augullus,
fome were fond to fay, that it would have been better
for the world if he had never been born, or had never
died. See Rome, n" 372.
Srvt.kvs^s IVaU, in Britifh topography, the fourth
and laft barrier erefted by the RoYnans againft the in-
curfions of the North Britons. See the articles Adri-
an, and Antoninus' s Wall.
We learn from feveral hints in the Roman hiftorians,
that the country between the walls of Hadrian and
Antoninus continued to be a fcene of perpetual war
and fubjed of contention between the Romans and Bri-
tons, from the beginning of the reign of Commodus
to the arrival of the emperor Septimius Severus in Bri-
tain, A. D. 206. This lall emperor having fubdued
the Majatae, and repulfed the Caledonians, determined
to ereft a ftronger and more impenetrable barrier than
anv of the former, againfl their future incurfions.
Though neither Die nor Herodian make any men-
tion of a wall built by Severus in Britain for the pro-
teftlon of the Roman province, yet we have abundant
evidence from other writers of equal authority, that he
really built fuch a wall. " He fortified Britain (fays
Spartian) with a wall drawn crofs the ifland from lea
to fea ; which is the greateft glory of his reign. After
the wall was f nifhed, he retired to the next ftation
(York), not only a conqueror, but the founder of an
etcrn:d peace." To the fame purpofe, Aurelius Viftor
and Orofins, to fay nothing of Eutropius and Cafliodo-
rus : " Having repelled the enemy in Britain, he for-
tified the country, which was fuited to that purpofe,
with a wall drawn crofs the ifland from fea to fea."—
«' Severus drew a great ditch, and built a llrong wall,
fsrtified with feveral turrets, from fea to fea, to proteft
that part of the ifland which he had recovered from
2 ] S E V
the yet unconquered nations." As the rtfidencc of the
emperor Severus in Britain was not quite four years. It
is probable that the two laft of them weie em.ployed in
building this wall ; according to which account, it was
begun A. D. 209, and finilhed A. D. 21O0
'i his wall of Severus was built nearly on the fame
traft with Hadrian's rampart, at the diltance only of a
few paces north. The length of this wall, from Coufms'
houfe near the mouth of the river Tyne on the eaft, to
Boulnefs on the Solway frith on the weft, hath been
found, from two aftunl menfurations, to be a httle more
than 68 Enghfh miles, and a little lefs than 74 Roman
miles. To the north of the wall was a broad and deep
ditch, the original dimenfions of which cannot no^v be
afcertained, only it feems to have been larger than that
of Hadrian. The wall itfelf, which ilood on the louth
brink of the ditch, was built of free-ftone, and where
the foundation was not good, it is built on piles ot
oak ; the interftices between the two faces of this wall
is filled with broad thin ftones, placed not perpendicu-
larly, but obliquely on their edges ; the running mortar
or cement was then poured upon them, which, by its
great itrength and tenacity, bound the whole together,
and made it firm as a rock. But though thefe mate-
rials are fufficiently known, it is not eafy to guefs where
they were procured, for many parts of the wall are at
a great diftance irom any quarry of free ftone ; and,
though llone of another kind was within reach, yet it
does not appear to have been anywhere ufed. The
height of this wall was i l feetbefides the parapet, and
its breadth 8 feet, according to Bede, who lived only at
a fmall diftance from the call end of it, and in whofe time
it was almoft quite entire in many places. Such was the
wall erefted by the command and under the direftion of
the emperor Severus in the north of England ; and,
confidering the length, breadth, height, and folidity,
it v/as certainly a work of great magnificence and pro-
digious labour. But the wall itfelf was but a part, and
not the moft extraordinary part, of this work. The
great number and different kinds of fortreffes which
were built along the hne of it for its defence, and the
military ways with which it was attended, are Hill more
worthy of our admiration, and come now to be de-
fcribed.
The fortreffes which were erefted along the line of
Severus's wall for its defence, were of three different
kinds, and three different degrees of fl:rength ; and
were called by three different Latin words, which may
be tranflated Jiafions, cajUes^ and turrets. Of each of
thefe in their order.
The Jiationes, ftations, wer^ fo called from their fta-
bility and the ftated refidence of garrifons. They
were alfo called caftra, which hath been converted into
chejlres, a name which many of them ftill bear. Thefe
were by far the largeft, fl;rongeft, and moft magnificent
of the fortreffes which were built upon the wall, and
were defigned for the head-quarters of the cohorts of
troops which were placed there in garrifon, and from
whence detachments were fent into the adjoining caftles
and turrets. Thefe ftations, as appears from the vef-
tiges of them which are ftill vifible, were not all exaft-
ly of the fame figure nor of the fame dimenfions ; fome
of them being exaftly fquares, and others oblong, and
fome of them a little larger than others. Thefe varia-
tions were no doubt occafioned by the difference of fs-
3 tuation
S E V [3
tuation and other circumftances. The i^ations were
fortified with deep ditches and ftrong walls, the wall
itfelf colncidin.Ef with and forming the north wall of
each itation. Within the ftations were lodgings for the
officers and foldiers in garrlfon ; the fmalleft of them
being fufficient to contain a cohort, or 600 men.
Without the vvalls of each ftation was a town, inhabit-
ed by labourers, artificers, and others, both Romans
and Britons, v/ho chofe to dwell under the protedion
of thefe fortreffes. The number of the ftations upon
the wall was exaftly 1 8 ; and if they had been placed
at equal diftances, the interval between every two of
them would have been four miles and a few paces : but
the intervention of rivers, marfhes, and mountains ; the
conveniency of fituations for ftrength, profpeft, and
water ; and many other circumftances to us unknown,
determined them to place thefe ftations at unequal dif-
tances. The fituation which was always chofen by the
Romans, both here and everywhere elfe in Britain
where they could obtain it, was the gentle dechvity of
a hill, near a river, and facing the meridian fun. Such
was the fituation of the far greateft part of the ftations
on this wall. In general, we may obferve, that the
ftations ftood thickeft near the two ends and in the
middle, probably becaufe the danger of invafion was
greateft in thefe places. But the reader wil' form a
clearer idea of the number of thefe ftations, their La-
tin and Englifli names, their fituation and diftance from
one another, by infpefting the following table, than we
can give him with equal brevity in any other way. The
firft column contains the number of the ftation, reckon-
ing from eaft to weft; the fecond contains its Latin,
ajid the third its Englifh name ; and the three laft its
dillance from the next ftation to the weft of it, in miles,
fuplongs, and chains.
NO
Latin Name.
Engliih Name.
M
F.
C.
I
Segedunum
Pons jEUi
Coufins'-houfe
3
5
li
2
Newcaftle
2
c
9
3
Condercum
Ben well hill
6
6
5
3i
4
Vindobala
Rutchefter
7
0
Hunnum
Halton-chefters
5
I
7
6
Cihirnum
Walw ick-chefters
3
I
8
7
8
Procolitia
Carrawbrugh
4-
5
3l
Borcovicus
Houfefteeds
1
3
8
9
Vindolana
Little-chefters
3
6
4
lO
jEfica
Great-chefters
2
I
64
1 1
Magna
Carrvoran
2
6
0
12
Y\mbop;lanna
Burdofwald
6
2
8
J 3
Petriana
Cambcck
2
6
6
'4
Aballaba
Watchcrofs
5
I
9
«5
Congavata
Stanwix
3
3
4
16
Axelodunum
Brugh
4
0
9
^7
Gabrofentum , Brumbrugh
3
4
I
18
Tunnecelum
Boulnefs
c
0
0
Length of the wall
68
3
1 3
The caJleUa, or caftles, were the fecond kind of for-
tifications which were built along the line of this wall
for its defence. Thefe caftles were neither fo large
nor ftrong as the ftations, but much more numerous,
being no fewer than 8 i . The ftiapc and dimenfions of
the caftles, as appears from the foundations of many
3 1 . S E V
of them which are flill vifible, were exacl fquares of Se
66 feet every way. They were fortified on every fide
with thick and lofty walls, but without any ditch, ex-
cept on the north fide ; on which the wall itfelf, raifed
much above its ufual height, with the ditch attending
it, formed the fortification. The caftles were fituated
in the intervals betw^een the ftations, at the diftance of
about feven furlongs from each other ; thouoh parti-
cular circumftances fometimes occafioned a little vari-
ation. In thefe caftles, guards were conftantly kept by
a competent number of men detached from the neareft
ftations.
The turres, or turrets, were the third and laft kind
of fortifications on the wall. Thefe were ftill much
fmaller than the caftles, and formed only a fquare of
about 12 feet, ftanding out of the wall on its fouth
fide. Being fo fmall, they are more entirely ruined
than the ftations and caftles, which makes it difficult
to difcover their exaft number. They ftood in the in-
tervals between the caftles ; and from the faint veftiges
of a few of them, it is conjeftured that there were four
of them between every two caftles, at the diftance of
about 300 yards from one another. According to this
conjefture, the number of the turrets amounted to 324.
They were defigned for watch-towers and places for
fentinels, who, being within hearing of one another,
could convey an alarm or piece of intelligence to all parts
of the wall in a very little time.
Such were the ftations, caftles, and turrets, on the
wall of Severus ; and a very confiderable body of troops
was conftantly quartered in them for its defence.
The ufiial complement allowed for this fervice was as
follows :
1. Twelve cohorts of foot, confifting of 6qo
men each, - - 7,200
2. One cohort of mariners in the ftation at Boul-
nefs, - - 600
3. One detachment of Moors,''probably equal to
a cohort, - - 600
4. Four alae or wings of horfe, confifting, at the
loweft computation, ot 400 each, - 1,600
10, GOD
For the conveniency of marching thefe troops from
one part of the wall to another, with the greater eafe
and expedition, on any fervice, it was attended with
two mihtary ways, paved with fquare ftones, in the
moft folid and beautiful manner. One of thefe ways
was fmaller, and the other larger. The fmaller military-
way run clofe along the fouth fide of the wall, from
turret to turret, and caftle to caftle, for the ufe of the
foldiers in relieving their guards and centinels, and fuch
fervices. The larger way did not keep fo near the
wall, nor touch at the turrets or caftles, but purfued
the moft direft com fe from one ftation -to another, and
was defigned for the conveniency of marching larger
bodies of troops.
It is to be regretted, that we cannot gratify the
reader's cutiofity, by informing him by what particu-
lar bodies of Roman troops the feveral parts of this
great work were executed ; as we were enabled to do
with regard to the wall of Antoninus Pius from in-
fcriptions. For though it is probable that there were
S s 2 ftonea
Scvenis.
S E V
Hones with infcriptions of the fame kind, mentionin<T
' the feveral bodies of troops, and the quantity of work
performed by each of them, originally inferted in the
face of this wall, yet none of them are now to be
found. There have indeed been difcovered, in or near
the ruins of this wall, a great number of fmall fquare
ftones, with very fhort, and generally imperfect, infcrip-
tions upon them ; mentioningr particular legions, co-
horts, and centuries ; but without direftly affertin:^
that they had built any part oF the wall, or naming; any
number of paces. Of thefe infcriptions, the reader
may fee no fewer than tw^enty-nine among the Nor-
thumberland and Cumberland infcriptions in Mr Horf-
ley's Britannia Remana. As the ftones on which thefe
infcriptions are cut are of the fame fhape and fize with
the other facing-ftones of this wall, it is almoft certain
that they have been originally placed in the face of it.
It is equally certain, irom the uniformity of thefe in-
fcriptifms, that they were all intended to intimate fome
one thin;2:, and nothing fo probable as that the adjacent
wall was built by the troops mentioned in them. This
was, perhaps, fo well underllood, that it was not thought
neceflary to be exprefftd ; and the diftance of thefe in-
fcriptions from one another fhowed the quantity of work
performed. If this was really the cafe, we know in ge-
neral, that this great work was executed by the fecond
and fixth le!iions, thefe being the only legions mention-
ed in thefe infcriptions. Now, if this prodigious wall,
with all its appendages of ditches, ftations, caftles, tur-
rets, and military ways, was executed in the fpace of
two years by two legions only, which, when moft com-
plete, made no more than 12,000 men, how greatly
muft we admire the llclll, the induftry, and excellent
difcipline of the Roman foldicrs, who were not only the
vahant (guardians of the empire in times of war, but its
moft aftive and ufeful members in times of peace ?
This wall of Severus, and its fortrefles, proved an
impenetrable barrier to the Roman territories for near
200 years. But about the beginning of the 5th cen-
tury, the Roman empire being affaulted on all fides,
and the bulk of their forces withdrawn from Britain,
the Maeatas and Caledonians, now called Scots and
PiSs, became more daring ; and fome of them break-
ing through the wall, and others faihng round the ends
of it, they carried their ravages into the very heart of
Provincial Britain. I'hefe invaders were indeed feveral
times repulfed after this by the Roman legions fent to
the velief of the Britons. The laft of thefe legions,
under the command of Gallio of Ravenna, having,' with
the affiftance of the Britons, thoroughly repaired the
breaches of Severus's wall and its fortreffes, and exhort-
ed the Britons to make a brave defence, took their final
farewell of Britain. It foon appeared, that the ftrong-
eft walls and ramparts are no fecurity to an undifcioli-
ned and daftardly rabble, as the unhappy Britons then
were. The Scots and Pitls met with little refillance in
breaking through the wall, while the towns and caftles
were tamely abandoned to their deftruftive rage. In
many places they levelled it with the ground, that it
might prove no obftrudlion to their future inroads. —
From this time no attempts were ever made to repair
this noble work. Its beauty and grandeur procured
it no refpeft in the dark and taftelefs ages which fuc-
ceeded. It became the common quarry for more than
» tboufand years, out of which all the towns and vil-
[ 324 ] S E V
lages aroimd were built ; and is now fo entirely mined,
that the penetrating eyes of the moft poring and pa- '
tient antiquarian, can hardly trace its vanifhing founda-
tions. ,
SEVIGNE (Marie de Rabutin, Marquifte de), a
French lady, was born in 1626. When only a year
old flie loft her father, who was killed in the defcent of
the Englifli on the ifie of Rhe, where he commanded a
company of volunteers. In 1 644 fhe married the Mar-
quis of Sevigne, who was flain in a duel by the Cheva-
lier d'Albret, in 1651. She had by him a fon and a
daughter, to the education of whom fte afterwards re-
ligioufly devoted herfelf. Her daughter was married
in (669 to the Count of Grignan, who conduced her
to Provence. Madame de Sevigne confoled herfelf by
writing frequent letters to her daughter. She lell at
laft the viftim to her maternal tendernefs. In one of
her vifits to Grignan, fhe fatigued herfelf fo much du-
ring the ficknefs of her daughter, that fhe wa^ feized
with a fever, which carried her off on the 1 4th of Ja-
nuary 1696. We have two portraits of Madame dc
Sevigne; the one by the Compte de Buffi, the other by
Madame de la Fayette. The firft exhibits her defers j
the fecond her excellencies. Buffi defcrihes her as a
lively gay coquette, a lover of flattery, fond of titles, ho-
nour, and diftlnftion : M. de la Fayette as a womai>
of wit ar <i good fenfe, as pofiefted of a noble foul, form-
ed for dil'penfing benefits, incapable of debafing herfelf
by avarice, and bleffed with a generous, obliging, and
faithful heart. Both thefe portraits are in fome mea-
fure juft. That fhe was vain-glorious, appears evident
from her own letters, which, on the other hand, ex-
hibit undoubted proofs of her virtue and goodnefs of
heart.
This illuftrious lady was acquainted with all the wit&
of her age. • It is faid that (he decided the famous dif-
pute between Perrault and Boileau concerning the pre-
ference of the ancients to the moderns, thus, " The an-
cients are the fineft, and we are the prettieft." She
left behind her a moft valuable colledlion of letters, the
beft edition of which is that of 1775, in 8 vols i2mo.
" Thefe letters (fays Voltaire) are filled with anec-.W^
dotes, written with freedom, and in a natural and anima--^-'""'
ted ftyle ; a,re an excellent criticifm upon ftudied letters
of wit, and ftill more upon thofe fift itious letters which
aim at the epiftolary ftyle, by a recital of falfe fenti-
ments and feigned adventures to an imaginary corre-
fpondent." It were to be wiftied that a proper felec-
tion had been made of thefe letters. It is difficult to
read eight volumes of letters, which, though inimitably
written, prefent frequent repetitions, and are often
filled with trifles. What makes them in general per-
haps fo interefting is, that they are in part hiftori-
cal. They may be looked upon as a relation of the
manners, the ton, the gewius, the faftiians, the cti-
quette, which reigned in the court of I.ouis XIV.
They contain many curious anecdotes nowhere elfc to
be found: But thefe excellencies would be ftill more
ftriking, were they fonrretimes ftripped of that multi-
tude of domeftic affairs and minute incidents which
ought naturally to h^ve died witk the mother and the
daughter. A volume entitled Sevlgniana was publiflied
at Pai-is in i 756, which is nothing more than a colleftioa
of the fine fentiments, literary and hiftorical anecdotes^
and moral apothegms, fcattered throughout thefe letters.
SEVILLE,
S E V
e. SEVILLE, a large and populous city of Spain,
Hands on the banks of the Guadalquiver, in the midft
of a rich, and to the eye a boundlefs, plain ; in W.
Long. 5° 5' N. Lat. 370 20'. This city is fupp(>fcd
to have been founded by the Phoenicians, who gave it
the name of Hifpalis. When it fell under the power
of the Romans, it was called Julia ; and at laft, after a
■variety of corruptions, was called Sebil/a or SeviUa ;
both of which names are retained by the Spaniards. The
Romans embeUifhed it with many magnificent edifices ;
of which fcarce any veftige now remains. The Go-
thic kings for fome time made it their rcfidence : but
in procefs of time they removed their court to I'oledo ;
and Seville was taken by ftorm foon after the vidory
obtained at Xeres over the Gothic king Rodrigo. —
In 1027, Seville became an independent monarchy;
but was conqueied 70 years afterwards by Yufef Al-
moravides, an African prince. At lall it was taken
by Ferdinand TIL after a year's fiege ; and 300,000
Moors were then obliged to leave the place. Not-
withftandlng this prodigious emigration, Seville con-
tinued to be a great and populous city, and foon after
it was enlarged and adorned with many magnificent
buildings, the chief of which is the cathedral. Seville
arrived at its utmoft pitch of grandeur a little after the
difcovery of America, the reafon of which was, that all
the valuable produftionsof the Weft Indies were carried
thither. Its court was then the mofl fplendid in Europe ;
but in the courfe of a few years all this grandeur difap-
peared, owing to the impediments in navigating the Gua-
dalquiver. The fuperior excellence of the port of Ca-
diz induced government to order the galeons to be Ita-
tloned there in time to come.
Seville is of a circular form, and is furrounded by a
wall about five miles and a half in circumference, con-
taining 176 towers. The ditch in many places is filled
up. The ftrects of Seville are crooked and dirty, and
moft of them fo narrow that two carriages can fcarcely
pafs one another abreaft.
Seville is faid to contain 80,268 fouls, and is divi-
ded into 30 parifhes. It has 84 convents, with 24 hof-
pitals.
•lid's Of the public edifices of this city the cathedral is
'j the moft magnificent. Its dimenfions are 420 feet in
length, 263 in breadth within the walls,' and 126 feet
in height. It has nine doors, 80 altars, at which 500
maffes are dally celebrated, and 80 windows of painted
glafs, each of which coft 1 000 ducats. At one angle
Hands a tower of Moorifh workmanfhip 350 feet high.
On the top of it is the giralda, or large brazen image,
which, with its palm branch, weighs near one ton and
a half, yet turns as a weather-cock with the flighteft
variation of the wind. The whole work is brick and
mortar. The paffage to the top is an inclined plane,
which winds about in the infide in the manner of a fpi-
ral ftaircafe, fo eafy of afcent that a horfe might trot
from the bottom to the top ; at the fame time it is fo
wide that two horfemen may ride abreaft. What ap-
pears very unaccountable, the folld mafonry in the up-
per half is juft as thick again as that in the lower, tho'
on the outfide the tower is all the vvay of the fame di-
menfions. In the opinion of Mr Swinburne, this ca-
thedral is inferior to Yorkminfter. Its treafures are
itieftlmable ; one altar with all its ornaments is folid fil-
ler i of the fame metal are the images of St Ifidore
S E V
and St Leander, which are as large as the life ; and Seville. ^
a tabernacle for the hoft more than four yards high,
adorned with eight and forty columns. Before the
choir of the cathedral is the tomb of the celebrated
Chriftopher Columbus, the difcoverer of America. His
monument confifts of one ftone only, on which thefe
words are infcribed, ^ Cajhlla y Jirragon otro mundo Bourgnannee
d'w (John ; that is, *' To Caftile and Arragon Colum- '^'^£1^*
bus gave another world an infcriptlon fimplc and ex-
preffive, the juftnefs of which will be acknowledged by
thofe who have read the adventures of this illuftrious
but unfortunate man. The cathedral was begun by
Don Sancho the Brave, about the clofe of the 13th
centui7, and finiftied by John II. about an hundred
yeais after. To the cathedral belongs a library «f
20,000 volumes, collefted by Hernando the fon of Co-
lumbus,: but, to the dlfgrace of the Spaniards, it has
fcarcely received any addition fince the death, of the
founder. The organ in this cathedral is a very Inge- ^ „
nious piece of mechanifm \. " I was much pleafed (fays^ „°g
Mr Townfend in his interefting travels) with the con-
ftruftion of a new organ, containing 5300 pipes, with
1 10 ftops, which latter, as the builder told me, is 50
more than are in the famous one of Harlem ; yet, fo
ample are the bellows, that when ftretched they fupply
the full organ 15 minutes. The mode of filling them
with air is fingular ; for inftead of working with his
hands, a man walks backwards and forwards along an
inclined plane of about 1 5 feet in length, which is ba-
lanced in the middle on its axis ; under each end is a
pair of bellows, of about fix feet by three and an half.
Thefe communicate with five other pair united by a
bar ; and the latter are fo contrived, that when they are
in danger of being qverftrained, a valve is lifted up, and
gives them relief Faffing 10 times along the inclined
plane fills all thefe veffels." ^
The Canos de Carmone, or great aqueduft of 'S^t-^^ioixlumt^as
ville, is reckoned by the hlftorians of this city one
of the moft wonderful works of antiquity. Mr Swin-^'
burne, however, remarks, that it is ugly, crooked, the
arches unequal, and the archltedlure negledled. The
conduit is fo leaky, that a rivulet is formed by the
wafte water. Neverthelefs, it ftill conveys to the city
an ample fupply of water fufficient to turn feveral
milk, and to give almoft every houfe in town the bene-
fit of it.
Many of the convents are remarkable for the beauty
of their archltefture ; but in Seville the eye covets only
pidures, of which there is a wonderful profufion. A-
mong thefe are the works of the famous painter Mu-
rillo, with many others unlvevfally admired.
The convent of the Francifcans contains 15 cloifters,
with apartments for 200 monks, though, when Mr
Townfend vifited them, they amounted only to 140.
The annual expenditure of thefe, who are all fed QVi^oionfen^ht-
charity, is about L. 4000 Sterling. " In the principal "'^"'''.'^^•^»
cloifter (fays the fame intelligent traveller), which io-p^' j^
entirely inclofed by a multitnde of little chapels, are re-
prefented, in 14 plftures, each called &Jiat'wn, all the
lufferlngs of the Redeemer. Thefe are fo arranged as
to mark given diftances by walking round the cloifter
from the nrft to the fecond, and fo in order to the reft.
Over them is mentioned the number of fteps taken by
our Lord between the feveral incidents of his paffion
in his way to Calvary ; and thefe precifely are the paces.
Sevi'le.
S E V [3
meafured for the penitents in their progrefs from one
ftation to another. Over one is the following infcrip-
tion : * Thib ftation confifts of 1087 fteps. Here the
blelfed Redeemer fell a fecond time under the weight
of his crofs, and here is to be gained the indulgence of
feven years and forty quarantines. Mental prayer, the
Paternofter, and tlie Ave Maria.' This may ferve as
an example for the reft."
The principal manufadure of Seville is fnuff. Mr
Townfend) who paid particular attention to it, informs
us, that the building in which ic is carried on is elegant
.and fimple in its form, and is about 600 feet by 480,
:and not lefs than 60 feet in height, with four regular
fronts, inclofmg 28 quadrangles. It coft 37,000,000
of reals, or about L. 370,000. At prefent (1787),
no more than 1700 workmen are employed, and 100
liorfes or mules ; but formerly 3000 men were engaged,
and near 400 horfes. 'J his faUing off is attributed by
Mr Swinburne to a praftice which the direftors follow-
ed, of adulterating the tobacco with the red earth of
Almazatron. When Mr Townfend vifited this manu-
fafture, they had changed their fyfteni. From the
year 1780, he informs us, the annual falc of tobacco
from Brazil has been 1,500,000 pounds, purchafed
from the Portuguefe at three reals a pound ; and of
fnuff from the produce of their own colonies 1,600,000
pounds, beiide cigars (a) to a very confiderable a-
mount. They have lying by them more than 5,000,000
of pounds of fnuff unfold ; but as it will not fuffer by
age, they are not uneafy at this accumulation. Befides
the peculiar kind of fnuff whh which Spain was accu-
ftomed to fupply the market, they have lately introdu-
ced the manufadure of rappee. In this branch alone
are employed 220 perfons, old and young, with 16
mules.
" All the workmen (continues Mr Townfend) depofit
their cloaks at the door ; and when they go out arc fo
ftriftly examined, that they have little chance of being
able to conceal tobacco ; yet they fometimes venture to
hide it about their perfons. An officer and a guard is aU
ways attending to take delinquents into cuftody ; and that
they may prevent refiftance, no workman is permitted to
enter with a knife. Were it not for this precaution, the
confequcnce of a deteftion might be fatal. The whole
br.fmeis is conduced by a direftor, with a falary of
40,000 reals a-year, and 54 fuperior officers, affifted by
.as many fubordinate to them. For griading their fnuff,
they have 40 mills, each cenfifting of a ftone roller,
moved by a large horfe or mule, with the traces faften-
,«d to a beam of eight feet in length, in the angle of 45
degrees, coqfequently lofing precifely half his force- "
Before Mr Townfend left Seville, according to his
iilual praftice, which was truly laudable, he enquired
into the prices of labour and provilions. As a piece of
<;urious and ufeful information, and as an example to
other travellers, we prefent them to our readers. They
are as follow :
Day-labourers - 4x reals, about L. o o loj-
Carpenters from 7 to 11
Joiners, if good work-
men, - 24 or -049
26 ] SEW
Weavers, if good workmen, 15 reals,
about - - L. o 3 o
Bread, for 3 lb. of j 6 or,, or 1 6 quartos, or o o 44-
fometimes 28 quartos, or 00 7-J
Beef, 30 quaitos for 32 oz. per lb. about o o 44
Mutton, 38 do. do. - ' - 00 5||-
Kid, 24 do. - . o o 3I
Pork from 36 to 42 quartos, do. ^ ^ ^ ^[a
The price of wheat has at different periods been very
remarkable. In 1652, it fold at the rate of 15 s. 34 d.
the bufhel ; and in 1657, it fell fo low as i s. 4 id. per
bufhel, reckoning the fanega at 109-lr lb. and the buftiel
at 70.
SEVUM MiNERALE, mineral tallow; a fubftance
fomewhat refembling tallow, found on the fea-coafts of
Finland in the year 1736. It burns with a blue flame,
and fmell of greafe, leaving a black vifcid matter which
cannot eafily be confumed. It is extremely light ; be-
ing only of the fpecific gravity of 0.770 ; whereas tal-
low is not lefs than 0.969. It is partly foluble in
highly reftiSed fpirit of wine ; but entirely fo in ex-
prelTed oils when boiling. It is met with in fome of
the rocky parts of Perfia, but there it appears to be mix-
ed with petrolaeum. Dr Herman of Strafburg mentions
a fpring m the neighbourhood of that city which con-
tains a fubftance of this fort difFufed through it, fepa-
rating, and capable of being coUefted on ebullition. —
A fat mineral matter refembling butter or tallow has
lately been extraded from peat in Lancafliire. See
Peat.
SEWAURY, a Hindoo word ufed in Bengal, and
fignifying the train of attendants that accompany a na-
bob or great man.
SEWER, in the HovfehoU, an officer who arranges
on the table the diftics of a king or nobleman.
Sewer is alfo a paffage or gutter made to carry wa-
ter into the fea or a river, whereby to prefer ve the land,
&c. from inundations and other annoyances.
Court of CommiJJioners of Sepvers in England^ a tem-
porary tribunal, ereded by virtue of a commiffion un-
der the great feal ; which formerly ufed to be grant-
ed pro re nata at the pleafure of the crown, but now at
the difcretion and nomination of the lord chancellor,
lord treafurer, and chief juftices, purfuant to the ftatute
23 Hen. VIII. c. 5. Their jurlfdidion is to overlook
the repairs of fea-banks and fea-walls, and the clcanfing
of rivers, public ftreams, ditches, and other conduits,
whereby any waters are carried off ; and is confined to
fuch county or particular diftrid 39 the commiffion (hall
exprefsly name. The commiffioners are a court of re-
cord, and may fine and imprifon for contempts ; and in
the execution of their duty may proceed by jury, or
upon their own view, and may take order for the remo-
val of any annoyances, or the fafeguard and conferva-
tion of the fewers within their commiffion, either ac-
cording to the laws and cuftoms of Romney-marfh, or
otherwife at their own difcretion. They may alfo af-
fefs fuch rates or foots upon the owners of lands withia
their diftrid as they fhall judge neceflary : and if any
perfon refufes to pay them, the commiffioners may levy
the
(a) Thefe arc little rolls of tobacco which the Spaniards fmoke without a pipe.
SEW [ s'
the fame by diRrefs of his p-oods and chattels ; or they
may, by ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. c. 5. fell his freehold-
lands (and by the 7 Ann. c. 10. his copyhold alfo), In
order to pay fuch fcots or alfeflments. Ikit their con-
duft is under the controul of the court of King's-bench,
which will prevent or punifh any illegal or tyrannical
proceedings. And ytt in the reign of King James I.
(8th Nov. 16 1 6.), the privy-council took upon them
to order, that no aftion or complaint (hould be profe-
cuted againft the commiffioners unlefs before that board;
and committed feveral to prifon who had brought fuch
adfions at common law, till they fliould relcafe the fame:
and one of the reafons for difcharging Sir Edward Coke
from his office of lord chief-juftice, was for countenan-
cing thofe legal proceedings. The pretence for thefe
arbitrary raeafm-es was no other than the tyrant's plea
of the necfjfity of unlimited powers In works of evident
utility to the public, '* the fupreme reafon above all
reafons, which is the falvation of the king's lands and
people." But now it is clearly held, that this (as well
as all other inferior jurifdiftions) is fubjeft to the dif-
cretionary coercion of his majefty's court of Kiag's-
bench.
Common Sewers, in Rome, were executed at a great
expence. It was propofed that they (hould be of fuffi-
cient dimenfions to admit a waggon loaded with hay.
When thefe common fewers came to be obftrufted, or
out of repair, under the republic, the cenfors contradf-
ed to pay a thoufand talents, or about 193,000!. for
clearing and repairing them. They were again in dlf-
repair at the acceffion of Auguftus Ctefar, and the re-
inllating them is mentioned among the great works of
Agrippa. He is faid to have turned the coarfe of fe-
ven rivers into thefe fubterraneous paflages, to have
made them navigable, and to have aftually palfed in
barges under the flteets and buildings of Rome. Thefe
\vorks are Hill fuppofed to remain ; but a? they exceed
the power and refourccs of the prefent city to keep them
in repair, they are quite concealed, except at one or
tv.'o places. They were in the midft of the Roman
greatnefs, and ftill are, reckoned among the wonders of
the world ; and yet they are faid to have been works of
the elder Tarquln, a prince whofe territory did not ex-
tend, in any direftlon, above 16 miles; and, on this
fuppofitlon, they mull have been made to accommodate
a city that was calculated chiefly for the reception of
cattle, herdfmen, and banditti. Rude nations fometimes
execute works of great magnificence, as fortreffes and
temples, for the purpofes of war and fuperftition ; but
feldom palaces, and ftill more feldom works of mere
conv^enience and cleanlinefs, in which for the moll:
part they are long defeftive. It is not unreafonable,
therefore, to queftion the authority of tradition in re-
Ipeft to this hngular monument of antiquity, which fo
greatly exceeds what the bell accommodated city of
modern Europe could undertake for its own conveni-
ency. And as thofe works are Itill entire, and may
continue fo for thoufands of years, it may be fufpeftcd
that they were even prior to the fettlement of Romu-
lus, and may have been the remains of a more ancient
city, on the ruins of which the followers of Romulus
fettled, as the Arabs now hut or encamp on the ruins
of Palmyra and Balbeck. Livy owns, that the common
iewers were npt agggmiBodated to the plan of Rome, as
7 ] SEX
it was laid out in his time ; they were carried in direc-
tlons acrofs the ftreets, and pafied under buildings of — ~
the greateft antiquity. This derangement indeed he
imputes to the hafty rebuilding of the city after its de-
ftritftion by the Gauls ; but hafte, it is probable, would
have determined the people to build on their old foun-
dations, or at leaft not to change them fo much as to
crofs the direftion of former ftreets.
SEX, the property by which any animal is male or
female.
Lavater has drawn the following charafteriftic di-
ftinftlons between the male and female of the human
fpecies.
" The primary matter of which women are conftitu-
ted appears to be more flexible, irritable, and elaftic,
than that of man. They are formed to maternal mild-
nefs and aflcftion ; all their organs are tender, yielding,
eafily wounded, fenfible, and receptible. Among a
thoufand females there is fcarcely one without the ge-
neric feminine figns ; the flexible, the circular, and the
irritable.
*' They are the counterpart of man, taken out of
man, to be fubjeft to man ; to comfort him hke angels,
and to lighten his cares. * She (hall be faved in child-
bearing, if they continue in faith, and charity, and holi-
nefs, vvith fobriety" (i Tiai. ii. 15.) This tendernefs,
this fenfibillty, this hght texture of their fibres and or-
gans, this volatility of feeling, render them fo eafy to
conduct and to tempt ; fo ready of fubmlffion to the
enterprife and power of the man ; but more powerful
through the aid of their charms than man, with all his
ftrength. The man was not firft tempted, but the wo-
man, afterward the man by the woman. And, not on-
ly eafy to be tempted, fhe is capable of being formed
to the pureft, noblcft, moft feraphic virtue ; to every
thing which can deferve praife or afPeftlon. Highly
fenfible of purity, beauty, and fymmetry, fhe does not
always take time to refledl on internal hfe, internal
death, internal corruption. * The woman faw that the
tree was good for food, and that it was pleafant to the
eyes, and' a tree to be defired to make one wife, and fhe
took of the fruit thereof.' (Gen. ill. 6.)
<' The female thinks not profoundly ; profound
thouo-ht is the power of the man. Women feel more.
Senfiblhty is the power of woman. They often rule
more efifedlually, more fovereignly, than man. They
rule with tender looks, tears, anc lighs ; but not with -
paffion and threats ; for if, or when, they fo rule, they
are no longer women but abortions. They are capable
of the fweeteft fenfibillty, the moft profound emotion,
the xitmoft humlHty, and the excefs of enthufiafm. la-
their countenance are the figns of fanftity and inviola-
bility, which every feeling man honours, and the effects-
of which are often miraculous. Therefore, by the irri-
tability of their nerves, their incapacity for deep inquiry
and firm decifion, they may eafily from their extreme fen-
fibillty become the moft irreclaimable, the mofl raptu-
rous enthufiafls. Their love, ftrong and rooted as it is,
is very changeable ; their hatred almoft incurable, and
only to be effaced by continued and artful flattery.
Men are moft profound ; women are more fublime.
" Men moft embrace the whole ; women remark in-
dividually, and take more delight in feleAIng the mi-
putije which form the whole, Man hears the burfting:
thundery.
SEX [3
thunder, views the deftruftive bolt with ferene afpeft,
^•"""•V^ and Hands ereft amidft the fearful majefty of the iiream.
ing clouds. Woman trembles at the lightnine, and
the voice of diltant thunder ; and llinnks into herfelf
or finks into the arms of man. Man receives a rciy of
light fingle, woman delights to view it through a prifm
in all its dazzling colours. She contemplates the rain-
bow as the promife of peace ; he extends his inquiring
eye over the whole horizon. Woman laughs, man
fmiles ; woman weeps, man remains filent. Woman is
in anguifh when man weeps, and in defpair when man-
18 in anguifli ; yet has fhe often more faith than man.
Man without religion, is a difeafed creature, who would
perfuade himfelF he is well, and r.eeds not a phyfician ;
but woman without religion, h raging and monftrous.
A woman with a beard is not fo difguiling as a woman
who afts the freethinker ; her -fex is formed to piety
and religion ; to them Chrift firft appeared ; but he was
obliged to prevent them from too ardently, and too
haftily, embracing him : * Touch me not.' They are
prompt to receive and feize novelty, and become its en-
thufiafts. The whole world is forgotten in the emo-
tion caufed by the prefence and proximity of him they
love. They fink into the moft incurable melancholy,
as they alfo rife to the molt enraptured heights.
" Male fenfation is more imagination, female more
heart. When commmiicative, they are more communi-
cative than man ; when fecret, more fecret. In gene-
ral they are more patient, long-fuffering, credulous, be-
nevolent, and modell. Woman is not a foundation on
which to build. She is the gold, filver, precious ftones,
wood, hay, ftubble ( i Cor. iii. 1 2. ) ; the materials for
building on the male foundation. She is the leaven, or
more expreffively the oil to the vinegar of man : the fe-
cond part of the book of man.
" Man fingly is but half man ; at leaft but half hu-
man ; a king without a kingdom. Woman, who feels
properly what fhe is, whether Itill or in motion, retts
upon the man ; nor is man what he may and ought to
be, but in conjunftion with woman : therefore, ' it is
not good that man (hould be alone, but that he (hould
leave father and mother, and cleave to his wife, and
they two fliall be one flefh."
Tiiey differ alfo in th«ir exterior form and appear-
ance.
" Man is the moft firm ; woman the moft flexible.
Man is the ftraightell ; woman the moft bending. Man
ftands ftedfaft ; woman gently retreats. Man furveys
and obferves ; woman glances and feels. Man is fe-
rious ; woman is gay. Man is the talleft and broadeft ;
woman the fmalleft and weakeft. Man is rough and
hard ; woman fmooth and fott. Man is brown ; wo-
man is fair. Man is wrinkly ; woman is hot. The
hair of man is more ftrong and lliort ; of woman moie
long and pliant. The eyebrows of man arc comprefled;
of woman lets frowning. Man has moft convex lines ;
woman moft concave. Man has moft ftraight lines ;
woman moft curved. The countenance of man taken
in prafile is more feldom perpendicular than that of the
woman. Man is moft angular; woman moft round."
,-<Witz(,f:>Lrnes In determining the comparative merit of the two
fexes, it is no derogation from fenrmle excellency that it
differs in kind from that which diftinguithes the male
part of our fpecies : and if, in general, it fhould be
ibund (what upon an impartial inquiry will moft cer-
latters.
28 1 S K X
tainly be found) that women fill up their appointed S
circle of aftion with greater regularity than men, the
claim of preference cannot juftly be decided in our fa-
v0ur. In the prudential and economical parts of life,
it is undeniable that they rife far above us : and if true
fortitude of mind is beft difcovered by a cheerful refig-
nation to the meafures of Providence, we (hall not find
reafon, perhaps, to claim that moft fingular of the hu.
man virtues as our peculiar privik?re. I'here are num-
bers of the other fex who, from the natural delicacy of
their conftitutlon, pafs through one continued fcene of
fuffering from their cradles to their graves, with a firm-
nefs of refolution that would deferve fo many ftatues to
be eredteJ to their memories, if heroifm were not ef-
teemed more by the fplendor than the merit of ac-
tions.
But v^'hatever real difference there may be between
the moral or intelle£lual powers of the male and fe-
jnale mind. Nature does not feem to have marked the
diftin6tion fo ttrongly as our vanity is wiUing to ima-
gine ; and after all, perhaps, education will be found t(i
conftitute the principal fuperiority. It muft be acknow-
ledged, at leaft, that in this article we have every ad-
vantage over the fotter fex that art and induftry can
pofTibly fecure to us. The moft animating examples
of G reece and Rome are fet before us, as early as we
are capable of any obfervation ; and the nobleft compo-
fitions of the ancients are given into our hands almoft
as foon as we have ftrength to hold them ; while the
employments of the other fex, at the fame period of
life, are generally the reverfe of every thing that can
open and enlarge their minds, or fill them with juft and
rational notions. The truth of it is, female education
is fo much worfe than none, as it is better to leave the
mind to its natural and uninftrucSied fuggeftions, than
to lead it into falfe purfults, and contract its views, by
turning them upon the loweft and moft trifling objefts.
We feem, indeed, by the manner in which we fuffer the
youth of that fex to be trained, to confider women
agreeably to the opinion of certain Mahometan doAors,
and treat them as if we believed they had no fouls :
why elfe are they
Bred «nly, and completed to the tafte
Of luftful appetence, to fing, to dance,
To drefs, and troul the tongue, and roll the eye.
Milton.
This ftrangc negleft of cultivating the female mind
can hardly be allowed as good policy, when it is confi-
dered how much the intereft of fociety is concerned in
the reftitude of their underftandings. That feafon of
every man's life v/hich is moft fufceptible of the ftronsr-
eft imprelTions, is neceflarily under lemale direftion ; a^i
there are few inftances, perhaps, in which that fex it)
not one of the fecret fprings which regulates the moft
important movements of private or public tranfattions.
What Cato obfetves of his countrymen is in one refpedl
true of every nation under the fun : " The Romans
(faid he) govern the world, but it is the women that
govern the Romans."
If it be true then ( as true beyond all perad venture it
is) that female influence is thus extenfive, nothing cer-
tainly can be of more importance than to give it a pro-
per tendency, by the alTiftance of a well- directed edu-
cation. Far are we from recommending i»iy attempts
7 te
SEX f j
to render women learned ; yet fiirely I't is neceffary
they fkould be raifed above ignorance. Such a general
tinfture of the moft ufeful fciences as may ferve to free
the mind from vulgar prejudices, and give it a relifh
for the rational exercife of its powers, might very juftly
enter into a plan of female erudition. That fex might
be taught to turn the courfe of their refleftions into a
proper and advantageous channel, without any danger
pf rendering them too elevated for the feminine duties
• of life. In a word, they ought to be confidered as de-
i • figned by Providence for ufe as well as fliow, and train-
• ed up, not only as women, but as rational creatures.
Sf.x of Bees. See Bee.
Sex of Plants' See Botany, p. 448.
SEXAGENARY, fomething relating to the num-
"ber fixty : thus fexagenary or fexagefimal arithmetic is
a method of computation proceeding by fixties ; fuch is
that ufed in the divifion of a degree into fixty minutes,
of the minute into fixty feconds, of the fecond into
fixty thirds, &c. Alfo fexagenary tables are tables of
proportional parts, fhowing the produft of two fexage-
iiaries that are to be multiplied, or the quotient of the
two that are to be divided.
SEXAGESIMA, the fecond^ Sunday before Lent,
or the next to Shrove- Sunday, fo called as being about
the 60th day before Eafter.
SEX AGES IMALS,or SEXAGEsm^LFra8tons,irzc-
tlons whofe denominators proceed in a fexagecuple ra-
tio ; that is, a prime, or the firft minute, — ^-V ; a fe-
cond =y^~; a third = ttVoo o • Anciently, there
were no other than fexagefimals ufed in aftronomy ; and
they are ftill retained in many cafes, though decimal
arithmetic begins to grow in ufe now in aftronomical
calculations. In thefe fraftions, which fome call ojlro-
nomical fraSions, the denominator being always 60, or
a multiple thereof, is ufually omitted, and the numera-
tor only written down : thus, 4°, 59', 32", 1,0 ", 16"",
is to be read, 4 degrees, 59 minutes, 32 feconds, 50
thirds, I 6 fourths, &c.
SEXTANS, Sextant, a fixth part of certain things.
The Romans having divided their as into 12 ounces or
\mcia, the fixth part of that, or two ounces, was the
fextans. — Sextans was alfo a meafure which contained
two ounces of liquor, or two cyathi.
Sextans, in aftr®nomy, a conftellation of the
fouthem hemifphere, made by Hevelius out of unformed
Itara. In Hevelius's catalogue it contains 1 1, but in the
Britannic catalogue 41 ftars.
SEXTANT, in mathematics, denotes the fixth part
of a circle, or an arch comprehending 60 degrees.
The word fextant is more particularly ufed for an
aftronomical inftrument made like a quadrant, except-
ing that Its limb only comprehends 60 degrees. The
ufe and application of the fextant is the fame with that
of the quadrant. See Quadrant ; and Navigation,
p. 737'^&c.
SEXTILE, fexillu^ the pofition or afpeft of two
planets when at 60 degrees diftance, or at the diftance
of two figns from one another. It is marked thus ^*).
See Aspect.
SEXTIUS (Quintus), a Pythagorean philofopher,
flourifhed in the time of Auguftus. He feemed form-
ed to rife in the republic; but he fhrunk from civil ho-
rours, and declined accepting the rank of fenator when
it was offered him by Julius Csefar, that lie might have
Vol.. XVII. Part I.
129] SEX
time to apply to philofophy. It appears that he wifli- Sextoa
ed to eftablifh a fchool at Rome, and that his tenets, "
though chiefly drawn from the doftrines of Pythagoraa,
in fome particulars refemhled thofe of the Stoics. ^
He foon found himfelf involved in many difficulties.
His laws were tinflured with great feverity ; and in a»
early period of his efhbhfliment, he found his mind fo
harafled, and the harfhnefs of the doftrines which he
wifhed to cftablifh fo repulfive to his feelings, that he
had nearly worked himfelf up to fuch an height of de-
fperation as to refolve on putting a period to his ex-
iftence.
^ Of the fchool of Sextius were Fabianus, Sotion, Fla-
vianus, Crafiitins, and Celfus. Of his works only a
few fragments remain ; and whether any of them form-
ed a part of the work which Seneca admired fo much,
cannot now be determined. Some of his maxims are
valuable. He recommended an examination of the ac-
tions of the day to his fcholars when they retired to
reft ; he taught, that the road to Heaven {ad ajlra) was
by frugality, temperance, and fortitude. He ufed to
recommend holding a looklng-glafs before perfons dlf-
ordered with paflion. He enjoined his Ijcholars to ab-
ftain from animal food.
SEXTON, a church-officer, thus called by corrup-
tion of the Latin facrijia, or Saxon /f^er/?o«f, which de-
notes the fame. His office is to take care of the veflels,
veftmenis, &c. belonging to the church ; and to attend
the minifter, church-warden, &c. at church. He is
ufually chofen by the parfon only. Sextons, as well as
parllh-clerks, are regarded by the common law as per-
fons who have freehold in their offices ; and, therefore,
though they may be punifhed, yet they cannot be de-
prived, by ecclefiaftlcal cenfures.
The office of fexton in the pope's chapel is appro-
priated to the order of the hermits of St Auguftlne.
He is generally a bifliop, though lometimes the pope
only gives a biftiopric, in partibus, to him on whom he
confers the poft. He takes the title of Prefa of the
Pope's Sacri/iy, and has the keeping the veffels of gold
and filver, the relics, &c. When the pope fays niafs,
the fexton always taftes the bread and wine firft. If it
be in private he fays mafs, his holinefs, of two wafers,
gives him one to eat ; and, if in public, the cardinal,
who affifts the pope in quality of deacon, of three wa-
fers, gives him two to eat. When the pope Is deipe.
rately fick, he admlnifters to him the facrament of ex-
treme un<ftion, &c. and enters the conclave in quality
of firft conclavift.
The office of a fexton in Sweden is fomewhat fin-
gular. During M. Outhlcr's ftay at Stockholm in 1736
he vifited the church of St Clara, and during divine fer-
vlce he obferved a fexton going about with a long rod,
waking thofe perfons who had fallen afleep.
SEXTUPLE, in mufic, denotes a mixed fort ortri-
pie, which is beaten in double time.
SEXTUS Empiricus, a famous Pyrrhohlan philo-
fopher, lived in the fecond century, under the reign of
Antoninus the Debonair. He wa^s a phyficlan of the
fed of the Empirics, and Is fald to have been one of
the preceptors of Antoninus the philofopher. There
are ftill extant his Pyrrhonlan Inftitutlons, and a laro-e
work againft the mathematicians, &c. The beft edition
ot Sextus Empiricus is that of Fabricius in Greek and
Latin, printed at Leipfic in 1 7 1 8, folio.
T t SEX-
S F O
r 330 1
H A
Sfcrza
ItKuaHftae SEXUALISTiE, among botanical writers, thofe
II who have eftablifhed the claffes of plants upon the dif-
ferences of the fexes and parts of frudiiication in plants,
accordln',^ to the modern method ; as Linnaeus, &c.
SEZAWUL, a Hindoo word, ufed In Bengal to
exprefs an officer employed at a monthly falary to col-
left the revenues.
SFORZA (James), was the founder of the illuftri-
ons houie of Sfcrza, which afted fo confpicuousa part in
Italy during the 15th and 1 6th centuries, which gave fix
dukes to Milan, and contrafted alliances with almoft eve-
ry fovereign in Europe. James SForza was born on the
28th of May 1369, atCatignola, a fmall town in Italy,
lying between Imola and Faenza. His father was a
day-labourer, or, according to Commines, a fhoemaker.
A company or foldicrs happening one day to pafs
through Catlgnola, he was fei^ed with the defire of ac-
companying them to the wars. " I will go (faid he to
himfelf ), and dart my hatchet againft that tree, and if
it ftick faft in the wood, I will immediately become a
foldier." The hatchet accordingly ftnck faft, and our
adventurer enlifted ; and becaufe,fays the Abbe deChoiii,
he had thrown the axe with all his force, he alTumed the
name of Sforza ; for his true name was Giacomuzzo, or
James Attendulo. He rofe rapidly in the army, and
foon became commander of 7000 men. He defended
the caufe of Jane II. queen of Naples for many years,
and was made conflable of her kingdom. He was crea-
ted Count of Catignola by pope John XXII. by way
of paying a debt of 14000 ducats which the church of
Rome owed him. His exploits became every day more
illuftrlous : he obHged Alphonfo king of Arragon to
raife the fiege of Naples ; and reduced feveral places
that had revoked in Abruzzo and Le I^abour; but while
in purfult of his enemies he was unfortunately drowned
in the river Aterno on the 3d January 1424, at the
aire of 54 years. His heroic qualities and the continual
wars in which he was engaged, did not hinder him from
forming an attachment to the fair fex. In his youth he
fell in love with a woman called Lucia Trezana, whom
he married after Ihe had born him feveral children. He
married afterwards Antoinette Salembini, who brougrht
him feveral excellent ettates ; (he bore him Bofio Sfor-
za, compte of Santa-Flor, a warrior and governor of
Orvietta for Pope Martin V. His third wife was Ca-
tharine Alopa, filler of Rodolpho, grand chamberlain to
the fovereign of Naples. His laft wife, for he was four
times married, was Mary Marzana, daughter to the
duke of Sefia. She bore him Charles Sforza, who was
general of the order of Augufllnes, and archbilhop of
Milan.
Sforza (Francis), the fon of James Sforza by
Lucia Trezana, was born in 1401, and trained up by
his father to the profeffion of arms. At the age of
23 he defeated the troops of Braccio, who difputed
with him the paffage of the Aterno. In this ac-
tion his father was drowned,, and Francis, though il-
legitimate, fucceeded him. He fought fuccafsfully a-
gainft the Spaniards, and contributed a great deal both
towards raifing the fiege of Naples, and to the viftory
which was gained over the troops of Braccio near A-
quila In 1425, where that general was killed. After
the death of queen Jane, in 1435, he efpoufed the in-
terefts of the duke of Anjou, to whom Ihe had left her
crown, and by his courage and abilities ably fupported
that unfortunate prince. He made himfelf ma^er of
feveral places in Ancona, from which he was driven by
pope Eugenius IV. who defeated and excommunicated
him-; but he foon reeftablifhed his affairs by a viAgry,
His reputation was now fo great, that the pope, the Ve-
netians, and the Florentines, chofe him for their gene-
ral againft the duke of Milan. Sforza had already eon-
dufted Venetian armies againft that prince, though he
had efpoufed his daughter. The duke dying in 1447,
the inhabitants of Milan invited Sforza, his fon-'n-law,
to lead them againft that duke. But, after fome exer-
tions in their favour, he turned his arins againft them-
felves, laid fiege to Milan, and obliged them to re-
ceive him as duke, notwithftanding the rights of Charles
duke oF Orleans, the fon of Valentine of Milan. In
1464, Louis XI. who hated Orleans, gave up to Sfor-
za the rights which the crown of France had over Ge-
noa, and even put into his hands Savona, a town be-
longing to that i-epublic. The duke of Milan foon af-
ter made himfelf matter of Genoa. He died in \^66f
with the reputation of a man who was willing to fell
his blood to the beft purchafer, and who was not too
fcrupulous an obferver of his word. His fecond wife
was Blanche Marie, natural daughter of Philip Marie
duke of Milan. She bore him Galeas Marie, and Lu-
dovie Marie, dukes of Milan, Philip Marie count of
Pavia, Sforza Marie duke of Ban", Afcagne Marie bi-
ftrop of Pavia and Cremona, and a cardinal. He was
taken prifoner by the troops of Louis XII. and confi-
ned for fome time in the tower of Bourges. He was a
cunning man, and deceived Cardinal d' Amboife when
that prelate afplred at the papacy. His daughters were
Hyppolita, married to Alphonfo of Arragon, afterwards
king of Naples ; and Elizabeth, married to WiUIara
marquis of Montferrat. He had befides feveral natural
children.
SHACK, in ancient cuftoms, a liberty of winter-
pafturage. In the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, the
lord of the manor has (hack, i, e. a liberty of feeding
his flieep at pleafure in his tenants lands during the
fix winter months. In Norfolk, (hack alfo extends to
the common for hogs, in all men's grounds, from the
end of harveft till feed-time. Whence to go a-Jhach^ is
to feed at large.
SHACKLES, aboard a (hip, are thofe oblong iron
rings, bigger at one end than at the other, with which
the ports are ftiut faft, by thru^fting the wooden bar of
the port through them. There is alfo a fort of fhackles
to lift the hatches up with, of a like figure, but fmaller.
They are faftened at the corners of the hatches.
SHAD, in ichthyology, a fpecies of Clupea.
SHADDOCK, a fpecies of Citrus.
SHADOW, in optics, a privation or diminution of
light by the interpofition of an opaque body : or it is
a plane where the light is ekher altogether obftrufted,
or greatly weakened, by the interpofition of fome
opaque body between it and the luminary.
Shadow, in painting, an imitation of a real Ihadowj
effefted by gradually heightening and darkening the
colours of fuch figures as by their difpofitions cannot
receive any direft rays from the luminary that is fuppo-
fed to enlighten the piece.
Shadow, in perfpeftive, the appearance of an opaque
body, and a luminous one, whofe rays diverge (f. gr. a
cindle, lamp, Sec), being given; to find the juft ap-
pearance
B n A I 3.
U ^i?fti'giric.e of ttie fhadpw, pccordipf* tp the hws of per*
fpejftive, The method is this ; From the jurninoiis bo^
' dy, which is here confidered as a point, let tall a per-
pendicular to the perfpe£live plane or tabic 5 i. e. find
the appearance of a point upon which a perpendicular,
drawn from the middle of the luminaryj falls on the perr
fpedtive plane ; and from the feveral angles, or raifed
poiiits of the body, let fall perpendiculars to the plane,
Thefe points, whereon the perpendiculars fall, conjie^l
by right lines, with the point upon which the perpen-
dicular let fall from the luminary falls ; and continue
the lines to the fide oppofite to the luminary. Laftly,
through the raifed points draw lines through the centre
pf the luminary, interfiling the fornxer ; the points of
interfeftion are the terms or bounds of the fhadow.
SHADWELL (Thomas), defcended of an ancient
family in StafFordfliire, was born in 1640, and educated
fit Caius college, Cambridge, He then was placed in
the Middle Temple to .ftudy the laws ; where having
fpent fome time, he travelled abroad. Upon his return
home, he became acquainted with the moft celebrated
perions of wit in that age. He applied himfelf chiefly
to dramatic writing, in which he had great fuccefs ; and
upon the Revolution was made poet-laureat and hifto-
riographer to king William and queen Mary, in the
room ofMrDrydcn. Thel£ employments he enjoyed till
his death, which happened in 169.3. Befide his drama-
tic writings, he compofed feveral other pieces of poetry^
the chief of which are his congratulatory poem on the
prince of Orange's coming to England ; another on
queen Mary; his tranflation of Juvenal's loth fatire,
^*^•c. Mr Dryden treats him with great contempt, in
his fatire called Mac-FUckno, The beft judges of that
»ge, however, gave their teftimony in favour of his cO'
medies ; which have in them fine ftrokcs of humour ;
the charafters are often original, ftrongly marked, and
well fuflained. An edition of his works, with fome
iiccount of his hfe and writings prefixed, was pubUlhcd
in 1 720, in 4 vols 8vo,
SHAFT of a Cot-UMN, in building, is the body
thereof between the bafe and capital ; fo called from it»
(Iraightnefs, See Architectuice.
Shaft, in mining, is the pit or hollow entrance into
the mine. In the tin- mines, after this is funk about a
fathom, they leave a little, long, fquare place, which is
called a Jljambkp
Shafts are funk fome ten, fome twenty fathoms deep
Into the earth, more or lefs, Of thefe Shafts, there is
the landing or working fhaft, where they bring up the
\vork or ore to the furface ; but if it be worked by a
horfc engine or whim, it is called a ivh'm-fhaft ; and
where the water is drawn out of the mine, it is indif-
ferently named an engine-Jhaft, or the rod-jhafu See
Mine,
Shaft, in ornithology, See Trochilus.
SHAFTESBURY, a town of Porfctftire in Eng.
land, in W. Lopg. 2. 20. N. t>at, 51. o. It ftands on
high hill, and is built in the form of a bow. It en»
joys a ferene wholefome air, and has a fine profpe£t. It
is a good thoroughfare, is governed by a mayor, and
lends two members to parhament. This town is fup.
pofed to have been built in the 8th century, and to have
l^ecn enlarged by king Alfred, and had 1 2 churches, be-
fidee a Benediftine monaftery, in the time of the Saxons,
but has now only three. St Edward the martyr was
M l S H A
buried here* ^ It ha4 three mints before the conqueft, shafteib
9nd, in the rgign of Henry VIII. was the fee of a fuf- !l
fragan bifhop. It was incorporated by queen Elizabeth ^^'^'^^
and Charles II. and is governed by a mayor, recorder, O""""
twelve aldermen, bailiffs, and a common-council. It
contains about 320 houfes, many of \^hich arc of
free-ftone. Water is fo fcarce, that it ufed to be
fupplied from Motcomb ; but it was obtained more
commodioufly in 17 1 8, by means of engines, which
raifed the water above 300 feet perpendicular, and
conveyed it to a large ciftern in the middle of the
town, from the diftanee of two miles. Yet even this is
laid afide, and they have dug feveral pits, in which they
preferve the rain-water ; ajid the poor get their living
to this day by fetching it in pails or on horfes. It
gives the title of earl to the noble family of Cooper.
Shaftesbury (earl of). See Cooper.
SHAG, in ornithology. See Pelican us,
SHAGREEN, or Chagreen, in commerce, a kind
of grained leather prepared of the flcin of a fpecies of
Squalus, much ufed in covering cafes, books, &c.
Manner of preparing Shagrkhi, The fliin, .being
flayed off, is flretched out, covered over with muftard-
feed, and the feed bruifed on it } and thus it is expofed
to the weather for fome days, and then tanned.
The beft is that .brought from Conftantinople, of a
brownifli colour; the white is the woril. It is exo
tremely -hard ; yet, when fteeped in water, it becomes
very foft and pliable ; whence it is of great ufe among
cafe -makers. It takes any colour that is given it, red,
green, yellow, or black. It is frequently counterfeited
by morocco, formed like fliagreen ; but this laft is di°
ftinguifhed by its peeling off, which the firll does not.
SHAIK properly fignifies an old man. In the eaft
it is ufed to denote a lord or chief, a man of eminence
and property. See Schiechs.
SHAKE, in finging. See Trill.
SHAKESPEARE or Shakspeare (William),
the prince of dramatic writers, was born at Stratford
upon Avon in Warwickfilire, on the 23d of April
1564. From the regifter of that town, it appears that
a plague brpkc out there on the 30th of June follow-
ing, which raged with great violence ; but fortunately
it did not reach the houfe in which this infant prodigy
lay. His father, John Shakefpeare, enjoyed a fmaU
patrimonial elfate, and was a confiderable dealer in
wool ; his mother was the daughter and heir of Robert
Arden of Wellingcote. Our illuilrious poet being de=
figned for the bufinefs of .his father, received no better
education than the inftruftians which the free-fchool
of Stratford could afford. After applying fome time
to the iludy of Latin, he was called home to aflift his
father, who feems by fome accident to have been redu-
ced in his circumitances. Before arriving at the age
of 19, he married the daughter of Mr Hathaway, a
fubftantial yeoman in the neighbourhood of Stratford.
This lady was eight years older than her hufband,
Flaving the misfortune to fall into bad company, he
was feduced into fome profligate aftions, which drew
on him a criminal profecution, and at length forced
him to take refuge in the capital In concert with
his aflbciates, he broke into a park belonging to Sir
Thomas Lucy of Charlecote, and carried off fome of
his deer. Every admirer of Shakefpeare will regrst
that fuch a blemifh fhowld have ilained his character ;
T t 2 hut^
S H A . f 33
Shalte- but, perhaps, if any thing can extenuate his guilt, we
fpeare. might afcribe it to the opinions of the age, which, per-
*■ haps, as was Formerly the cafe in Scotland, might not
diftinguifh the killing of deer by any mark of difgrace,
or any charee of criminality. One thing at leaft is
oertp.in, that ohakefpeare himfelf thought that the pro-
fecution which Sir I'hornas raifed againft him was car-
ried on with too great feverity ; an opinion which he
eould not have entertained had this aftion been at that
time viewed in the fame criminal hght as it is at pre-
fent. Shaktfpeare teftified his refentment againil Sir
Thomas, by wiiting a fatirical br.IIad, which exafpera-
ted him fo much, that the prccefs was carried en with
ledoubled violence ; and the young poet, in order to
avoid the puniihment of the laM', was obliged to make
his eicape. Thi^ ballad would be confidered as a curi-
ous relict, on account of its being the firft produftion
of Shakefpeare ; it would alfo be intereiling to perufe
a poem which could irritate the baronet to fo high a
idtgree. .Tradition has prefer ved the firil ilanza :
A parllamente mcm.ber, a juftice of peace,
At home a poor fcare-crow, at London an afie.
If lowfie is Lucy, as fome- volke mifcalle it.
Then Lucy is lowfie whatever befall it :
He thinks himfelf greate,
Yet an affe in his ftate,
We allowe by his ears, but with affes to mate.
If Lucy is lowfie, as forae volke mifcalle it,
Sing lowlie Lucy whatever befall it.
If the reft of the ballad was of a piece with this
ilanza, it might aflift us to form fome opinion of the
irritability of the baronet, but w-Ill enable us to form no
kl'ea of the opening genius of Shakefpeare.
Thus expelled from his native village, he repaired to
London, where he was glad to accept a fubordinate of-
fice in the theatre. It has been faid that he was firft
encaged, while the play was atling, in holding the horfes
©f thofe who rode to the tlieatre ; but this ftory rtfts
tm a flender foundation. As his name is found print-
ed among thofe of the other players before fom.e old
plays, it is probable that he was fome time employed
as an after ; but we are not informed what charafters
he played ; we are only told, that the part which he
a<?:ed beft was that of the Ghoft in Hamlet ; and that
he appeared in the eharafter of Adam in ^/s you Ixks
it. If the names of the aftors prefixed to Ben
Jonfon's play of Every Man ia^ his Humour were ar-
ranged "in the fame order as the perfons reprefented,
which is very probable, Shakefpeare played the part of
Old Knowell. We have reafon therefore to fuppofe,
as far as we can argue from thefe few fafts, that he ge-
nerally reprefented old men. See Malone's Chrono-
logy, in his edition of Shakefpeare.
B'.iit though he was not qualified to fhine as an ac-
tor, he was now in the fituation which could moil ef-
feftually roufe thofe latent fparks of genius which af-
terwards burft forth with fo refplendent a flame. Be-
ing well acquainted with the mechanical bufinefs of the
theatre and the tatte ot the tim.es ; poffeiTed of a know-
ledge of the charafters of men refembling intuition, an
imagination that ranged at large through nature, fc-
Kfting the grand, the fublime, and the beautiful ; a ju-
dicious caution, that difpofed him to prefer thofe plots
vliich had already been found to pkafe j an uncommon
2 ] S H A
fluency and force of expreflion ; he was qualified at Sh
once to eclipfe all who had gone before him. fp
Notwithftanding the unrivalled genius of Shake-
fpeare, moft of his plots were the invention of others ;
which, however, he certainly much improved, if he did
not entirely new-model. We are adured, that prior to
the theatrical compofitions of Shakefpeare, dramatic
pieces were written on the following fubjefts, viz.
King John, King Richard TI. and III. King Henry
IV. and V. King Henry VIII. King Lear, Antony
and Cleopatra, Meafure for Meafure, the Merchant of
Venice, the Taming of a Shrew, and the Comedy of
Errors.
Among his patrons, the earl of Southampton is
particularly honoured by him, in the dedication of
two poems, Venus and /idonis, and Lucrcce ; in the
latter efpecially, he expreffed himfelf in fuch terms aa
gives countenance to what is related of that patron's
dillinguifhed generoilty to him. In the beginning of
king James I.'s reign (if not fooner) he was one of
the principal managers of the playhoufe, and conti-
nued in it feveral years afterwards ; till, having ac-
quired fuch a fortune as fatisfied his moderate wifhes
and views in hfe, he quitted the ftage, and all othef
bufinefs, and paffed the remainder of his time in an ho-
nourable eafe, at his native town of Stratford, where he
hvcd in a handiomc houfe of his own purchafing, to
which he gave the name of New Place ; and he had
the good fortune to fave it from the flames in the dread-
ful fire that confumed the greatell part of the town in
i6r4.
In the beginning of the year 1616, he made hig
will, wherein he teftified his refpeft to his quondam
partners in the theatre : he appointed his youngeH
daughter, jointly with her hufband, his executors, and
bequeathed to them the belt part of his eitate, which
they came into the pofTefTion of not long after. He
died on the 23 d of April following, being the 53d year
of his age ; and was interred among his anceitors on
the north fide of the chancel, in the great church of
Stratford, where there is a handfome monument erefted
for him, infciibed with the following elegiac diftich in
Latin ;
yudicio PyUurtiy genio SDcratem, arte Maronem,
Terra teg'.t^ Populus maret^ Olympus habet.
In the year 1740, another very noble one was raifed to
his memory, at the public expence, in Weftminfter-ab*
bey ; an ample contribution for this purpofe being made
upon exhibiting his tragedy of Julius Csefar, at the
theatre-royal in Drury-Lane, April 28th 1738.
Nor mull we omit mentioning another teltimony of
the veneration paid to his manes by the public in gene-
ral, which is, that a mulberry-tree planted upon his-
eftate by the hands of this reverend bard, was cut down
not many years ago ; and the v/ood being converted tO'
feveral domellic ufes, was all eagerly bought at a high
price, and each Angle piece treafured up by its purcha-
ier as a precious memorial of the planter.
'i'he charafter of Shakefpeare as a dramatic wrltei'
has been often drawn, but perhaps never with more ac-
curacy than by the pen of Dr Juhnfon : '* Shakefpeare
(fays he) is above all writers, at leafl above all modern
writers, the poet of nature ; the poet that holds up to
his reader* a faithful mirror of manners and of life.
5 Hi.
S H
KIs charafters are n-^t modified by tlie cufloms of par-
ticular places, unpradlired by the reft of the world ; by
the peculiarities of ftudies or profeffions, which can
opcrate.but upon fmall numbers ; or by the accidents
of tranfient faihions or temporary opinions : they are the
genuine pro^itny of common humanity, fuch as the
world will always fupply, and obfervation will* always
find. His perfons ail and fpeak by the influence of
thofe general paffions and principles by which all minds
are ag'itated, and the whcle fyftem of life is continued
in motion. In the writings of other poets, a charafter
h too often an individual ; in thofe of Shakefpeare, it is
commonly a fpecies.
" It is from this wide extenfion of defign that fo
much inttrudion is deiived. It is this which fills the
plays of Shakefpeare with p radical axioms and domef-
tic wifdom. It was faid of Euripides, that every verfe
was a precept ; and it m.ay be faid of Shakefpeare, that
from'^is works may be coUeded a fyftem of civil and
economical prudence. Yet his real power is not fhown
hi the fplendor of paiticular paflages, but by the pro-
grefs ol his fable, and the tenor of his dialogue ; and he
that tries to recommend him by feled quotations, will
fncceed like the pedant in Hierocles, who, when he of-
fered his houfe to fale, carried a brick in his pocket as
a.:fpecimen.
** Upon every other ftage the univerfal agent is love,
by vThofe power all good and evil is diif ributed, and
every adion quickened or retarded. But love is only
one of many pafTions ; and as it has no great influence
upon the fum of life, it has little operation in the dra-
mas of a poet who caught his ideas from the living
world, and exhibited only what he faw before him.
He knew that any other paffion, as it was regular or
exorbitant, was a caufe of happinefs or calamity.
" Charaders thus ample and general were not eafily
difcriminated and pieferved ; yet perlaaps no poet ever
kept his perfonagcs more diltind from each other.
" Other draniatifts can only gain attention, by hyper-
bolical or aggravated charaders, by fabulous and unex-
ampled excellence or depravity, as the writers of bar-
barous romances invigorated the reader by a giant and.
a dwarf ; and !ie that fliould form his expedtations of
human affairs from the play, or from the tale, would
be cquully deceived. Shakefpeare has no heroes, his
frencs are occupied only by men, who ad and fpeak as'
the reader thinks that he fhould himfelf have fpokeu
or aded on the fame occafion : Even where the agency
is fupernatural, the dialogue is level with life. Other
writers dif^uife the mofl natural paflions and moil fre-
quent incidents; ib that he who contemplat*s them in
the book will not know them in the world : Shake-
fpeai-e approximates the remote, and familiarizes the
wonderful ; the event which he rcprtfents w-11 not hap-
pen, but if it were polTible, its efftds would probably
be fuch as he has alTigned ; and it may be faid, that he
has nfct only (hown human nature as it ads in real exi-
gencies, but as it would, be found in trials to which it
cannot he expofed.
" Tiiis therefore is the praife of Shakefpeare, that
his drama is the mirror of life ; that he who has mazed
his imagination, in following the phantoms which other
writers raife up before him, may here be cured of his
delirious ecllafies, by reading human fentiments in hu-
ziian language ; by Icerits from v\hich a hermit may di'u
[ 333 1
S H A
mate the tranfadions of the world, and a confeHbr pre-
did the progrefs of the pafTions."
The learning of Shakefpeare has frequently been a
fubjed of inquiry. That he polTeffed much claffical
knowledge does not appear, yet he was certainly ac-
quainted with the Latin poets, particularly with Te-
rence, as Colman has juftly remarked, which appears
from his ufmg the word thrafon'tcal. Nor was he un-
acquainted with French and Italian. We ai'e indeed
told, that the paffagcs in which thefe languages occur
might be impertinent additions of the players ; but is it
probable, that any of the player-s fo far furpaffed Shake-
fpeare ?
That much knowledge is fcattered over his works \3
very juftly obi'erved by Pope; but it is often fucli
knowledge as books did not fupply. " There is, how-
ever, proof enough (fays Dr Johnfon) that he was
a very diligent reader ; nor was our language then fci
indigent of books, but that he might. very hberally in-
dulge his curiofity without excurfion into foreign lite-
rature. Many of the Roman authors were tranflated,
and fome of the Gi'eek ; the Reformation iiad filled the
kingdom with theological learning ; moft of the topics
of human difquifition had found Englifli writers ; and
poetry had been cultivated, not only with diligence,
but fuccefs. This was a ilock of knowledge fufficient
for a mind fo capable of appropriating and improving
it."
The works of Shakefpeare confift of 35 dramatic
pieces. The following is the chronological order v/hicli
Mr Malone has endeavoured to eftablilh, after a minute
invelligation, in which he has in general been luccefs-
ful :
1. Firft Part of King Henry VI.
2. Second Part of King Henry VI.
3. Third Part of King Henry VI,
4. A Midfummer Night's Dream
5. Comedy of Errors
6. Taming of the Shrew
7. Love's Laborrr Loft
8. Two Gentlemen of Verona
Q. Romeo and Juhel.
10. Hamlet -
1 1 . King John - •
12. King Richard 11.
13. King Richard III.',
J 4. Firft Part of King Henry IV.
15. Second Part of King Henry IV.
1 6. The Merchant of Venice
17. All's Well that Ends WeU
King Henry V.
Much Ado About Nothing
As you like it
Merry Wives of Windfor
King Henry VIII
Shake-
fpeare.
— -y—
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
2.3-
24.
25
Troilus and Creffida
Meafure for Meafure
The Winter's Tale
6. King Lear
27. Cymbelline
M-acbeth
Julius Csefar ^ -
A ntony and Cleopatra
Timon of Athens
Coriolaaus-
28,
29
3^
32'
J589
159 1
1592!
»5-93
1594
1594
1595
1597
1596
15^6
1597^
1597
159^
1598'
1598
^599'
1 600
1 600
i6oi
1601
1 6 c; 2
1603
1604
16.5
i6.:5
i 606
i6©7
i6c^
16C9
i6ioi
3i'
Shake*
I'reara
H A
^5. OiIh'Ho
34. The 'i'empeft , ^ 1612
S5;. Twelfth Night - ^ 1614
The three firft of thefe, Mr Malqae tlimks, there is
very ftrong rcafon to believe are not the original pro-
c^uijlicins of Shakefpeare ; but that he probably altered
them, and added fome new fcenes,
In the firft folio edition in 1623, thefe plays were en-
titled " Mr William Shakefpeare's Comedies, Hiftories,
Sind Tragedies." They hr.ve been publifhed by various
editors. The firft folio edition by Ifaac Jaggard and
Edward Blount ; the fecond, folio, 1632, by Thomas
Cotes for Robert Allot ; the third, 1664, for F, C. j
Xhe fourth, 1685, for H. Herringman, E, Brewfter,
and R. Bentley, Rowe pubhflied an Svo edition in
J 709, in 7 vols, and a i2mo edition in J 7 14, in
o vols I for which he received L. 36, lOS. Pope pu-
bliftied a 4to edition in 1725, in 6 vols, and a
j2mo in 1728, in IQ vols; for which he was paid
L. 217, 12 6. Theobald gave a new edition in 8vq
in i733!> in 7 vols, another in lamo in 1740, in 8 vols;
8nd received for his labour L. 652, ics. Sir Thomas
Hanrner publifhed an edition in 1744, in 6 vols 4to,
Pr Warburton's 8vo edition came out in 1747, in
8 vols ; for which he was paid L, 560, The editions
publifhed fjnce that time, are Dr Johnfon's in 1 765, in
8 vols 8vo. Stevens's in J 766, in 4 vols 8vo, Ca»-
pell's in 1768, In 10 vols, crown 8vo ; for this the au»
%hov was paid L, 300. A fecond cditbn of Hanmer's
m 1 77 1, 6 vols. Johnfon's and Stevens's in 1773,
jovolsSvo; a fecond edition in 1778} a third by
Reed in 1 785 ; and Mabne's crown ?vo edition in
1 789, in 10 vols.
The moft authentic of the old editions Is that of
1623. *' At lajl (fays Dr Johnfon) an edition was
undertaken by Rowc ; rot becaufe a poet was to be
publifhed by a poet? for Rowe feems to have thought
very little on correftipn @r explanation, but that our
author's works might appear like thofe of his fraterni-
ty, with the appendages of a life and recommendatory
preface. Rowe has been clamoroufly blamed for not
performi»g what he did not undertake, and it is time
that juftice be done him, by confefling, that though he
feems to have had no thougjht of corruption beyond the
printer's errors, yet he has made many emendations, if
they were not made before, which his fuccefibrs have
received without acknowledgment, and which, if they
had produced them, would have filled pages with ceu'
furcg of the ftupldity by which the faults were com'
Kiitted, with difplays of the abfurdities which they in-
volved, with oftentatious expofitions of the new reading,
mid felf-congratulatioiis on the happinefs of difcovering
it." ■
The nation had been for ^&nj years content enough
with Mr Rowe's performance, when Mr Pope made
Uiem acquainted with the true ftate of Shakefpeare'g
4:ext, {howed that it was extremely corrupt, and gave
)-eafon to hope that there were means of reforming it,
Mr Pope's edition, however, he obferves, fell b^low his
own expeftations j aod he was fo much offended, when
he; was found to hav£ left any thing for others to do,
that he paiTed the latter part f f his life in a ftate of
hoftility with verbal crjticifm.
The only tafk, in the opinion of Mr Malone, for
which Pope \\m eroiaently aad indifp.utably qualilie^,
t 3J4 3 SUA
i6u was to i-Rark the fauU? and b^autlgs of ]\k ftutbfii'i'j^
When he undertook the offtoe qf a commentator, eveiy
anomaly of language, and every expreffion that wag cur-,
rently in ufe, were cosfidered as errors or corruptions,
and the text was altered or amended, as it was calle;^d? at
pleafure. Pope is openly charged with being one of
the great corrupters of Shakefpeare's text.
Pope was fucceeded by Theobald, who collated the
fincient copies, and re^iified many errors. He was,
however, a man of narrow comprehenfion and of little
learning, and what is worfe, in his reports of copies and
editions, he is not to be trufted without examination,
From the liberties taken by Pope, the edition of Theo.
bald was juftly pref erred, becaufe he profefTed to adhere
to the ancient copies more ftri£tly, and illuftrated a few
paffages by extracts from the writers of our poet's age,
Still, however, he was a confiderable innovator ; an4
while a fev/ arbitrary changes made by Pope were de*
tefted, innumerable fophiftications were filently 9do^u
ed,
Sir Thomas Hanmer, who come« next, was a man of
critical abilities, and of extenfive learning. His corrcc«
tione are commonly juft, but fometimes capricious. He
is cenfurable, too, for receiving without examination al»
moft all the innovations of Pope.
The original and predominant error of Warburton'a
commentary, is acquiefcence in his firft thoughts ; tha?
precipitation which is produced by confcioufnefs of
quick difcernment ; and that confidence which prefumes
to do, by furveying the furface, what labour only caii
perform, by penetrating to the bottom. His notes
exhibit fometimes perverfe interpretations, and fome=
times improbable conjedures } he at one time gives thf
author more profundity of meaning than the fentence
admits, and at another difcovers abfurdities where the
fenfe is plain to eveiy other reader. But his emend.3*
tions are likewife often happy and juft 5 and his inter=
pretation of obfcure paffages learned and fagacious.
It has indeed been faid by his defenders, that his great
objed was to difplay his own learning ; and certainly *
in fpite of the clamour raifed againft him for fubftitu-
ting his own chimerical conceits inftead of the genuine
text of Shakefpeare, his work increafed his reputation.
But as it is of little value as a commentary on Shake*
fpeare, fmce Warburton is now gone, his work will pro^-
bably foon fink into oblivion.
In 1765 Dr Johnfon's edition, which had long been
impatiently expefted, was given to the public- His
gorous and comprehepfiye underftanding threw mw
light on his author than ajl his predeceflbrs had dope,
The chara(^er which he gave of each play is generally
juft. His refutation of the falfe gloffes of Theobald and
Warburton, and his numerous explications of involved
and difficult paffages, entitle him to the gratitude of
every admirer of Shakefpeare,
The laft editor is Mr Malone, who was eight yeare
employed in preparing his edition, By collating th«
moft authentic copies, he has htm careful to purify the
text. He has been fo induftrious, in order to djfcover
the meaning of the author, that he has ranfacked many
volumes, and trufts that, befides his additional illuflra^
tions, not a fmgle valuable explication of any obfcure
paffage in thefe plays has ever appeared, which he hag
not inferted in Im edition, He rejedis Titus Andre,
nieue, m well a? the three plays fofmerlv mentioned^
6 not
<
S H A
r 3
net being the authentic produftions of Shakefpeare. Tq
the whole he has added an appendix, and a copious
sIofTary. — Of this work a lefs expenfiye edition has been
publiihed in 7 vols 12 mo, in which the general intro-
duclory obfervations prefixed to the different plays are
preferved, and the numerous notes abridr^ed.
This judicious commentator has certainly done more
for the elucidation and correftion of Shakefpeare than
all who came before him, and has followed with inde-
fatigable patience the only road which a commentator
of Shakefpeare ought to obferve.
Within 50 years after our poet's death, Dryden f-?.ys
-that he was become " a httle obfolete ;" and in the be-
ginning, of the prefent century Lord Shaftefbury com-
plains of his rude unpolilhed ftyle, and his antiquated
phrafe and wit. Thefe complaints were owino; to the
great revolution which the Entrlifli language has under-
gone, and to the want of an enlightened commentator.
Thefe complaints are now removed, for an enlightened
commentator has beei\ found in Mr Malone.
We have only farther to add, that in the year 1790
a copious index to the remarkable paflages and words
in the plays of Shakefpeare was publifhed by the Re-
verend Mr Ayfcough ; a gentleman to whom the lite-
rary world is much indebted for feveral very valuable
keys of knowledge. In fine, the admirers of Shake-
fpeare are now, by the labours of feveral eminent men,
furniflied with every help that can enable them to un-
dcrlland the fcnfe and to tafte the beauties of this illu-
ftrious poet.
SHa.KLES. See Shackles.
SHALE, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of Schistus.
It is a black flaty fubftance, or a clay hardened into a
ftony eonfiftence, and fo much impregnated with bitu-
men that it becomes fomewhat like a coal. The acid
emitted from fhale, during its calcination, uniting itfelf
to the aroillaceous earth of the fhale, forms alum. About
I 20 tons of calcined fhale will make one ton of ahnu.
The (hale, after being calcined, ie^fteeped in water, by
which means the alum, which is formed during the cal-
cination of the (hale, is diffolved : this difTolved alum
undergoes various operations before it is formed into
the alum of the (hops. Watfon's Chemical Effays,
vol. ii. p. 315. Sec Alum.
This kind of flate forms large llrata in Derbylhire ;
and that which lies near the furface of the earth is of a
fofter and more fhivery texture than that which lies
tieeper. It is alfo found in large ftrata, generally above
the coal, in moft coal counties of this kingdom. Dtr
Short informs us, that the fhale waftes the lead ore near
it, by its ftrong acid ; and that it corrodes and deftroys
all minerals near it except iron or coal, of whofe vitriol
it partakes.
SHALLOP, Shalloop, or Sloop, is a fmall light
veffel, with only a fmall main- mafl, and fore- maft, and
lug-fails, to hale up, and let down, on occafion. —
Shallops are commonly good failers, and are therefore
often ufed as tenders upon men of war.
SHALLOT, or Eschalot. See Allium.
SHAMANS are wizards or conjurers, in high re-
pute among feveral idolatrous nations inhabiting dif-
ferent parts of Ruflia. By their enchantments they
pretend to cure difeafes, t© divert misfortunes, and to
foretel futtirity. They are great obfervers of dreams,
by the interpretation of which they judge of their good
35 1 S H A
or bad fortUHe, They pretend likewife to ehtramaney, S^amMef,
and to foretel a man's good or ill fuccels by the lines of Sbaniojs.
his hand. By thefe and fuch like means they have ' '"^
a very great afcendency over the underftandings, and a
great influence on the conduft, of thofe people.
SHAMBLES, among miners, a fort of niches or
landing places, left at fuch diltances in the adits of the
mines, that the ll\ovel-men may conveniently throw up
the ore- from (hamble to fliamble, till it comes to the top
of the mine.
SHAMOIS, Chamois, or Shammy, a kind of lea-
ther, either drefled in oil or tanned, much efteemed
for its foftnefs, pliancy, &c. It is prepared from the
fldn of the chamois, or fhamois, a kind of rupicapra,
•or wild goat, called alfo ifard, inhabiting the mountains
of Dauphiny, Savoy, Piedmont, and the Pyrenees. Be-
fides the foftnefs and warmth of the leather, it has the
faculty of bearing foap without damage ; which renders
it very ufeful on many accounts.
In France, &c. fome wear the fictn raw, without any
preparation. Shammy leather is ufed for the purifying
of mercury, which is done by pafiinLj, it through the
pores of this fliin, which are very clofe. The true
chamois leather is counterfeited with common goat, kid,
and even with Iheep flcins, the practice of which makes
a particular profeffion, called by the French chamoifurr.
The laft, though the leaft efteemed, is yet fo popular,
and fuch vaft quantities of it are prepared,, elpecially
about Orleans, Marfeilles, and Tholoufe, that it may
not be amifs to give the method of preparation.
Manner of Jljamoifing, or of preparing Jheep, goat, of
kidjklns in oil, in imitation of Jloammy. — The flcins, be-
ing wafhed, drained, and fmeared over with quicklime
on the fiefhy fide, are folded in two lengthwife, the
wool outwards, and laid on heaps, and fo left to .ferment
eight days, oi-, if they had been left to dry after flaying,
then fifteen days.
Then they are waflied out, drained, and half dried ;
laid on a wooden leg, or horfe, the wool flripped off
with a round Raff for that purpofe, and laid in a weak
pit, the lime whereof had been ufed before, and has loll
the greateft part of its force.
After 24 hours they are taken out, and left to drain
24 more ; they are then 'put in another fttonger pit.
This done, they are taken out, drained, and p'lt in
again, by turns ; which begins to difpofe them to take
oil ; and this pradlice they continue for fix weeks in
fummer, or three months in winter : at the end where-
of they are waflied out, laid on the wooden leg, and the
furface of the flcin on the wool fide peeled off, to render
them the fofter ; then made into parcels, fteeped a night
in the river, in winter more, ftretched fix or feven over
one another on the wooden leg, and the knife paffed
flrongly on the flefh fide, to take off any thing iuper-
fluous, and reader the flcin fmooth. Then they are
fleeped, as before, in the river, and the fame operation
is repeated on the wool fide ; they are then thrown into
a tub of water, with bran in it, which is brewed among
the flcins till the greateft part flicks to them, and then
feparated into diflinft tubs, till they fwell, and rife of
themfelves above the water. By this means the re-
mains of the hme are cleared out ; they are then wrung
out, hung up to dry on ropes, and fent to the mill, with,
the quantity of oil neceffary to fcour them : the befl oil
is that of ftock-fifh. Here they arc firll thrown ia
buiidl>i3
S H A X 3
Shatiois bundles into the river for l 2 hours, then laid in the
11 mill-troiurh, and fulled without oil till tliey be well fott-
t^.,^^"'""'' ^"^'^ ' '^'^^^^ ^^'^^'^ the hand, one by o^^e, and thus
* formed into parcels of four flcins each ; which are mill-
ed and dried on cords a fecond time ; then a third ; and
then oiled again, and dried, x'his procefs is repeated
as often as neceffity requires ; w4ien done, if there be
any moifture remaining, they are dried in a ftove, and
made up into parcels wrapped up in wool ; after fonie
time they are opened" to the air, but wrapped up ayraiu
as before, till fuch time as the oil feems to have loll all
its force, which it ordinarily does in 24 hours. The
ilcins are then returned from the mill to the chamoifer
to be fcoured : which is done by putting them in a lixi-
vium of wood-afiies, working and-beating them in it with
poles, and leaving them to lleep till the ley hath had
its effedl ; then they are wrung out, fteeped in another
Kixivium, ivrung again ; and this is repeated till all the
greafe and oil be purged out. When this is done, they
are half dried, and pafied over a fharp edged iron inftru-
inent, placed perpendicular in a block, which opens,
foftens, and makes them gentle. Laftly, they are tho-
roughly dried, and paffed over the fame inftrument
again ; which finifhes the preparation, and leaves them
in form of fhammy.
Kid and goat.flfins are fhamoifedin the fame manner
as thofe of Theep, excepting that the hair is taken off
■ -without the ufe of any lime ; and that when brought
from the mill they undergo a particular preparation
called ramai/ing, the nroft delicate and difficult of all the
others. It confifts in this, that, as foon as brought
from the mill, they are fteeped in a fit lixivium, taken
out, ftretched on a round wooden leg, and the hair is
fcraped off with the knife ; this makes them fmooth,
and in working to calt a kind of fine knap. The dif-
ficulty is in fcraping them evenly.
SHANK, or Shank- Painter, in a fhip, is a Ihort
chain fattened under the foremaft-lhrouds, by a bolt, to
the (hip's fides, having at the other end a rope fattened
: to it. On this (hank-painter the whole weight of the
aft part of the anchor refts, when it lies by the (liip's
fide. The rope, by which it is hauled up, is made faft
: about a timber-head.
Shank, in the manege, that part of a horfe's
fore leg which lies between the knee and the fetlock.
SHANKER, or Chancre, in medicine, a malig-
nant ulcer, ufualiy occafioned by fome venereal diforder.
See Medicine, 350.
SHANNON, the largett: river in Ireland, and one
' of the fiileft in the Briti(h dominions, not only on
account of its rolHng 200 miles, but alfo of its great
depth in moft places, and the gentlenefs of its current,
by which it might be made exceedingly ferviceable to
the improvement of the country, the communication of
its inhabitants, and confe-quently the promoting of inland
trade, through the greateft part of it» long courle.
But the peculiar prerogative of the Shannon is its fitu-
ation, running from north to fouth, and feparating the
province of Connaught from Leinller and Munfter, and
of confequence dividing the greatelt part of Ireland in-
to what lies on the call and that on the weft ot the ri-
ver ; watering in its pafTage the valuable county of
" Leitrim, the "plentiful fhire of Rofcommon, the fruitful
county of Gahvay, and the pleafant county of Clare ;
the fmall .but fine (hire of Longford, the King's coun-
56 1 S H A
ty, and fertile county of Meath in Leinfter, "the popu-
lous county of Tipperary, the fpacious fliire of Lime-
rick, and the rough but pleafant county of Kerry in
Munfter ; vlfiting 10 counties in its pattage, and having
on its banks the following remarkable places, viz. Lei-
trim, Jamettown, Lanefborough, Athlone, C'onfert,
Killaloe, and Limerick ; at 20 leagnies below the latter
it fpreads gradually feveral miles in extent, fo that fome
have confidered its expanfion as a lake. It at laft joms
its waters to the fea, being navigable all that way for
the largett veflTels.
SHANSCRIT, the language of the Bramins of
Hindoftan. See Philology, feft. v.
SHARE of a Plough, that part which cuts the
ground ; the extremity forwards being covered with a
fharp-pointed iron, called the point of the fhare, and the
end of the wood behind the tail of the (hare.
SHARK, in ichthyology. Sec Squalus.
SHARON, a name common to three cantons of Pa-
leftine. The (irft lay between mount Tabor and the fea
of Tiberias ; the fecond between the city of Cjefarea of
Palettine, and Joppa ; and the third lay beyond Jordan.
To give an idea of perfedl beauty, Ifaiah laid, the glory
of Lebanon and the beauty of Carmel mutt be joined to
the abundance of Sharon. (Ifaiah xxxiii. 9. xxxi. 2.)
The plains of Sharoa are of vaft extent ; and, when
furveyed by the Abbe Mariti a few years ago, they
were Town with cucumbers ; and he informs us, that
fuch a number is annually produced, as not only to
fupply the whole neighbourhood, but alfo all the coaftg
ot Cyprus and the city of Damietta. In the middle
of the plain, between Arfus and Lydda, rifes a fmall
mountain, upon the ridge of which there is a fmall vil-
lage called Sharon, from the name of the ancient city
whofe king was conquered by Jofhua.
SHARP (James), archbKhop of St Andrew's, was
born of a good family in Banfffhire in 161 8, He de-
voted himtelf very early to the church, and was educa-
ted for that purpofe in the Univerfity of Aberdeen.
When the folemn league and covenant was framed iu
1638, the lear-ned men in that feminary, and young
Sharp in particular, declared themfelves decidedly a^aintt
it. To avoid the infulte and indignities to which he
was fubje6led in confequence of this condufl, he retired
to England, where he contratled an acquaintance with
'fome of the moft celebrated divines in that country.
At the commencement of the civil wars he returned to
Scotland. During his journey thither,he accidentally met
with Lord Oxenford, who was fo charmed with his con-
verfation, that he invited him to his houfe. While he refi-
ded with flhat nobleman, he became known to the earl
of Rothes, who procured him a profef^orfhip at St An-
drew's. By the interett of the earl of Crawford he was
foon a*ter appointed minifter of Crall ; where he con-
duced himfeh, it is faid, in an exemplary manner.
Sharp had always inclined to the caufe ot royalty,
and had for. fome time kept up a conefpondence. with
his exiled prince. After the death of the protector he
began to declare himfelf more openly, and feems to have
enjoyed a great (hare of the confidence of Monk, who
was at that time planning the reftoration ot Charles II.
When that general marched to London, the pre(byte-
rians fent Sharp to attend him in order to fupport their
interefts. At* the requeft of general Monk and tlie
chief preft)ytcrians in Scotland, Mr Sharp was foon af-
ter
S H A
[ 3
"ter fent over to the king at Breda to procure from him,
if poflible, the eftablifhment of prefbyterianifm. On
his return, he afflired his friends that " he had found
the kiniy very affeftionate to Scotland, and refolved not
to wronp the fettled government of the church: but he
apprehended they were miftaken who went about to
cftabHfh the prefbyterian government."
Charles was foon after reftored without any terms.
All the laws pafTed in Scotland fince the year 163 3 were
repealed. ; the king and his mvnifters refolved at all ha-
zards to reftore prelacy. Mr Sharp, who had been
commiflioned by the Scotch prefbyterians to raanaije
their interefts with the king, was prevailed upon to
abandon the party; and, as a reward for his compliance,
he was made archbifhop of St Andrew's. This condudl
rendered him very odious in Scotland ; he was accufed
of treachery and perfidy, and reproached by his old
friends as a traitor and a renegado. The abfurd and
wanton cruelties which were afterwards committed, and
which were imputed in a great meafure to the archbi-
ftiop, rendered him ftill more detefted. Nor is it pro-
bable that thefe accufations were without foundation :
the very circumftance of his having been formerly of
the prefbyterian party would induce him, after forfaking
them, to treat them with feverity. Befides, it is certain,
that when after the rout at Pentland-hills he received
an order from the king to ftop the executions, he kept
it for fome time befoTe he produced it to council.
There was one Mitchell a preacher, and a defperate
fanatic, who had formed the defign of taking vengeance
for thefe cruelties by affaffinating the archbifhop. He
fn-ed a piftol at him as he was fittinfj; in his coach ; but
the bifhop of Orkney, lifting up his hand at the moment,
intercepted the ball, l^hough this happened in the
niidft of Edinburgh, the primate was fo much detefted,
that nobody ftopped the affafiin ; who, having walked
leifurcly home, and thrown off his difguife, returned,
and mixed unfufpefled with the crowd. Some years
after, the archbifhop obferving a man eyeing him with
ieenncfs, fufpefted that he was the affaflin, and ordered
b.im to be brought before him. It was Mitchell. Two
loaded piftols were found in his pocket. The primate
offered him a pardon if he would confefs the crime :
the man complied ; but Sharp, regardlefs of his promife,
conduced him to the council. The council alfo ^ave
him a folemn promife of pardon if he would confefs his
guilt, and difcover his accom.plices. They were much
difappointed to hear that only one man was privy to his
purpofe, who was fince dead. Mitchell was then brought
before a court of juftice, and ordered to make a third
confeflion, which he refufed. He was imprifoned for
feveral years, and then tried. His own confeflion was
urged againll him. It was in vain for him to plead the
illeGrality of that evidence, and to appeal to the promife
Vol. XVII. Part i.
37 J S H A
of pardon previoufly given. The council took an oath
that they had given no fuch promife; and Mitchell was
condemned. Lauderdale, who at that time governed
Scotland, would have pardoned bim, but the ptimate
infilled on his exectition ; obferving, that if affaffms were
permitted to go unpunifhed, his life mud be continually
in danger. Mitchell was accordingly executed.
Sharp had a fervant, one Carmichael, who by his
cruelty had rendered himfelf particularly odious to the
zealots. Nine men formed the refohition of waylaying
him in Magus-muir, about three miles from St Andrew's.
While thty were waiting for this man, the primate him-
felf appeared with very few attendants. This they look-
ed upon as a declaration of heaven in their favour ; and
calling out, "the Lord has delivered him into our hands,"
they ran up to the carriage.. They fired at him with-
out effeft ; a circumftance which was afterwards impu-
ted to magic. They then difpatched him with their
fwords, regardlefs of the tears and intreaties of his
daughter, who accompanied him (a).
Thus fell archbifhop Sharp, whofe memory is even
at prefent detefted by the common people of Scotland.
His abilities were certainly good, and in the early part
of his life he appears with honour and dignity. I3ut
his conduct afterwards was too cruel and inlincere to
merit approbation. His treatment of Mitchell was
mean and vindidlive. How far he contributed to the
meafures adopted againft the prcftjyterians is not certain.
They were equally cruel and impttlitic; nor did their ef-
fefts ceafe with the meafures themfelves. The un-
heard-of cruelties exercifed by the minifters of Cha. II.
againft the adherents of the covenant, raifed fuch a flame
of enthufiafm and bigotry as is not yet entirely extin-
guiftied.
Sharp (Dr John), archbiftiop of York, was defcend-
ed from the Sharps of Little Norton, a family of Brad-
ford Dale in Yorkfliire ; and was fon of an eminent
tradefman of Bradford, where he was born In 1644.
He was educated at Cambridge, and in 1667 entered
into orders. That fame year he became domeftic chap-
lain to Sir Heneage Finch, then attorney- general, hi
1672 he was collated to the archdeaconr)^ of Berkilu're.
In 1675 ^'^ inftalled a prebendary in the cathedral
church of Norwich ; and the year following was infti-
tuted into the re6tory of St Bartholomew near the
Royal Exchange, London. In 168 1 he was, by the
intereft of his patron Sir Heneage Finch, then lord high
chancellor of England, made dean of Norwich ; but i-i
1686 was fufpended for taking occatiou, in fome of his
fermons, to vindicate the do6lrine of the church of En>{-
land in oppofition to Popery. In 1688 he was fworu
chaplain to king James II. being then probably reftored
after his fufpenfion ; for it is certain that he was cha-
plain to king Charles II. and attended as a court cha-
U u plaia
Shaft
(a) Such is the account given by all our hiftorians of the murder of archbifhop Sharp : and that he fell by
the hands of fanatics, whom he perfecuted, is certain. A tradition, however, has been preferved in different fa-
milies defcended from him, which may be mentioned, and is in itfelt certainly not incredible. The primate, it
feems, who, when minifter of Crail, was peculiarly fevere in punifhing the fin of fornication, had, in the plenitude
of his archiepifcopal authority, taken notice of a criminal amour carried on between a nobleman high in office
y.nd a lady ot fome jafhion who lived within his dioeefe. This interference was in that licentious age deemed
very impertinent ; and the archbifhop's dcfcendants belitve that the proud peer Inftigatcd the dckided rabble to
murder their anctftor.
Sharp,
Shafter.
S H A
plain at the coronation of king James II.
was declared deaii of Canterbury ; but never could be
perfuaded to fill up any of the vacancies made by the
deprived bifhops. Upon the death of Dr Lamplugh,
he was promoted to the fee of York. In 1702 he
preached the fermon at the coronation of queen Anne;
and the fame year was fworn of the privy-council, and
made lord almoner to her majefty. He died at Bath in
1 7 1 3 ; and was interred in the cathedral of York, where
a monument is erefted to his memoiy. — His fermons,
which were coUefted^ after his death and publifhed in
7 vols 8vo, are juitly admired.
SHARP, in mufic. See Interval.
SHASTER, or Bedang, the name of a facred
book, in high eilimation among the idolaters of Hindo-
ftan, containing all the dogmas of the religion of the
bramins, and all the ceremonies of their worfhip ; and
ferving as a commentary on the Vedam.
The term Shajler denotes " fcience" or " fyftem^
and is applied to other works of aftronomy and philo-
fophy, which have no relation to the religion of the In-
dians. None but the bramins and rajahs of India are
allowed to read the Vedam; the priefts of the Banians,
called Jhuderers, may read the Shafter ; and the people,
in general, are allowed to read only the Paran or Pou-
ran, which is a commentary on the Shafter.
The Shafter is divided into three parts: the firft con-
talning the moral law of the Indians ; the fecond, the
rites and ceremonies of their religion ; and the third,
the diftribution of the people into tribes ©r claffes, with
the duties pertaining to each clafs.
The principal precepts of morality contained in the
firft part of the Shafter are the following: that no ani-
mal be killed, becaufe the Indians attribute fouls to
brute animals as well as to mankind ; that they neither
hear nor fpeak evil, nor drink wine, nor eat flelh, nor
touch any thing that is unclean ; that they obferve the
feafts, prayers, and waihings, which their law prefcribes ;
that they tell no lies, nor be guilty of deceit in trade ;
that they neither opprefs nor ofFer violence to one ano-
ther; that they celebrate the folemn feafts and fafts, and
appropriate certain hours of ordinary fleep to cultivate
a difpofition for prayer ; and that they do not fteal or
defraud one another.
The ceremonies contained In the fecond part of the
Shafter are fuch as thefe : that they wafti often in the
rivers, hereby obtaining the pardon of their fins ; that
they mark their forehead with red, in token of their re-
lation to the Deity ; that they prefent offerinirs and
prayers under certain trees, fet apart for this purpofe ;
that they pray In the temples, make oblations to their
pagodas, or idols, fing hymns, and make proceffions.
Sec. that they make pilgrimages to diftant rivers, and
cfpecially to the Ganges, there to wafh themfelves and
make offerings; that they make vows to particular
faints, according to their refpeftivc departments ; that
they render homage to the Deity at the firft fight of
the fun ; that they pay their refpea to the fun and
moon, which are the two eyes of the Deity ; and that
they treat with particular veneration thofe animals that
are deemed move pure than others ; as the cow, buff^alo,
&c. ; becaufe the fouls of men have tranfmigrated into
thefe animals.
The third part of the Shafter records the diftribu-
tion of the people into four claffes : the firft being that
[ 338 ] s H A
In 1689 he of the bramins or priefts, appointed to inftrinJl the
people ; the fecond, that of the kutteris or nobles, who
are the magiftrates ; the third, that of the fhudderls
or merchants ; and the fourth, that of the mechanics.
Each perfon is required to remain in the clafs in which
he was born, and to purfue the occupation afligned to
him by the Shafter. According to the bramins, the
Shafter was Imparted by God himfelf to Brahma, and
by him to the bramins ; who communicated the con-
tents of it to the people.
Modern writers have given us very different accounts
of the antiquity and Importance of the Shafter. Mr
Holwell, who had made confiderable progrefs in the
tranflation of this book, apprehends, that the mytholo-
gy as well as the cofmogony of the Egyptians, Greeks,
and Romans, were borrowed from the dodtrlnes of the
bramins, contained In it, even to the copying of their
exteriors of w^orftiip, and the diftribution of their Idols,
though grofsly mutilated and adulterated. With refpedt
to the Vedam and Shafter, or fcriptures of the Gen-
toos, this writer Informs us, that Vedaniy in the Mala-
bar language, fignifies the fame as Shajler in the Shan-
fcrit; and that the firft book is followed by the Gen-
toos of the Malabar and Coromandel coafts, and alfo of
the ifland of Ceylon. The Shafter is followed by the
Gentoos of the provinces of Bengal, and by all the
Gentoos of the reft of India, commonly called India
Proper, along the courfe of the rivers Ganges and Jum-
na to the Indus. Both thefe books (he fays) contain
the inftitutes of their refpeftlve religion and worftiip,
as well as the hiftory of their ancient rajahs and princes,
often couched under allegory and fable. Their anti-
quity is contended for by the partifans ©f each ; but he
thinks, that the fimllitude of their names, idols, and
great part of their worftiip, leaves little room to doubt,
nay plainly evinces, that both thefe fcriptures were ori-
ginally one. He adds, If we compare the great purity
and chafte manners of the Shafter with the great ab-
furditles and Impurities of the Vedam, we need not
hefitate to pronounce the latter a corruption of tiie
former.
With regard to the high original of thefe fcriptures,
the account of the bramins is as follows. Brahma
(that Is, " Mighty Spirit"), about 4866 years ago,
affumed the form of man and the government of Indo-
ftan. He tranflated the divine law (defigned for the
reftoration of mankind, who had offended In a pre-ex-
iftent ftate, and who are now in their laft fcene of pro-
bation, to the dignity from which they were degraded)
out of the language of angels Into the well known Shan-
fcrlt language, and called his tranflation the Chirtah
Bhade Shaflah of Birmah, or the Six Scriptures of Divine
Words of the Mighty Spirit. He appointed the bramins,
deriving their name from him, to preach the word of
God; and the dodrines of the Shafter were according-
ly preached in their original purity 1000 years. About
this time there was publiflied a paraphrafe on the Char-
tah Bhade ; and about 500 years afterwards, a fecond
expolition, called the Aughtorrah Bhade Shajla, or Eigh-
teen Books of Divine Words, written In a character com-
pounded of the common Indoftan and the Shanfcrit.
This innovation produced a fchlfm among the Gen-
toos ; on which occafion, it Is fald, thofe of Coroman-
del and Malabar formed a fcrlpture of their own,
which they pretended to be founded ou the Chartah
Bhade
S H A [3
Bhade of Bramah, and called it the Fedam of Blr-
mah, or Dhine Words of the Mighty Spirit. The ori-
ginal Chartah Bhade was thrown afidc, and at length
wholly unknown, except to a few families ; who can
ftill read and expound it in the Shanfcrit charader.
With the eftablifhment of the Au:vhtorrah Bhade, and
Vedam, which, according to the Gentoo account, is
3366 years ago, their polythelfm commenced ; and the
principles of religion became fo obfciire, and their ce-
remonies fo numerous, that every head of a family was
obliged to keep a bramin as a guide both in faith and
praftice. Mr HoUwell is of opinion, that the Chartah
Bhade, or Original Scriptures, are not copied from any
other fyftem of theology, promulgated to or obtruded
upon mankind. The Gentoos do not attribute them
to Zoroafter; and Mr Holwell fuppofes, that both Zo-
roafter and Pythagoras vifited Indoftan, not to inftruft,
but to be inftrudled.
From the account of Mr Dow, we ?:^am, that the
books which contain the religioH and philofophy of the
Hindoos are diftinguifhed by the name of Bedas ; that
they are four in number, and, like the facred writings
of other nations, faid to be penned by the Divinity.
Beda, he fays, in the Shanfcrit language, literally fig-
nihes fcience ; and thefe books treat not only of religion
and moral duties, but of every branch of phllofophic
knowled^re. The bramins maintain, that the Bedas
are the divine laws, which Brimha, at the creation of
the world, delivered for the inftru<ftion of mankind ;
but they affirm, that their meaning was perverted in
the firft age by the ignorance and wickednefs of fome
princes, whom they reprefent as evil fpirits, v/ho then
haunted the earth.
The firft credible account we have of the Bedas is,
that about the commencement of the Cal Jug, of which
era the year 1768 was the 4886th year, they were
written, or rather collefted, by a great philofopher and
reputed prophet, called Be'dfs Mun't^ or Be'dfs the In-
Jp'tred.
The Hindoos, fays Mr Dow, are divi ed into two
great religious x the followers of the doArine of
Bedang, which is the original Shatter, or commentary
upon the Bedas ; and thofe who adhere to the princi-
ples of the Neadiifen. The original Shafter is called
Bednng, and is a commentary upon the Bedas. This
book, he fays, is erroneoufly called in Europe the Fe-
dam. J t is afcribed to Be'afs Muni, and is faid to have
been revifed fome years after by one Serrider "Swami,
fmce which it has been reckoned facred, and not fubjeft
to any farther alterations,
Almoft all the Hindoos of the Decan, and thofe of
the Malabar and Coromandel coafts, are of this feft.
The followers of the Bedang Shafter do not allow that
any phyfical evil exifts ; they maintain that God crea-
ted all things perfeAly good ; but that man, being a
free agent, may be guilty of moral evil, which may be
injurious to himfelf, but can be of no detriment to the
general fyftem of nature. God, they fay, being per-
feftly benevolent, never puniftied the wicked otherwife
than by the pain and afflitSlion which are the natural
confequences of evil aftiotis ', and hell, therefore, is no
cither than a confcioufnefs of evil.
The Neadii-fen Shafter is faid to have been written
by a philofopher called Goutam, near four thoufand years
ago. The bramins, from Mr Dow's account of their
19 ] S H A
facred books, appear to believe Invariably in the unity, ^Sfiaftef.
eternity, omnifcience, and omnipotence of God ; and ~ '
the polythelfm of which they have been acciifed is no
more than a fymbolical worfhip of the divine attributes,
which they divide into three clafTes. Under the name
of Brimha, they worlhip the wifdom and creative power
of God ; under the appellation of Bifhen, his providen-
tial and preferving quality ; and under that of Shibah^
that attribute which tends to deftroy.
As few of our readers may have an opportunity of
perufing the Shafter, we ftiall, by way of fpecimen, fub«
join a paflage from it, which, though it contains fome
metaphyfical myfteries concerning the creation, yet dif-
covers views of God fo enlightened that they would not
difgrace more refined nations. The paffage which we
fhall quote is the firft chapter of the Shafter, which is
a dialogue between Brimha the Wifdom of the Divini-
ty, and Narud or Reafon, who is reprefented as the foit
of Brimha. Narud defires to be inftrufted by his fa-
ther ; and for that purpofe puts the following queftions
to him :
, " Narud. O father ! thou firft of God, thou art faid
to have created the world, and thy fon Narud, aftonifh-
ed at what he beholds, is defirous to be inftrufted how
all thefe things were made.
'* Brimha. Be not deceived, my fon ! do not imagine
that I was the creator of the world, independent of the
Divine Mover, who is the great original effence and
creator of all things. Look, therefore, only upon me
as the inftrument of the great 'will, and a part of his
being, whom he called forth to execute his eternal de-
figns.
« Narud. What ftiall we think of God?
** Brimha. Being immaterial, he is above all concep-
tion ; being invlfible, he can have no form ; but, from
what we behold in his works, we may conclude that he
is eternal, omnipotent, knowing all things, and prefent
everywhere.
** Narud. How did God create the world ?
*' Brimha. Affeftion dwelt with God from all eter-
nity. It was of three different kinds ; the creative, the
preferving, and the deftruftive. This firft is reprefent-
ed by Brimha, the fecond by Bifhen, and the third by
Shibah. You, O Narud ! are taught to worftiip all
the three in various fhapes and likeneffes, as the Crea-
tor, the Preferver, and the Deftroyer. The'iffeAion of
God then produced power, and power, at a proper con-
jun£lion of time and fate, embraced goodnefs, and pro-
duced matter. The three qualities then adling upon
matter, produced the oniverfe in the following manner :
From the oppofite aftibns of the creative and deftruc-
tlve quality In matter, felf-motlon firft arofe. Self-
motion was of three kinds ; the firft inclining to plaftl-
city, the fecond to difcord, and the third to reft. The
difcordant aftlons then produced the Akafh (a kind of
celeftlal dement), which invifible element poffeflcd the
quality of conveyiiig found ; it produced air, a palpable
element ; fire, a vlfible element ; water, a fluid element;
and earth, a folld element.
" The Akafti difperfed itfelf abroad. Air formed
the atmofphere ; fire, collefting itfelf, blazed forth In
the hoft of heaven ; water rofe to the furface of the
earth, being forced from beneath by the gravity of the
latter element. Thus broke forth the world from the
veil of darknefs, in whldi it was formerly comprehend-
U u 2 ed
S H A
Shafler. cd by God. Order rofe over the unlverfe.
-—-v^-^ heavens were formed, and the feven worlds were fixed
in their places; there to remain till the great diffolution,
wlien all things (hall be abfotbed into God.
" God feeing the earth in full bloom, and that vege-
tation was llrong from its feeds, called forth for the firll
lime intellec>, which he endued with various organs and
lhapfs, to form a diverfity of animals upon the earth.
He endued the animtls with five fenfes; feeling, feeing,
imeiling, tailine, and hearing ; but to man h<; gave re-
fkftion, to raife him above the beads of the field.
" The creatures were created male and female, that
tliey might propagate their fpecies upon the earth,
livery herb bore the feed of its kind, that the world
might be clothed v.'ith verdure, and all auimals pro-
vided with food.
" Narud. What doft thou mean, O father ! by In-
telk-a ?
" Br':mhii. It is a portion of the great foul of the
univerfe breathed into all creatures, to auiinate them
for a certain tin-te.
" Narud. What becomes of it after death ?
*' Brimho. It animates other bodies, or returns, like
a drop, into that unbounded ocean from which it firit
arofe.
" Narvd. Shall not then the fouls of good men re-
ceive rewards ? nor the iouls of the bad meet with pu-
nlfhment ?
'* Brtmha. The fouls of men are diftingulfhed from
thofe of other animals ; for the firft are endued with
reafon, and with a confcioufnefs of rijjht and wron:^.
If therefore man fhall adhere to the firft, as far as his
powers fhall extend, his foul, when difengaged from the
body by death, fhall be abforbed into the divine eflence,
and fhall never more reanimate fiefh : But the fouls of
thofe who do evil are not, at death, difengaged from
all the elements. They are immediately clothed with
a body o\ fire, air, and akafh, in which they are for a
time punifhed iu htll. After the feafon of their grief
j-i over, they reanimate other bodies ; but till they fhall
arrive at a fiate of purity they can never be abforbed
into God.
" Narud. What is the nature of that abforbed ftate
wliich the fouls of good men enjoy after death ?
" Bri7vba. It is a participation of the divine nature,
where all ppffions are utterly unknown, and where con-
Icioufnefs is loft in blifs.
" Narud. Thou fayeft, O father, that unlefs the
foul is perfeiSlly pure it cannot be abforbed into God :
BOW, as the aftions of the generality of men are partly
good and partly bad, whither are their fpirits fent im-
mediately after death ?
" Brtmha. They muft atone for their crimes in hell,
where they muft remain for a fpace proportioned to the
degree of their iniquities ; then they rife to heaven to
be rewarded for a time for their virtues ; and from
thence they will return to the world to reanimate other
bodies.
*' Na' ud. What is time ?
** Brtmha. Time exifted from all eternity with God :
but it can only be eftimated fince motion was prodijr
ced, and only be conceived by the mind, from its own
conftant progrefs.
'* Narud, How long fhall this world remain ?
Mriinhfi. Until the^ four lugs fhall have revolved.
[ 34° 1 SHE
The feven Then Rudder (the fame with Shthah, the deftroying
quality of God), with the ten fpirits of difTolutiun,
fhall roll a comet under the moon, that fhall involve all
things in fire, and reduce the world into afhes. God
fhall then exift alone, for matter will be totally annihi-
lated."
Thofe who defire more information on this fubjedl
may confult Doiv'j Hiftory of Itidojian, and Holwe'd't
Intciyjltng H'lfiorical Events.
SHAW (Dr Thomas), known to the learned world
by his travels to Barbary and the Levant, was born at
Kendal in Weftmoreland about the year 1692. He
was appointed chaplain to the Euglifh conful at Al-
gieis, in which ftation he continued for feveial years ;
and from thence took proper opportunities of travel-
hng into ditt'erent parts. He returned in 1733; '^^'">
eiecled fellow of the Royal Society ; and pubhfhed the
account of his travels at Oxford, folio, ly^^H. In 1740
he was nominated principal ot St Edmond-hall, which
he raifed from a ruinous ftatc by his munihcence ; and
was regius prefeffor of Greek at Oxford until his death,
which happened in 1751. Dr Clayton, Bp. of Clogher,
having attacked thefe Travels in his Uefcription of
the i'^aft, Dr Shaw pubfiflied a fupplement by way
of vindication, which is incorporated into the fecond,
edition of his Travels, prepared by himfelf, and pubhfh-
ed in 4to, 1757.
SHAWLS,, are woollen handkerchief?, an ell wide,,
and near two long. I'he wooh is fo fine and filky,
that the whole handkerchief may be contained in the
two hands clofed. It is the produce of a Tibet fheep ;
but fome fay that no wool is employed but that of
lambs torn from the belly of their mother before the
time of birth. The mofl beautiful fliawls come from
Cafhmir<
thei
;ir price is from 150 livres (about fix
guineas) to 12 jo livres (or L. jO Sterhng.)
In the TranfaAions ot the Society for Encouraging,
Arts, Manutadtures, &c. for the year 1792, we are in-
formed that a fliavvl counterpane, four yards fquare,
manufaftured by Mr P. J. Knights of Norwich, was
prelented to the fociety ; and that, upou examination,,
it appeared to be of greater breadth than any goods
of equal finenefs and texture that had ever before been
prciented to the loclety, or to their knowledge woven
in this country. The fhawls of Mr Knights's manu-
fa6ture, it is laid, can fcarcely be diftinguilhed from In-
dian fhawls, though they can be afforded at one-twen-
tieth part of the price. When the fhawl is 16 quarters
fquare, Mr Knights fays it may be retailed at L. 20 ; ,
if it confifted of i 2 quailers, and embroidered as the.
former, it will coft L. 15 ; If plain, with a fringe only,
a ftiawl of 1 6 quarters fquare may be fold at L. 8, 8 s,;
if 12 quarters and fringed, at L. 6, 6 s.
Mr Knights maintauis, that his counterpane of four
yards fquare is equal in beauty, and fuperlor in ftrength,
to the Indian counterpanes which are fold at 200 gui-
neas. The principal coniumption of this cloth is in
train-dreffes, for ladies ; as likewife for long fcarfs, in ;
imitation of the real Indian fcarfs, which are fold from
L. 60 to L. 80 ; whereas fcarfs of this fabric are iold
for as many fhlUings, and the ladles fquare fhawls in.
proportion.
SHEADING, a riding, tything, or divlfion, In the
Ifle of Man ; the whole ifland being divided into fix
{headings j in every one of which is a coroner or chief
a conftable.
SHE [ ^
conflable, appointed by the delivery of a rod at the an-
nual convention.
SHEARS] LL, the PJjynchops Nigra of Linnaeus,
the Black Skimmer of Pennant and Latham, and Cut'
ivater of Catefby. Its bill is much comprefied j the
edi^es are (harp ; the lower mandible is four inches and
a Imlf long ; the upper only three ; the bafe red ; the
reft is black : the forehead, chin, front of the neck, the
breaft, and belly, are white-: the head and whole upper
part of the body are black : the winga are of the fame
colour : the lower part of the inner webs of the pri-
maries is white : the tail is fhort, and a little forked ;
the middle feathers are dullcy ; the others are white on
their fides : the legs a;"e weak and red : the length is
one foot eight inches : the extent is three feet feven
inches. It inhabits America from New York to Gui-
ana. It flfims nimbly along the water, with its under
mandible juft beneath the furface, feeding on the infefts
and fmall fifli as it proceeds. It frequents ilfo oyfter-
banks ; its bill being partly like that of the oyiter-
catcher, adapted for preying on thofe fhell-filh.
SHEATHING, in the fea-language, is the cafing
that part of a ihip which is to be under water with hr-
board of an inch thick ; firft laying hair and tar mixed
together under the boards, and then nailing them on,
in order to prevent worms from; eating the {hip's bot-
tom.— Ships of war are now generally fheathed with
copper : but copper fheathing is liable to be corroded
by the a&ion of fait water, and fomething is ftill want-
ing to effeft this purpofe. It is very probable that tar
mlcrht anfw er very well.
In the Cornifh mines, copper or brafs pumps are
often placed in the deepeft p^rts, and are confequently
expofed to the vitriolic or other mineral waters with
which fome of thefe mines abound, and which are known
to have a much llronger elFeft on copper than fea-wa-
ter. Thefe pumps are generally about fix feet long,
and are fcrewed together, and made tight by the inter-
pofition of a ring of lead, and the joinings are after-
wards tarred. One of thefe pumps was fo much cor-
roded as to render it unfit for ufe ; but the fpots of tar,
which by accident had dropped on it, preferved the
parts they covered from the aftion of the water. Thefe
projedted in fome places more than a quarter of an inch ;
and the joints were fo far defended by the tlvn coat of
tar, that it was as perfect as when it came from the
hands of the manufafturer. If tar thus effeftually de-
fends copper from thefe acrimonious waters, can there
remain a doubt of its preferving it from the much mild-
er waters of the fea ?
SHEATS, in a fhip, are ropes bent to the clews of
the fails ; ferving in the lower fails to haul aft the clews
of the fail ; but in topfails they ferve to haul home the
clew of the fail clofe to the yard-arm.
SHEEP, in zoology. See Ovis and Wool.
Amongft the various animals with which Divine Pro-
vidence has ftored the world for the ufe of man, none is
tx) be found more innocent, more ufeful, or more valu-
} S H E
able, than the fhe«p. The fheep fupplies us with food' SIieej«
and clothing, and finds ample employment for our — —
poor at all times and feafons of the year, whereby a sheen
variety of manufaftures of woollen cloth is carried on ferve a
without interruption to domeftic comfort and lofs ta vvonderful
fi iendly fociety or injury to health, as is the cafe with variety of
many other occupations. Every lock of wool that
grows oil its back becomes the means of fupport to
ftaplers, dyers, pickers, fcourers, fcriblers, carders, comb-
ers, fpinners, fpoolers, warpers, queelers, weavers,
fullers, tuckers, burlers, fhearmen, preffers, clothiers,
and packers, who, one after another, tumble and tofs,
and twifl:, and bake,' and boil, this raw material, till
they have each extrafted a livelihood out of it ; and
then comes the merchant, who, in his turn, (hips it (in
its higheft ftate of improvement) to all quarters of the
globe, from whence he brings back every kind of riches
to Ills country, in leturn ior this valuable commodity
which the (heep affords.
Befides this, the ufeful animal, after being deprived
of liis coat, pn)duces another againfl. the next year j
and when we are hungry, and kill him for food, he
gives us his flcin to employ the fell- mongers and parch-
ment-makers, who fupply us with a durable material for
fecuring our eftates, rights, and poffeffions ; and if our
enemies take the field againft us, fupplies ua.-with a
powerful inttrument for roufing our courage to repc4
their attacks. When the parchment-maker has taken
as much of the flcin as he can ufe, the glue-maker comes
after and picks up every morfel that is left, and there-
with fupphes a material for the carpenter and cabi-
net-maker, which they cannot do witliout, and which
is effentially ncceffary before we can have elegant furni-
ture in our houfes ; tables, chairs, looking-glaffes, and a
hundred other articles of convenience : and when the
winter nights come on, while we are deprived of the
cheering hght of the fun, the fhieep fupplies us with an
artificial mode of light, whereby we preferve every plea-
fure of domeflic fociety, and with whofe afTiftance we
can continue our work, or write or read, and improve
our minds, or enjoy the focial mirth of our tablee. An-
other part of the flaughtered animal fupplies us with an
ingredient neceflary for making good common foap, a
uleful ftore for producing cleanlinefs in every family,
rich or poor. Neither need the horns be thrown
away ; for they are converted by the button-makers and
turners into a cheap kind of buttons, tips for bows,
and many ufeful ornaments. From the very trotters
an oil is extrafted ufeful for many purpofes, and they
afford good food when baked in an oven.
Even the bones are ufeful alfo ; for by a late inven-
tion of Dr Higgfns, they are found, when reduced to
afhes, to be an ufeful and effentlal ingredient in the com-
pofition of the fineft artificial itone in ornamental work
tor chimney-pieces, cornices of rooms, houfes, &c.
which renders the corapolition more durable by efifcc-
tually preventing its cracking (a).
If it is objected to the meek inoflfenfive creature, that
he
(a) Any curious perfon would' be much entertained to fee the manufaftory of bone-afh, now carried on by
Mr Minifli of White chapel, New Road, wherein the bones of flieep and cows undergo many ingenious proceffes,
t . There is a mill to break them ; 2. A cauldron to extraft their oil, marrow, and fat ; 3. A reverberatory to heat
them red-hot; 4. An oven for tKofe bones to moulder to afhes; 5. A Hill to culled the fumes of the burnt
b-ones'
Sheep.
Account of
the Spanifh
iheep
3
Of Sego.
via,
JBourgo-
fitnne's tra-
•vels, vol. i.
SHE [34
he IS expenfive while living, in eating up our grafs,
&c. it may be anfwered that it is quite the contrary ;
for he can feed where every other animal has been be-
fore him and grazed all they could find ; and that if he
takes a little grafs on our downs or in our fields, he
amply repays us for every blade of grafs in the richnefs
of the manure which he leaves behind him. He pro-
tedls the hands from the cold wintry blaft, by providing
them with the fofteft leather gloves. Every gentle-
man's library is alfo indebted to him for the neat bind-
ing of his books, for the fheath of his fword, and for
cafes for his inftruments ; in fhort, not to be tedious in
mentioning the various ufes of leather, there is hardly
any furniture or utenfil of life but the Iheep contri-
butes to render either more ufeful, convenient, or orna-
mental.
As the fheep is fo valuable an animal, every piece of
information concerHing the proper method of managing
it muft be of importance. It will not therefore be ufe-
fefs nor unentertaining to give fome account of the man-
ner of managing fheep in Spain, a country famous for
producing the beft wool in the world.
In Spain there are two kinds of ftieep : the coarfe-
wooUed fheep, which always remain in their native
country, and are houfed every night in winter ; and the
fine-wooled fheep, which are always in the open air,
and travel every fummer from the cool mountains of the
northern parts of Spain, to feed in winter on the fouth-
ern warm plains of Andalufia, Mancha, and Eftrama-
dura. Of thefe latter, it appears from accurate com-
putations, that there are about five millions ( b ) ; and
that the wool and flefh of a flock of 10,000 fheep pro-
duce yearly about 24 reals a-head, or about the value
©f 12 Englifli fixpences, one of which belongs to the
owner, three to the king, and the other eight are al-
lowed for the expences of pafture, tythes, Ihepherds,
dogs, fait, (hearing, &e. Ten thoufand fheep form a
flock, which is divided into ten tribes, under the ma-
nagement of one perfon, who has abfolute dominion
over fifty fhepherds and fifty dogs.
M. Bourgoanne, a French gentleman, who refided
many years in Spain, and directed his inquiries chiefly
to the civil government, trade, and manufaftures, of
that country, gives the following account of the wan-
dering fheep of Segovia. *' It is (fays he) in the neigh-
bouring mountains that a part of the wandering fheep
feed during the fine feafon. They leave them in the
month ©f Oftober, pafs over thofe which feparate the
two Caflile«, crofs New Caftile, and difperfe themfelves
in the plains of Eftramadura and Andalufia. For fome
years paft thofe of the two CaflUes, which are within
reach of the Sierra-Morena, go thither to pafs the win-
z ] SHE
ter ; which, in that part of Spain, is more mild ; the
length of their day's journey is in proportion to the ^
pafture they meet with. They travel in flocks from
1000 tp 12 30 in number,- under the conduft of two
fhepherds ; one of whom is called the Mayor/}/, the
other the Zagal. When arrived at the place of their
deftlnatlon, they are diftributed in the paftures previ-
oufly affigned them. They return in the month of
April ; and whether it be habit or natural inflinft that
draws them towards the climate, which at this feafon
becomes moft proper for them, the inquietude which
they manifeft might, in eafe of need, ferve as an alma-
nac to their conduftors."
Mr Arthur Young, in that patriotic work which he
condufted with great induftry and judgment, the An-
nals of Agriculture, gives us a very accurate and inte-
reftlng account of the Pyrenean or Catalonian fheep.
" On the northern ridge, bearing to the weft, are or
the paftures of the Spanifh flocks. This ridge is not,loni
however, the whole ; there are two other mountains, ^""f
quite in a different fituation, and the fheep travel from
one to another as the pafturage is fhort or plentiful. I
examined the foil of thefe mountain paftures, and found
it in general ftony; what in the weft of England would
be called a Jlone bra^j, with fome mixture of loam, and
in a few places a little peaty. The plants are many of
them untouched by the fheep ; many ferns, narcifTus,
violets, &c. but burnet (poierium fangui/oria) and the
narrow-leaved plantain fplantago lanceolata) were eaten,
as may be fuppofed, clofe. I looked for trefoils, but
found fcarcely any : it was very apparent that foil and
peculiarity of herbage had little to do in rendering thefe
heights proper for fheep. In the northern parts of Eu-
rope, the tops of mountains half the height of thefe
(for we were above fnow in July) are bogs, all are fo
which I have feen in our iflands, or at leall the pro-
portion of diy land is very trifling to that which is ex-
tremely wet : Here they are in general very dry. Now
a great range of dry land, let the plants be what they
may, will in every country fuit fheep. The flock is
brought every night to one fpot, which is fituated at
the end of the valley on the river I have mentioned, and
near the port or paffage of PIcada : it is a level fpot
fheltered from all winds. The foil is 8 or 9 inches deep
of old dung, not at all inclofed : from the freedom from
wood all around, it feems to be chofen partly for fafety
againft wolves and bears. Near it is a very large ftone,
or rather rockj fallen from the mountain. This the
fhepherds have taken for a fhelter, and have built a hut
againft it ; their beds are fheep-flcins, and their door f»
fmall that they crawl in. I faw no place for fire ; but
they have it, fmce they drefs here the flefli of their flieep,
and
bones into a brown fluid, from whence hartfliorn is made ; 6. Furnaces for making parts thereof into Glauber**
falts ; 7. A fand heat containing twelve jars, for colleftlnp: 3 cryftallizing vapour into fal-amraoniac.
(b) In the 1 6th century the travelling flieep were eftimated at feven millions : under Philip III. the number
was dimlnlfhed to two millions and a half. Uftariz, who wrote at the beginning of this century, made it amount
to. four millions. The general opinion is, that at prefent it does not exceed five millions. If to this number the
eight millions of ftationary fheep be added, it will make nearly thirteen millions of animals, all managed contrary
to the true interefts of Spain, for the advantage of a few individuals. For the proprietors of ftationary flocki
»lfo have privileges which greatly refemble thofe of the members of the Mefta. According to Arriquebar, Spain
contains eight millions of fine-wooled fheep, ten millions of coarfe-wooled, and five hundred thoufand bulls, oxen>
#00, cows.
SHE
and In the night fometi'mes keep off the bears, by whirl-
ing fire-brands ; four of thena belonging to the flock
mentioned above lie here. I viewed their flock very care-
fully, and by means of oiir guide and interpreter, made
fome inquiries of the (hepherds, which they anfwered
readily, and very civilly. A Spaniard at Venafque, a
city in the Pyrenees, gives 60© livres French (the Hvre
is lo^d. Englifli) a-year for the pafturage of this flock
of 2000 fiieep. In the winter he fends them into the
lower parts of Catalonia, a journey of 12 or 13 days,
and when the fnow is melted in the fpring, they
are conduced back again. They are the whole year
kept in motion, and moving from fpot to fpot, which
is owing to the great range they everywhere have of
pafture. They are always in the open air, never houfed
or under cover, and never tafte of any food but what
they can find on the hills.
" Four fliepherds, and from four to fix large Spanifh
dogs, have the care of this flock: the latter are in France
called of the Pyrenees breed ; they are black and white,
of the fize of a large wolf, a large head and neck, arm-
ed with collars fl;uck with iron fpikes. No wolf can ftand
againft. them ; but bears are more potent adverfaries :
if a bear can reach a tree, he is fafe; he rifes on his hind
legs, with his back to'the tree, and fets the dogs at de-
fiance. In the night the fliepherds rely entirely on
their dogs ; but on hearing them bark are ready with
fire-arms, as the dogs rarely bark if a bear is not at
hand. I was furprifed to find that they are fed only
with bread and milk. The head fhepherd is paid 120
livres a-year wages and bread ; the others 80 livres and
bread. But they are allowed to keep goats, of which
they have many which they milk every day. Their food
is milk and bread, except the flefh of fuch fheep or
lambs as accidents give them. The head fliepherd
keeps on the mountain top, or an elevated fpot, from
whence he can the better fee around while the flock tra-
verfes the declivities. In doing this the flieep are ex-
pofed to great danger in places that are ftony ; for by
-walking among the rocks, and efpecially the goats,
they move the fl:ones, which, rolling down the hills,
acquire an accelerated force enough to knock a man
down, and fheep are often killed by them ; yet we faw
how alert they were to avoid fuch ftoncs, and cautiouf-
ly on their guard againft them. I examined the fheep
attentively. They are in general polled, but fome have
horns ; which in the rams turn backwards behind the
ears and projefh half a circle forward ; the ewes horns
turn alfo behind the ears, but do not projedt : the legs
white or reddiflr ; fpeckled faces, fome white, fome
reddifli ; they would weigh fat, I reckon, on an average,
from 15 lb. to 18 lb. a quarter. Some tails fhort, fome
left long. A few black flieep among them : fome with
a very little tuft of wool on their foreheads. On the
wliole they refemble tliofe on the South Downs ; their
legs are as fhort as thofe of that breed ; a point which
raerits obfervation, as they travel fo much and fo well.
Their fhape is very good ; round ribs and flat ftraight
backs ; and would with us be reckoned handfome
fheep ; all in good order and flefh. In order to be ftill
better acquainted with them, I defired one of the fliep-
herds to catch a ram for me to feel, and examine the
wool, which I tound very thick and good of the card-
ing fort, as may be fuppofed, I took a fpecimen of it,
[ 343 ]
SHE
and alfb of a hoggit, or lamb of laft year. In regard S'- eep.
to the mellow foftnefs under the flcin, which, in Mr *
Eakevv'ell's opinion, is a fl:rong indication of a good
breed, with a difpofition to fatten, he had it in a much
fuperior degree to many of our Englifh breeds, to the
full as much fo as the South Downs, which are for that
point the beft fliort-woolled fheep which I know in
England. The fleece was on his back, and weighed, as
I gueffed, about 8 lb. Engliih ; but the average, they
fay, of the flock is from four to five,|as I calculated by
reducing the Catalonian pound of 1 2 oz. to ours of 1 6,-
and is all fold to the French at 30s. the lb. French. This
ram had the wool of the back part of his neck tied clofe,
and the upper tuft tied a fecond knot by way of orna-
ment ; nor do they ever fhear this part of the fleece for
that reafon : we faw feveral in the flock with this fpe-
cies of decoration. They faid that this ram would fell
in Catalonia for 20 livres. A circumftance which can-
not be too much commended, and deferves univerfal
imitation, is the extreme docility they accuftom them
to. When I defired the fliepherd to catch one of his
rams, I fuppofed he would do it with his crook, or pro-
bably not be able to do it at all ; but he walked into
the flock, and fingling out a ram and a goat, bid them
follow him, which they did immediately ; and he talk-
ed to them while they were obeying him, holding out
his hand as if to give them fomething. By this method
he brought me the ram, which I caught, and held with-
out difficulty." ^
The befl; fort of flieep for fine wool are thofe bred What fheep
in Herefordfliire, Devonfhire, and Worcefterlhire ; butf"'"^"'^^*^^
they are fmall, and black-faced, and bear but a fmall^^^
quantity. Warwick, Leicefterfhire, Biickingham, and
Northaniptonfliire, breed a large-boned flieep, of the
beft fliape and deepeft wool we have. The marfhes
of Lincolnfliire breed a very large kind of flieep, but
their wool is not good, unlefs the breed be mended by
bringiii^ in flieep of other counties among them, which
is a fclilme of late very profitably followed there. Iiv
this county, it is no uncommon thinif to give fifty gui-
neas for a ram, and a guinea For the admiflTion of aii^
ewe to one of thefe valuable males, or twenty guineas
for the ufe of it for a certain number of ewes during,
one feafon. Suffolk alfo breeds a very valuable kind of
flieep. The northern counties in general breed fheep
with long but hairy wool : however, the wool which is
taken from the neck and flioulders of the Yorkfhire flieep
is ufed for mixing with Spanifh wool in fome of their
fineft cloths.
Wales bears a fmall hardy kind of fheep, which has
the belt tafted flefli, but the worft wool of all. Never-
thelefs it is of mote extenfive ufe th?.n the fineft Setjo-
vian fleeces; for the benefit of the flannel manufaAure
is univerfally known. The ilieep of Ireland vary like
thofe of Great Britain : thofe of the fouth and eaft be-
ing large and their flefh rank : thole of the north and
the mountainous parts fmall and their fiefli fweet. Tlie
fleeces in the lame manner differ in degi ecs of value.
Scotland breeds a fmall kind, and tlicir fleeces arc
coarfe.
But the new Leicefterfhire breed is the moff. fafhion-
able, and of courfe the moft profitable breed in the
iffand. Jofeph Altom of Clifton, who raifed hiinfelf
from a plough-boy, was the firil who diitinguifhcd him-
1 felf
SHE
r 344 1
M E
Account of
3VTr Bake-
'well's
treed.
MtrfiaWs
Midland
Counties,
-vol. i.
p. 382.
7
How it is
Shrep. felf'in the midland counties of England for a fuperlor
breed of iheep. How he improved his breed is not
known ; but it was cuftomary for eminent farmers 1?! his
time to go to Clifton in fumraer to choofe and purchafe
ram-lambs, for which they paid two or three sruineas.
This man was fuccceded by Mr Bakewell ; and it may
reafonably be fuppofed that the breed, by means of Al-
tom's ftock, had paffed the tirft ftage of improvement
before Mr Bakewell's time. Still, however, it muft be
•acknowledged, that the Leicefteriliire breed of (heep
owes its prefent high Hate of improvement to the abi-
^ lity^ and care of Mr Bakewell.
" The manner in which Mr Bakewell raifed his fheep
to the degree of celebrity in which they defervedly ftand,
is, notwithftanding the recentncfs of the improvement,
and its being done in the day of thoufands now living,
a thing in difputc ; even amonsf men high in tlie pro-
feffion, and living in the very diftrld in which the Im-
provement has been carried on !
" Some are of opinion that he elFefted it by a crofs
with the Wiltfhire breed ; an improbable idea, as their
fuppofed lie form altogether contradicts it : others, that the Rye-
improved 'land breed were ufed for this purpofe ; and with fome
(liow of probability. If any crofs whatever was ufed,
the Ryeland breed, whether wc view the form, the fize,
;the wool, the flelh, or the fatting quahty, is the moflt
probable inftrument of improvement.
" Thefe ideas, however, are regiflered merely as mat-
ters of opinion. It is more than probable that Mr
Bakewell alone is in poffeiTion of the feveral minutiae of
improvement ; and the public can only hope that at
a proper time the fafts may be communicated for the
.diredion of future improvers.
"Whenever tills (hall take place, it will moft probably
come out that no crofs with any alien breed whatever
has been ufed ; but that the improvement has been ef-
fefted by felefting individuals from kindred breeds ;
from the feveral breeds or variet ies of long- woolled flieep,
with which Mr Bakewell was furrounded on almoft
every fide, and by breeding, inandin (c), with this felec-
tion : folicitoufly felzing the fuperlor accidental va-
rieties produced; affoclating thefe varieties; and ftill
continuing to feleft, with judgment, the fuperlor indi-
. viduals.
,„..r!pt;on " now remains to give a defcription of the fuperior
This ewes clafs of individuals of this breed, efpeclally ewes and
and wed- wedders, in full condition, but not immoderately fat.
I'he rams will require to be diftinguifhed afterwards.
" The head is long, fniall, and hornlefs, with ears
fomewhat long, and llanding backward, and with the
nofe (hooting forward. The neck thin, and clean toward
the head ; but taking a conical form ; Handing low,
and enlarging every way at the bafe ; the fore-end alto-
gether fliort. The bofom broad, with the (houlders,
ribs, and chine extraerdinary full. The loin broad, and
the back level. The haunches comparatively full to-
ward the hips, but light downward ; being altogether
fmall in proportion to the fore-parts. The legs, at
■prefent, of a moderate length ; with the bone extreme-
ly fine. The bone throughout remarkably light. The
Defer
carcafe, when fully fat, takes a remarkable form ; much
wider than it is deep, and almoft as broad as it is long.
Full on the fhoulder, wideft on the ribs, narrowing
with a regular curve tov/ards the tail ; approaching
the form ot the turtle nearer perhaps than any other
animal. The pelt is thin, and the tail fmall. The wool
is (horter than long wools in general, but much longer
than the middle wools ^ the ordinary length of (laple
five to feven inches, varying much in finenefs and
weight."
This bre;d furpaffes every other In beauty of form ;
they are full and weighty in the fore quarters ; and are
remarkable for fmallnefs of bone. Mr Mardiall, who has
been of fo much benefit to agriculture and his country
by his publications. Informs us, in his Rural Economy
of the Midland Counties, that he has feen a rib of a
fheep of this breed contrafted with one of a Norfolk
flieep : the difparity was ftrlking ; the latter nearly
twice the fize ; while the meatjvhich covered the for-
mer was three times the thicknefs ; conlequently the
proportion of meat to bone was in the one incompara-
bly greater than in the other. Therefore, in this point
of view, the Improved breed has a decided preference :
for furely while mankind continue to eat fle(h and throw
away bone, the former mull be, to the confumer at
leatt, the more valuable.
The criterions of good and bad flefh while the ani-
mal is alire differ In different fpecies, and are not pro-
perly fettled In the fame fpecies. One fuperlor breeder
is of opinion, that if the flefh is not loofe, it is of courfe
good ; holding, that the flefh of fheep is never found
in a ftate of hardnefs, like that of ill-flefhed cattle:
while others make a fourfold diftinftlon of the flefh of
flieep ; as loofenefs, mellownefs, firmnefs, hardnefs ;
confidering the firft and the laft equally exceptionable,
and the fecond and third equally defirable ; a happy mix-
ture of the two being deemed the point of perfeAlon.
The fle(h of fheep, when flaughtered, is well known
to be of various qualities. Some is compofed of large
coarfe grains, Interfperfed with wide empty pores like
a fponge : others, of large grains, with wide pores fill-
ed with fat ; others, of fine clofe grains, with fmaller
pores filled with fat : and a fourth, of clofe grains, with-
out any intermixture of fatnefs.
The flefli of flieep, when drefled, is equally well
known to poffefs a variety of qualities : fome mutton Is
coarfe, dry, and Infipid ; a dry fponge, affording little
or no gravy of any colour. Another fort is foraewhal
firmer, imparting a light-coloured gravy only. A third
plump, fliort, and palatable ; affording a mixture of
white and red gravy. A fourth llkewife plump and
well-flavoured, but difcharging red gravy, and this in
various quantities.
It is llkewife obfervable, that fome mutton, when
dreffed, appears covered with a thick, tough, parch-
ment-like integument ; others with a membrane compa-
ratively fine and flexible. But thefe, and fome of the
other qualifies of mutton, may not be wholly owing to
breed, but in part to the age and the Hate of fatnefs
at the time of (laughter. Examined in this light, whe-
ther
Faft
mar
weli
(c) [nandin is a term ufed in the midland counties of England to exprefs breeding from the fame family-
SHE
ihtr we eenfitiej' the decree of fatneffl, or their natural
propeniity to a ftate of fatnefs, even at as early age,
the improved breed of Leicefletihire ihecp appear with
many fuperlor advantages.
The degree of fatnefs to which the individuals of this
breed are capable pi" being raifed, will perhaps appear
incredible to thofe who have not had an opportunity of
being convinced by their own obfervatlon, ** I have feen
wedders (fays Mr Marfhali) of only two fhear (two to
three years old) fo loaded with fat as to be icarcely
^ble to make a run ; and whofe fat lay fo much with-
out the bone, it feemed ready to be fhaken from the ribs
on the fmalleft agitation.
It 18 common for the Hiecp of this breed to have fuch
H projeftloa of fat upon the riba, immediately behind
the flioulder, that it may be eafiiy gathered up in the
hand, as the flank of a fat bullock. Hence it has gain-
ed, in technical lanj(uage, the name of the fore-fiank ;
a point which a modern breeder never fails to touch in
judging of the quality of this breed of ftieep,
" What i», perhaps, ftill more extraordinary, it is not
rare for the rams, at leaft of this breed, to be * cracked
on the back that is,, to be clo^'en alonj? the top of
the chine, in the manner fat {heep generally are upon
tlie rump. This mark is confidered as an evidence of
the heft bloor".
C S45 3
SHE
<< Extraordinary, however, as are thefe appearances ly, more than a thoufand pounds
ftarhogs is Ascn thcif degree of inclination to fat at att SlK«f .
early age. "■'
Fatting quality being the one thing needful in gra-
zing; ftock, and being found, in fomc confiderable de-
gree at leaft, to be hereditary, the fattell rams are of
courfe the b^ft ; though ocher attachments, well or ill
placed, as to form or fafhionable points, will perhaps,
have equal or greater weight in the minds of fome men,
even in this enlightened age. Such fhearlings as will
not make up fufRciently as to form and fatnefs, are either
kept on to another year to give them a fair chance,-
or are caftrated, or butchered while fharhogs."
From the firft letting, about 40 years ago, to the what fuma
year 1780, the prices kept gradually rifmg from iifteen Mr Bake-
ihlUings to a guinea, and from one to ten. In 1 780 '*'^}^ '■*^"
Mr Bakewell let feveral at ten guineas each ; and, whatf^^'j^*^^®''
is rather inexplicable, Mr Parkinfon of Quarndon let them.'*
one the fame year for twenty-five guineas; a price which
then aftonifned the whole country.
From that time tp 1786 Mr Bakewell'e ftock rofe
rapidly from ten to a hundred guineas ; and that year
he let two thirds of one ram ( refer ving- one third of the
ufual number of ewes to himielf ) to two principal breed-
ers, for a hundred guineas each, the entire fervices of
the ram being rated at three hundred guineas ! Mr
Bakewell making that year, by letting twenty rams on-
while the animals are living, the fa6ts are ilill more ftri^
king after they arc flaughtered. At Litchiield, in
February 1785, I faw a fore quarter of mutton, fatted
by Mr Princep of Cro;{all, and which meafured upon
the ribs four inches of fat. It muft be acknewledged,
however, that the Leicefterihire breed do not produce
fo much wool as molt other long-woolled Hieep."
As the praftice of letting rams by the fealbn is now
become profitable, it may be ufeful to mention the me-
thod of rearing them.
*' The principal ram-breeders favc annually twenty,
thirty, or pci-haps forty ram lambs ; caftration being
feidom applied, in the firft inllance, to the produce of a
valuable ram . for in the choice of thefe lambs they are
led more by blood, or parentage, than by form ; an
which, at an early age, little dependence can be placed.
Their treatment from the time they are weaned, in Ju-
ly or Auguft, until the time of (hearing, the firll week
in June, confifts in giving them every indulgence of
keep, in order to puili them forward for the fhow ; it
being the common pra<?tiGe to let fuch as are fit to be
let the firft feafon, while they are yet yearlings — pro-
vincially ' ftiarhogsc'
** Their firft pafture, after weaning, is pretty flfencrally,
I believe, clover that has been mown early, and has got
« iecond time into head ; the heads of clover being con-
fidered as a moft forcing food of iheep. After this goes
off, turnips, cabbages, colewort, with hay, and (report
fays) with corn. But the ufe of this, the breeders feve-
rally deny, though coUedtively they may be liable to the
charge.
Be this as it may, fomething confiderable depends on
the art of mah':r>g i//>, not Iambs only, but rams of all
ages. Fat, like charity, covers a multitude of faults ;
and bcfides, ie the beft evidence of their fatting quality
which their owner*! can produce (i. e their natural pro-
penfity to a ftate of fatnefs), while in the fatnefs of the
Vol. XVTI. Part L
Since that time the prices have been fliUrifing. Four
hundred guineas have been rt^eatedly given. Mr Bake-
well, this year (1789) makes, fays Mr Marfhali, twelve
hundred guineas by three rams (brothers, we believe);
two thou5ind of feven ; and of his whole letting, full
three thoufand guineas !
Befide this extraordinary fum made by Mr Bakewell,
there are fix or feven other breeders who make from
five hundred to a thoufand guineas each. The whole
amount of monies produced that year in the Midland
Counties, by letting rams of the modern breed for one
feafon only, is cftimated, by thofe who are adequate to
the fubjcdi, at the almoft incredible fum of ten thoufand
pounds.
Rams previous to the feafon are reduced fram the The ueat-
cumbrous fat ftate in which they are fhown. The ufual ment of
time of fending them out is the middle of September. ''^^
I'hey are conveyed in carriages of two wheels with
fprings, or hung in flings, 20 or 30 miles a-day, fome- ewes,
times to the diftance of 200 or 300 miles. They are
not turned loofe among the ewes, but kept apart in a
fmall inclofure, where a couple of ewes only are admit-
ted at once. When the feafon is over every care is taken
to make the rams look as fat and handfome as poffible.
In the choice of ewes the breeder is led by the fame
criterions as in the choice of rams. Breed is the firfl
objeft of confideration. Excellency, in any fpecies or
variety of live-ffock, cannot be attained with any degree
of certainty, ,let the male be ever fo excellent, unlefs
the females employed llkewife inherit a large proportion
of the genuine blood, be .the fpecies or variety what it
may. Hence no prudent man ventures to give the
higher prices for the Difhley rams, unlefs his ewes arc
deeply tinctured with the Difliley blood. Next to
breed is flefh, fat, form, and wool.
After the lambs are weaned, the ewes are kept in
common feeding places, without any alteration of paf-
X Jt ture.
SHE
Sheep, txxre, previous to their taking the ram,
^'•"'•y'^ are kept on grafs, hay, turnips, and cabbages. As the
heads of the modern breed are much finer than moft
others, the ewes lamb with lefs difficulty.
The female lambs, on being weaned, are put to
good keep, but have not fuch high indulgence (hown
them as the males, the prevailing practice being to keep
them from the ram the firft autumn.
At weaning time, or previoufly to the admiffion of
the ram, the ewes are culled, to make room for the
thaves or (hearlings, whofe fuperior blood and fafhion
intitle them to a place in the breeding flock. In the
work of cuUing, the ram-breeder and the mere grazier
go by fomewhat different guides. The grazier's guide
is principally age, feldom giving his ewes the ram after
they are four fliear. The ram-breeder, ©n the con-
trary, goes chiefly by merit ; an ewe that has brought
Kim a good ram or two is continued in the flock fo
long as ftie will breed. There are inftances of ewes ha-
ving been prolific to the tenth or twelfth year ; but in
rreneral the ewes of this breed go off at fix or feven
fhear.
In the praftlce of fome of the principal ram-breeders,
the culling ewes are never fufFered to go out of their
hands until after they are flaughtered, the breeders not
only fatting them, but having them butchered, on their
premifes. There are others, however, who fell them ;
and fometimes at extraordinary prices. Three, four, and
even fo high as ten, guineas each have been given for
thefe outcafts.
There are In the flocks of feveral breeders ewes that
would fetch at auftion twenty guineas each. Mr
Bakewell is in poflcffion of ewes which, if they were
now put up to be fold to the beft bidder, would, it is
eftimated, fetch no lefs than fifty each, and perhaps,
through the prefent fplrit of contention, much higher
13 prices.
Inftrudlions The following inftruftions for purchafing flieep, we
£_€«• purcha. j^gpg^ ^jjj acceptable to our country readers. —
The farmer fhould always buy his fheep from a worfe
land than his own, and they fhould be big-boned, and
have a long greafy wool, curling clofe and well. Thefe
fheep always breed the fineft wool, and are alfo the moft
approved of by the butcher for fale in the market.
For the choice of fheep to breed, the ram muft be
young, and his flcin of the fame colour with his wool,
for the lambs will be of the fame colour with his flcin.
He fhould have a large long body ; a broad forehead,
round, and well rifing ; large eyes ; and ftraight and
ihort noftrils. The polled fheep, that is, thofe which
have no horns, are found to be the beft breeders. The
ewe fhould have a broad back ; a large bending neck ;
fmall, but ftiort, clean, and nimble legs ; and a thick,
deep wool covering her all over.
To know whether they be found or not, the farmer
fliould examine the wool that none of it ibe wanting,
and fee that the gums be red, the teeth white and even,
and the briflcet flcin red, the wool firm, the breath
fweet, and the feet not hot. Two years old is the beft
time for beginning to breed; and their firft lambs fliould
not be kept too long, to weaken them by fuckling,. but
be fold as foon as conveniently may be. They will
breed advantageoufly till they are fevcn years old. The
farmers have a method, of knowing the age of a flieep,
as a horfe's is known, by the mouths When a flieep
C 346 ] SHE
In winter they is one fliear, as they exprefs it, it has two br©ad teeth Sheep.!
before ; when it is two fliear, it will have four ; when — v-
three, fix ; and when four, eight. After this their
mouths begin to break.
The difference of land makes a very great difference
in the flieep. The fat paftures breed ftraight tall fheep,
and the barren hills and downs breed fquare fliort ones ;
woods and mountains breed tall and flender flieep ; but
the beft of all are thofe bred upon new-ploughed land
and dry grounds. On the contrary, all wet and moift
lands are bad for flieep, efpeclally fuch as arc fubjedl to
be overflowed, and to have fand and dirt left on them.
The fait marflies are, however, an exception to this
general rule, for their faltnefs makes amends for their
moifture ; fait, by reafon of its drying quality, being of
great advantage to fheep. ^
As to the time of putting the rams to the ewes, the when
farmer muft confider at what time of the fpring his grafs ou rt.t u
win be fit to maintain them and their lambs, and vvfie
Sxag fheep.
ther he has turnips to do it till the grafs comes ; for ^^'^
very often both the ewes and lambs are deftroyed by
the want of food ; or if this does not happen, it the
lambs are only ftinted in their, growth by it, it is an
accident that they never recover. The ewe goes 20
weeks with lamb, and according to this it is cafy to
calculate the proper time. The beft time for them to
yean is in April, unlefs the owner has very forward
grafs or turnips, or the flieep are field flieep. Where
you have not inclofures to keep them in, then it may be
proper they fliould yean in January, that the lambs
may be ftrong by May-day, and be able to follow the
dam over the fallows and water-furrows ; but then the
lambs that come fo early muft have a great deal of care
taken of them, and fo indeed fliould all other iambs at
their firft falling, elfe while they are weak the crows
and magpies will pick their eyes out.
When the flieep are turned into fields of wheat or
rye to feed, it muft not be too rank at firft, for if it be,
it generally throws them into fcourings. Ewes that aie
big fliould be kept but bare, for it is very dangerous to
them to be fat at the time of their bringhig forth their
young. They may be well fed, indeed, like cows, a
fortnight beforehand, to put them in. heart.. Morti-
mer's Hu&andry, p. 243.
The feeding flieep with turnips is one great advan-
tage to the farmers. When they are made to eat tur-
nips they foon fatten, but there is fome difficulty in
bringing this about. The old ones always refufe them
at firft, and will fometimes faft three or four days, till
almoft famifhed ; but the young lambs fall to at ones.
The common way, in fome places, of turning a flock
of fheep at large into a field of turnips, is very difad-
vantagcous, for they will thus deftroy as many in a
fortnight as would keep them a whole winter. There are
three other ways of feeding them on this food, all of
which have their feveral advantages.
The firft way is -to divide the land by hurdles, and yj^^ g'
allow the fheep to come upon fuch a portion only at a w, y o:
time as they can eat in one day, and fo advance the feefim
hurdles farther into the ground daily till all be eaten. ^^"^^^
This is infinitely better than the former random nie- ^'"'^
thod; but they never eat them clean even this way, but
leave the bottoms and outfides fcooped in the ground :
the people pulL up thefe indeed with iron crooks, and
lay them before the flieep again, but they are common-
3
I
S H E
[ 347 ]
S K E
Sheep.
i6
^7. ,
he third,
hich is
>ifeafes of
►eep.
19
'he rot.
\y fouled with the creature's' duag and urine, and
with the dirt from their feet, that they do not care for
them; they eat but little of them, and what they do
eat does not nourifh them like the fre(h roots.
The fecond way is by inclofing the flieep in hurdles,
as in the former; but in this they pull up all the turnips
which they fuppofe the fheep can eat in one day, and
daily remove the hurdles over the ground whence they
have pulled up the turnips : by this means there is no
walle, ar.d lefs expence, for a perfon may in two hours
pull up all thofe turnips ; the remaining fliells of which
would have employed three or four labourers a-day to
get up with their crooks out of the ground trodden
hard by the feet of the Iheep ; and the worft is, that as
in the method of pulling up firft, the turnips are eaten
up clean ; in this way, by the hook, they are wafted,
the fheep do not eat any great part of them, and when
the ground comes to be tilled afterwards for a crop of
corn, the fragments of the turnip's are fecn in fuch
quantities on the furface, that half the crop at leall
feems to have been wafted.
The third manner is to pull up the turnips, and re-
move them in a cart or waggon to fome other place,
fpreading them on a frefh place every day ; by this me-
thod the (heep will eat them up clean, both root and
leaves. The great advantage of this method Is, when there
is a piece land not far off which wants dung more than
that where the turnips grew, which perhaps is alfo too
wet for the fheep in winter, and then the turnips will,
by the too great moifture and dirt of the fell, fometimes
fpoil the Iheep, and give them the rot. Yet fuch ground
will often bring forth more and larger turnips than
dry land, and when they are carried off, and eaten by
the (heep on ploughed lamd, in dry weather, and on
green fward in wet weather, the Iheep will fucceed much
better ; and the moift foil where the turnips grew not
being trodden by the fheep, will be much fitter for a
crop of corn than if they had been fed with turnips
on it. The expence of hurdles, and the trouble of
moving them, are faved in this cafe, which will coun-
terbalance at leaft the expence of pulling the turnipss
and carrying them to the places where they are to be
eaten. They muft always be carried off for t)xen.
The difeafes to which (heep are fubjeft are thefe,
rot, red-water, foot-rot and hoving, fcab, dunt, rickets,
fly.ftruck, flux, and burfting. Of each of thefe we fhall
give the beft defcription in our power, with the moll
approved remedies.
The rot, which is a very pernicious difeafe, has of
late engaged the attention of fcientific farmers. But
neither its nature nor its caufe has yet been fully af-
certained. Some valuable and judicious obfervations
have, however, been made upon it, which ought to
be circulated, as they may perhaps, in many cafes,
furniOi an antidote for this maHgnant diftemper, or be
the means of leading others to fome more efficaci-
ous remedy. Sorrre-have fuppofed the rot owing to
tlie quick growth of grafs or herbs that grow in wet
places. Without premifing, that all-bounteous Provl-
iience has given to every animal its peculiar tafte, by
which it diftingulihes die food proper for its preferva-
tion and fupport, if not vitiated by fortuitous circumftan-
•cus, it feems very difficult to difcover on philofophical
principles why the quick growth of grafs flrould render
it noxious, or why any herb Ihould at one feafoa pro-
Sheep.
— -y—
duce fatal effefts, by the admifllon of pure water only
into its component parts, which at otlier times is
perfectly innocent, although brought to its utmolt
ftrength and maturity by the genial influence of the
fim. Befides, the conftant practice of moft farmers
in the kingdom, who with the greateft fecurity feed
their meadows in the fpring, when the grafs flroots
quick and Is full of juices, militates diredly againft this
opinion.
Mr Arthur Young, to whom agriculture is much in-
debted, afcribes this difeafe to moifture. In confirma-
tion of this opinion, which has been generally adopted,
we are informed, in the Bath Society papers*, by a cor- * Vol. f.
lefpondent, that there was a paddock adjoining to his^""^'
park which had for feveral years caufed the rot in moft
of the flieep which were put into it. In 1769 he
drained it, and from that time his flieep wer€ free
from this malady. But there are fads which render it
doubtful that moifture is the fole caufe. We are told,
the dry hmed land in Derbyfliire will produce the rot
as well as water meadows and ftagnant marfties ; and
that in fome wet grounds ftacep fuftain no injury for
many weeks. jo
Without attempting to enumerate other hypothefes Its caufe,
which the ingenious have formed on this fubjett, we
fliall purfue a different method in order to difcover the
caufe. On differing flieep that die of this diforder, a
great number of infeds called J^uies (fee Fasciola)
are found in the liver. That thefe flukes are the caufe
of the rot, therefore, is evident ; but to explain how
they come into the liver is not fo eafy. It is probable
that they are fwallowed by the flieep along with their
food while in the egg ftate. The eggs depofited in
the tender germ are conveyed with the food into the
ftomach and inteftines of the animals, whence they are
i-eceived into the ladeal veffels, carried off in the chyle,
and pafs into the blood ; nor do they meet with any
obftrudlon until they arrive at the capillary veffels of
the liver. Here, as the blood filtrates through the ex-
treme branches, anfwering to thofe of the vena porta
in the human body, the fecerning veffels are too minute
to admit the impregnated ova, which, adhering to the
membrane, produce thofe animalculae that feed upon
the liver and deftroy the flieep. They much referable
the flat fifli called plaice, are fometimes as large as a fil-
ver two-pence, and are found both in the liver and ia
the pipe (anfwering to that of the vena cava) which
conveys the blood from the hver to the heart.
The common and moft obvious objedion to that
opinion is, that this infed is never found but in the li-
ver, or in fome parts of the vifcera, of fheep that- are
difeafed more or lefs ; and that they muft therefore be
bred there. But this objedion will lofe its force, when
we confider that many infeds undergo feveral changes,
and exiftimder forms extremely different from each other.
Some of them may therefore appear and be well known
under one fhape, and not known to be the fame under
a fecond or third. The fluke may be the laft ftate ©f
fome aquatic animal which we at prefent very well
know under one or other of its previous forms.
If this be admitted, it is eafy to conceive that flieep
may, on wet ground efpecially, take multitudes of ,
thefe ova or eggs in with their food ; and that the fto-
mach and vifcera of the fheep being a proper nidus for
them, they of courfe hatch, and appearing in their fluke
X X 2 or
liliiiiiiM" I ' ^~'iT - "i
SHE
Slif ep.
«1
And nioft
»)>! I ovcd
1%
tcr.
43
Toot-rot.
94
Stab.
or laft ftate, feed on the liver of the animal, and occa-
fion this diforder.
Tt is a fingular faft, *' that no ewe ever has the rot
while /he has a lamb by her fide." The reafon of this
may be, that the impregnated ovum paflles into the
sniik, and never anives at the liver. The rot is fatal to
fheep, hares, and rabbits, and fometiraes to calves ; but
■never infefts animals of a Iar:;;er fi?;e.
'Miller fays that paifley Is a good remedy for the rot
in flieep. Perhaps a ftrong deco(Stion of this plant, or
the oil extrafted from its feeds, might be of fervice.
Salt is alfo a uA'ful remedy. It feems to be an ac-
knowledged fail that fait marfhes never produce the
rot. Salt indeed is pernicious to moft infefts. Com-
mon fait and water expel worms from the human body;
and fea-weed, if laid in a garden, will drive away infeftb ;
but if the fait is feparated by fleeping it in the pureft
fpring-water for a few days, it abounds with anlinalculae
of TOrious fpecies.
Lifle, in his book of hufbandry, informs us of a far-
mer v^'-ho cured his whole flock of the rot by giving
each fheep a handful of Spanifh fait for five or fix morn-
ings fucce/Tivtly. The hint was probably taken from
the Spaniards, who frequently give their flieep fait to
keep them healthy. On fome farms perhaps the ut-
moft caution cannot always prevent this diforder. In
wet and warm feafons the prudent farmer will remove
tis fheep from the lands liable to rot. Thofe who
have it not in their power to do this may give each
Iheep a fpoonful of common fait, with the flame quan-
tity of flour, in a quarter of a pint of water, once or
twice a-week. When the rot is recently taken, the
fame remedy given four or five mornings fucceflively
will in all probability effedf a cure. The addition of
the flour and water (in the opinion of Mr Price of
Salifbury, to whofe excellent paper in the Bath Socie-
ty's Tranfaftions we own ourfelves much indebted)
will not only atate the pungency of the fait, but dif.
pofe it to mix with the chyle in a more gentle and effi-
cacious manner.
A farmer of a confiderable lordfhip in Bohemia vl-
fiting the hot-wells of CarKbad, related how he prefer-
ved his flocks of Iheep from the mortal diftemper which
raged in the wet year 1 769, of which fo many periftied.
His prefervatlve was very fimple and very cheap : " He
fed thetarevery night, when turned under a fhed, cover,
orftables, with hafhed fodder ilraw ; and, by eating it
greedily, they all efcaped."
" Red-ivater Is a diforder moft prevalent on wet
grcninds. I have heard (fays Mr Arthur Young) that
it has fomctimes been cured by tapping, as for a drop-
ly. This operation is done on one fide of the belly to-
wards the flank, juft below the wool.
*' The foot-rot and hovlng^ which is very common on
low fenny grounds, is cured by keeping the part clean,
and' lying at reft in a dry pafture."
The fcab is a cutaneous difeafe owing to an iraptirl-
ty of the blood, and is moft prevalent In wet lands or
in rainy feafons. It is cured by tobacco-water, brim-
C 348 1
SHE
ftone, and alum, boiled together, and thew mbbe«! ovep S
the fheep. If only partial, tar and greafe may be fuf- ~^
ficlent. But the fimplcft and moll efficacious .remedy
for this dileale was communicated to the Society tor
the Encouragement of Arts, &c. by Sir Jofeph Banks.
" Take one pound of quickfilver, half a pound ofRei
Venice turpentlv'.e, half a pint of oil of turpentine, and on*
four pounds of hogs lard c). Let them be rubbed in a'; ',.^
moitar till the quickfilver is thoroughly incoi"pordttd
with the other in^ redients ; for the proper n\ode of do-
ing which, it may be proper to take the advice, or even
the aHlftance, of fome apotliecary or other perfon uicdt "
to make fuch mixtures.
*• The method of ufing the ointment, is this : Begia-
ning at the head of the fheep, and proceeding from be^
tween the ears along the back to the end of the tail,
the wool is to be divided in a furrow till the flcin ca»
be touched ; and as the furrow is made, the finger
flightly dipped in the ointment is to be drawn along the
bottom of it, where it will leave a blue ftain on th«
ficin and adjoining wool : from this furrow fimilar one$
mufl be drawn down the flioulders and thighs ta the
legs, as far as they are woolly ; and if the animal
much infefted, two more fliould be drawn along Gaci%
fide parallel to that on the back, and one down cael*
fide between the fore and hind legs.
*' Immediately after being drefled, it is ufual to turifc
the fheep among other ftock, without any fear of the
infedllon being communicated; and there Is fcarccly an
inftancc of a flieep fuffeiing any injury from the appli»
cation, in a few days the blotches dry up, the i;ch»
ing ceafes, and the animal Is completely cured : It Is ge-
nerally, however, thought proper not to delay the ope-
ration beyond Michaelmas.
*' 'Wich'ippohofca ow'w/?, called In LIncolnfhireyZ)ff/> f'^gSn
an animal well known to all fhepherds, which lives a-
mong the wool, and is hurtful to the thriving of flieep
both by the pain its bite occafions and the blood it
fucks, is deflroyed by this application, and the wool Is
not at all Injured. Our wool-buyers purchafe the fleeces
on which the flain of the ointment Is vlfible, rather la
preference to others, from an opinion that the ufe of
it having prcferved the animal from being vexed either
with the fcab or faggs, the wool la lefs liable to the de~
fefts of joints or knots ; a fault obfei ved to proceed
from every fuddcn flop in the thriving of the aniraal<>
either from want of food or from difeafe.
" This mode of curing was brought into that part
of Lincolnfhire where my property is fituated about 1 3
years ago, by Mr Stephenfon of Maieham, and is now
fo generally received, that the fcab, which ufed to be
the terror of the farmers, and which frequently deter-
red the more careful of them from taking die advan-
tage of pafturing their fheep In the fertile and exten-
five commons with which that diiirIA abounds, is ncr
longer regarded with any apprehenfron : by far the molt
of them have their flock anointed In autunw, when
they return from the comm.on, whether they fllow any
fymptons of fcab or not and having done fp, concludi;
thens
(c) By fome unacconntabk miftake the laft ingredient, the four pounds of hogs lard, is omitted in the re-
teipt publlfhed in the Tranfaftions of the Society ; a circumftance that might be produdive of bad effefts.— •
The kaf which cont^ned the receipt has fii>ce been eancelkd, aad a new one priated.
S H E
C 349 ]
SHE
tfiem fafe for ftime time from either f ivtng or i*cc«Ying the only enafi*? '^^ favlng' their life i§ by ftabbjng tKf m
n the maw with an uiUnin:r"*; niad? foi' tl
infedlion. There are people who- employ themftlves
in the buhnels, Tind contrail to anoint our large fhetp
^t five ftilliriii^s a fcore, infuring For tliat price the fuc-
Gcfs oFthe operation ; that is, ai^reeinp:, in cafe ma;iy of
the fheep break put afrefh, to repeat the operation gra-
tis even fome months afterwards "
, The dunt h a diftemper caufed by a bladder of wa-
ter gathering in the head. No cure for this has yet
been difcovered.
Tht riclds is a hereditary difeafe for wliich no anti.
dote is known. The firll fymptom is a kind of light-
beadednefs, which makes the affefted iheep appear wild-
er than ufual when the fliepherd or any perfon ap-
proaches him. He bounces up fuddenly from his lare,
and runs to a dillance, as though he were piirfaed by
dogs. In the fecond ftae^e the principal fymptom is
the fheep's rubbinsr himfelf againft trees, &c. with fuch
fury as to pull off his wool and tear away his flefh.
*' The diftreffed animal has now a violent itching in his
jflcin, the e-ffe6fc of an highly inflamed blood ; but it docs
not appear that there is ever any cutaneous eruption or
Salutary critical difciiarge. In fhort, from all circum-
~ fences, the fever appears now to be at its height."^ —
The lall flaq,e of this difeafe " feems only to be the pro-
grefs of diffolution, after an unfavourable crifis. The
poor animal, as condemned by Nature, appears ftupid,
walks irregularly (whence probably the name rickets),
jxencrally lies, and eats little: thefe fyroptoms increafc in
degree till death, which follows a general confumption,
as appears upon diffeftion of the carcaff ; the juices
and even folids having fuffered a general diifolution."
In order to difcover the feat. and nature of this dif-
caf-, fhcep that die of it ouoht to he diffetfted. This
is faid to have been done by one gentleman, Mr Beal y
and he found in the brain or membranes adjoining a
magqot about a quarter of an inch long, and of a
brovvnifli colour. A few experiments might eafily de-
termine this faft.
cit^ The jlyjlruck is cured by clipping the wool off as
far as infcAed, and rubbing the parts dry with Hme or
wood-afhes-; cumers oil will heal the wounds, and pre-
vent their being llruck any more ; or they may be cu-
red with care, without clipping, with oil of turpentine,
which will kill all the vermin where it goes ; but the
former is the fared way.
'L'he Jlux \& another difeafe to which Iheep are fub-
je£l. The beft remedy is faid to be, to houfe the fheep
immediately when this diftemper appears, to keep them
very warm, and feed them on dry hay, givincj them fre-
i^uent glllters of warm milk and water. The caufe of
that diffemper is either then- feeding on wet lands, or
on grafs that is become mofly by the lands having
been fed many years without being ploughed. When
the farmer perceives his fheep-walks to become moffy,
or to produce bad grafs, he fliould either plough or ma-
tiure with hot lime, making kilns cither very near or
in the fheep walks, becaufe the hotter the lime is out
on, the fweeter the grafs comes up, and that early in
the year.
Burjing, or as it is called in fome places the b/aji, ni.
tacks fhcep when driven into frefli grafs or young clo-
ver. They overeat themfelves, foam at the mouth,
fwell exceedingly, breathe very quick and fhort, then
jump up, and ijiftantly fall down dead. In. this cafe.
3'
in tiie maw with an uiunin^f"?; Kiati? the purpofe.
The inilrument is a hollow tube, with a **"iule4 wea-
pon pairing through it. A hale is made with i.':?
pointed weapon'; which is immediately withdrawn, and
the hole is k< pt open by inferting the tube till the wind
is difcharged.
Sheep are infefted with worms in their nofe called ^'^c'^""" of
ajlrus ovfs, and produced from the egg of a large two- '^^
wino-ed fly. The frontal hnufes above the nofe in Iheep ^^.h^i^hir,.
and other animals are the places where thefe worms live left fheep,
and attain their full snowth. Tiiefe iiKufes are always
full of a foft white matter, which furniilies thefe worni«
with a proper nourliliment, and are fufSciently large
for their habitation; and when they have here acquired
their deftined growth, in which they are fit to undergo
their changes- for the fly-ftate, they leave their old habi-
tation, and, falling to the earth, bury themfelves there ;
and when thefe are hatched into flies, the female, when
fhe has been, impregnated by the male, knows that the
nofe of a fheep or other animal Is the only place for her
to depofit her eggs^ in order to their coming, to maturi-
ty. Mr Vallihiieri, to whom the world o wes fo many
difcoveries in the infe6l clafs, is the tirft who has given
any true account of the origin of thefe worms. ' But
though their true hiftory had been till that time un-
known, the creatures themftlves were very early difco.
vered, and luany ages fince were efteemed great medi-
cines in epilepfiep.
The fly produced from this worm has all the time of
its li^e a very lazy difpofition, and does not like to
make any ufe either of its legs or wing.s. Its head and
corfelet together are about as long as its body, which,
is comptSed of five rings, ttreaked on the back ; a pale
yellow and bix>wn are there diipoled in irretrnlar fpots ;
the belly is of the fame colours, but they are there more
regularly difpofed, for the brawn here makes three line»»
one in the middle, and one on each fide, and all the
intermediate fpaces are yellow. The wings are nearly 6>f
the fame length with the body, and arc a little inclined
in their pofition, fo as to lie upon the body : they d*
not, however, cover it ; but a naked fpace is left between
them. The ailerons or petty wings which are found un-
der each of the wings are of a whitifh colour, and pei-^
feftly cover the balancers, fa that they are not to be
feen without lifting up thefe.
The fly will live two m.onths a'"ter it is firft produ-
ced, but will take no nourlfliment of any kind ; and pof-
fibly it may be of the fame nature with the butterflies,
which never take any food during the whole time of
their living in that ftate. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. vol iv.
p. 55:2, &c.
1 o find a proper compofrtion for marking fheep is Compofi-
a matter of great importance, as great quantities of wool tion for
are every year rendered ufelefs by the pitch and tar '"^•"'^"'S
with which they are ufually marked. The requifite '^^^^ *
qualities for fuch a compofition are, that it be cheap,
that the colour be ftrong and lafting, fo as to bear the
changes of weather, and not to injure the wooL Dr
Lewis recommends for this purpofe melted tallow, with
fo much charcoal in fine powder ftirred into it as is fufi.
ficient to make it of a full black colour, and of a thick
confilfence. This mixture, being applied warm with a
marking iron, on pieces of flannel, quickly fixed or har^
dened, bore moderate rubbing, refilled the fan and rain.
SHE [35
Shsep and yet eould be wafiied out fredy with foap, or ley,
I! or ftale urine. In order to render it ftill more durable,
Sheffield. prevent its being rubbed off, with the tallow may
be melted an eiglith, fixth, or fourth, of it8_ weight of
tar, which will readily wafli out along with k from the
wool. Lewis's Cora. Phil. Techn. p. 361.
SHEKP-Steal'tng. See Theft.
SHEERING, in the fta- language. When a fhlp is
not fteered fteadlly, they fay (he fheers, or goes fheer.
ing ; or when, at anchor, fl:.e goes in and out by means
of the current of the tide, they alfo fay flie fheers.
SHEERNESS, a fort In Kent, feated on the point
where the river Medway falls into the Thames. It was
built by king Charles II. after the infult of the Dutch,
who burnt the men of war at Chatham. The buildings
belonging to it,in which the officers lodge, make a pretty
little neat town ; and there is alfo a yard and a dock,
a chapel and a chaplain. Mr Lyons, who failed with
the Honourable Captain Phlpps in his voyage towards
the pole, fixed the longitude of Sheeruefs to o. 48'. E.
its latitude 51° 25'.
SHEERS, a name given to an engine ufed to holft
or difplace the lower mafts of a (hip. The fheers em-
ployed for this purpofe in the royal navy are compofed
of fevcral long mafls, whofe heels reft upon the fide of
the hulk, and having their heads decHning outward
from the perpendicular, fo as to hang over the vefTel
whofe mafls are to be fixed or difplaced. The tackles,
which extend from the head of the mall to the fheer-
heads, are intended to pull in the latter toward the maft-
Iiead, particularly when they are charged with the
weight of a maft after it is ralfed out of any fhip,
which is performed by flrong tackles depending from
the fheer-heads. The effort of thefe tackles Is produced
by two capfterns, fixed on the deck for this purpofe.
In merchant fhlps this machine is compofed of two
mafls or props, erefted in tlie fame vefTel wherein the
mall Is to be planted, or from whence it is to be remo-
ved. The lower ends of thefe props reft on the oppo-
fite fides of the deck, and their upper parts are faflen-
:ed acrofs, fo as that a tackle which hangs from the in-
,terfe6lion m^y be almoft perpendicularly above the
llatlon of the mafl to which the mechanical powers are
.applied. Thefe fheers are fecured by flays, which ex-
tend forward and aft to the oppofite extremities ©f the
vefTel.
SHEET-Lead. See Plumbery.
Sheet, in fea-language, a rope faftened to one or
both the lower corners of a fail, to extend and retain it
in a particular ftatlon. Wlien a fhip fails with a lateral
wind, the lowtr comer of the main and fore fail are faf-
tened by a tack and a fheet ; the former being to wind-
ward, and the latter to leeward ; the tack, however, is
entirely diftufed with a flern wind, whereas the fail Is
never fpread without the afhftance of one or both of the
ilieets. The ftay-falls and fl adding- fails have only one
tack and one fheet each : rtie ftay-fail tacks are always
faftened forward, and the ftieet drawn aft; but the ttud-
<Iing-fail tack draws the under clue of the fail to the cx-
treriilty of the boom, whereas the fheet is employed to
extend the inmoft.
SHEFFIELD, a town in the weft riding of
Yorkihire, about 162 miles from London, is a large,
thriving, populous town on the borders of Derbyfhire;
jbas a fine flone bridge over the Don, and another over
Slic Sheaf, and a church built in tlie reign of Henry I.
0 ] SHE
It had a caflle built in the reign of Henry III, in
which, or elfe in the manor-houfe of the Park, Mary
Queen of Scots was prifoner J 6 or 17 years ; but after
the death of Charles I. it was, with feveral others, by
order of parliament demollfhed. In 1673 an hofpltal
was erefled here, and endowed with 200 1. a-year. There
Is a charity- fchool for 30 boys, and another for 30 girls.
This town has been noted ieveral hundred years for cut-
lers and fmiths manufactures, whiqh were encouraged
and advanced by the neighbouring mines of iron, parti-
cularly for files and knives, or whittles ; for the lafl of
which efpeclally it has been a ilaple for above 300 years;
and it is reputed to excel Birramgham In thefe wares,
as much as itls furpaffed by it in locks, hinges, nails, and
polifhed ftecl. The firil mills in England for turning
grindftones were alfo fet up here. The houfes look
black from the continual fmoke of the forges. Here
are 600 mafter cutlers, incorporated by the flyle of the
Cutlers of Hallamjhire (of which this Is reckoned the chief
town), who employ not lefs than 40,000 perfons in
the iron manufaftuies ; and each of the maflers gives a
particular Itamp to his wares. There is a large market
on Tuefday for many commodities, but efpeclally for
corn, which is bought up here for the whole Weft Ri-
ding, Derbyfhire, and Nottlngharafhire. It has fairs
on Tuefday after Trinity-Sunday, and November 28.
In the new market-place, eredled by the Duke of Nor-
folk, the fhambles are built upon a moft excellent plan,
and ftrongly inclofed. There are feveral other new good
buildings, fuch as a large and elegant oftagon chapel
belonging to the hofpltal or almshoufes ; llkewife a good
affembly-room and theatre. We mufl not omit the large
fteam-engine, lately finifhed, for the purpofe of polic-
ing and grinding the various forts of hardware. The
parifh being very large, as well as populous, Mary I.
incorporated 12 of the chief inhabitants, and their
fucceffors for ever, by the ftyle of the Ttuelve Capital
Burgejfes of Sheffield, empowering them to eleft and
ordain three priefts to affifl the vicar, who were to be
paid out of certain lands and rents which fhe gave out
of the crown ; and fince this fcttlement two more cha-
pels have been built in two hamlets of this parlfli,
which are ferved by two of the afliftants, while the
third, in his turn, helps the vicar in his parlfh-church,
James I. founded a free grammar-fchool here, and ap-
pointed 13 fchool burgeffesto manage the revenue, and
appoint the mafter and ufher. A new chapel was built
lately by the contributions of the people of the town
and of the neighbouring nobility and gentry. Water
is conveyed by pipes into Sheffield, whofe inhabitants
pay but a moderate rent for it. In the neighbourhood
there are fome mines of alum. The remains of the Ro-
man fortification between this town and Rotheram,
which Is fix miles lower down the river, are ftlU vlfible ;
and here is alfo the famous trench of five miles long,
by fome called Devil^s or Dane's Banh, and by others
Kemp Bank and Temple's Bank. W. Long. i. 29. N.
Lat. 53. 20.
Sheffield (John), duke of Bucklnghamfhire, an
eminent writer of the laft and prefent century, of
great perfonal bravery, and an able minifler of ftate,
was born about 1650. He loft his father at nine
years of age ; and his mother marrying lord Offul-
fto,n, the care of his education was left entirely to a
governor, who did not greatly improve him in hia
ftudies. Finding that he was deficient ia many parts
SHE
of literature, he refolved to devote a
of hours every day to his ftudies ; and thereby im-
proved himfelf to the degree of learniRg he afterwards
attained. Though poffefTed of a good eftate, he did
not abandon himfelf to pleafure and indolence, but
entered a volunteer in the fecond Dutch war ; and
accordingly was in that famous naval engagement
where the duke of York commanded as admiral: on
•which occafion his lordfhip behaved fo gallantly, that
he was appointed eommander of the Royal Catharine.
He afterward made a campaign in the French fervice
under M. de Turenne. As Tangier was In danger of
being taken by the Moors, he offered to head the
forces which were fent to defend It ; and accordingly
was appointed to command them. He was then earl
of Mulgrave, and one of tiie lords of the bed-chamber
to king Charles 11. The Moors retired on the ap-
proach of his majefty's forces ; and the refult of the ex-
pedition was the blowing up of Tangier. He continu-
ed in feveral great pofts during the fhort reign of king
James IL till that unfortunate prince was dethroned.
Lord Mulgrave, though he paid his refpefts to king
William before he was advanced to the throne, yet
did not accept of any poft In the government till fome
years after. In the lixth year of William and Mary
he was created marquis of Normanby in the county of
Lincoln. He was one of the mod active and zealous
oppofers of the bill which took away Sir John Fen-
wick's life ; and exerted the utmoft vigour in carrying
through the Treafon Bill, and the bill for Triennial Par-
liaments. He enjoyed fome confiderable pofts under king
William, and enjoyed much of his favour and confidence.
In 1 702 he was fworn lord privy-feal ; and in the fame
year was appointed one of the commiflioners to treat of
an union between England and Scotland. In 1 703 he
was created duke of Normanby, and foon after duke of
Buckinghamfliire. In 1 7 1 1 he was made fteward of her
majefty's houfehold, and prefident of the council. During
queen Anne's reign he was but once out of employ-
ment ; and then he voluntarily rcfigned, being attached
to what were called the Tory principles. Her majefty
offered to make him lord-chancellor ; but he declined the
office. He was inftrumental in the change of the ml-
niftry in 1 7 1 o. A circumftance that refleAs the high-
eft honour on him is, the vigour with which he afted in
favour of the unhappy Catalans, who afterward were fo
inhumanly facrificed. He was furvived by only one le-
gitimate fon {who died at Rome in 1735) ; but left fe-
veral natural children. His worft enemies allow that
he lived on very good terms with his laft wife, natural
daughter to king James II. the late duchefs of Buckr
ingham, a lady who always behaved with a dignity fult-
able to the daughter of a king. He died in 17 21.
He was admired by the poets of his age ; by Dryden,
Prior, and Garth. His Effay on Poetry was applauded
by Addifon, and his Rehearfal is ftill read with pleafure.
His writings were fplendidly printed in 1723, in two
volumes 4to ; and have fmce been reprinted in 1729, in
two vols 8vo. The firft contains his poems on various
fubjefts : the fecond, his profe works ; which conftft of
hiftorical memoirs, fpeeches in parliament, charafters,
dialogues, critical obfervations, eflays, and letters. It
may be proper to obferve, that the edition of 1729 is
caftrated ; fome particulars rclatfng to the revolution in
that of 1723 having given offence.
SHEFFIELDIA, in botany ; a genus of plants
[ 35' ] s H E
certain number belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and to the order
of monogynia. The corolla is bell-fhaped ; the fila-
ments are 10, of which every fecond Is barren. I'he.
capfule confitts of one cell, which has four valves. There
is only one fpecles, the repens.
SHEIK, in the oriental cuftoms, the perfon who
has the care of the mofques in Egypt j his duty Is the
fame as that of the imams at Conftantinople. There
are more or fewer of thefe to every mofque, according
to its fize or revenue. One of thefe Is head over the
reft, and anfwers to a parifh-prieft with us; and has
under him, In large mofques, the readers, and people
who cry out to go to prayers; but In fmall mofques
the ftieik is obliged to do all this himfelf. In fuch it
is their bufinefs to open the mofque, to cry to prayers,
and to begin their ftiort devotions at the head of the
congregation, who ftand rank and file in great order,
and make all their motions together. Every Friday
the ftieik makes an harangue to his congregation.
SHEiK-BeUet^ the name of an officer in the Oriental
nations. In Egypt the ftieik- bellet is the head of a
city, and Is appointed by the pacha. The bufinefs of
this officer is to take care that no innovations be made
which may be piejudlcial to the Porte, and that they
fend no orders which may hurt the liberties of the-
people. But all his authority depends on his credit
and intereft, not his office : for the government of Egypt
is of fuch a kind, that often the people of the leaft pow-
er by their pofts have the greateft Influence ; and a cal^
of the janizaries or Arabs, and fometimes one of their
meaneft officei:;s, an oda-bafha, finds means, by his parts
an<^ abilities, to govern all things.
SHEILDS. See Shields.
SHEKEL, the name of a weight and coin current
among the ancient Jews, Dr Arbuthnot makes the
weight of the ftiekel equal to 9 pennyweights 24 grains
Troy weight ; and the value equal to 2 s. 3-|-d. Ster-
hng. The golden (hekel was worth L. i : i6 : 6.
SHELDRAKE, in ornithology. See Anas.
SHELF, among miners, the fame with what they
otherwife call fajl ground or fajl country ; being that
part of the internal flrufture of the earth which they
find lying even and In an orderly manner, and evidently
retaining its primitive form and fituation.
SHELL, In natural hlftory, a hard, and, as it were,
ftony covering, with which certain animals are defend-
ed, and thence cs^e.^jhell-fijk^^
The Angular regularity, beauty, and delicacy In the
ftrudlure of the ftiells of animals, and the variety and
brilhancy in the colouring of many of them, at the
fame time that they ftrike the attention of the moft in-
curious obfer-vers, have at all times excited philofophers
to inquire Into, and detedl,, if poffible, the caufes and
manner of their formation. But the attempts of natu^
rahfts, ancient and modern, to difcover this procefs,
have conftantly proved unfuccefsfuL M. de Reaumur
hitherto appears alone to have given a plaufible account,
at leaft, of the formation of the ftiell of the garden-fnail
in particular, founded on acourfe of very Ingenious ex-
periments, related in the Paris Memoirs *. He there
endeavours to fhow,, that this fubftance is produced
merely by the perfpirable matter of the animal conden-
fing and afterwards hardening on its furface, and accord-
ingly taking the figure of its body, which has perform-
ed the office of a mould to it ; in ftiort, that the ftiell
of a fnail, and, as he fuppofed, of all other aaimals pof-
iclTed
Sheik
11
Shell.
i-ormation
of fhellsi
* See Mwj
dc I 'Acad:
P- 4^5-
Ec'it. de
HollanJe,
in iimo.
Are com-
jpofed of
an earthy
Bu J an ani-
mal fub-
3
Thtir
membra-
nous (truc-
ture pro-
duces freat
variety of
colours.
SHE r M
feffcS of fhelk, was avly the proQufft of a vircdus tranf-
udation from the body of the animal, cont?.iii!n8f earthy
particles unked "by mere jwxtapofitron. This hypo-
thelis, however, is liable to veiy great and infur-
mountable difficulties, if we apply it to the formation
of fotne of the moft common ihells ; lor how, accord-
ing to this lyftem, it may be afked, cavj the oyfter,
fur inftance, confjdered fimply as a mould, form to it-
felf a covering fo much exceeding its own body in di-
menlions ?
M. Heriflant, In the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences for 1766, has difcovered the ftrnfture of fhells
te be organicaL In the numerous experiments that
he made on an immenfe number, and a very great va-
riety, of animal fhclls, he conrtantly found that they
were compofed of two diilinft fubftances ; one of which
-is a cretaceous or earthy matter j and the other ap-
peared, from many experiments made upon it by
burning, diftillatlon, and otherwife, to be evidently of
an animal nature. Thefe two fubftances he dexterouf-
ly feparated from each other by a very eafy chemical
^analyfis ; by the gentle operation of which they were
-exhibited diltinilly to view, withoiit any material alte«
Tation from the adlion of the folvent, or inftrument em-
ployed for that purpofe. On an entire (hcU or a
fragment of one, contained in a glafs vefTel, he poured
a fufficient quantity of the nitrous acid, confiderably
diluted either with water or fptrit of wine. After tlie
•liquor has diffolved all the earthy part of the fhell
(which may be coUefted after precipitation by a fixed
t)r volatile alkali), there remains floating in it a faft fub-
Itance, con-fifting of innumerable membranes ©f a reti-
form appearance, and difpofed, in ditferent fhells, in a
variety of pofition*, which conftitutea the animal-part
of it. This, as it has not been affefted by the folvent,
retains the €x?.<!vl figure of the ihell j and, on being view-
ed through a raicrofcope, exhibits fatiafa^lory proofs of
a vafcular and organlcal ftru6ture. He fhows that this
membranous fubftance is an appendix to the body of the
animal, or a continuation of the tendinous fibre*) that
compofe the ligaments by which it is fixed to its fhell ;
and that this Uft owes its hardnefs to the earthy par*
tides conveyed through the veflels of the animal, which
iix themfelves into, and incruft, as it ware, the mefhes
formed by the reticular filaments of which this mem-
branous fubftance is compofed. In the fhell called par-
ce/aine, in particular, the delicacy of thefe membranes
■was fo great, that he was obhged to put it into fpirjt
of wine, to which he had the patience to add a fingle
drop of fpirit of nitre day by day, for the Tpace of two
months ; left the air generated, or let loofe by the ac-
tion of the acid on the earthy fubftance, ftiould tear the
compagcs of its fine membranous ftrufture into fliat-
ters ; as it certainly would have done in a more hafty
and lefs gentle diffolution. The delicate reticulated
film, left after this operation, had ail the tenuity df a
fpider's web ; and accordingly he does not attempt to
delineate its organization. Jn other ftiells he employed
even five or fix months in demonftra^tlng the complica-
ted membranous ftru6^ure of this animal-fubftance by this
kind of chemical anatomy. In general, however, the
procefs does not require much time.
Of the many fingular configurations and appearances
of the membranous part of different (hells, which arc
defcribed in this memoir, and are delineated in feveral
wel| executed plates, wc fhall^nention only, aa a fpe*
4 ]
SHE
cimen, ths OHwauii m'embmnous ftrw^^ure ©tforve^ h
the laminje of mother-of-pearl, and other fhelU of the
fame kind, after having been expofed to the operation
of the author's folvent. Befsde the great variety of
•fixed or permanent colours with which he found the
animal-filaments of thefe ihells to be adorned, it h
known, that the (hell itfelf prefents to the view a fuc-
cefiion of rich and changeable colours, the produdlioii
of which he eafily explains from the conngitrations of
their membranes. Nature, he obferves, always ma:i»«
nificent in her defigns, but fingularl-y frugal in the exe-
cution of them, produces thefe briUiant decorations at
a very fmall expence. The membranops fubftance a«
bove-mentioned is plaited and rumpled, as it were, in
fuch a manner, that its exterior lamin», incrufted with
their earthy and feroi-tranfparent matter, form an infi-
nite number of httlc prifras, placed in all kinda of direo*
tions, which refratl the rays of liglit, and produce all
"the changes ©f colour obfervable in thefe Ihella.
With refp€<5l to the figvu-es and colours of HkIU, I't
is obferved, that river {hells have not fo agreeable or di-
verfified a colour aa tlie land and fea' ftiells ; but the v>j-
riety in the fi^^ure, colours, and other characl^tei's of fea
fhells, is almoft infinite. The number of diftiixfl fpecles
we find in the cabinets of the curious is very great} and
doubtlefs the deep bottoms of the fea, and the fhores
yet unexplored contain multitudes ftlll unknown to us.
Even the fam^e fpecles differ in fome degree in almott
every individual ; fo that it is rare to find any two fiieils
which are alike in all refpedts.
This wonderful variety, however, is not all the pro- •^^uj
duce of one fea or one country j the different parts offh^
the world afford us their different beauties, Bonanibea
obferves, that the moft beautiful fhells we are acquaint-
ed with come from the Eaft Indies and from the Red*^ '
fea. This is in fome degree countenanced by what ig
found to this day; and from the general obfervations of
the curious, it feems, that the fun, by the great heat
that it gives to the countries near the line, exalts the
colours of the ihells produced there, and gives them ^
luftre and brilliancy that thofe of colder climatts always
want : and it may be, that the waters of thofe vatl feas,
which are not iwbjeft to be weakened by frcfli rivcra,
give a nourifhment to the filh, that may add to the bril-
liancy of their fliells.
I'he (liorcs of Afm furnifh us with the pearl- oy fters g»„
and fcallops in great perfedion. About Amboyna arefou
found the moft beautiful fpecimens of the cabbage-ftiell, --^S
the arrofoir, the ducal mantle, and the coral oyiters, or
echinated oyiters. Here alfo arc found a great variety
of extremely beautiful mufcles, telllnte, and volutes j
fome fine bucclnums, and the Ihell called the Ethiopian
croivn, in its grcatcft perftdvlion. The dolia, the mu-
rices, and the caffindrse, are alfo found on thefe coafta
in great beauty. Many elegant fnails and fcrew-fheila
are alfo -brought from thence ; and finally, the ferapion
and fpider-fliclla. The Maldive and Philippine illands,
Bengal, and the coaft of Malabar, abound with the moft
elegant of all the fpecies of fnails, and funiiih many other
kinds of (hells in great sbmidance and perfeftion. China
abounds in the fineft Ipccies of porcelain fhclls, and has
alfo a ^^^reat variety of beautiful fnails. Japan furnifhea
us with all the thicker and larger bivalves ; and the ifle
of Cyprus is famous above all other parts of the world
for the beauty aad variety of the patcUa or limpet
found there,
4 America
SHE
Amenca afFarda manjp very ele;^fint (hells, but neither
in fo great abundance nor beauty as the fhores of Afia.
Panama is famous for the cylinders or rhombi, and we
have bcfide, from the fftme place, fomc good porcelains,
Hnd a very fine fpecies of do/ium, or concha ghhopi^ call-
ed from this place the Panama purple Jleih One of tlie
moil beautiful of the cylinders is alfo known among our
Tjaturalifts under the name of the Panama /hell About
Brafjl, and in the gulf of Mexico, there are found mu-
rices aud dolia of extreme beauty ; and alfo a great va-
riety of porcelaiuH, purpuri32, peftens, nerifce, bucardiae
or heart-fhells, and elegant limpets. The ifle of Cay-
enne affords one of the m.oft beautiful of the bucclnum
Jtind, and the Midas ear is found principally abwut this
place. Jamaica and the idand of Barbadoes have their
lliores covered with porcelains, chama;, and buccina ;
and at St Domingo there are found al^joft all the fame
fpecies of ftells that we have from the Eall Indies; only
they are lefs beautiful, and the colours more pale and
dead. The pearl-oytter is found alfo on this coaft, but
fmaller than in the Perfian gulf. At Martinico there
are found in general the fame fhells as at St Domingo,
but yet lefs beautiful. About Canada are found the
violet chamsj, and the lakes of that country abound
with mufcleg of a very elegant pale blue and pale
red colours. Some fpecies of thefe are remarkably
light and thin ; othera are very thick and heavy. > The
Crreat Bank of Newfoundland is very barren in fhells j
the principal kind found there are mufcles of feveral
fpecies, fome of which are of confid^iable beauty. A-
bout Carthagena there are many mother-of-pearl fhells,
but they arc not of fo brilliant colours as thofe of the
Fcvfjan gulf. The ifland of Magellan, at the fouthern
point of America, fiu^niilies us with a very remarkably
fpecies of mufcle called by its name ; and feveral very
elegant fpecies of limpets are found there, particularly
the pyramidal
In Africa, on the coaft of Guinea, there is a prodi*
gious quantity of that fmallTpeciea of porcelain which
h ufetl there as money ; and there is anotfeer fpecies of
porcelain on the fame cosil which is all over white :
th« women make bracelets of thefe, and the people of
the Levant adorn their hair with them. The coaft of
Zangiiebar is very rich in (hells : we find there a vaft
variety of thp large porcelains, many of them of great
beauty J and the nux marts or fea-nui is very frequent
there. Befide thefe, and m.any other fhells, there are
found on this coatt all the fpecies of nautili, many of
which are very beautiful. The Canary ifies abound
with a vaft variety of the murices, and fome other
^ood fhells J and we have from Madeira great va-
riety of the echini or fea-eggs different from thofe of
the European feas. Several fpecies of mufcles are alfo
common there, and the auris marina is nowhere more
abundant.' The Red fea is beyond all other parts of
the world abundant in {hells, Icarce any kind is want-
ing there ; but what we principally have from thence
are the purpuroe, porcelains, aud echini marini.
The Mv.(!ittrranean and Northern ocean contain a
great variety of fliiclls, and many of very remarkable ele-
eance and beauty ; they are upon the whole, however,
greatly inferior tu thofe of the Eaft Indies, The Me-
ditenfuiean abounds much more in fhells than the O-
cean. • The gulf of Tarentum affords great variety of
purpurcc, of porcelains, nautili, and elegant oyilers; the
coatis 0^ Naples ajid Sardinia aftbrd alfo the fame, and
VouXVIL Part. I.
[ 353 1
S H E
with them a vaft number of the folens of all the known Shellst,
fpecies. The ifland of Sicily ia famous for a very ele. v~-«»
gant kind of oyiler which is white all over ; pinns ma-
nna; and porcelains arc alfo found in great plenty there,
with tellinte and chams of many fpecies, and a great
variety of other beautiful fliells. Corfica is famous,
beyond all other places, for vafl. q\jantities of the pinn.i:
marince ; and many other very beau'ciful fhells are found
there. (Liiler, Hift. Conchyl.) About Syracufe are
found the gondola fliell, the alated murex, and a great
variety of elegant fnails, with fome of the dolia and ne-.
riti^. The Adriatic fea, or gulf of Venice, is lefs fur-
nifhed with finells than almoll any of the feas there-
about. Mufcles and oyfters of feveral fpecies are how-
ever found there, and fome of the cordiform or heart-
fhells; there are alfo fome tellinse. About Ancona
there are found vaft numbers of the pholades buried in
ftone ; and the aures marinre are particularly frequent
about Puzzoli. (Bonani, Recreat. Ment. et OculJ. 9
The ports of Marfeillcs, Toulon, and Antibes, are^"^'^=
full of pinnse marinaj, mufcles, tellinx, and chamse, p^'^^j^^."
The coafts of Bretagne afford great numbers of the *
conchas anatiferaj and pouffepieds ; they are, found on
old rotten boards, on fea fubftances, and among clu-
ilers of fponges. The other ports of France, as
Rochelle, Dunkirk, Breft, St Maloes, and others, fur-
nifh oyfters excellent for the table, but of the com.-
mon kind, and of no beauty in their fliells ; great
numbers of mufcles are alfo found there ; and the com-
mon tellinaj, the onion-peel oyfters, the folens, and
conchas anatiferae, are alfo frequent there. At Gran-
viile, in Lower Normandy, there are found very j^eau-
tiful pedens, and fomc of the cordiform or heart-
fliells. ^ 10
Our own Englilh coafts are not the leaft fruitful inOt ^"tain,
fhells, tho' they do not produce fuch elegantly painted
ones as the Indies. About Plymouth are found oyfters,
mufcles, and folens, in great abundance; and there, and
pn moftof our other fliores, are numbers of the aures ma-
rinas and dentalia, with peftens, which are excellent food ;
and many elegant fpecies of the chamse and tellina; are
fifhed up in the fea- about Scarborough and other places.
Ireland affords us great numbers of mufcles, and fomc
very- elegant fcallop-fhells in great abundance, and the
pholades are frequent on moll of our fhores. We have
alfo great variety of the buccina and cochleas, fome vo-
lutje } and, on the Guernfey coaft, a peculiarly beauti-
ful fnail, called thence the Guernfey -fna'tl,
The coafts of Spain and Portugal afford much the Of Spain
fame fpecies of fhells with the Eaft Indies, but they ai^e^"** Portu-:
of mvich fainter colours, and greatly inferior in beauty.
gal, &c.
There are, according to Tavernicr and others, fome ri-
vers in Bavaria in which there are found pearls of a fine
water. About Cadiz there are found very large pinnic
marinae, and fome fine buccina. The ifles of Majurca
and Minorca afford a great variety of extremely elegant
fhells. The pinnje marinae are alfo very numerous
there, and their filk is wrought into gloves, ftockings,
and other things. I'he Baltic affords a great many
beautiful fpecies, but particularly jyi orange- coloured
peden, or fcallop-fliell, whicli is not found in any other -
part of the world.
The frefli water fliells are found much more fre-
quently, and in much greater plenty than the fca erflicU*.
kinds ; there is fcarce a pond, a ditch, or a river of
frelh water in any part of the world in which there
Y y are
r»
Shells.
»3
Art of po
Jifhing
iheUs.
SHE
are not found vaft numbers of thefe
fifh living in them. All thefe {hells are fmall, and
they are of very little beauty, being ufually of a plain
^reyHh or brownifh colour. Our ditches afford us
chamse, buccina, nerltas, and fome patellas ; but the
Nile, and fome other rivers, furnHhed the ancients with
a fpecics of tclhna which was large and eatable, and fo
much fuperior to the common fea tellina in flavour,
that it is commonly known by the name of tei'Iina regia,
" the royal tellina." We have a fmall fpecies of bucci-
cum common in our frelh waters, which is very ele-
gant, and always has its operculum in the manner of
the larger buccina ; a fmall kind of mufcle Is alfo very
common, which is fo extremely thin and tender, that It
can hardly be handled without breaking to pieces. The
lar^e frefh water mufcle, commonly called in Etigland
the horfe-mufci'e, is too well known to need a defcriptlon ;
and the fize fufficlently diflingulfhes it from all other
frefh water fhells.
In colkaing fliells, it is mofl advifable, whenever
it can be done, to get thofe which have in them the li-
ving animals ; becaufe we fhall thus obtain the natural
hittory of the animals, and the fhells themfelves in their
natural beauty, and the full glow of their colours.
Shells fhould be alfo procured from the deeper parts
of their reforts, and immediately after ftornis on the
fea beaches and fhores; becaufe, by being much expofed
to the fun, their colours fade, and they are liable to
other accidents that injure them. In order to kill the
fifh that inhabits them, Mr Da Cofla advlfes to give
them a quick dip in boiling water, and when they are
cooled, to lay them in cold water till they are cleaned ;
and in this operation they fhould not be touched with
aquafortis, or any other acid, nor expofed to the heat
of the fire and fun.
The art of polifhing fliells arrived but lately at its
prefent flate of perfeftion ; and as the love of fea- fhells
is become fo common among us. It may not be difagree-
able to the reader to find fome inflruftlons in executing
fo pleafing a method of adding to their natural beauty,
the rules for which are at prefent fo little known, though
the effeft of them be fo much eftcemed.
Among the immenfe variety of fhells which we are
acquainted with, fome are taken up out of the fea, or
found on its fhores in all their perfeftion and beauty ;
their colours being all fpread by nature upon the fur-
face, and their natural pollfh fuperior to any thing that
art could give. Where nature is in herfclf thus perfeft,
it were madnefs to attempt to add any thing to her
charms : but in others, where the beauties are latent
and covered with a coarfer outer fldn, art is fo be called
in ; and the outer veil being taken off, all the internal
beauties appear.
Among the fhells which are found naturally pollfhed
are the porcelains, or cowries ; the caffanders ; the do-
lia, or conchae globofae, or tuns ; fome buccina, the vo-
lutes, and the cyhnders, or olives, or, as they are gene-
rally though improperly called, the rhombi ; excepting
only two or three, as the tiara, the plumb, and the
butter-tub rhombus, where there is an unpromifing film
on the furfacc, hiding a very great fliare of beauty with-
in. Though the generality of the fhells of thefe genera
are taken out of the fea in all their beauty, and in their
iitmoft natural polifh, there are feveral other genera, in
which all or mofl of the fpecies are taken up naturally
rough and foul, and covered with an epidermis, or coarfe
[35+1 ..SHE
{hells with the outer flcln, which is in many rough and downy or hairy.
The teihnse, the mufcles, the cochleae, and many others,
are of this kind. The more nice coUeftors, as natura-
lifls, Infift upon having all their fhells In their native
and genuine appearance, as they are found when hvlng
at fea ; but the ladles, who make coUeftions, hate the
dlfagreeable outfides, and will have all fuch pollfhed.
It would be very advifable, however, for both kinds of
colleftors to have the fame fhells in different fpeclm'ens
both rough and pollfhed : the naturalifl would by this
means, tsefides knowing the oiitfide of the fhell, be
better acquainted with its internal characters than he
otherwife could be, and the lady would have a pleafure
in comparing the beauties of the fhell, in its wrought
ftate, to its coarfe appearance as nature gives it. How
many eleoancies in this part of the creation muft be
wholly loll to us, if it were rtot for the aflfiftance of an
art of this kind ! Many fhells in their native ftate are
like rough diamonds ; and we can form no' juft idea of
their beauties till they have been pollfhed and wrougha
into form.
Though the art of polllhing fhells is a very valuable
one, yet it is very dangerous to the fhells ; for without
the utmoft care, the means ufed to pollfli and beautify
a fhell often wholly deftroy it. When a fliell is to be
pollfhed, the firft thing to be examined is whether it
have naturally a fmooth furface, or be covered wich tu-
bercles or prominences.
A fhell which has a fmooth furface, and a natural
dull polifli, need only be rubbed with the hand, or with
a pkce of chamoy leather, with fome tripoli, or fine
rotten ftone, and will become of a perfeftly bright and
fine polifh. Emery is not to be ufed on this occafion,
becaufe it wears away too much of the fhell. Thie
operation requires the hand of an experienced perfon,
that knows how fuperficial the work muft be, and where
he is to flop ; for in many of thefe fhells the Hnes are
only on the furface, and the wearing away ever fo little
of the fhell defaces them. A fhell that is rough, foul,
and crufty, or covered with a tartareous coat, muft be
left a whole day fteeping in hot water: when it has Im-
bibed a large quantity of this, it is to be rubbed with
rough emery on a ftick, or with the blade ot a knife»
in order to get off the coat. After this, It may be
dipped in diluted aquafortis, fplrit of fait, or any other
acid; and after remaining a few moments in It, be again
plunged into common water. This will add greatly ta
the fpeed of the work. After this it Is to be well
rubbed with linen cloths, Impregnated with common
foap ; and when by thefe feveral means it is made peri-
feftly clean, the pohfhing is to be finiftied with fine
emery and a halr-brufh. If a ter this the fhell whei>
dry appears not to have fo good a polifh as wasdefired,
it mufl be ruffed over with a folution of gum arable i
and this will add greatly to Its glofs, without doing it
the fmalleft injury. The gum-water muft not be too
thick, and then it gives no fenfible coat, only heighten-
ing the colours. 'J'he white of an egg anfwers this
purpofc alfo very well ; but it is fubjeft to turn yeUow.
If the fhell has an epidermis, which will by no means
admit the polifhing of it, it is to be dipped feveral times,
in diluted aquafortis, that this may be eaten off ; and
then the fhell is to be pollfhed in the ufual way with
putty, fine emery, or tripoh, on the hair of a fine brufh«,
When it is only a pellicle that hides the colours, the
fhells muft be ileeped in hot water, and after that the
7 Mu
SHE
r 355 ]
SHE
Mn worked off by degrees with an oI4 file, Thiij Is
the cafe with fevcral of the cylinders, which have not
the natural polifh ©f the reft.
When a fhell is covered with a thick and fatty epi-
dermis, as is the cafe with feveral of the mufcles and
telHnse ; in this cafe aquafortis will do no fervice, as it
will not touch the flcin : then a rough brufh and coarfe
-€mery are to be ufed ; and if this does not fuccecd,
feal-flcin, or, as the workmen call it, JiJJj-Jkin and />«-
m'tce-jlone, are to be employed.
When a Ihell has a thick cruft, which will not give
way to any of thefe rneans, the only way left is to
plunge it feveral times into ftrong aquafortis, till the
'ftubborn cruft is wholly eroded. The limpets, auris
marina, the helmet- fiiells, and feveral other fpecies of
this hind, muft have this fort of management ; but as
■the defign is to ftiow the hidden beauties vmder the
truft, and not to deftroy the natural beauty and polifh
of the infide of the (hell, the aquafortis muft be ufed in
this manner : A long piece of wax muft be pro-
vided, and one end of it made perfeilly to cover the
whole mouth of the (hell ; the other end will then ferve
as a handle, and the mouth beino flopped by the wax,
the liquor cannot get in to the infide to fpoil it ; then
'there muft be placed en a table a veflel full of aquafortis,
and another full of common water.
The fhell is to be plunged into the aquafortis ; and
after remaining a few minutes in it, Is to be taken
out, and plunged into the common water. The pro-
grefs the aquafortis makes In eroding the furface Is
■thus to be caietuUy obCerved every time it is taken
out : the point of the ftiell, and any other tender parts,
are to be covered witli wax, to prevent the aquafortis
from eating them away ; and If there be any worm-
holes, they alfo muft be ftopped up with wax, other-
wife the aquafortis would foon eat through In thofe
places. When the repeated dippings Into the aqua-
fortis ftiow that the coat Is fufficiently eaten away,
then the fhell is to be wrought carefully with fine
emery and a brufh ; and when it Is polifhed as high as
can be by this means, it muft be wiped clean, and
rubbed over with gum-water or the white of an egg.
In this fort of work the operator muft always have the
caution to wear gloves; otherwife the leaft touch of the
aquafortis will burn the fingers, and turn them yellow ;
snd often, if it be not regarded, will eat oft" the fkin
and the nails.
Thefe are the methods to be ufed with fhells which
require but a moderate quantity of the furface to be
taken off; but there are others which require to have a
larger quantity taken off, and to be uncovered deeper c
this is called entirely fcaHn;^ a fhell. This is done by
means of a horizontal wheel of lead or tin, impreg-
nated with rough emery ; and the (hell is wrought down
in the fame manner in which ftones are wrought by the
lapidary. Nothing is more difficult, however, than the
performing this work with nicety: very often ftiells are
»'Ut down too far by It, and wholly fpoilcd ; and to
avoid this, a coarfe vein muft be often left ftanding in
fomc place, and taken down afterwards with, the file,
vheu the cutting It down at the wheel would have
?poiled the adjacent parts.
After the ftiell is thus cut down to a proper degree,
it is to be polifhed with fine emery, tripoli, or rotten
li one, with a wooden wheel turned by the fame machine
as the leaden oHe, or by the common method of work- Shells,
ing with the hand with the fame Ingredients. When a ~*
fhell Is full of tubercles, or protuberances, which muft
be preferved, it is then Impoffible to ufe the wheel ; and
if the Common way of dipping Into aquafortis be at-
tempted, the tubercles being harder than the reft of
the ftiell, will be eat through before the reft Is fuffici-
ently fcaled, and the fhell will be fpoUed. In this cafe,
induftry and patience are the only means of effefting a
polifli. A camel's-hair pencil muft be dipped in aqua-
fortis ; and with this the Intermediate parts of the (hell
muft be wetted, leaving the protuberances dry : this is
to be often repeated ; and after a few moments the ftiell
is always to be plunged into water to ftop the erofion
of the acid, which would otherwife eat too deep, and
deftroy the beauty of the fhell. When this has fuffici-
ently taken off the foulnefs of the fhell, It is to be po-
liftied with emery of the fineft kind, or with tripoli, by
means of a fmall ftick, or the common polifhing-ftone
ufed by the goldfmiths may be ufed.
'I'his Is a very tedious and troublefome thing, efpe-
cially when the echlnated oyfters and murlces, and
fome other fuch fhells, are to be wrought : and what is
worft 0f all Is, that when all this labour has been em-
ployed, the bufinels is not well done ; for there ftill re-
main feveral places which could not be reached by any
inftrument, lb that the fliell muft neceffarily be rubbed
over with guin-water or the white of an egg afterwards,
in order to bring out the colours and give a glofs ; in
fome cafes it Is even neceffary to give a coat of varnlfh. 14
Thefe are the means ufed by artifts to brighten the ^"'"^ ^^'^^
colours and add to the beauty of fhells ; and the ^^''jj?'^"^
changes produced by poliftiing In this manner are fo by po'lfih.
great, that the Ihell can fcarcely be known afterwards in^ as not
to be the fame It was ; and hence' we hear of new fhells '°
in the cabinets of collegers, which have no real ^xlftence
as fcparate fpecies, but are fhelk well known, dlfgul-
fed by pollfhing. To caution the reader agalnft er-
rors of this kind. It may be proper to add the moft re-
markable fpecies thus ufually altered. 15
The onyx-ftiell or volute, called by us the purple Gr'^^^®"y*"
v'wleHip:, which in Its natural ftate Is of a fimple pale
brown, when it Is wrought fllghtly, or polifhed with
juft the fuperficies taken off, is of a fine bright yellow;
and when It is eaten away deeper, it appears of a fine
milk-white, with the lower part bluifh : it is in this
itate that it is called the onyx-Jijell ; and It is preferred
in many cabinets in Its rough ftate, and in ics yellow
appearance, as different fpecies of Ihells. t6
The •violet Jhe lis, fo common among the cm ious, isY'®'^'
a fpecies of porcelain, or common cowry, which does
not appear in that elegance till It has been polifhed ;
and the common auris marina fhows itfelf in two or
three different forms, as It is more or lefs deeply
wrought. In its rough ftate it is duflcy and coarfe, of
a pale brown on the outfide, and pearly within ; when
It Is eaten down a little way below the furface, it fhows
variegations of black and green ; ar.d when ftill farther
eroded, It appears of a fine pearly hue within and
without.
The nautilus, when it is polifhed down, appears all *
over of a fine pearly colour ; but when It is eaten
away but to a fmall depth, it appears of a fine yellowifh
colour with dufky hairs. The burgau, when entirely
cleared of its coat, is of the moil beautiful pearl- co-
Vy-2 lour 4
19
The afff s-
f ar fhelL
SHE I 35
Shells lour ; hut wlien but fiightly eroded, it appears of a
W.-~Y~- variegated mixture of green and red ; whence it has
been called the parroquet fielL The common helratt-
(hell, when wrought, is of the colour of the fined
agate ; and the mufcles, in general, though very pkin
fhells in their common appearance, become veiy beauti-
ful when polifhed, and fliow large veins of the moft ele-
gant cohnu-s. The Perfian fliell, in its natural ftatc, is
all over white, and covered with tubercles ; but when it
lias been ground down on a wheel, and polilhed, it
appears of a grey colour, with fpots and veins of a
very bright and highly polifhed white. The limpets, in
general, become very different when polifned, moft of
them (liowing very elegant colours ; among thefe the
tortoife-fhell limpet is the principal ; it docs not appear
at all of that colour or traufparence till it has been
wrought.
Jur quil- 'W'sX elegant fpecies of fnell called the jmquU-chama,
ch3n;a which ha- deceived fo many judges of thefe things in-
to an opinion of its being a new fpecies, is only a white
chama with a reticulated furface ; but when this is po-
lifhed, it lofes at once its reticular work and its colour,
and becomes perfeftly fmooth, and of a fine bright
yellow, The violet coloured chama of New Eng-
land, when worked down and poliflied, is o: a fine
milk-white, with a great number of blue veins, diipo-
fed hke the variegations in agates.
'['hi ajf.'s-ear Jhe/l, when pohihed after wot king it
down whh the file, becomes extremely gloffy, and ob-
tains a fine rofe-colour all about the mouth, '.i.'hefeare
fome of the moft frequent among an endlefs variety of
changes wrought on (hells by polifiiing ; and we find
there are many of the very greateft beauties of this part
ef the creation which muft have been loft but for this
method of fearching deep in the fubftance of the fiiell
2» for them.
Dutch me- The Dutch are very fond of flrells, and are very
tjiod of po- nice in their manner of working them : they are under
no reftraint, however, in their works ; but ufe the moft
violent methods, fo as otten to deftroy all the beauty of
the fiiell. '1 hey file them down on all fides, and often
take them to the wheel, when it muft deftroy the very
eharafters of the fpecies. Nor do they ftop at this :
but, determined to have beauty at any rate, they are
for improving upon nature, and frequently add fome
lines and colours with a pencil, afterwards covering
ihem with a fine coat of varnifh, fo that they feem the
natural lineations of the fiiell: the Dutch cabinets are
})y thefe means m.ade very beautiful, but they are by no
means to be regarded as inftruAors in natural hiftory.
There are fome artificers of this nation who have a way
of covering ihells all over with a difi"erent tinge from
that which nature gives them ; and the curious are of-
ten enticed by thefe tricks to purchafe them for new
f})ecies.
'I'here is another kind of work beftowed on certain
fpecies of ftiells, particularly the nautilus ; namely, the
engraving on it hncs and circles, and figures of liars,
and other things. This is too obvious a work of art
to fuffer any one to fuppofe it natural. Buonani has
figured feveral of thefe wrought fhells at the end of his
■work ; but this was applying his labour to very little
purpofe; the fiiells are fpoiled as objeds of natural hiftory
by it, and the engraving is feldom worth any thing. —
'Jhey are principally done in the Eaft Indies,
6 ]
SHE
Jifhin
Sliells are fubjeft to feveral imperfedtiona } fome of S
which are natural and others accidental. Thg natural
defefts are the effeft of age, or ficknefs in the fifti. The
greateft mifchief happens to fliells by the fifli dying in hr>n
them. The curious in thefe things pretend to be al-flicl
Wciys able to diftinguifh a fiiell taken up with the fifii'"'"?
alive from one found on the fiiores : they call the firft''^*"^
a living, the fecond a dead fiiell ; and fay that the co-
lours are always much fainter in the dead I'hcUs. Wlien
the fiiells have lain long dead on the fiiores, they
are fubjeft to many injuries, of which the being eaten
by fea-worms is not the leaft : age renders the fineft
fiiells livid or dead in their colours.
Befides the imperfedions arifin^ from age and fick-
nefs in the fifii, fiiells are fubjcct to other deformities,
fuch as morbid cavities, or protuberances, in parts
where there fiiould be none. When the fiiell is va-
luable, thefe faults may be hid, and much added to the
beauty of the fpecimen, without at all injuring it as
an objeft of natural hiftory, which fiiould always be the
great end of collefting thefe things. The cavities may
be filled up with maftic, diffolved in fpirit of wine, or
with ifinglafs : thefe fubftances muft be either coleured
to the tinge of the fiiell, or elfe a pencil dipped in wa-
ter-colours muft finifii them up to the reiemblance of
the reft ; and then the whole fhell being rubbed over
with gum-water, or with the white of an egg, fcarce
any eye can peixeive the artifice ; the fame fubftance&
may alfo be ufed to repair the battered edge of a fiiell
provided the pieces chipped off be not too large. And
when the excrefcences of a fiiell are faulty, they are to
be taken down with a fine file. If the hp of a fiiell be
fo battered that it will not admit of repairing by any ce-
ment, the whole muft be filed down or ground on the
wheel till it become even.
FoJJil Shells. Thole found buried at great depths-
in the earth.
Of thefe fome are found remaining almoft entirely
in their native ftate, but others are varioufly altered by
being impregnated with particles of ftojie and of other
fofffis ; in the place of others there is found mere ftone
or fpar, or fome other native mineral body, exprelfing all
their hneaments in the moft exaft manner, as having been
formed wholly from them, the fiiell having been firft de-
pofited in fome folid matrix, and thence difiblvedby very
flow degrees, and this matter left in its place, on the
cavities of ftone and other folid fubftances, ©ut of
which fiiells had been diflblved and wafiied away, be-
ing afterwards filled up lefs flowly with thefe diff"erent
fubftances, whether fpar or whatever elfe : thefe fub-
ftances, fo filling the cavities, can neceffarily be of no
other form than that of the fiiell, to the abfence of
which the cavity was owing, though all the nicer li-
neaments may not be fo exaftly exprefied. Befides-
thefe, we have alfo in many places maffea of ftone
formed within various fiiells ; and thefe having been
received into the cavities of the fiiells while they were
perfeftly fluid, and having therefore nicely filled all
their cavities, muft retain the pcrfeft figures of the in-
ternal part ©f the fliell, when the ftiell itielf ftiould be
worn away or perifhed from their outfide. The va-
rious fpecies we find of thefe are, in many genera, as
numerous as the known recent ones ; and as we have in
our own ifland not only the fiiells of our own fliores^
but thofe of many other very diiUnt ones, fo we have
8 aUo
SHE [ 3
alfo many fpecies, and thofe in great numbers, which
are in their recent ilate, the inhabitants of other yei
unknown or unfearched Teas and fhores. The cockles,
mufcles, oyfters, and the otlier common bivalves of
-our own feas, are very abimdant : but we have aho an
amazing number of the nautihis kind, particularly of
the nautilus graicornm, which though a ftell not found
living in our own or any neighbouring feas, yet is
found buried in all our clay-pits about London and
elf^L^whcre ; and the moft frequent of all toffil fhells in
fome of our counties are the conchas anomis, which
yet we know not of in any part of the world in their
recent (late. Of this fort alfo are the cornua ammo-
nis and the qryphitas, with feveral of the cchinitae and
otheis.
The exaft hmilitude of the known fliells, recent and
foffil, in their feveral kinds, will by no fneans fufftr us
to believe that thcfe, though not yet known to us in
their living. itate, are, as fome have idly thought, a iort
of Ivjus naturtc. It is certain, that of the many known
fhores, veiy few, not even thofe of our own ifland,
have been yet carefully fearched for the fhell-tifh that
inhabit them ; and as we fee in the nautilus gr^ecorum
an inftance of fliells being brought from very diltant
parts of the world to be buried here, we cannot won-
der that yet unknown fhores, or the unknown bottoms
of deep feas, fhould have furnifhed us with many un-
known Ihell-fifli, which may have been brought with
the reft ; whether that were at the time of the general
deluge, or the effe£l of any other cataftrophe oi' a like
kind, or by whatever other means, to be left in. the yet
unhardened matter of our ftony and clayey ftrata.
Shells, in gunnery, are bellow iron balls to throw
out of mortars or howitzers, with a fufe-hole of about
an inch diameter, to load them with powder, and to
receive the fufe. The bottom, or part oppolite to the
fufe, is made thicker than the reft, that the fufe may
fall upoermoft. Eut in fmall elevations this does not
^ilways happen, nor indeed is it neceffary ; for, let the
(hell iall as it will; the fufe fets fire to the powder with-
in, which burfts the fhell, and caufes great devaftation.
The ftells had much better be of an equal thicknefs ; for
then they burft into more pieces.
Meff'age SiisLis^zre nothing more than ho witz^ fhells,
in the infide of which a letter or other papers are put ;
the fufe hole is ftopped up with wood or cork, and the
fliells are fired out of a royal or howitz, either into a
garrifon or camp. It is fuppofed, that the perfon to
whom the letter is fent knows the time, and according-
ly appoints a guard to look out for its arrival.
SHhLL-Fjfh. Thefe animals are in general ovipa-
rous, very few inftances having been found of fuch as
are viviparous. Among the oviparous kinds, anato-
miits have found that fome fpecies are of different fexes,
in the different individuals of the fame fpecies ; but others
are hermaphrodites, every one being in itfelf both male
and female. In both cafes their increafe is very nume-
rous, and fcarce inferior to that of plants, or of the
moll fruitful of the infeft clafs. The eggs are very
Imall, and are hung together in a fort of clufters by
means of a glutinous humour, which is always placed
about them, and is of the nature of the gelly of frog's
fpawn. By means of this, they are not only kept to-
gether in the parcel, but the whole duller is faftened
to the rocks, fticlls, or other folid fubftances } and thus
7 ] S
they are prefcrvedfrom being driven on fhore by the waves, Shdtia
and left where thev cannot fucceed. SeeTESTACEA. !!
SHhLi.-Golcl. bee Gold. ^ ,„
SHEL TIE, a fmall but ftrong kind of horfe, fo'
called from Shetland, or Zetland, where they are pro-
duced.
SHELVES, in fea-language, a general name given
ta any dangerous fhallows, fand banks, or rocks, )ying
immediately under the furface of the water, fo as to
intercept any fhip in her paffage, and endanger her de-
ftruftion.
SHENAN. See JDying of Leather, vol. ix. p.
750, foot-note.
SHEN3T0NE (William), an admired Engliflr
poet, the eldeft fon of a plain country gentleman, who-
farmed his own eftate in Shrcpfhire, was born ia No-
vember 1 7 14. He learned to read of an old dame,,
whom his poem of the " School miftrefs" has deliver-
ed to pofteiity ; and foon received fuch delight from
books, that he was always calling for new entertain-
ment, and expefted that, when any of the family went
to market, a new book fhould be brought him, which,,
when it came, was in fondnefs carried to bed, and laid
by him. It is laid, that when his requeft had been ne-
glected, his mother wrapped up a piece of wood of tlie
fame form, and pacified him for the night. As he
grew older, he went for a while to the grammar-fchool
in Hales Owen, and was placed afterwards with Mr
Crumpton, an eminent fchool mafter at Solihul, where
he^diftinguiflied himfelf by the quicknefs of hisprogrefs.
When he was young (June i 7 24), he was deprived of hig
father ; and foon after (Augull 1726) of his grandfa-
ther ; and was, with his brother, who died afterwards
tmmarried, left to the care of his grandmother, who
managed the eftate. From fchool he was fent, in 1732,
to Pembroke college in Oxford, a fociety which for half
a century has been eminent for Englifh poetry and ele-
gant literature. Here it appears that he found delight
and. advf.ntage ; for he continued his name there tea
years, though he took no degree. After the firft four
years he put on the civilian's gown, but without fhow-
ing any intention to engage in the profeflion. About
the time when he went to Oxford, the death of his
grandmother devolved his affairs to the care of the
reverend Mr Dolman, of Brome, in Staffordfhire,
whofe attention he always mentioned with gratitude.
— At Oxford he applied to Englifli poetry ; and,
in 1737, publifiied a fmall MifccUany, without his
name. He then for a tirne wandered about, to ac-
quaint himfelf with life, and was fometimes at Lon-
don, fometimes at Bath, or any place of public rcfort j
biit he did not forget his poetry. He publifhed, ia
1740, his " Judgment of I-Jercules," addrefled to
Mr Lyttleton, whofe intereft he fupported with great
warmth at an eleftion ; this was two years afterwards
followed by the " School miftrefs." Mr Dolman, to
whofe care lie was indebted for his eafe and leifure, died
in 1 745, and the care of his fortune now fell upon
himfelf. He tried to efcape it a while, and hved at
his houfe with his tenants, who were diftantly related
but, finding that imperfeft poffelTion inconvenient, he
took the whole eftate into his own hands, an event ^
which rather improved its beauty than increafed its pro-
duce. Now began his delight in rural pleafures, and
his p^flj^ of rural elegance ; bvit in time his expences
occafioned
S H E
r 35B ]
SHE
Sherbet.
SKcnftonc occafioned clairours that overpovveved the lamb's ble«t
and the linnet's fong, and his groves were haunted
by beings very different from fawns and fairies. He
fpent his ettate in adorning it, and his death was
probably haftened by his anxieties. He was a lamp
that fpent its oil in blazing. It is faid, that if he
had lived a little longer, he would have been alTifted
by a penfion ; fuch bounty ceuld not have been more
properly beftowed, but that it was ever aflted is not
certain ; it is too certain that \t never was enjoyed. —
He died at the Leafowes, of a putrid fever, about five
on Friday morning, Feb. 11. 1763 ; and vras buried
by the fide of his brother, in the churchyard of Hales-
Owen.
• Tn his private opinions, our author adhered to no
particular feft, and hated all religious difputes. Ten-
dernefs, in every fenfe of the word, was his peculiar
charafkeriftic ; and his friends, domeftics, and poor
neighbours, daily experienced the effefts of his benevo-
lence. This virtue he carried to an excefs that feemed
to border upon weaknefs ; yet if any of his friends
treated him ungencroufly, he was not eafily reconciled.
On fuch occafions, however, he ufed to fay, *' I never
will be a revengeful enemy ; but I cannot, it Is not in
my nature, to be half a friend." He was no economill ;
for the generofity of his temper prevented his paying a
proper regard to the ufe of money : he exceeded there-
fore the bounds of his paternal fortune. But, if we
confider the perfeft paradife into which he had con-
verted his eftate, the hofpitajity with which he lived,
his charities to the indigent, and all out of an eftate that
did not exceed 300 1. a-year, one (hould rather wonder
that he left any thing behind him, than blame his want
of economy : he yet left more than fufficlent to pay all
his debts, and by his will appropriated his whole eltate
to that purpofe. Though he had a high opinion of
many of the fair fex, he forbore to marry. A paf-
fion he entertained in his youth was with difficulty fur-
mounted. The lady was the fubjecft of that admirable
paftoral, in four parts, which has been fo univerfally
and fo juftly admired, and which, one would have
thought, muft have foftened the proudeft and moft ob-
durate heart. His works have been publiflied by Mr
Dodfley, in 3 vols 8vo. The firft volume contains his
poetical works, which are particularly dillinguifhed by
an amiable elegance and beautiful fimplicity ; the fecond
volume contains his profe works ; the third his let-
ters, &c. Bio^raphica/ D'tdionary.
SHEPPEY, an ifland at the mouth of the river
Medway, about 20 miles in cii'cumference. It is fepa-
rated from the main land by a narrow channel, and has
a fertile foil, which feeds great flocks of fheep. The
borough-town of Queenborough is feated thereon ; be-
fides vi hich it has feveral villages.
SHERARDIA, in botany : A genus of the mono-
.gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants j
and in the natural method ranking under the 47th or-
der, Stellata:. The calyx is fmall, quadridcntate ; the
corolla monopetalous, long, and funnel-fhaped. The
two feeds are naked, and crowned with the calyx.
There are three fpecies, viz. 1 . Arveulis ; 2. Muralis ;
3. Frutlcofa.
SHERBET, or Sherbit, a compound drink, firft
ibrought into England from Turkey and Perfia, confift-
ing of water, lemon- j uice, and fugar, in whish are dlf-
folved perfumed cakes made of excellent Damafcus fruit,
containing an Infufion of fome drops of rofe water.
Another kind of it is made of violets, honey, juice of
raifins, &«,
SHERIDAN (Thomas), D. D. the Intimate friend
of Dean Swift, is faid by Shield, in Gibber's " Lives of
the Poets," to have been born about 1684, In the
county ot Cavan, where, according to the fame autho-
rity, his parents lived in no very. elevated itate. They
are defcribed as being unable to afford their fon the ad-
vantages of a liberal education; but he, being obferved
to give early Indications of genius, attrafted the notice
of a friend to his family, who fent him to the college of
Dublin, and contributed towards his fupport while he
remained there. He aftewards entered into orders, and
fet \ip a fchool In Dublin, which long maintained a
very high degree of reputation, as well for the attention
beftowed on the morals of the fcholars as for their pro-
ficiency in literature. So great was the eftimation in
which this femlnary was held, that it is afferted to
have produced in fome years the fum of L. 1000. It
does not appear that he had any conhderable prefer-
ment; but his intimacy with Swift, in 1725, procured
for him a living in the fouth of Ireland worth about
L. T50 a-year, which he went to take poffeffion of,
and, by an aft of inadvertence, deftroyed all his future
expeftations of rifmg in the church ; for being at Corke
on the I ft of Auguft, the anniverfary of King George's
birth-day, he preached a fermon, which had for its text,
" Sufiicient for the day is the evil thereof." On this
being known, he was ftruck out of the lift of chaplains
to the lord lieutenant, and forbidden the cattle.
This living Dr Sheridan afterwards changed for that
of Dunboyne, which, by the knavery of the farmers,
and power of the gentlemen in the neighbourhood, fell
fo low as L. 80 per annum. He gave it up for the free
fchool of Cavan, where he might have lived well in fo
cheap a country on L. 80 a-year falary, befides his
fcholars ; but the air being, as he faid, too moift and
unwholefome, and being difgufted with fome perfons
who lived there, he fold the fchool for about L. 400 ;
and having foon fpent the money, he fell into bad
health, and died Sept. 10. 1738, in his 55th year.
Lord Corke has given the following charafter of him :
** Dr Sheridan was a fchool-mafter, and in many in-
ftances perfectly well adapted for that ftation. He was
deeply verfed in the Greek and Roman languages, and
in their cuftoms and antiquities. He had that kind of
good nature which abfence of mind, indolence of bo-
dy, and careleffnefs of fortune, produce ; and although
not over ftridf in his own conduft, yet he took care of
the morality of his fcholars, whom he fent to the univer-
fity remarkably well founded In iUl kinds of claffical
learning, and not ill inftrufted in the focial duties of
life. He was flovenly, indigent, and cheerful, lie
knew books much better than men ; and he knew the
value of money leaft of all. In this fituation, and with
this difpofition, Swift faftened up>on him as upcin a prey
with which he intended to regale himfelf whenever his
appetite fhould prompt him." His I..ordftiip then
mentions the event of the unlucky fermon, and adds :
'* This ill-ftarred, good-natured, improvident man, re-
turned to Dublin, unhinged from all favour at court,
and even baniflied from the caftle. But ftlU he remain-
ed a punfter, a qaibbler, a fiddler, and a wit. Not a
day
SHE
[ 359 1
SHE
) day pafled without a rebus, an anagram, or a madngal.
His pen and his fiddleftick. were in continual motion ;
and yet to little or no purpofe, if we may give credit
to the following verfes, which fhall ferve as the conclu-
lion of his poetical charadler :
" With mufic and poetry equally blefs'd,
" A bard thus Apollo moft humbly addrefs'd ;
*' Great author of poetry, mufic, and light,
" Inftrufted by thee, I both fiddle and write ;
" Yet unheeded I fcrape, or I fcribble all day,
** My tunes are negledted, my verfe flunii; away.
" Thy fubftitute here, Vice-Apollo difdains
** To vouch for my numbers, or lift to my ftrains.
'* I'hy manual fign he refufes to put
" To the airs I produce from the pen or the gut :
" Be thou then propitious, great Phoebus, and grant
*' Relief, or reward, to my merit or want.
'* Tho' the Dean and Delany tranfccndcntly fhinc,
*' O ! brighten one folo or fonnet of mine :
" Make one work immortal, 'tis all I requeft,.
" Apollo look'd pleas'd, and refolving to jeft, •
*' RepHed — HonelJ; friend, I've conlider'd your cafe,
Nor diflike your unmeaning and innocent face.
*' Your petition I grant, the boon is not great,
*' Your works fhall continue, and here's the receipt,
" On rondeaus herearter your fiddle-ftrings fpend,
" Write verfes in circles, they nerer fhall end."
** One of the volumes of Swift's mifcellantes confifts
almofl entirely of letters between him and the Dean.
He publiihed a profe tranflation of Perfius ; to which
he added the bell notes of former editors, together with
many judicious ones oF his own. This work was print-
ed at London, 1739, in i2mo. Biographical DiSion/iry,
Sheridan (Mrs Frances), wife to Thomas Sheri-
dan, M. A. was born in Ireland about the year 1724,
but defcended from a good Englifli family which had
removed thither. Her maiden name was Chamberlaine,
and (he was grand-daughter of Sir Oliver Chamberlaine.
The nrft literary performance by which fhe diftinguifh-
ed herfelf was a little pamphlet at the time of a violent
party-difpute relative to the theatre, in which Mr She^
ridan had newly embarked his fortune. So well-timed
a work exciting the attention of Mr Sheridan, he by
an accident difcovered his fair patronefs, to whom he
was foon afterwards married- She was a peifon of the
moll amiable charafter in every relation at" life, with the
mc,(l engaging manners. After lingering fome years
in a very weak ftate of health, fhe died at Blois, in the
fouth of France, in the year 1767. Her " Sydney
Biddulph" may be ranked with the firft produftions of
that clafs in ours or in any other language. She alfo
wrote a little romance in one volume called Nuurjahad^
in which there is a great deal of imagination produ61ive
of an admirable moral. And fhe was the authorefs of
two comedies, " The Difcovery" and *' l"he Dupe."
' SHERIFF, an of&cer. In each county Ih England,
: nominated by the king, inveftcd with a judicial and
'* rainiflerial power, and who takes place of every noble-
man in the county during the time of his office.
i'he fherifF is an officer of very great antiquity In
this kingdom, his name being derived from two Saxon
words, fignlfying the reevff, bailiffs or officer of the
fhire He Is called in I^atin vice-comes, as being the
deputy of the earl or comesf to whom the cuftody of
the fhire is fald to have been committed at the firft dl- Sheriff,
vlfion of this kingdom into counties. But the earls, in —
procefs of time, by reafon of their high employments,
and attendance on the king's perfon, not being able to
tranfaft the bufinefs of the county, were delivered of
that burden ; referving to themfelves the honour, but
tlie labour was laid on the fherifF. So that now the flic-
riff does all the king's bufinefs in the county ; and tho*
he be flill called vice-comes, yet he Is entirely indepen-
dent of, and not fubjedt to, the earl ; the king, by his
letters patent, committing cujlodtam comitatus to the fhe-
riff, and to him alone.
Sheriffs were formerly chofen by the Inhabitants of
the feveral counties. In confirmation of which It was
ordained, by llatute 28 Edw. I. c. 8. that the people
fhould have an eledlion of fheriffe in every fliire where the
flirievalty Is not of Inheritance. For anciently in fome
counties the fherifFs were hereditary ; as we apprehend
they were in Scotland till the ftatute 20 Geo. II. c. 43 ;
and ftill continue In the county of Weflmorcland to thla
day ; the city of London having alfo the inheritance of
the fhrievalty of MIddlcfex veiled In their bedy. by char-
ter. The reafon of thefe popular ele6lions is affigned^
In the fame ftatute, c. 13. " that the commons might
choofe iuch as would not be a burden to them." And
herein appears plainly a ftrong trace of the democrati•^
cal part of our conftltution ; In which form of govern-
ment It Is an indifpenfable requifite, that the people
fhould choofe their own maglftrates- This eledlion
was in all probability not abfolutely vefted in the com-
mons, but required the reyal approbation. For In the
Gothic conftltution, the judges- of their county-courts-
(which office is executed by the fheriff) were elefted'
by the people, but confirmed by the king : and the
form of their eleflion was thus managed ; the people,
or incoia territoriiy chofe twelve eleftors,. and they no-
minated three perfons, ex quibus rex unum confirmaliat,.
But, with us In England, thefe popular eleftions, grow-
ing tumultuous, were put an end to by the ftatute 9
Edw. IL ft. 2. which enadled, that the fherift"s fhould
from thenceforth be affigned by the chancellor, trea-
furer, and the judges ; as being perfons in whom the
fame truft might with confidence be repofed. By fta-
tut,es 14 Edw. III. c. 7. 23 Hen. VI. c. 8. and 21
Hen. VIII. c. 20. the chancellor, treafurer, prefident
of the king's council, chief juftices, and chief baron,
are to make this eleftion ; and that on the morrow of
All Souls, in the exchequer. And the king's letters
patent, appointing the new fheriffs, ufed commonly to
bear date the fixth day of November. The ftatute of :
Cambridge, 12 RIc II. c. 2. ordains, that the chan-
cellor, treafurer, keeper oi the privy feal, fteward of the
king's houfc, the king's chamberlain, clerk of the rolls,
the juftices of the one bench and the other, baroas of
the exchequer, and all other that fhall be called to or-
dain, name, or make juftices of the peace, fheriffs, and
other officers of the king, fhall be fworn to adl indiffe-
rently, and to name no man that fuet-h to be put in of-
fice, but fuch only as they fhall judge to be the beft
and moft fufficient. And the cultom now is (and has
been at leaft ever fince the time of Fortefcue, who was
chief juftice and chancellor to Henry the fixth), that
all the j udges, together with the other great officers,
meet in the exchequer chamber on the morrow of All
Souls yearly, (which day is now altered to the morrow
SHE
S H E
g^c,;*. of St Martin by the laft ad for abbreviating Michael-
.l-v— ^ mas term), and then and there propofe three perfons to.
the king, who afterwards appoints one of them to be
flieriiF. This cuftom of the twelve judges propofm^
three perfons feems borrowed from the Gothic cdiUli-
tution before-mentioned : with this difference, that
among the Goths the,ia nominora were firil ekded by
the people themfelves. And this ufage of ours, at its
firft introdudion, there is reaion to believe, was Found-
ed upon fome ftatute, though not now to be found
among our printed laws ; firft, becaufe it is materially
different from the diredlion of ail the fiatutea before'
mentioned ', which it is hard to conceive that the judgea
would have countenanced by their concurrence, or that
Fortefcue would have infcrted in his book, unlefs by the
jiuthority of fome ftatute } and aUo, becaufe a ftatute
is exprefsly referred to in the record, which Sir Ed-
ward Coke tells us he tranfcribed from the council-book,
of 3d March, H K^"- ^"'^ which is in fubftanoe
as follows. The king had of his own authority ap-
pointed a man fherif of Lincolnfhirc, which of^ce he
refufed to take upon him whereupon the opinions of
the judges were taken, what fhould be done in this be-
half. And the two chief jufticea, Sir John Fortefcue
.and Sir John Prifot, delivered the unanimous opinion of
them all ; " that the king did an error v/hen he made a
perfon flieriff that was not chofen and prcfented to him
according to the ftatute ; that the perfon rcfufing was
liable to no fine for difobedience, as if he had been
one of the three perfona chofen according to the te-
nor of the ftatute ; that they would advife the king to
liave recourfe to the three perfons that were chofen accord-
ing to the ftatute, or that fome other thrifty man be in-
treated to occupy the office for this year 1 and that, the
next year, to efchew fuch inconveniences, the order of the
ftatute in this behalf made be obfcrved." But, hotwith-
ftanding this unanimous refolution of all the judges of
England, thus entered in the council-book, and the ftatute
34 and 35 Hen. VUI. c. 26, § 61. which exprefsly
recognizes this to be the law of the land, fome of our
writers have affirmed, that the king, by his prerogative,
may name whom he pleafes to be ftierifF, whether cho-
fen by the judges or not. This is grounded on a very
particular cafe in the fifth year of queen Elixabcth,
when, by reafon of the plague, there was no Michael-
mas term kept at Weftminfter ; fo that the judges could
not meet there in craji'mo ammarum to nominate the (he-
riffs : whereupon the queen named them herfelf, with-
out fuch previous affembly, appointing for the moft part
one of two remaining in the laft year's hft. And this
cafe, thus circumftanced, is the only authority in our
books for the making thefe extraordinary flKrifFs. It
is true, the reporter adds, that it was held that the queen
by her prerogative might make a fherift' without the
eleftion of the judges, non objiante aliquo Jlatuto in contra-'
rium s but the dodrine of non obftante^ which fets the
prerogative above the laws, was effedlually demolifhed
by the bill of rights at the revolution, and abdicated
Weftminfter- hall when king James abdicated the king-
dom. However, it muft be acknowledged, that the
pradice of occafionally naming what are called pochi-
Jheriffs^ by the lole authority of the crown, hath uni-
formly continued to the ireign of his prefcnt majefty ;
in which, it is believed, few (if any) inflances have oc-
curred.
Sheriffs, by virtue of fevcral old ftatutcs, are to con-
tinye in their nffic? no longer than qn<* yci^r \ nnd yst it S'^pfiff
hath been faid that a flieriff may be appointed durmts
bene placiio, or Jyiiug the king's picaiiirs | and fo is the
form of the royal writ. Therefore, till a new fheviff be
named, his oftice cannot be determined, imlefs by hi^
own death, or the demife of the king 5 in which Uftcafe
it was ufual for the fucceftor to fend a new writ to th«
old fherjff ; but now, by ftatute i Anne ft. i.e. 8, all
officers appointed by tlte preceding king m.ay hold their
offices for fis? months a'ter the king's demife, unlefa
fooner difplaeed by the fuccefTor, We may farther ob-'
ferve, that by ftdtute i Ric. II. c. i i. no mcti that hasi
ferved the ofiice of fheriff for one year can be compelled
to ferve the fame again within three years after.
We fhali find it is of the ut moft importance to have
the n\erifF appointed according to law, when we confi*
der his power and duty. Thefe are either as a judge,
aa the keeper of the king's peace, as a mJnilterial officer
of the fuperior courts of juftice, or as the king'a
bailiff. ^
In hia judicial capacity he is to hear and determine
all caufes of 40 fhillm'?§ value aiyi under, in hia cov ;y-
court ! and he has alfo a judicial power in divers other
civil cafes. He is likewife to decide the elections of
knights of the fhire, (fubjec^ to the controul of the
Houfe of Commons), of coroners, and of verderorsj
to judge of the qualification of voters, and to return
fuch as he fliall determine to be duly cleded.
As the keepera of the king's peace, both by com-
mon law and fpecial eommiffion, he is the firft man in
the county, and fuperior in rank to any nobleman
therein, during hia office. He may apprehend, and
commit to prilon, all perfons who break the peace, or
attempt to break it j and may bind .any one in a recog-
nisance to keep the king's peace. He may, and ia
bound, ex officio^ to purfue and take all traitors, mur-
derers, felons, and other mifdoera, and commit them
to gaol for fafe cuftody. He is alio to defend his coun-
ty againiT^ any of the king's enemies when they qom«
into the land j and for this purpofe, as well as for
keeping the peace and purfuing felons, he may cont-
mand all the people of his county to attend him 1 which
is called the poje cmiiatus, or power of the county 1
which fummons, every perfon above t$ years old, and
under the degree of a peer, is bound to attend upon
warning, under pain of fine and imprifonment. But
though the fherilF is thus the principal confervator of
the peace in his county, yet, by the cxprefs diretliona
of the great charter, he, together with the conftablc,
coroner, and certmn other officers of the king, are for-
bidden to hold any pleas of the crown, or, in othese
words, to try any criminal offence. For ii would be
highly unbecoming, that the executioners of j nil ice
fhould be alfo the judges ; fhould impufe, as well as levy,
fines and amercements 5 fhould one day condemn a masi
to death, and peifonally execute him the next. Neither
may he aft aa »n ordinary juftice of the peace during
the time of his office i for this would be equally incon-
fiftent, he being in many refpetb the fervant of the juf-
tiees.
In his minifterial capacity, the fheriff is bound to ex.
ecute all procefa ifTuin^ from the 'king's courts of juf-
tice. In the commencement of civil caufes, he is to
-fervt; the writ, to arreft, and to take bail ; when the
caufe cornea to trial, he muft fummon and return the
jury ; when it ia determined, he muft he the judgment
S HE f
. of the court carried into execution. In criminal mat-
ter*, he alfo arrefts and imprifons, he returns the jury,
he has the Ciiftody of the delinquent, and he executes
the fentence of the court, thousfhit extend to death itfelf.
As the king's bailiff, it is his bufmefs to preterve the
> rights of the kin^ within his bailiwick ; for fo his coun-
ty is frequently called in the writs : a word introduced
by the princes of the Norman line ; in imitation of the
' French, whofe territory is divided into bailiwicks, as-
^ that of England into counties. He muft feize to the
king's ufe all lands devolved to tlie crown by attainder
or efcheat ; muft levy all fines and forfeitures, muft fcize
and keep all waifs, wrecks, eftrays, and the like, unlefs
they be granted to forae fubjeft ; and muft alfo colleft
the king's rents within his bailiwick, if commanded by
proccfs from the exchequer.
To execute thefe various offices, the ftieriff has Under
liim many inferior officers ; an under-(heriff, bailiffs,
and gaolers, who muft neither buy, fell, nor farm their
offices, on forfeiture of 500 1.
The under- flieriff ufually performs all the duties of
the office ; a very few only excepted, where the pe»-
fonal prefence of the hiph- flieriff is neceffary. But no
under-flieriff (hall abide in his office above one year ;
and if he does, by ftatute 23 Hen. VI. c. 8. he for-
feits 200I. a very large penalty inthofe early days. And
no under- fheriff or ftieriff's- officer (hall praftifeas an at-
torney during the time he continues in fuch office : for
this would be a great inlet to partiality and oppreffion.
B*it thefe falutary regulations are fhame fully evaded, by
praftifmg in the. names of other attorneys, and putting
in fliam deputies by way of nominal under-fheriffs : by
reafon of which, fays Dalton, the under-fheriffs and bai-
liffs do grow fo cunning in their feveral places, that they
are able to deceive, and it may well be feared that ma-
ny of them do deceive, both the king, the high-fheriff,
and the county.
Sheriff, in Scotland. See Law, Part iii. feft. 3.
SHERLOCK (William), a learned Englifti divine
In the 17th century, was born in 1641, and educated
at Eaton fchool, where he diftingulftied himfelf by the
vigour of his genius and his application to ftudy.
Thence he was removed to Cambiidgc, where he took
his degrees. In 1669 he became reftor of the parlHi
of St George, Botolph-lanc, in London; and in i68r
was collated to the prebend of Pancras, in the cathedral
of St Paul's. He was likewife chofen mafter of the
Temple, and had the retftory of Therfield in Hertford-
fhire. After the Revolution he was fufpended from
his preferment, for refufing the Oriths to king William
and queen Mary ; but at laft he took them, and public-
ly juftified what he had done. Tn 1691 he was inftal-
led dean of St Paul's. His Vindication of the. Doftrine
of the Trinity engaged him in a warm controvcrfy with
X)r South and others. Bifliop Burnet tells us, he was
** a clear, a polite, and a ftrong writer ; but apt to af-
fume too much to himfelf, and to treat his adverfaries
with contempt." He died in 1707. His works are
very numerous; am©ni| thefe are, i. A Difcourfe con-
cerning the Knowledge of Jtfus Chrift, again ft Dr
Owen. 2. Several pieces ag^aintt the Papifts, the So-
clnians, and Diffenters. 3. A praftical Treatife on
Death, which is much admired.' 4. A praftical Dif-*
courfe on Providence. 5. A praftical Difcourfe on the
future Judgment ; and many other works.
Vol. XVII. Part I.
{61 J SHE
SHERtocK (Dr Thomas), blfhop of Londdn, was Sherlock,
the fon ol the preceding Dr William Sherlock, and ^^erriffe.^
was born in 1678. He was educated in Cathdrlne hall, » ' ""^
Cambridge, where he took his degrees, and of which
he became mafter : he was made mafter of the Temple
very young^, on the refignation of his father ; and it is
remarkable, that this mafterflilp was held by father and
fon fucceffively for more than 70 years. He was at
the head of the oppofitlon againft Dr Hoadley bifliop
of Bangor ; during which conteft he pablifhed a great
number of pieces. He attacked the famous Collins's
*' Grounds and Reafons of the Chriftian Religion," in
a courfe of fix fermons, preached at the Temple church,
which he intitled " The Ufe and Intent of Prophecy in
the feveral Ages of the World." In 1728, Dr Sherlock
was promoted to the bifliopric of Bangor ; and was
tranflated to Salifbury in 1734. In 1747 he refufed
the archbifhopric of Canterbury, on account of his ill
ftate of health } but recovering in a good degree, ac-
cepted the fee of London the following year. On oc- '
cafion of the earthquakes in r 750, he publiftied an ex-
cellent Paftoral Letter to the clergy and inhabitants
©f London and Weftminfter : of which it is faid there
were printed in 4to, 5000 ; in 8vo, 20,000 ; and in
i2mo, about 30,000 ; befide pirated editions, of which
not lefs than 50,000 were fuppofed to have been fold.
Under the weak ftate of body in which he lay for feveral
years, he rcvifed and publifhed 4 vols of Sermons in 8vo,
which are particularly admired for their ingenuity and-
elegance. He died in 1762, and by report worth
150,0001. *• His learning," fays Dr Nicholls, " wag
very extenfive : God had given him a great and an un-
derilanding mind, a quick comprehenfion, and a folld
judgment. Thefe advantages of nature he improved by
much induftry and application. His flcill in the civil
and canon law was very confiderable.; to which he had
added fuch a knowledge of the common law of England
as few clergymen attain to. This It was that gave him
that influence in all caufes where the church was con-
cerned ; as knowing preclfely what It had to claim from
its conftitutions and canons, and what from the com-
mon law of the land." Dr Nicholls then mentions his
conftant and exemplary piety, his warm and fervent zeal
in preaching the duties and maintaining the doArines of
Chriftianity, and his large and diffufive munificence and
charity ; particularly by his having given large fums of
money to the corporation of clergymens fons, to feveral
of the hofpltals, and to the foclety for propagating thd
gofpel in foreign parts: alfo his bequeathing to Catha-
rine-hall in Cambridge, the place of his education, his
valuable library of books, and his donations for the
founding a librarian's place and a fcholarfliip, to the a-
mount of feveral thoufand pounds.
SHERRIFFE of Mecca, the title of the defen-
dants of Mahomet by Haffan Ibn Ali. Thefe are di-
vided into feveral branches, of which the family of AU
Bunemi, confifting at leaft of three hundred individuals,
enjoy the fole right to the throne of Mecca. The Ali
Bunemi are, again, fubdivided into two fubordinate
branches, Darii Sajid, and Darii Barkad ; of whom
fometimes the one, fometimes the other, have given fo-
vereiofns to Mecca and Medina, when thefe were fepa-
rate ftates.
Not only is the Turkifti Sultan indifferent aboxlt the
order of fucceffion in this family, but he fecnis even to
Z z foment
SHE
S H E
Shemffc. foment the dflTenfions which anfe among them, and fa-
vours the flrongeft, merely that he may Aveaken them
all. As the order of fuccefTion is not determinately
fixed, and the iheiTiffes may all afpirc alike to the fo-
verelgn power, this uncertainty of right, aided by the
intrigues of the Turkifh officers, occalions frequent re-
volutions. The grand fherrifFe is feldom able to main-
tain.himfelf on the throne ; and itftill feldomer happens
that his reign is not difturbed by the revolt of his near-
eft relations. There have been inftances of a nephew
fucceeding his uncle, an uncle fucccedlng his nephew ;
and fometimes of a perfon, from a remote branch, coming
in the room of the reigning prince of the ancient houfe.
When Niebuhr was in Arabia, in 1763, the reigning
Sherriffe Mefad had fitten fourteen years on the throne,
and, during all that period, had been continually at war
with the neighbouring Arabs, and wlthliis own neateft
relations fometimes. A few years before, the Pacha of
Syria had depofed him, and raifed his younger brother
to the fovereign dignity in his Head. But after the
departure of the caravan, Jafar, the new fherriffe, not
being able, to maintain himfelf on the throne, was obli-
ged te refign the fovereignty aoain to Mefad. Achmet,
the fecond brother of the IherrifFe, who was much belo-
ved by the Arabs, threatened to attack Mecca while Nie-
buhr was at Jidda. Our traveller was foon after informed
of the termination of the quarrel, and of Achmet's re-
turn to Mecca, where he continued to live peaceably in
a private character.
Thefe examples fhow that the Muffulmans obferve
not the law which forbids them to bear arms againfl;
their holy places. An Egyptian Bey even prefumed,
a few years fmce, to plant fome fmall cannons within
the compafs of the Kaba, upon a fmall tower, from
which he fired over that facred manfion, upon the pa-
lace of Sherriffe Mefad, with whom he was at variance.
The dominions of the fherriffe comprehend the cities
of Mecca, Medina, Jambo, Taaif, Sadie, Ghunfude,
Hali, and thirteen others lefs confiderable, all iituated in
Hedjas. Near Taaif is the lofty mountain of Gazvan,
which, according to Arabian authors, is covered with
fnow in the midft of fummer. As thefe dominions
are neither opulent nor extenfive, the revenue of their
fovereign cannot be confiderable.
He finds a rich refource, however, in the imports le-
vied on pilgrims, and in the gratuities offered him by
MufFulman monarchs. Every pilgrim pays a tax of from
ten to an hundred crowns, in proportion to his ability.
The Great Mogul remits annually fixty thoufand rou-
pees to the fherriffe, by an affignment upon the govern-
ment of Surat. Indeed, fmce the Englifh made them-
felves mailers of this city, and the territory belonging
to it, the Nabob of Surat has no longer been able to
pay the fum. The flierrifFe once demanded it of the
Englllh, as the poiTcfTors oF Surat ; and, till th^y ihould Sheds
fatisfy him, forbade their captains to leave the port of — -
Jidda. But the Englifh difrcgarding this prohibition,
the flierrifFe complained to the Ottoman Porte, and they
communicated his complaints to the Engliih ambaffa-
dor. fie at the fame time opened a negociation with
the nominal Nabob, who relides in Surat. But thefe
fteps proved all fruitlefs : and the fovereign of Mecca
feems not likely to be ever more benefited by the con-
tribution from India.
The power of the fherriffe extends not to fpiritual
matters ; thefe are entirely managed by the heads of the
clergy, of different fe£ls, who are refident at Mecca,
Rigid MufTiilmans, fuch as the Turks, are not very fa-
vourable in their fentiments of the fherriffts, but fufpe£t
their orthodoxy, and look upon them as fecretly attach-
ed to the tolerant feci of the Zeidi.
SHETLAND, the name of certain iflands belong-
ing to Scotlf^d, and lying to the northward of Orkney.
There are many convincing proofs that thefe iflanda-
were very early inhabited by the Pifts, or rather by
thofe nations who were the original poffefTors of the
Orkneys ; and at the time of the total deftrudion of
thefe nations, if any credit be due to tradition, their
woods were entirely ruined (a). It is highly probable
that the people in Shetland, as well as in the Orkneys,
flourifhed under their own princes dependent upon the
crown of Norway ; yet this feems to have been rather
through what they acquired by fifhing and commerce,
than by the cultivation of their lands. It may alfo be
reafonably prefumed, that they grew thinner of inhabit
tants after they were annexed to the crown of Scotland;
and it is likely that they revived again, chiefly by the
very great and extenfive improvements which the Dutch
made in the herring-fidiery upon their coafts, and the
trade that the crews of their buffes, then very numerous,
carried on with the inhabitants, neceflarily refulting from
their want of provifions and other conveniences, which
in thofe days could not be very confiderable.
There are many reafons which may be affigned why
thefe iflands, though part of our dominions, have not
hitherto been better known to us. They were com-
monly placed two degrees too far to the north In all the
old maps, in order to make thetn agree with Ptolemy's
defcription of Thule, which he aflerted to be in the la-
titude of 63 degrees ; which we find urged by Camden
as a reafon why Thule muft be one of the Shetland ifles,
to which Speed alfo agrees, though from their being
thus wrong placed he could not find room for them in
his maps. Another, and that no light caufe, was the
many falfe, fabulous, and impertinent relations publifh-
ed concerning them (b), as if they were countries in-
hofpitable and uninhabitable ; and laftly, the indolence,
or rather indifference, of the natives, who, contenting
• themfelves
(a) The tradition is, that this vras done by the Scots when they deftroyed the Pi6ls ; but is more probably
referred to the Norwegians rooting out the original poffeffors of Shetland.
(b) They reprefented the climate as rntenfely cold ; the foil as compofed of crags and quagmire, fo barrea
as to be incapable of bearing corn ; to fupply which, the people, after drying fifh-bones, powdered them, then
kneaded and baked them for bread. The larger fifh-bones were faid to be all the fuel they had. Yet, in fo dreary
a country, and in fuch mifcrable circumilances, they were acknowledged to be very long-lived, cheerful, and cone
tented.^
SHE [ 3
&bptlftn<?. themfelves with thofe neccflaries and conveniences pro-
•"""V""" cured by their ifitercourfe with other nations, and con-
ceiving themfehfes neglefted by the mother country,
have feldom troubled her with their applications.
There are. few countries that have gone by more
names than thefe iflands; they were called in Ulandic,
Biahlandia, from hialty the " hilt of a fword ;" this
might be poffibly corrupted into Hetland, Hitlandy or
Hethland, though fome tell us this fignifies a " high
land.'* They have been likewife, and are ftlU in fome
maps, called Zetland and Zealand, in reference, as has
■ been fuppofed, to their fituation. By the Danes, and
by the natives, they are ftyled Yealtaland ; and not-
withftanding the oddnefs of the orthography, this dif-
fers very Httle, if at all, from their manner of pronoun-
cing Zetland, cut of which pronunciation grew the mo-
dern names of Shetland and Shotland.
The iflands of Shetland, as we commonly call them,
are well fituated for trade. The nearefl. continent to
them is Norway ; the port of Bergen lying 44 leagues
eaft, whereas they lie 46 leagues north north-eaft from
Buchannefs ; eail north-eaft from Sanda, one of the
Orkneys, about 16 or 18 leagues; fix or feven leagues
north-eaft from Fair Ifle ; 58 leagues eaft from the Fer-
roe ifles; and at neavly the fame diftance north-eaft from
Lewis. The fouthern promontory of the main land,
c2L]lt(i Sumburgh Head,\ks in 59 degrees and 59 minutes
of north latitude ; and the northern extremity of Unft,
the moft remote of them all, in the latitude of 6 1 de-
grees 15 minutes. The meridian of London pafles
through this laft ifland, which lies about 2 degrees 30
minutes weft from Paris, and about 5 degrees 1 5 mi-
nutes eaft from the meridian of Cape Lizard. Accord-
ing to Gifford's " Hiftorical Defcription pf Zetland,"
the inhabited iflands are 33, of which the principal is
ftyled Main Land, and extends in length frem north to
fouth about 60 miles, and is in fome places 20 broad,
though in others not more than two.
It is impofiible to fpeak with precifion ; but, accord-
. ing to the beft computation which we have been able to
form, the Shetland ifles contain near three times as
ranch land as the Orkneys : they are confidered alfo
as equal in fize to the ifland of Madeira ; and not
inferior to the provinces of Utrecht, Zealand, and all
the reft of the Dutch iflands taken together ; but of
climate and foil they have not much to boaft. The
longeft day in the ifland of Unft is 19 hours 15 mi-
nutes, and of confequence the fliorteft day 4 hours and
45 minutes. The fpring is very late, the fummer very
fliort ; the autumn alfo is of no long duration, dark,
foggy, and rainy ; the winter fets in about November,
and lafts till April, and fometimes till May. They have
frequently in that feafon ftorms of thunder, much
rain, but little froft or fnow. High winds are indeed
very frequent and very troublefome, yet they feldom
produce any terrible cffe<^l3. The aurora boreahs is as
common here as in any -of the northern countries. In
the winter feafon the fea fwells and rages in fuch a
manner, that for rive or fix months their ports are inac-
ceflible, and of courfe the people during that fpace have
no correfpondence with the reft of the world.
The foil in the interior part of the main land, for the
moft part, is mountainous, moorifli, and boggy, yet not
to fuch a degree as to render the country utterly im-
paflable j for many of the roads here, and in fome of
53 T SHE
the northern ifles, are as good as any other natural Sl^etland*
roads, and the people travel them frequently on all oc- ""- ^ ~
cafions,^ Near the coaft there are fometimes for miles
together flat pleafant fpots, very fertile both in pafturc
and corn, I'he mountains produce large crops of very
nutritive grafs in the fummer ; and they cut confider-
able quantities of hay, with which they feed their cattle
in the winter. They might with a little attention hr'iw^
more of their country into cultivation : but the people
are fo much addifted to their fiflrery, and feel fo little
neceflity of having recourfe to this method for fubfift-
ence, that they are content, how ftrange foever that
may feem to us, to let four parts in five of their land
remain in a ftate of nature.
They want not confiderable quantities of marie in
different iflands, thoiigh they ufe but little ; hitherto
there has Been no chalk found ; limeftone and freeftone
there are in the fouthern parts of the main land in great
quantities, and alfo in the neighbouring iflands, parti-
cularly Fetlar ; and confiderable quantities of flate, very
good in its kind. No mines have been hitherto wrought,
though there are in many places vifible appearances of
feveral kinds of metal. Some folid pieces of filver, it is
laid, have been turned up by the plough. In fome
of the'fmaller ifles there are ftrong appearances of ii'on;
but, through the want of proper expei-iments being
made, there is, in this refpeft at leaft, hitherto notliing
certain. Their meadows are inclofed with dikes, and
produce very good grafs. The little corn they grow
is chiefly barley, with fome oats ; though even in
the northern extremity of Unft the little land which
they have is remarkable for its fertility. The hills
abound with medicinal herbs ; and their kitchen-gar-
dens thrive as well, and produce as good greens and
roots, as any in Britain. Of late years, and fince this
has been attended to, fome gentlemen have had even
greater fuccefs than they expe£led in the cultivating of
tulips, rofes, and many other flowers. They have no trees,
and hardly any flirubs except juniper, yet they have a tra-
dition that their country was formei-ly overgrown with
woods ; and it feems to be a confirmation of this, that
the roots of timber-trees have been, and are ftiU, dug
up at a great depth ; and that in fome, and thofe too
inaccefiible, places, the mountain afli is ftiU found grow-
ing wild. That this defedl, viz. the want of wood at
prefent, does not arife entirely frcwn the foil or climate,
appears from federal late experiments ; fome gentlemen
having raifed afh, maple, horfe chefnuts, &c. in their
gardens. Though the inhabitants are without either
wood or coals, they are very well fupplied with fuel,
having great plenty of heath and peat. The black
cattle in this country are in general of a larger fort
than in Orkney, which is owing to their having more
extenfive paftures ; a clear proof that ftill farther im-
provements might be made in refpedit to fize. Their
horfes are fmall, but ^Irong, flout^ and well fliaped, live
very hardy, and to a great age. They have likewife a
breed of fmall fwlne, the flefli of which, when fat, is
efteemed very delicious. They have no goats, hares, or
foxes ; and in general no wild or venomous creatures of
any kind except tats in fome few iflands. 'I'hey have
no moor-fowl, which is the more remarkable, as there
are everywhere immenfe quantities of heath ; but there
are many forts of wild and water fowl, particular,
ly the dunter-goofe, clack-goofe, folan-goofe, fwans,
Z z 2 , ducks,
SHE I
Shetland ducks, teaT, whaps, foifts, lyres, kitttwaiks, maws, plo-
- T vers, cormorants, &c. There is like wife the ernber-goofe,
which is faid to hatch her egg under her wing. Eagles
and hawks, as alfo ravens, erows, mevvs,3cc. abound here.
All thefe iflands are well watered ; for there are eve-
rywhere excellent fprings, fome of them mineral and
medicinal. Tliey have indeed no rivers ; but many plea-
fant rills or rivulets, which they call b^rnf, of different
fizes ; in fome of the largeft they have admirable trouts,
fome of which are of 15 and even of 20 pounds weight.
They have like wife many frefh- water lakes, well ftored
\yith trout and eels, and in molt of them there are alfo
large and hne flounders ; in fome very excellent cod.
Thefe frefli water lakes, if the country was better peo-
pled, and the common people uwre a.t their eafe, are
certainly capable of great iniiprovements. The fea-
coafts of the main land of Shetland^ in a ftraight line,
are 5 ^ leagues ; and therefore there cannot be a coun-
try conceived more proper for eflablifhing an extenfive
fifhery. What the inhabitants have been hitherto able
to do, their natural advantages confidered, does not de>-
ferve that name, notwithftanding they export large quaur
titie& of cod, talk, ling, and flcate, infomuch that the
bounty allowed by a^ts of parliament amounts from
L. 1400 to L. 2000 annually. They have, befiides,
haddocks, whitings, turbot, and a variety of other
fifli In many of the inlets there are prodigious quan-
tities of excellent oyfhers,, lobfters, mufcles, cockles,
and other (hell-fifh. As to amphibious creatures, they
have multitudes of otters and feals ; add. to thefe, that
amber, ambergris, and other fpoils of the ocean, are fre-
quently found upon the coafts.
The inhabitants are a ftout, well-made, comely peo-
ple ; the lower fort of a fwarthy complexion. The
gentry^are allowed, by all who have converfed, with
tJiem, to be moft: of them polite, flirewd, fcnfiblc,
lively, aftive, and intelligent perfons ; and thefe, to
the number of 100 families, have very handfome,
flrong, well-built houfes, neatly furnifhed ; their tables
well fcrved, polifhed in their manners, and exceedingly
Kofpitable and civil to ftrangers. Thofe of an inferior
j^nk are a hardy., robuft-, and laborious people, who,
fenerally fpeaklng, get their bread by fifliing in all
leathers in their yawls, which are little bigger than
,Cravcfend wherries ; live hardily, and in the fummer
leafon moftly on fifh ; their drink, which, in reference
to the Britiih dominions, is peculiar to the country, is
called b/anJy apd is a fort of butter-milk, long kept, and
very four. Many live to great ages, tho\igh not fp
long as in former times. In refpe^l, however, to the
bulk of the inhabitants, from the poornefs of living,
from the nature of it, and; from the drinking great
quantities of corn-fpirits of the very worft fort, multi-
tudes are afflifted with an inveterate fcurvy ; from
•which thofe in better circumftances are entirely free,
and enjoy as good health as in any other country in
Europe. As they have no great turn to agricuhure,
and are perfuaded that their country is not fit for it,
they do not (though probably they might) raife corn
enough to fupport them for more than two- thirds of the
year. But they are much more fuccefsful in their paf-
ture-grounds, which are kept well inclofed, in good or-
der, and, together with their commons, fupply them
filentifuUy wkh beef and mutton. They pay their
4 ] SHI
rents generally in butter at Lammas, and in money at Shew
Martinmas. As to manufaftures, they make a flrong bread
coarfe cloth for their own ufe, as alfo linen. They
make likewife of their own wool very fine ftockings.
They export, befides the different kinds of fifh already
mentioned, fome herrings^ aconfiderable quantity of but-
ter and train-oil, otter and feal lkiris,and no inconhderable
quantity of the fine ftockings juft mentioned. Their chief
trade is to Leithi London, Hamburgh, Spain, and to the
Straits, They import timbers, deals, and fome of their
beft oats, from Norway ; corn and flour from the Ork-
neys^ and from N®rth Britain ; fpirits and fome other
things from Hamburgh ; cloths and better fort of linen
from Leith ; grocery, houfehold furniture, and other
neceffaries, from London. The fuperior-dutles to the
earl of Morton are generally let in farm ; and are paid
by the people in butter, oil, and money. The remains
of the old Norwegian conllitution are ttill vilible in the
divifion of their lands ; and they have fome udalmen or
freeholders amongft them. But the Scots laws, cuftoms,
manners, drefs, and language, prevail ; and they have a
fheriff, and oth^r maglftrates for the adminiftration of juC-
tice, as well as a cullomhoufe, with a proper number of
officers^ In reference to their ecclefiaftical concerns, they
have a prefbytery, 1 2 minillers, and an itinerant for Foula,
Fair liland, aad the Skerries. Each of thefe minillers
has a ftipend of between 40 and 50 pounds, beGdes a
houfe and a glebe free from taxes-. The number of fouls
in thefe iflands may be about 20,000.
SHEW- BREAD, the loaves of bread which the priefk
of the week put every Sabbath-day upon the golden-
table in the fanftuary,, before the Lord, in the temple
of the Jews. They were twelve in number, and were of-
fered to God in the name of the twelve tribes of Ifrael.
They were fhaped like a brick, w«re ten palms long and
five broad, weighing about tight pounds each. They
were unleavened, and made of fiine flour by the Levites.
The prielts fet them on, the table in two rows, fix in a
row, and put frankincenfe upon them to prefcrve them
from moulding. I'hey were changed every Sabbath,
and the old ones belonged to the pried' upon duty. Of
this bread none but the priefts might eat, except in
cafes of neceffity. It. was called the iread of faces,
becaufe the table of the iTiew-bread, being almofl over-
againft the ark of the covenant, the loaves might be faid
to be fet before the face of God. The original table
was carried away to Babylon, but a new. one was made
for the fecond' temple. It was of wood overlaid with
gold. This, with. the candleftick and fome other fpoils>
was carried by Titus to. Rome.
SHIELD, an ancient weapon of defence, in form of
a light buckler, borne on the. arm to fend off lances,
darts, &c. The form of the fhield is reprefented by
the efcutcheon in coats of arms. The Ihleld was that
part of the ancient armour on which the perfons of di-
illnftlon in the field of battle always had their arms
painted; and moft of the words ufed at this time to
exprefg the fpace that holds the arms of families are
derived from the Latin name for a fhield, fcutum. The
French efcu zxi^efujftotiy and the Engllfh word efcutcheon^
or, as we commonly fpeak it,yf?y/c^fon, are evidently from
this origin ; and the Italian fcudo lignlfi^es both the
fhield of arms and that ufed in war. The Latin nam*
clypeus, fpr the fame thing, feems alfo to be derived from
the
S H I
[ 365 3
S H I
the Greek word y*"*"*. te engrave; ami it had this
name from the feveral figures engraved on it, as marks
of diftintlion of the perfon who wore it.
'I''he (hicld in war, among the Greeks and Romans,
was not only ufeful in the defence of the body, but it
was alfo a token, or badge of honour, to the wearer ;
and he who returned from bjittle without it was always
treated with infamy afterwards. People have at all
times thoufjht this honourable piece of the armour the
properetl place to engrave, or fig ure on the figns of dig-
nity of the pojTefTor of it ; and hence, when arms came
to be painted for families in aftertimes, the heralds al-
ways chofe to reprefent ihem upon the figilre of a
fhield, but with feveral exterior additions and orna-
ments ; as the helmet, fupporters, and the refl.
The form of the fhield has not only been found difFe.
rent in various nations, but even the people of the fame
nation, at different times, have varied its form extreme^
ly ; and among feveral people there have been fiiields
•f feveral forms and fizes in ufe, at the fame period of
time, and fuited to different occafions. The molt an-
cient and univerfal form of fhields, in the earlier ages,
feems to have been the triangular. TJiis we fee inllan-
ces of in all the monuments- and gems of antiquity : our
own molt early monuments (how- it to have been the
moft antique lhape alfo with us, .and the heralds have
foimd it the molt convenient for their pu-rpofes, when
they had any odd number of figures to reprefent ; as if
three, then, two in the broad bottom part, and one in
the naiTow upper end, it held them veiy well; or if five,
they ftood as' conveniently,- as three below, and two
afoove. The other form of a fhield, now univerfally
ufed, is fquate, raunded, and pointed at the bottom :
this is taken from the figure of the Samnitie fhield ufed
by the Romans, and fince copied very generally by the
Bnglifh, Frencfi, and Germans.
The- Spaniards and Portuguefe have the like general
form, of fhields, but they are round at the bottom with-
out the point ; and the Germans, befide the Samnite-
fhield, have two others pretty much in ufe : thefe are,
I. The bulging fhield, difVinguifhed by its fwelling or
bulging out at the flanks; and, 2. The indented fhieldj
or fhield chancree, which has a number of notches and
indentings all round its fides. The ufe of the ancient
ftiield of this form was, that the notches ferved to reil
the lance upon, that it might be firm while it gave the
thruft J but this form being lefs proper for the recei-
ving armorial figures, the two former have been much
more ufed in the heraldry of that nation.
Befide this different form of the fhields In heraldry,
we find them alfo often diftinguifhed by their different
pofitions, fome of them Handing ere<5t, and others flant-
ing various ways, and in different degrees ; this the he-
ralds exprcfs by the word pendant, hanging," they
fceming to be hung up not by the centre, but by the
right or left corner. The French call thefe ecu pendant,
and the common antique triangular ont^ecu ancien. The
Italians call this fcuto pendente ; and the reafon given for
exhibiting the fhield in thefe figures in heraldry is, that
in the ancient tilts and tournaments, they who were to
juft at thefe military exercifes, were obli-ed to hang up
their fhields with their armories, or coats of arms on them, '
out at the windows and balconies of the houfes near the
place j or upos trees^ pavilions, or the barriers of the
ground, if the exercife was' to be performed in the'
field.
'I'hofe who were to fight on footv according to Co-
lumbier, had their fhields hung up by the right corner,
and thofe who were to fight on horfeback had theirs
hung up 'by the left. This pofition of the fliields in
heraldry is called couchehy fome writers, though by the
generality pendants
It was very frequent in all parts of Europe, in arms
given between the nth and J4th centuries; but it is
to be obferved, that the hanging by the left corner,
as it was the token of the owner's beinsr to fight on
horfeback, fo it was effeemed the moil honourable and
noble- fituation ; and all the pendant fhields of the fens
of the royal family of Scotland and England, and of our
nobility at that time, are thus hanging from the left;
corner. The hanging from this corner was a token of
the owner's being of noble birth, and having fought in
the tournaments before ; but no fovereign ever had a
fhield pendant any way, but always ereft, as they ne-
ver formally entered the liils of the tournament.
The Italians generally hare their fhields of arms of
an oval form; this feems to be done in imitation of
thofe of the popes and other dignified clergy : but their
herald Petro Sanfto feems to regret the wfe of this fi*
gure of the fhield, as an innovation broup;ht in by the
painters and engravers as moft convenient for holding
the figures, but derogatory to the honour of the polTef-
fer, as not reprefenting either antiquity or honours won
in war, but rather the honours of fome citizen or per-
fon of learning. Some have carried it fo far as to fay,
that thofe who either have no ancient title to nobility, or
have fuUied it by any vunvorthy aftion, cannot any long-
er wear their arms in fhields properly figured, but were
obliged to have them painted in an oval or round
fhield.
In Flanders, where this author lived, the round and
oval fhields. are in the difrepute he fpeaks of ; but in ■
Italy, befide the popes and dignified prelates, many of
the firft families of the laity have them.
The fecular princes, in many other countries, alfo •
retain this form of the fhield, as f the mofl ancient and
truly cxpreffive of the Roman clypc<us.
Shield, in heraldry, the efcuteheon or field on which
, the bearings of coats of arms are placed. SeeHKRALDRY.
SHIELDRAKE, in ornithology. See Anas.
SHIE-LDS, North and Soutl^two fea-port town?, .
the one north of the Tyne in Northumberland, the
other on the fouth of the Fync in the county of Dur-
ham. South Shields contains above 200 falt-pans, and
on both banks of the river are many convenient houfes
for the entertainment of feamen and colliers, moft of"
the Newcaftle coal- fleet having their ftation here ufually
till their coals are brought down in the barges and
lighters from Newcaftle. A very large Roman altar,
of one entire ftone, was found fome years ago near this
place, and put into the hands of the learned Dr Lifter,
who, in his account of it fent to the Royal Society,
fays it was erefted to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Ca-
racalla, when he took upon him the command of. the
empire and the whole army (after his father's death at
York), lor his fafe return trom his fuccefsful expedition
againll the Scota and Pids. W. Long. i. 12. N. Lat.
55' 44-
^ SHIFTERS, ^
Shield
I!
Shields.
S H I
ghiffor* SHIFTERSj on board n man of war, certain men
i| who are employed by the cooks to fliift and change the
SUUing. yyater in which the flefh or fifh is put, and laid for fome
time, in order to fit it for the kettle.
SHIFTING A TACKLE, in fea language, the aft of
removinij the blocks of a tackle to a greater diftance
from each other, on the obje£l to which they are ap-
plied, in order to give a greater fcope or extent to their
purchafe. This operation is otherwife called /Meeting.
Shifting the helm denotes the alteration of its pofition,
by pufhjng it towards the oppofite fide of the fhip.
Shihing the voyal, fionifies changing its pofition on the
capllerh, from the right to the left, and "vice verfa.
SHILLING, an Englifh filvercoin, equal to twelve
pence, or the twentieth part of a pound.
Freherus derives the Saxon fcilling^ whence our {hil-
ling, from a corruption of filiqua ; proving the deriva-
tion by feveral texts of law, *and, among others, by the
26th law, De annuls legatis. Skinner deduces it from
-the Saxon fciU " fhield," j^y reafon of the efcutcheon
of arms thereon.
Bi(hop Hooper derives it from the Arabic [check, fig-
nifying a •weight ; but others, with greater probability,
deduce it from the Latin Jtciitcus, which fignified in that
languages quarter of an ounce, or the 48th part of a
Roman pound. In confirmation of this etymology it
is alleged, that the {hilling kept its original fignification,
and bore the fame proportion to the Saxon pound^as
ficilicus did to the Roman and the Greek, being exaft-
ly the 48th part of the Saxon pound ; a difcovery
which wc owe to Mr Lambarde*.
vllholum in ^'^^^^c^j Saxon laws reckon the pound in thf
Leg. Sax. ro^^d number at 50 (hillings, but they really coined
vei:. Libra, out of it only 48 ; the vaUie of the (hilling was five-
pence ; but it vvas reduced to foHrpence above a centu-
ry before the conqueft ; for feveral of the Saxon laws,
made in Athelftan'a reign, oblige us to take this efti-
mate. Thus it continued to the Norman times, as one
pf the Conqueror's laws fufiiciently afcertains ; and it
feems to have been the common coin by which the
Englifh payments were adjufted. After the conqueft,
the French fohdus of twelvepence, which was in ufe
among the Normans, was called by the EnglKh name of
{hilling ; and the Saxon {billing of fourpencc took a
Norman name, and was called the groat, or great coin,
becaufe it was the largeft EngU{h coin then known in
England.
/ It has been the opinion of the bi(hops Fleetwood and
Gibfon, and of the antiquaries in general, that, though
the method of reckoning by pounds, marks, and (hil-
lings, as well as by pence and farthings, had been in
conllant ufe even from the Saxon times, long before
the Norman conqueit, there never was fuch a coin in
England as either a pound or a mark, nor any (hilling,
till the year 1504 or 1505, when a few filver fliilHnga
or twelve-pences were coined, which have long fince
been folely confined to the cabinets of colkiftors.
Mr Clarke combats this opinion, alleging that fome
coins mentioned by Mr Folkes, under Edward I. were
probably Saxon (hillings new minted, and that arch".
+ Cram. pI^^i^P Aelfric exprefsly faysf , that the Saxons had
Baxon, three names for their money, viz. mancufes, (hillings,
p. S»' and pennies. He alfo urges the different value of the
Saxon (hilling at different times, and its uniform pro-
portion to the pound, as an argument that their Ihil-
S H I
hng was r coin ; arid the teftlmony of the Saxon gqf, m\.
pels, in .which the word we have tranfjated pUces of fiL ''^^^i't
ver is rendered fiiWngs, which, he fays, they would
hardly have done, if there had been no fuch coin as a
(hilling then in ufe. Accordingly the Saxons expre{red
their {hilling in Latin by ficlus and argenteus. He far-
ther adds, that the Saxon {hilling was never expre{red
by folidus till after the Norman fettlements in Eng.
land ; and howfoever it altered during the long period
tliat elapfed from the conqueft to the time of Hen-
ry VII. it was the moft conftant denomination of mo-
ney in all payments, though it was then only k fpecies
of account, or the twentieth part of the pound Ster-
ling : and when it was again revived as a coin, it lelfen-
ed gradually as the pound Sterling k{rened, from the
28th of Edward III. to the 43d of Elizabeth.
In the year 1560 there was a peculiar fort of {lul-
ling ftruck in Ireland, of the value of ninepence Eng-
li{h, which paffed in Ireland for twelvepence. The
motto oil the reverfe was, pofui Deum acljutorem
meum. Eighty- two of thefe fliillings, according to Ma.-
lynes, went to the pound ; they therefore we'ighed 20
grains, one-fourth each, which is fomewhat heavier in
proportion than the Engli{h fhllling of that time, 62
whereof went to the pound, each weighing 92 grains
feven-eighths ; and the Iridi (lulling being valued at the
Tower at ninepence Engli{h, that is, one- fourth part
lefs than the EnglKh (hilling, it (hould therefore pro-
portionably weigh one fourth part lefs, and its full
weight be fomewhat more than 62 grains ; but fome
of them found at this time, though much worn, weighed
69 grains. In the year 1598, five different pieces
of money of this kind were ftruck in England for the
fervice of tlie kingdom of Ireland. Thefe were (hil-
lings to be current in Ireland at twelvepence each ; half
(hiUings to be current at iixpence, and quarter ftiillings
at threepence. Pennies and halfpennies were alfo ftruck
of the fame kind, and fent over for the payment of the
army in Ireland. The money thus coined was of a
very bafe mixture of copper and filver ; and two years
after there were more pieces of the fame kinds ftruck
for the fame fervice, which were ftill worfe ; the former
being three ounces of filver to nine ounces of copper j
and thefe latter only two ounces eighteen pennyweights
to nine ounces two pennyweights of the alloy.
The Dutch, Flemifti, and Germans, have likewife
their (hilling, called fchelln, fchUUng, fcalin, 5cc. but thefe
, not being of the fame weight or finenefs with the Eng.
li{h fliilling, are not current at the fame value. The
Englifti (hilling is worth about 23 French fols } thofe
of Holland and Germany about 11 fols and an half}
thofe of Flanders about nine. The Dutch {hilhngs are
alfo called fols de gros, becaufe equal to twelve gros»
The Danes have copper (hillings worth about one-
fourth of a farthing Sterling.
SHILOH is a term famous among interpreters
and commentators upon Scripture. It is found {Gen.
xlix. 10.) to denote the Me{fiah, The patriarch Ja-
cob foretels his coming in thefe words ; " The fceptre
ftiall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from be-
tween his feet, until Shiloh come ; and unto him fhall
the gathering of the people be." The Hebr6;w text
reads, K3' O "'y unti/ Shi/oh come. All Chriftian com-
mentators agree, that this word ought to be underftoocj
of the Meffiah, or Jefus Chrift j but all are not agreed
about
S H I [3
about its literal and grammatical fipjnificatt'on. St Jerome,
who trail Gates it by miitendus eji, manifeftly reads Sh'i-
loach *' fent," inftead of Shlloh, T'he Septuagint have it
(tv fXS-d Tct a^nytiumc outd; Of, Eaf av iK^n a a^oy.iircti,
(.as if they had read inftead of n'w), i. e. «' Until
the coming of him to whom it is referved ;" or, *' Till
we fee arrive that which is referved for him."
It muli be owned, that the fignification of the He-
brew word ^hiloh is not well known- Some tranflate,
*' the fceptre fhsU not depart from Judah, till he comes
to whom it belongs ;" Tb-v or inilead of Ov
thers, " till the coming of the peace-maker ;" or, " the
{pacific or, *' of profperity," ribv profperatus eft. Sha-
tab lignifies, " to be in peace, to be in profperity ;"
others, '* till the birth of him who fhall be born of a
woman that fhall conceive without the knowledge of a
T-^d man," or ^""^^ fecundina^ jluxus\ ; othervvife, " the
fceptre fhall not depart from Judah, till its end, its ruin ;
till the downfal of the kingdom of the Jews," ''xw or
■r' rh's} it has ceafed, it has finijhed ^. Some Rabbins have
^' taken the name S'tloh or Shiloh, as it it fignified the city
of this name in Paleftine : " The fceptre lhall not be
taken aw^y from judah till it comes to Shiloh ; till it
fhall be taken from him to be given to Saul at Shiloh."
But in what part of Scripture is it faid, that Saul was
acknowledged as king or confecrated at Shiloh ? If we
would underftand It of Jeroboam the fon ot Nebat, the
matter is ftill as uncertain. The Scripture mentions no
aflembly at Shiloh that admitted him as king. A more
modern author derives Shiloh from nbii-, faiigare, which
fometimes fignifies to he loeary^ to fuffhr ; '* till his la-
bours, his fufferings, his paflion, fliall happen."
But not to amufe ourfelves about feeking out the
gi-ammatical fignification of Shiloh, it is fufficient for
us to fhow, that the ancient Jews are in this matter
agreed with the Chriftians : they acknowledge, that
this word Hands for the Mejfiah the King. It Is thus
that the paraphrafts Onkelos and Joi>athan, that the an-
cient Hebrew commentaries upon Genefis, and that the
7'almudifts themfelves, explain it. If Jefus Chrift and
his apoftles did not make ufe of this paffage to prove
the coming of the Meffiah, it was becaufe then the com-
pletion of this prophecy was not fufiiciently manifeft.
The fceptre ftill continued among the Jews ; they had
ftill kings of their own nation in the perfons of the He-
rods ; but foon after the fceptre was entirely taken
away from them, and has never been reftored to them
fince.
The conceited Jews feek in vain to put forced mean-
ings upon this prophecy of Jacob ; faying, for example,
that the fceptre intimates the dominion of ftrangers, to
which they have been in fubjeftion, or the hope of fee-
ing one day the fceptre or fupreme power fettled again
among themfelves. It is eafy to perceive, that all this
is contrived to deliver themfelves out of perplexity. In
vain likewife they take refuge in certain princes of the
captivity, whom they pretend to have fubfifted beyond
the Euphrates, exercifmg an authority over their nation
little differing from abfohite, and being of the race of
David. This pretended fucceflion of princes is per-
fectly chimerical; and though at certain times they
could fhow a fucceflion, it continued but a fhort time,
and their authority was too obfcure, and too much li-
mited, to be the objed of a prophecy fo remarkable as
this was.
5; ] SHI
SHINGLES, in building, fmall pieces of wood, er.
quartered oaken boards, fawn to a certain fcantling, or,
as is more ufual, cleft to about an inch thick at one
end, and made hke wedges, four or five inches broad,
and eight or nine inches long.
Shingles are ufed inftead of tiles or flates, efpecially
for churches and fteeples ; however, this coverinfg is
dear ; yet, where tiles are very fcarce, and a light co-
vering is required, it is preferable to thatch ; and where
they are made of good oak, cleft, and not fawed, and
well feafoned in water and the fun, they make a fure,
light, and durable covering.
The building is firil to be covered all over with
boards, and the fhingles nailed upon them.
SHIP, a general name for all large vefTels, particu-
larly thofe equipped with three malts and a bowfprit ;
the mafts being compofed of a lowermaft, topmaft, and
top-gallant-maft : each of thefe being provided with
yards, fails, &c. Ships, in general, are either employ-
ed for war or merchandize.
Ships of War are veflels properly equipped with ar^
tillery, ammunition, and all the necefl'ary martial wea-
pons and inftruments for attack or defence. They are
diftinguifhed from each other by their feveral ranks or
claffes, called ratesy as follows : Ships of the lirft rate
mount from loo guns to i lo guns and upwards ; fe-
cond rate, from 90 to 98 guns ; third rate, from 64 to
74 guns ; fourth rate, from 50 to. 60 guns ; fifth rate,
from 32 to 44 guns; and fixth rates, from 20 to 28
guns. See the article Rate. VefTels carrying lefs than 20
guns are denominated Jloops, cutters, fire-JJj'ips, and bombs.
It has lately been propofed to reduce the mrmber of
thefe rates, which would be a faving to the nation, and
alio produftlve of feveral material advantages.
In Plate CCCCL. is the reprefentation of a hrft:
rate, with rigging, &c. the feveral parts of which are
as follow :
Parts of the hull— A, The cathead ; B, The fore-
chain-wales, or chains ; C, The main-chains ; D, The
mizen-chains ; E, The entering port ; F, The hawfe-
holcs ; G, The poop-lanterns ; H, The chefs-tree ; I,
The head ; K, The ftern.
I, The bowfprit. 2, Yard and fail. 3, Gammon-
ing. 4, Manrop. 5, Bobftay. 6, Spritfail-fheets.
7, Pendants. 8, Braces and pendants. 9, Halliards.
I c. Lifts. 1 1 , X^lue-lines. 12, Sprit fail -horfes. 13,
Buntlines. 14, Standing lifts. 15, Bowfprit-fhroud.
16, Jib-boom. 17, JIbftay and fail. 18, Halliards.
19, Sheets. 20, Horfes. 21, Jib-guy. 22, Spritfail-
topfail yard. 23, Horfes. 24, Sheets. 25, Lifts.
26, Bi'aces and pendants. 27, Cap of bowfprit. 28,
Jack ftaff. 29, Truck. 30, Jack flag. — 31, Fore
mcift. 32, Runner and tackle. 33, Shrowds. 34,
Laniards. 35, Stay and laniard. 36, Pieventer-ftay
and laniard. 37, Woolding of the maft. 38, Fore-
yard and fail. 39, Horfes. 4c, Top. 41, Crowfoot,
42, Jeers. 43, Yard-tackles. 44, Lifts. 45, Braces
and pendants. 46, Sheets. 47, Forctacks. 48,. Bow-
lines and bridles. 49, Fore bunt-lines. 5c, Fore leech-
lines. 51, Preventer-brace. 52, Futtock-Pnrouds. — -
53, Foretop-majl. 54, Shrouds and laniards. 55, Fore-
top-fail yard and fail. 56, Stay and faiL 57, Runner.
58, Back-ftays. 59, Halliards. 60, Lifts. 61, Braces
and pendants. 62, Horfes. 63, Clew-lines. 64, Bow-
lines and bridles. 65, Reef-tackles. 66, Sheets. 67^
6 Buntlines-,
\
S HI [36
Shlj). '^unt-lincs. 68, Crofs trees. 69, Cap. 70, Foretop-
^-""V**^ gallant-maft. 71, Shrouds. 72, Yard and fail. 73,
Backftays. 74, Stay. 75, Lifts. 7 '^j Clew-lines. 77,
Braces and pendants. 78, Bowlines and bridles. 79,
Flag-ftafF. 80, Truck. 81, Flag-ftay-ftafF. 82, Flag
of the lord high admiral. — 83, Mainmqft. 84, Shrouds.
85, Laniards. 86, Runner and tackle. 87, Futtock-
fhrouds. 88, Top-lantern. 89, Crank of ditto. 90,
Stay. 91, Preventer ftay. 92, Stay-tackle«. 93,
Woolding of the maft. 94, Jeers. 95, Yard-tacklcs.
96, Lifts. 97, Braces and pendants. 98, Horfes. 99,
:5heets. 100, Tacks. 10 1, Bowlines and bridles.
102, Crow-foot. 103, Cap. 104, Top. 105, Bunt-
lines. 1 06, Leech -lines. 107, Yard and fail. — ic8,
Ma'm-topmajl. 109, Shrouds and laniards. 1 10, Yard
and fail. iii, Futtock fhrovds. H2, Backftays.
113, Stay. 114, Stay fail and halliards. 115, Tye.
1 1 6, Halliards. 117, Lifts. 1 1 8, Clew-lines. 119,
Braces and pendants. i20»Horfes. 121, Sheets. 122,
Bowlines and bridles. 123., Buntlines. 124, ReeiE-
tackles. 125, Crofs-trees. 126, Cap. — 127, Main-top-
gallant'tnaft, 128, Shrouds and laniards. 129, Yard
and fail. 130, Backftays. 131, Stay. 132, Stay-
fail and halliards. 133, Lifts. 134, Braces and pen-
dants. 1 3 J, Bowlines and bridles. 136, Clew-lines.
137, FlagftafF. 138, Truck. 139, Flagftaff- ftay. 140,
Flag ftandard. — 141, Mixeti'tnaji. 142, Shrouds and
laniards. 143, Cap. 144, Yard and (ail. 145,
Block for fignal halliards. 146, Sheet. 147, Pen-
dant lines. 148, Peck brails. 149, Stayfail. 150,
"Stay. 151, Derrick and fpan. i?2, Top. 153,
•Crofs-jack-yard. 154, Crofs-jack lifts. 1 55, Croft-
jack braces. 156, Crofs-jack flings. — 157, Mizen-top-
mafl. 158, Shrouds and laniards. 159, Yard and fail.
1 60, Backftays. 161, Stay. 162, Halliards. 163,
Lifts. 164, Braces and pendants. 165, Bowlines
and bridles. 166, Sheets. 167, Clew-lines. 168,
Stayfail. i6g, Crofs- trees. 170, Cap. 171, Flag-
iiaflf. 172, FlagftafF-ftay. 173, Truck. 174, Flag,
union. 175, Enfign-ftafF. 176, Truck. 177, En-
5gn. 178, Stern ladder. 179, Bower cable.
Fig. 2. Plate CCCCLL is a vertical longitudinal
fcftion of a firft rate ftiip of war, with irefecences to the
principal parts ; which are as follow:
A, Is the head, containing, — 1, The ftem ; 2, The
knee of the head or cutwater. ; 3, The lewer and up-
jper -cheek ; 4, The trail-board ; 5, The figure ; 6, The
gratings ; 7, The brackets ; 8, The falfe ftem ; 9, The
breaft hooks ; i o, The haufe holes ; 1 1 , The bulkhead
forward; 1 2, The cat -head : 13, The cat-hook; 14,
Neceflary feats; 15, The manger within board; 16,
The bowfprit.
B, LTpon the fbrecatlle — 17, The gratings ; ! 8, The
partners of the maft ; 19, The gunwale; 20, The bel-
fry ; 2 1 , Tiic funnel for fmoTie ; 2 2, 'ITic gangway go-
ing off the forecattle ; 23, The forecaftle guns.
C, In the forecaftle — 24, The door of the bulkhead
forward ; 25, Officers cabijis ; 26, Staircafe ; 27, Forc-
tqp-fail ftieet bits ; 28, The beams ; 29, The carlings.
D, The middle gundeck forward — 30, The fore-
Jeer bit-e; 3 J, The oven and furnace of copper ; 33, The
captain's cookrroom,; 33, The ladder or way to the
forecaftle.
E, The lower gun-deck forward — 34, The knees fore
afldaft ; 35, The fgirketinga^ or the firft ftrcak next
3 1 SHI
to each deck, the next under the beams being called akip»
clamps; 36, The beams of the middle gun deck fore and —
aft ; 37, The carlings of the middle gun -deck fore and
aft; 38, , The fore-bits } 39, The after or main bits j
40, The hatchway to the gunner's and boatfwain'a
ttore-rooms ; 4 1 , The jeer capftan.
F, The orlop — 42, 43, 44, The gunser'a, boatfwain*s»
and carpenter's ftore-Tooms ; 45, The beams of the
lower gun-deck ; 4f>, 47, The pillars and the riders,
fore and aft 5 48, The bulkhead of the ftore-rooms.
G, The hold— 49, 50, 51, The foot- hook rider, the
floor rider, and the ftandard, fore and aft ; 52, The
pillars ; 53, The ftep of the foremaft ; 54, 'Hie kelfon,
or falfe keel, and dead rifing ; 55, The dead-wood.
H, At midfhips in the hold— 56, The floor timbers 5
57, The keel; 58, The well ; 59, The chain- pump ;
6s, The ftep of the mainmaft ; 6i, 62, Beams and ear-
lings of the orlop, fore and aft.
I, The o*-lop amidfhips — 63, The cable tire ; 64, The
^ain hatchway.
K, The lower gun-deck amidfliips — 6y, The ladder
leading up to the middle gun-deck; 66, The lower tire
of ports.
L, The middle gun-deck amidlhip — 67, The middle
tire of ports ; 68, The entering port ; 69, The nwin
jeer bits; 70, Twifted pillars or ftanchions; 71, The
capftan ; 72, Gratings j 73, The ladder leading to the
upper deck.
M, The upper gun-^eckamidftiips — 74, The maintop-
fail-(heet bits; 75, The upper partners-of the mainmaft;
76, The gallows on which fpare topmafts &c. are laid ;
77, The forefheet blocks ; 78, The rennets ; 79, The
gunwalj ; 80, The upper gratings ; 81, The drift
bradicts; 82, The pifs dale ; 83, The capftan pall.
N, Abaft the mainmaft — 84, The gangway off the
quarterdeck; 85, The bulkhead of the coach; 86, The
ftaircafe down to the middle gun-deck ; 87, The beams
of the upper deck ; 88, The gratings about the main-
maft ; 89, The coach or council-chamber ; 90, The
ftaircafe up to the quarterdeck.
O, The quarterdeck— 91, The beams ; 92, The car-
lings ; 93, The partners of the mizenmaft ; 94, The
gangway up to the poop ; 95, The bulkhead of the
cuddy.
P, The poop — 96, The trumpeter's cabin ; 97, The
tafForel.
Qj_The captain'* cabin.
R, The cuddy, ufually divided for the mafter and fe-
cretary's officers.
S, The ftate-room, out of which t* made the bed-
•chamber and other conveniences for the commander in
■chief ; 98, The entrance into the gallery ; 99, The
bulkhead of the great cabinj loo, The ftern lights and
after galleries.
l\The ward-room, allotted for the lieutenants and ma-
rine officers : loi. The lower ?allery ; 102, The fteer-
age and bulkhead of the wardroom; 103, The whip-
ftdff, commanding the tiller j 1 04, The after ftaircafe
leading down to the lower gun-deck.
V, Several officers cabins abaft tlw mainmaft, where
the foldiera generally keep guard.
W, The gim-room— 105, The tiller commanding the
rudder; to6) The rudder; 107, 1 he ftern-poft; 108,
The tiller-tranfom ; 109, The feveral tranforas, viz. i»
2, 3, 4, 5. ; 110, The gun-room ports, or ftern-chafe ;
5
S H I
C 3^9 1
S H I
I r t, The bread -room fcuttle, out of tlie gun-room;
1 1 2, The main capftan ; 1 1 ^, The pall of the capftan ;
114, The partner ; 115. The bulkhead of the bread
room.
X, The bread-room.
Y, The fteward's room, where all provifions are
weisrhed and ferved out.
Z, The cockpit, where are fubdivifions for the purfer,
the furgeon, and his matea.
A A, The platform or orlop, where provifion is made
for the wounded in the time of fervice ; 116, The hold
abaft the m.ain-maft ; 117, The ftep of the mizen-maft ;
1 1 8, The kelfon, or falfe keel ; 119, The dead wood,
or rifing.
Ships of war are fitted out either at the expence of
the ftate or by individuals. Thofe fitted out at the
public expence are called King's Jhips, and are divided
into Jhips of the line, frigates^ Jloops, Sec. For an
account of eaqh of thefe, fee the refpedlive articles.
Ships of war fitted out by individuals are called priva-
teers. See the article Privateer.
j^rmed-Smv. See Akun-D-Ship.
Bomb-Snip. See BoMB-VeJfels.
Doiibie-SHip, See Snip-BuUding,
Flre-Snip. See FiRK-Ship.
Hofpital Snipy a velTel fitted up to attend on a fleet
of men of war, and receive their fick or wounded ;
for whicTi purpofe her decks fhould be high, and her
perts fufficiently large. Her cables ought alfo to run
^ipon the upper deck, to the end that the beds or cra-
dles may be more commodioufly placed between decks,
and admit a free palfage of the air to dilperfe that
which is offenfive or corrupted.
Merchant-Snip^ a vefTel employed in commerce to
carry commodities of various forts from one port to
another.
The largeft merchant fhips are thofe employed by
the difi^erent companies of merchants who trade to the
Eaft Indies. They are in general larger than our 40
gun fhips ; and are commonly mounted with 20 guns
on their upper-deck, which are nine pounders ; and fix
t>n their quarter-deck, which are fix pounders.
Regijler-Stiip. See REGiSTEH-Ship.
Store- Ship, a veffel employed to carry artillery or
naval (lores for the ufe of a fleet, fortrefs, or garrifon.
Tranf port-Snip, is generally ufed to condudl troops
from one place to another.
Befides the different kinds of fiilps abovementioned,
which arc denominated from the purpofe for which
they are employed, veffcls have alfo, in general, been
■named according to the different manner of rigging
them. It would be an endlefs, and at the fame time an
\mneceflary taflc, to enumerate all the different kinds of
vefTels with refpecl to their rigging ; and therefore a
few only are here taken notice of. Fig. 3. Plate
CCCCLI. is a Jbip which would be converted into a
larh by itripping the mi/.en maft of its yards and the
fails belonging to them. IFeach maft, its correfponding
topmai't and topgaUant-malt, inttead of being compoftd
of feparate pieces of wood, were all of one continued
piece, then this veffel with very little alteration would
be a polacre. Fig. 4. reptelcnts a fnoiu ; fig. 5. a bi-
lander ; fig. 6- a brig ; fig. 7. a ketch ; fig. 8. a fchoon-
€r ; fig. 9. a Jl op ; fig. lo. a %ebec ; fig. i 1 . a galliot ;
fig. Ti. a dogger ; fig. 13. z galley under fail; fig. 14.
ditto rowing.
Vol. XVII. Part L
Ships are alfo fometlmes named accordinir t© the dif- Ship,
ferent modes of their conftrucSlion, I'hus we fay, a cat- '~- \ * "'"'^
built fliip, &c.
To Ship, is either ufed aftively, as to embark any
perfon or put any thing aboard fhip : or paffively, to
receive any thing into a flup ; as, '* we fhipped a hea- ' '
vy fea at three o'clock in the morning."
To Ship, alfo implies to fix any thing in its place j
as, to fhip the oars, that is, to put theman their row-
locks ; to fliip the fwivel guns, is to fix them in theif
fockets ; to fhip the handfpokes, &c.
Machine for draiuing Bolts out of Ships, an inftni-
ment invented by Mr William Hill for this purpofe.
His account of which is as follows*. * Tranpc*
" Firff, The ufe of this machine is to draw the kel-^'"":' "f*'"
fon and dead wood bolts out, and to draw the knee oiil"^En{Z-
the head bolts. — Secondly, The heads of the kelfon \>o\\a,ragement of
heretofore were all obliged to be driven thro' the kelfon, ^fts, &c.
floor-timbers, and keel, to get them out: by this means
the kelfon is often entirely deftroyed, and the large hole
the head makes materially wounds the floors ; and fre-
quently, when the bolt is much corroded, it fcarfs, and
the bolt comes out of the fide of the keel. — Thirdly,
The dead-wood bolts that are driven with two or three
drifts, are feldom or never'got out, by which means the
dead-wood is condemned, when fome of it is really fer*-
viceable. — Fourthly, In drawing the knee of the head-
bolts, fometimes the knee fi:arts off, and cannot be got
to again, but furs up, and with this machine may be
drawn in ; for it has been proved to have more power
in ftarting a bolt than the maul."
I" fig- I- " A, A, reprefent two flirong malefcrews, pi^tc
working in female fcrevvs near the extremities of theCCCCLIIL
cheeks, againfl plates of iron E, E. C C is the bolt
to be drawn ; which, being held between the chaps of
the machine at DD, is, by turning the fcrews by the
lever B, forced upwards out of the wood or plank of
the fiiip. F, F, are two dogs, with hooks at their low-
er extremities; which, being driven into the plank, fervc
to fupport the machine till the chaps have got fait hold
of the bolt. At the upper pait of thefe dogs are rings
pafiing thro' holes in a collar, moveable near the heads
of the fcrews. Fig. 2. is a view of the upper fide ot the
cheeks when joined together; a, the holes in which
the fcrews work ; h, the chaps by wdich the bolts are
drawn. Fig. 3 . The under fide of the cl\eck : a, a,
the holes in which the fcrews work ; b, the chaps by
which the bolts are drawn, and where the teeth that
gripe the bolt are more diftinftly fhown. Fig. 4, One
of the cheeks fepaiated from the other, the letters refer-
ring as in Mg. 2. and 3.
This machine was tried In his majefty's yard at Dept-
ford, and was found of the greatell utility. — " Firft, it
drew a bolt that was driven down fo tight as only to
go one inch in fixteen blows with a double-headed
maul, and was well clenched below : the bolt drew the
ring a confiderable way into the wood, and wire drew
itfelf through, and left the ring behind. Secondly,
it drew a bolt Out of the Venus's dead-wood that could
not be got out by the maul. That part of it which
went through the keel was bent clofe up to the lower
part of the dead-wood, and the machine drew the bolt
llraight, and drew it out with eafe. It alfo drew a kelfon
bolt out of the Stanley Weft Indiaman, in Meffrs
Wells's yard, Deptford ; which being a bolt of two
drifts, could not be driven out.
3 A Management
* Taylor's
SHI [ 37
Management of Ships at fmgle anchor^ ts the method
of taking care of a fhip while riding at fingle anchor in
a tide-way, by preventing her from fouling her anchor,
Sec. The following rules for this purpofe, with which
we have been favoured by Mr Henry Taylor* of North
Injlruai,ns gj^j^jj ^jj^ found of the utmoft confequence.
to X OU US' „ . . . . . . , r n r ■ t 1
Ollllg
J^ariiiers
Jtiding at
Anchor in
moderate
Wnatber,
I
When the
fliip will
back.
Riding in a tide-way, with a frefh-of-wind, the fhip
Ihould have what is called a (hort or to'indnvard fervice^
fay 45 or 50 fathoms of cable, and always flieered~to
windward (a), not always with the helm hard down,
but more or lefs fo according to the ftrength or weak-
nefs of the tide. It is a known fadl, that many (hips
fheer their anchors home, drive on board of other (hips,
and on the fands near which they rode, before it has
been difcovered that the anchor- had been moved from
the place where it was let go.
When the wind is crofs, or nearly crofs, off fhore, or
in the oppofite direction, fhips will always back. This
is done by the mizen-topfail, affiif ed, if needful, by the
mizen-ilayfail ; fuch as have no mizen-topfail com-
monly ufe the main-topfail, or if \\ blows frefh, a top-
gallant-fail, or any fuch fall at the gaff.
In backing, a fhip fhould always wind with a taught
cable, that it may be certain the anchor is drawn round.
In cafe \there is not a fufficiency of wind for that pur-
pofe, the fhip fhould be hove apeak.
Riding with the wind afore the beam, the yards
yards ought {hould be braced forward; if abaft the beam, they are
to be bra. \,xzz^di all aback.
■ ^ If the wind is fo far aft that the fhip will not back
Riding (which fhould not be attempted if, when the tide eafes,
windward the fliip forges ahead, and brings the buoy on the lee
quarter), fhe muft be fet ahead : if the wind is far aft,
and blows frefh, the utmolt care and attention is necef-
fary, as fhips riding in this fituation often break their
fheer, and come to windward of their anchors again.
It fhould be obferved, that when the fhip lies in this
ticklifh fituation, the after-yards muft be braced for-
ward, and the fore-yards the contrary way : fhe will lay
fafe, as the buoy can be kept on the lee quarter, or fup-
pofe the helm is aport, as long as the buoy is on the
larboard quarter. With the helm thus, and the wind
right aft, or nearly fo, the ilarboard main and fore bra-
ces fhould be hauled in. This fuppofes the main braces
to lead forward.
Tendin to When the fhip begins to tend to leeward, and the
kewarcf buoy comes on the weather- quarter, the firil thing to
•when the be done is to brace about the fore-yard ; and when the
ftiipmuft wind comes near the beam, fet the fore-ftayfail, and
be fet a-
head.
How the
tide In dan
ger of
breaking
her fheer
o ] SHI
keep it flanding until it fhakes; then brace ail the yards Sl i
fliarp forward, efpecially if it is likely to blow ftrong^ "
If laying in the aforefaid pofition, and fhe breaks her
fheer, brace about the nrvain- yard immediately; ifflremanaj,
recovers and brings the buoy on the lee or larboard quar- when
ter, let the main-yard be again braced about; but if fhe||"I'
come to a fheer the other way, by bringing the buoy
on the other quarter, change the helm and brace the
fore-yard to.
Riding; leeward tide with more cable than the wind- When
ward fervice, and expetling the fhip will go to wind-'^/'g.'^
ward of her anchor, begin as foon as the tide eafes to J^*^^ ^'j^
fliorten in the cable. This is often hard work ; but it^i,;
is neceffary to be done, otherwife the anchor may be ly to
fouled by the great length of cable the fhip has to draw windv«
round ; but even if that could be done, the cable would
be damaged againft the bows or cut- water, ft is to
be obferved, that when a fhip rides windward tide the '
cable fliould be cackled from the fhort fervice towards
the anchor, as far as will prevent the bare part touch-
ing the fhip.
When the fhip tends to windward and muft be fet a-
head, hoiil the tore-ftayfail as foon as it will ftand, and
when the buoy comes on the leequarter, haul down the
fore-flayfail, brace to the fore-yard, and put the helm
a-lee ; for till then the helm muft be kept a-weather and
the yards full.
When the fhip rides leeward tide, and the wind in-
creafes, care fhould be taken to give her more ca- man
ble in time, otherwife the anchor may ftart, and pro-^fto
bably it will be troublefome to get her brought up a-
gain ; and this care is the more neceffary when the fhip
rides in the haufe of another fhip. Previous to giving
a long fervice it is ufual to take a weather-bit, that is,
a turn of the cable over the windlafs end, fo that in
veering away the fhip will be under comnr»nd. The
fervice ought to be greafed, which will prevent its cha-
fing in the haufe.
If the gale continues to increafe, the topmafts fhould
be ftruck in time ; but the fore-yard fhould feldom, if
ever, be lowered down, that in cafe of parting the fore,
fail may be ready to be fet. At fuch times there fhould
be more on deck than the- common anchor- watch, that
no accident may happen from inattention or falling a.
fleep.
In a tide-way a fecond anchor fhould never be let
go but when abfolutely neceffary ; for a fhip will feme-
times ride eafier and fafer, efpecially if the fea runs high,
with a very long fcope of cable and ©ne anchor, than with
7 lefs
(a) It has been thought by fome theorifts, that fhips fhould be fheered ta leeward of tlieir anchors ; but expe-
rience and the common prafitice of the beft informed feamen are againft that opinion : for it is found, that when a
fhip rides leeward tide and fheered to windward, with the wind two or three points upon the bow, and blowing
hard in the interval between the fqualls, the fheer will draw her towards the wind's eye ; fo that when the next
fquall comes, before fhe be preffed aftream of her anchor, it is probable there will be a lull again, and the fpring
which the cable got by the fticer will greatly eafe it during the fquall.
Every feaman knows that no fhip without a rudder, or the helm left loofe, will wear ; they always in fuch fi,
tuations fly to : this proves that the wind prcffing upon the quarter and the helm alee, a fhip will be lefs liable
to break her fheer than when the helm is a-weather. Befides, if the helm is a-lee when fire breaks her fheer, it
will be a-weather when the wind comes on the other quarter, as it ought to be until fhe either fwing to leeward,
or bring the buoy on the other quarter. Now if the fhip breaks her fheer with the helm a-weather, it throws her
kead to the wind fo fuddenly as fcarce to give time to brace the yards about, and very probably fhe will fall ovet
ber anchor before the fore-ftayfail can be got up.
I
SHI [3;
p' lefs length and two cables ; however, it Is advlfable, as a
preventive, when fhips have not room to drive, and the
night is dark, to let fall a fecond anchor under foot, with
a range of cable along' the deck. If this is not thought
neceffary to be done, the decp-fea lead fhould be thrown
overboard, and the line frequently handled by the watch,
that they may be affured (he rides faft.
If at any time the anchor-watch, prefuming on their
chor knowledge, fhould wind the fhip, or fufFer her to
break her fheer without calling the mate, he fhould im-
mediately, or the very firft opportunity, oblige the crew
to heave the anchor in fight ; which will prevent the
commiffion of the like fault again ; for befides the fliare of
trouble the watch will have, the reft of the crew will
blame them for neglefting their duty.
Prudent mates feldom lie a week in a road-ftead
^'H^/'gj without heavii!g their anchor in fight; even though they
have not the leaft fufplcion of iLs being foul. There
are other reafons why the anchor fliould be looked at ;
fometimes the cable receives damage by fweeping wrecks
or anchors that have been loft, or from rocks or ftones ;
and It is often neceffary to trip the anchor, in order to
take a clearer birth, which fhould be done as often as
any fhip brings up too near.
Method for the fafe removal of fuch Ships as have been
driven on Jhore. For this purpofe empty callcs are ufu-
ally employed to float off the veiTel, efpecially if fhe Is
fmall, and at the fame time near the port to which it is
propofed to conduft her. In other cafes, the following
hfophi- u^ethod adopted by Mr Barnard * will anfwer.
" On January i. 1779 (fays Mr Barnard), inamoft
dreadful ilorm, the York Eafl Indiaman, of eight hun-
dred tons, homeward bound, with a pepper cargo, part-
ed her cables in Margate roads, and was driven on fliore,
within one hundred feet of the head and thirty feet of
the fide of Margate pier, tlien drawing twenty-two feet
fix inches water, the flow of a good fpring tide being
only fourteen feet at that place.
" On the third of the fame month I went down, as a
fliip-builder, to afiift, as much as lay in my power, my
worthy friend Sir Richard Hotham, to whom the fhip
belonged. I found her perfeftly upright, and her fhere
for fide appearance) the fame as when firft built, but
funk to the twelve feet water-mark fore and aft in a bed
of chalk mixed with a ftiff blue clay, exaftly the fhape
of her body below that draft of water ; and from the
rudder being torn from her as fhe ftruck coming on
fhore, and the violent agitation of the fea after her be-
ing there, her ftern was fo greatly injured as to admit
free accefs thereto, which filled her for four days equal
to the flow of the tide. Having fully informed myfelf
of her fituation and the flow of fpring-tides, and being
clearly of opinion flie might be again got off, I recom-
mended, as the firft neceffary ftep, the immediate dif-
charge of the cargo ; and, in the progrefs cf -that bufi-
nefs, I found the tide always flowed to the fame height
OH the fhip ; and when the cargo was half difchargv.d,
find I knew the remaining part fhould not make her
draw' more than eighteen feet water, and while I was
obferving the water at twenty-two feet fix inches by the
fhip's marks, fhe Inftantly lifted to feventeen feet eight
inches ; the water and air being before excluded by her
preffure on the clay, and the atmofphere adling upon
lier upper part equal to fix hundred tons, which is the
] SHI
weight of water difplaced at the difference of thcfe two Ship
drafts of water.
" T he moment the fhip lifted, I difcovered fire had
received more damage than was at firft apprehended, her
leaks being fuch as filled her from four to eighteen feet
water In an hour and a half. As nothing effeftual was
to be expefted from pumping, fevcral fcuttles or holes
In the fliip's fide were made, and valves fixed thereto,
to draw off the water at the loweft ebb of the tide, to
facilitate the difcharge of the remaining part of the car-
go ; and, after many attempts, I fucceeded in an exter-
nal application of flieep-flclns fewed on a fail and thruft
under the bottom, to flop the body of water from rufh-
Ing fo furioufly into the fliip. This bufiffefs effefted,
moderate pumping enabled us to keep the fhip to about
fix feet water at low water, and by a vigorous effort we
could bring the fliip fo light as (when the cargo fhould
be all difcharged) to be eafily removed into deeper water.
But as the external application might be diflurbed by
fo doing, or totally removed by the agitation of the
fhip, it was abfolutely neceffary to provide fome per-
manent fecurity for the lives of thofe w^ho were to na-
vigate her to the river Thames. I then recommended
as the cheapcft, quickeft, and moft eff'eftual plan, to lay
a deck in the hold, as low as the water could be pump-
ed to, framed fo loHdly and fecurely, and caulked fo tight,
as to fwim the fliip Independent of her own leaky bottom.
" Beams of fir-timber twelve inches fquare were pla-
ced In the hold under every lower-deck beam In the
fhip, as low as the water would permit ; thefe were in
two pieces, for the convenlency of getting them down,
and alfo for the better fixing them of an exaft length,
and well bolted together when in their places. Over
thefe were laid long Dantzic deals of two Inches and
an half thick, well nailed and caulked. Agalnft the
fhip's fide, all fore and aft, was well nailed a piece of
fir twelve Inches broad and fix Inches thick on the low-
er and three Inches on the upper edge, to prevent the
deck from rifing at the fide. Over the deck, at every
beam, was laid a crofs piece of fir timber fix Inches deep
and twelve inches broad, reaching from the pillar of
the hold to the fhip's fide, on which the fliores were to
be placed to refift the ptefTure of the water beneath.
On each of thefe, and agalnft the lower-deck beam, at
equal diftances from the fide and middle of the fhip, was
placed an upright flrore, fix inches by twelve, the lower
end let two Inches Into the crofs piece. From the foot
of this fhore to the fliip's fide, under the end of every
lower deck beam, was placed a diagonal fhore fix inch-
es by twelve, to eafe the fhip's deck of part of the ftrain
by throwing it on the fide. An upright fhore of three
Inches by twelve was placed from the end of every crofs
piece to the lower deck beams at the fide, and one of
three Inches by twelve on the midfhip end of every crofs
piece to the lower deck beam, and nailed to the pillars
in the hold. Two firm tight bulkheads or partitions
were made as near the extremes of the fliip as poffible.
The ceiling or Infide plank of the fhip was very fecurely
caulked up to the lower deck, and the whole formed a
complete fhip with a flat bottom within fide, to fwim the
outfide leaky one ; and that bottom being depreffed fix
feet below the external water, refifted the fhip's weight
above it equal to five hundred and eighty-one tons, and
fafely conveyed her to the dry-dock at l)eptford."
SHIP*
\
S PI I P-B u
>fiJuIon Q HIP-BUILDING, or Kavai. Architecture,
"^'^ O IS the art of conftrufting a fhip fo as to anfwer a
1 particular purpofe either cf war or merchandife.
Hiftory. Towliom the world is indehtedfor the inventionof fhips,
is, like all other things of equal antiquity, uncertain.
A very fniall portion of art (^r contrivance was feen
in the firil fhips : they were neither ftrong nor durable;
but confifted only of a few planks laid together, with-
out beauty or ornament, and jull fo cornpafted as to
keep out t!ie water. In feme places they were only the
hulks or ftocks of trees hollowed, and then coniifted
onlv of o)ie piece of timber. Nor was wood alone ap-
plied to this ufe ; but any other buoyant materials, as
the Egyptian reed papyrus ; or leather, of which the
primitive fhips were frequently compofed ; the bottom
and fides being extended on a frame of thin battens or
fcantlings, of flexible wood, or begirt with wickers,
inch as we have frequently beheld amongft the Ameri-
can favages. In this manner they were often navigated
upon the rivers of Ethiopia, Egypt, and Sabaean Arabia,
even in latter tunes. But in the firft of them, we find
no mention of any thing but leather or hides fewed to-
gether. In a veflel of this kind, Dardanus fecured his
retreat to the country afterwards called Troas, when he
was compelled by a terrible deluge to forfake his former
habitation of Samothrace. According to Virgil, Cha-
ron's infernal boat was of the fame compofition.
But as the other arts extended their influence, naval
architefture likewife began to emerge from the jgloom
of i(>norance and barbarifm ; and as the fliips or thofe
ages were increafed in bulk, and better proportioned
for commerce, the appearance of thofe floating citadels
»f uuufnal form, full of living men, flying with feemingly
expanded wings over the furface of the untra veiled ocean,
flruck the ignorant people with terror and aflonilhment:
and hence, as we are teld by Arillophanes, arofe the
fable of Perfeus flying to the Gorgons, who was aftu-
ally carried thither in a fliip ! Hence, in all probabihty,
the famous fl;ory of Triptolemus riding on a winged
dragon is deduced, only becaufe he failed from Athens,
in the time of a great dearth, to a more plentiful country,
to fupply the neceflities of his people. The fiftion of
the flying horfe Pegafus may be joined with thefe, who,
as feveral mythologifts report, was nothing but a ftiip
with fails, and thence faid to be the offspring of Nep-
tune the fovereigrv of the fea ; nor does there appear
any other foundation for the ftories of griffins, or of
jhips transformed into birds and fiflies, which we fo
often meet with in the ancient poets. So acceptable to
the firft ages of the world were inventions of this nature,
that whoever made any improvements in navigation or
naval architefture, building new fliips better fitted for
ftrength or fwiftncfs than thofe ufed before, or rendered
the old more commodious by additional contrivances,
©r difcovered countries unknown to former travellers,
were thought worthy of the greateft honours, and often
aflbciated into the number of their deified heroes. Hence
we have in altronomy the fi^ns of Aries and Taurus,
which were do other than two ftiips : the former tranf-
I L D I N G.
ported Phryxus from Greece to Colchos, and the lat- au
ter Enropa from Phoenicia to Crete. Argo, Pegafus,
and Perfeus, were likewife new fhips of a different
fort from the former, which bring greatly admired by
the barbarous and uninfl;ru£i;ed people of tliofe times,
were tranflated amongfl the Itars, in commemoration of
their inventors, and metamorphofed into conftt llations
by the poets of their ov>'n and of fucceeding ages.
The chief parts, of which fliips anciently confillcd,
were three, viz. the belly, the prow, and tlie Itern: thtie
were again compofed of other fmaller parts, which fliail
be briefly defcribed in their order, in the deicription,
we chiefly follow Schefter, who hath fo copioufly treat-
ed this fubjeft, and with fuch induttry and learning col-
lefted whatever is necefiary to ilhdtrate it, that very
little room is left for enlargement by thofe who incline '
to purfue this inveftigation.
I. In the belly, or middle part of the fhip, there was
rpowif, carina, or the *' keel," which was compofed oF
wood : it was placed at the bottom of the fhip, being
defigned to cut and ghde through the waves, and there-
fore was not broad, but narrow and fharp ;. whence it
may be perceived that not all fhips, but only the /-ccck^xi,
which fhips of war were called, whofe bellies were
ftraight and of a fmall circumference, were provided
with keels, the reft having ufually flat bottoms. Around
the outfide of the keel \Vere fixed pieces of wood, to pre-
vent it from being damaged when the fhip was firft:
launched into the water, or aiterwards flruck on any.
rocks ; thefe were called x^^^^'^/^-'^'^"', in Latin cun/^i.
Next to the keel was f^^-^'c, the " pump-well, or
well-room," within which was contained the -^vtjuciv, or
" pump through which water was conveyed out oi'
the fhip.
After this, there was S vTipa rpicrif, or" the " fecond
keel," fomewhat refcmbling what is now called the
keifon ; it was placed beneath the pump, and called,
Xfo-fnv, x."-XKnvt, K.M/T«CToJ(ov; by fome it is falfely fuppo-
fed to be the fame with ta>-y-";.
Above the pump was an hoilovi' place, called by He-
rodotus """^i Ttif moc, by Pollux )iuro<:^aq(J yct-rpa, becauf*2
large and capacious, after the form of a belly ; by the
Latins, tejiudo. This was formed by crooked ribs, with
which it was furrounded, which were pieces of wood'
rifing from the keel upwards, and called by Hefychiua
vo/itdf, and by others, d'y-oiKta, the belly of the fhip be-
ing contained within them: in Latin, to/?<f; and in Eng--
lifh, timbers. Upon thefe were placed certain plank^,
which Arifl;ophanes calls ivripomia^, or cvrtpuviia.
'I'he tJfXfup«', latera, or " fides" of the fhip, encom=.
pafled all the former parts on both hands ; thefe were
compofed of large rafters extended from prow to fternp
and called ^'^s'l/'ff, and C"^'«^aTa, becaufe by them the:
whole fabric was begirt or furrounded.
In both thefe fides the rowers had their places, call-
ed Toi;^(3i and in Latin fori and /r<s«/?ra, . placed
above one another; the loweft was called -S^^'^KMOf, and
thofe that laboured therein &ax«itt<«> the middle, Cwj"*,
and the men C^ye' j , the uppermoft ^f«»«', whence the
rowere
S H I P « B U
ftory. rower? were tenned ^pa^tTai, In thefe sp^rtments were
V"'^ "fpaces through wh'eh the rowers put their oars : tliefe
W'j:re fometimes one eontinued vacuity from one end to
the other, called ■r?<»'"?, but mare nlually diftindl holes,
each of which was defigned for a finale oar ; thefe
were flyled rp>if/.xl'^^ r^vT^y<ua.ra., as alfo of'i-jf.y.oi^ becaufe
not unlike the eyes of living creatures. All of them were
by a more general name termed fy^t-'V'^, from containing
the oars ; but 'yy-^-^" feemo to have been another thintr,
fifrnifying the fpaces between the banks of oars on each
fide, where the pafTengers appear to have been placed.
, On the top of all there was a pafTaoe or place to walk,
called -n-asaJ';c, and CTa;.aif«»'5f, as joining to the 5-fa»5i,
or uppermoft bank of oais.
2. n^i'^aj the " prow or fore-deck," whence it is
fometiines called y-irar',y^ and commonly diltinguilhed
by other metaphorical titles taken from human iaces.
In fome fliips there is mention of two prows, as alfo
two ilerns ; fuch'was Danaus's ihip adorned by Miner-
va when he fled from Egypt. It was ufual to beautify
the prow with gold and various forts of paint and co-
lours ; in the primitive times red was mod in ufe ;
whence Homer's fliips were commonly diQ.nified with
1 the titles of /^'\Tor3ag>,o,^ and ro"">^'^^«i'>''', or " red faced;"
the blue likewife, or flcy-colour, was frequently made
ufe of, as bearing a near refemblance to the colour of
the fea; whence we find fhips called by Homer "u^^'ocrpap^i,
by Ariftophanes )'-"awi^Co\o,. Several other colonrs were
alfo made ufe of ; nor were they barely varnifhed over
with them, but very often annealed by wax melted in
the fire, fo as neither the fun, winds, nor water, were
3ble to deface them. The art of doing this was called
from the wax y-^^poypxpic, from the fire ■■i'y.-avr:y-r^ which
is defci-ibed by Vitruvius, and mentioned in Ovid.
Pi3a color'tbus ujl'is
Caruleam matrem concaiya puppis habet.
The painted fhip with melted wax anneal'd
Had Tethys for its deity ■
In thefe colours the various forms of gods, animals,
plants, &c. were ufually drawn, which were likewife
often added as ornaments to other parts of the fliips, as
plainly appears from the ancient monuments prefented
lo the world by Bayfius.
The fides of the prow were termed or *' wings,'*
and -aa-pi^, according to Scheffer, or rather wapna; ; for
fince the prow is commonly compared to a human face,
it will naturally follow that the fides fliould be called
cheeks. Thefe are now called bows by our mariners,
^, Of u.uvn, " the hind-deck or poop," fometimes called
the " tail," becaufe the hindmoil part of the fliip ;
it. was of a figure more inclining to round than the
prow, the extremity of which was fliarp, that it might
cut the waters ; it was alfo built higher than the prow,
and vi^as the place where the pilot fat to fteer ; the
outer-bending part of it was called iytatusv^ anfwering
to our term quarter.
They had various ornaments of fculpture on the
prow ; as helmets, animals, triumphal wreaths, &c. —
The ftern was more particularly adorned with wings,
fields, Sec. Sometimes a little maft was ereftcd where-
on to hang ribbands of divers colours, which, ferved in-
ilead of a flag to diftinguifli the ftiip ; and a weather-
cock, to fignify the part from whence the wind blew,-
I L D I N G. 373
On the extren)ity of the piow was placed a round H^ftary.
piece of wood, called the ^7'j;t'!^, from its bendiu'T; ; and
fometimes "jS^x.wi^, the " eye" of the fliip, becaufe fix-
ed in the fore-deck ; on this was infcribed the name of
the fliip, which was ufually taken from the figure paint'
ed on the flaa;. Hence comes the frequent mention of
fliips called Pegnfi, Scylla, bulls, rams, tigers, &c. which"
the poets took the liberty to jeprefent as living crea-
tures that tranfported their riders from one country tO'
another.
The whole fabric being completed, it was fortified
with pitch, and fometimes a mixture of rofin, to fecurs
the wood from the waters ; whence it comes that Ho-
mer's fliips are everywhere mentioned with the epithet
of ^-.£>a:vai, or " black." The firft that made ufe of
pitch were the inhabitants of Phasacia, fince called Cor.
fica'; fometimes v/ax was employed in the fame afe
whence Ovid,
Caerulea ceratas acc'ip'it unda rates.
The azure waves receive the waxed fhips.
After all, the fliip being bedecked with garlands*
and flowers, the manners alio adorned with crowns, flic
was launched into the fea with loud acclamations and
other exprcffions of joy ; and being purified by a priell
with a lighted torch, an egg and brimfl:one, or after
fome other manner, was confectated to the god whofe
ima'^e Ihe bore.
he fliips of war of the ancients were diftinguifhed
from other kinds of veflTels by various turrets and accef-
fions of building, fome to defend their own foldiers, and
others to annoy the enemy ; and from one another, ia
latter ages, by feveral degrees or ranks of oars, the moit
ufual number of which was four or five, which appear
not to have been arranged, as fome imagine, on the
fame level in difi"etent parts \ of the ftup ; nor yet, as
others have fuppofed, diredly above one another's
heads ; but their leats being placed one behind another,
afcended gradually, like Itairs. Ptolemy Philopater,
urged by a vain- glorious defire of exceeding all the
world befides in naval architefture, is faid to have far-
ther enlarged the number of banks to 40 ; and the fliip
being otherwife in equal proportion, this laifed her to
fuch an enormous bulk, that flie appeared at a diltance
like a floating mountain or ifland ; and, upon a nearer
view, like a prodigious caftle on the ocean. She was
280 cubits long,. 38. broad, and 48 high (each cubit be-
ing 1 Englifli foot 54- inches), and carried 400 rowers,
400 failors, and 3000 foldiers. Another which the
fame prince made to fail on the Nile, we are told, was
half a fl:adium long. Yet thefe were nothing in compa-
rifon of Hiero's fliip, built under the direction of Ar-
chimedes ; on the firuclure whereof Mofchion wrote a
whole volume. There was wood enough employed in
it to make 50 galleys ; it had all the variety of apart-
ments of a palace ; fuch as banqueting- rooms, galleriesj,
gardens, fi fli -ponds, ftables, mills, baths, and a temple to
Venus. The floors of the middle apartment were all
inlaid, and reprefented in various colours the fiorics of
Homer's Iliad. The ceihngs, windows, and all other
parts, were finiftied with wonderful art, and embelliftied
with all kinds of ornaments. In the uppermoft apart-
ment there was a fpacious gymnafium, or place for ex«
ercife, and water was conveyed to the garden by plpesj >
fome-
J74 S H I P-B U
Hiflory, {"ome of hardened clay, and others of lead. The floora
4 " of the temple of Venus were Inlaid with agates and
■other precious ftones ; the in fide lined with cyprefs
wood ; the windows adorned with ivory paintings and
fmall ftatues. There was likewife a library. This vef-
fel was adorned on all fides with fine paintings. Tt had
20 benches of o?irs, and was encompafied with an iron
vampart, eight towers, with walls and bulwarks, furnifh-
ed with machines of war, particularly one which threw
a ftone of 300 povmds, or ,a dart 12 cubits long, the
fpace of half a miJe, with many other particulars related
by Athenaeus. Caligula likewife built a vcffel adorned
with jewels in the poop, with fails of many colours, and
furniOied with large porticoes, bagnios, and banquet-
jrig-rooms, befides rows of vines, and fruit-trees of va-
rious kinds. But thefe, and all fuch monftrous fabrics,
ferved only for fhow and oftentation, being rendered by
' ~ their vaft bulk unwieldy and unfit for fervice. Athe-
naeus informs us, the common names they were known
by, were Cyclades, or JEtna., i. e. " iflands, or moun-
tains," to which they feemed nearly equal in bignefs ;
confiftlng, as fome report, of as many materials as
would have compofed 50 triremes, or flilps of three
banks.
The veffels employed by the northern nations appear
to have been ftill more imperfeft than thofe of the Ro-
mans ; for a law was enafted in the reign of the em-
peror Honorius, 24th September, A. D 418, inflift-
ing capital punifhment on any who (hould inftruft the
barbarians in the art of fliip-building ; a proof at once
of the great eftimation in which this fcience was then
held, and of the ignorance of the barbarians with re-
gard to it.
The fleet of Richard L of England, when he
weiirhed anchor for the holy war from Meffina, in Si-
cily, where he had pafTed the winter, A. D- 11 90-1,
78 faid to have confifted of 150 great fhips and 53 gal-
leys, befides barks, tartans, &c. What kinds of (hips
thefe were is not mentioned. To the crufades, however
pernicious in other refpeAs, this fcience feems to owe
fome improvements ; and to this particular one we are
indebted for Richard's marine code, commonly called
the Lanvs of Okron^ from the name of a fmall ifland on
the coaft of France, where he compofed them, and
which moftof the nations In Europe have made the ba-
Fxderd, q£ their maritime regulations. Thofe fhips, if they
p*'943. merited the mame of fhips, were probably very fmall,
as we find that fo long after as the time of Edward I.
anno 1304, 40 men were deemed fufficient to man the
Jb. vol. iv. bell and largeft veffels in England ; and that Edward
p. 664. r\{irdi, anno 1335, ordained the mayor and (heriffs
of London to " take up all fhips in their port, and all
other ports in the kingdom, of the burden of 40 tons
and upwards, and to furnifh the fame with armed men
and other neccffaries of war, againft the Scots his ene-
mies, confederated with certain perfons of foreign na-
tions." Edward the Third's fleet before Calais, anno
1347, confifted of 738 Englifh fhips, carrying 14,956
mariners, being on an average but 20 men to each fhip ;
15 fhips and 459 mariners, from Bayonne in Guienne,
being 30 men to each fhip ; 7 fhips and 184 men from
Spain, which is 26 men to each fhip ; one from Ireland,
carrying 25 men ; 14 from Flanders, with 133 men,
I L D I N G.
being fcarcely 10 men to each fhip ; and one from Guel'
derland, with 24 mariners. Fifteen of thefe were call-
ed the king's own fliips, manned with 419 mariners,
being fomewhat under 17 to each fhip.
Hiftorians reprcfent the vefftls of Venice and Genoa
as the largeft and the beft about this time, but they
were foon exceeded in fize by the Spauifh vefTels cdled
carrkks, fome of which carried cannon ; and thefe again
were exceeded by the veffels built by the northern peo-
ple, particularly thofe belonging to the Hanfe-towns. —
In the 14th century, the Hanfiatics were tlie fovereigns
of the northern feas, as well without as within the Bal-
tic ; and their fliips were fo large, that foreign princes
often hired them in their wars. According to Hak-
luyt, an Englifh fhip from Newcaftle, of 200 tons bur-
den, was feized in the Baltic by thofe of Wifmar and
Roflock, anno 1394 ; and another Englifh vefTel of the Fce.^.ra
fame burden was violently feized in the port of Lifbon,^'"'- V
anno 141 2. p. 717.
Soon after fhips of a much larger fize were con- ^t- v- l
flriifted. It is mentioned that a very large fliip was,'-*
built, anno 1449, by John Taverner of Hull ; and in fb. vol
the year 145 5, king Henry IV. at the requeft of F- 5C4
Charles king of Sweden, granted a licence for a Swedifh
fhip of the burden ©f a thoiifand tons or under, laden
with merchandize, and having 120 perfons on board, to
come to the ports of England, there to difpofe of their
lading, and to relade back with Englifli merchandize,
paying the ufual cuftoms 'i'he infcription on the tomb
of William Canning, an eminent merchant, who had
been five times mayor of Briftol, in RatclifF-church at
Briftol, anno 1474, mentions his having forfeited the
king's peace, for which he was condemned to pay 300
merks ; in lieu of which fum, king Edward IV. took
of him 2470 tons of fhippincr, amongft which there
was one fhip of 900 tons burden, another of 500 tons,
and one of 400 tons, the reft being fmaller.
In the year 1506, king James IV. of Scotland
built the largeft fhip which had hitherto been feen, but
which was loft in her way to France in the year 1512,
owing probably to a defeftive conftruaion, and the un-
flalfulnefs of the crew in managing fo large a fhip.
About this time a very large fhip' was likewife built
in France. In the fleet fitted -out by Henry VIII,
anno 1512, there was one fhip, the Regent, of icoo
tons burden, one of 500, and three of 400 each. A
fhip ftill larger than the Regent was buih foon after,
called Henri Grace Dieu I In the year 1522 the firft
voyage round the globe was finifhed.
The Enghfli nayal hiftorians think that fhips carried
cannon on their upper decks only, and had not gun-
ports before the year 1 545 : and it is certain that many
of the largeft fliips in former times were fitted out from
harbours, where fhips of a moderate fize now would
not have water enough to float them. In 1575 the
whole of the royal navy did not exceed 24 fliips, and
the number of merchant- fliips belonging to England
amounted to no more than 135 vefTels above 100 tons,
and 656 between 40 and 100 tons. At queen Ehza'-^ "'^'«
beth's death, anno 1603, there were not above four J^'"""'
merchant-fliips in England of 400 tons burden each.— ^'f'''
I'he largeft of queen Elizabeth's fliips of war was 1000^
tons burden, carrying but 340 men, and 40 guns, and
the
S H I P-B U
Y- the fmalleil 6co tons, carrying 150 men and 30 guns.
Smaller veffels were occafionally hired by her from pri*
vate owners.
In the memorable fea-fight of Lepanto between the
Turks and Chrillians, anno I57r, no veflels were em-
ployed but galleys ; and it would appear from the car-
cafes of fome of them, which are ftill preferved in the
arfenal at Venice, that even thefe were not fo large or
fo well conftruiled as thofe of our times. The Invin-
cible Armada, as Spanifh vanity ftyled it, once the
terror and admiration of nations, in the pompous and
exaggerated defcriptions of which the Spanifli authors
ef thofe times dwelt with fo much apparent pleafure,
confilled of 130 fhips, near 100 of which were the
ftateliell that had yet been feen on the ocean. The lar-
geft of thefe, however, would be no more than a third
rate vefTel in our navy, and they were fo ill conftrudled,
that they would neither move eafily, fail near the wind,
nor be properly worked in tempeituous weather. The
whole of the naval force colleded by Queen Elizabeth
to oppofe this formidable fleet, including hired veffels,
tenders, ftore- fhips, &c. amounted to no more than
143-
Ship-building began now to make a confiderable pro-
grefs in Britain. Both war and trade required an in-
creafe of fhipping ; fo that, in the year 1670, the an-
nual charge of the navy was reported to be L. 500,000;
and in 1678 the navy confilled of 83 fliips, of which
58 were of the line. At this time the exports amount-
ed to ten millions annum ; and the balance of trade
was two millions. In 1689 there were 173 fhips, great
and fmall, in the royal navy, and it has been conftant-
ly increafing ; fo that in 1761 the fhips in the navy
amounted to 372, of which 129 were of the line; and
in the begianing of the year 1795, the total amount
was above 430.
f As fhips of the commort confl:ru<5kion are found to
ri- be very defeftive in many particulars, various methods
s form have therefore from time to time been propofed to re-
nd de- j^Q^g fonje ^.he bad qualities they poffefled. ~ As it
1^' would be an endlefs tafic to enumerate the different in-
im- ventions for this purpofe, therefore a few of them only
irementswill be mentioned.
pofed. jn jgg^ Sir William Petty conftrufted a double fhip,
ible '^ther a Angle fliip with a double bottom, which was
i. found to fail confiderably fafler than any of the fhips with
d which it had an opportunity of being tried. Her firll
Sir Wil- ypyagg^ag from Dublin to Holyhead; and in her return
\p^lt^' " turned into that narrow harbour againfl wind and
^az''ns tide, among rocks and fhips, with fuch dexterity as many
Augufl ancient feamen confeffed they had never feen the like."
*• This veffel with 70 more were lofl in a dreadful tempef^^.
6 This fubjedl was again revived by Mr Gordon, in his
^ofed" P""ciples of Naval Architefture, printed at Aberdeen
[^r*^ anno 1 7 84; where, having delivered his fentiments on
don, the conftrudion of large mails, he fays " Thefe ex-
14-
I L D I N G. 375
periments likewife point out to U8 methods by which Hiilory.
two veffels may be laterally connefted together, though ^v—* ^
at a confiderable diftance from each other, in a manner
fufiiciently ftrong, with very little increafe of weight or
expence of materials, and without expofing much fur-
face to the aftion or influence of the wind or the waves,
or obftrufting their motion in any confiderable degree,
and confequently without being much oppofed by them
on that account under any circumflances ; and if veffels
are judicioufly conftrufted with a view to fuch a junc-
tion, it would be no eafy matter to enumerate all the
advantages that may be obtained by this means." He
then enumerates the advantages that double veffels ^
would have over thofe of the common conltrudion. ^nd lately
Soon after double fhips were actually built by Mr Mil-conftru(5lecJ
ler of Dalfwinton. j'Y Mr Mil-
Another plan was propofed by Mr Gordon to make p^'-^^.;./
a fhip fail faft, draw little water, and to keep a goodo/ Naval
wind. For this purpole, " the bottom (he fays) fhould Architec-
be formed quite flat, and the fides made to rife perpen-'"'^) P- 76^»
dicular from it, without any curvature ; which would □5.3^^,^^
not only render her more fteady, as being more oppofed ^^3(2^ pro-
to the water in rolling, but likewife more convenient for pofed to be
ftowage, &c. while the fimplicity of the form vvould^i"""^^^'^
contribute greatly to the eafe and expedition with '^'J^^'^j^^''
which fhe might be fabricated. Though diminifhing|pj.;j.y^
the draught of water is, cateris paribus, undoubtedly
the moft effeftual method of augmenting the velocity inconvc-
with which veffels go before the wind ; yet, as it pro-niency o£
portionally diminifhes their hold of the water, it ren- ^ bis plan .
ders them extremely liable to be driven to leeward, and
altogether incapable of keeping a good wind. Thisj^y^^g'^
defedl may, however, be remedied, in a fimple and ef- meriting
fefkual manner, by proportionally augmenting the the depth
depth of keel, or, as fo large a keel would be inconve- °^ ^^d,
uient on many accounts, proportionally increafing their qj. ^^'^j^j^
number ; as, in place of adding a keel eight feet deep crcafing
to a veffel drawing fix feet water, to affix to different tbe num.
parts of her flat bottom, which would be well adapted
for receiving them, fix different keels of two feet deep
each at equal diilances from each other, with proper
intervals between ; which will be found equally ef-
feftual for preventing thefe pernicious effects. Four
fuch, indeed, would have anfwered the purpofe as well
as the eight feet keel, were it not for the fuperior pref-
fure or refiftance of the lower water (a).
Thus then it appears, that a veffel drawing eight feet
water only, keels and all, maybe made to keep as good
a wind, or be as little liable to be driven to leeward, as
the fharpeft built veffel of the fame length drawing 14,
nay 20 or upwards, if a few more keels are added, at
the fame time that fhe would be little more refifted in
moving in the line of the keels than a veffel drawing
fix feet water only. Thefe keels, befides, would
flrengthen the veffel confiderably ,^ would render her
more ileady, and lefs liable to be overfet, and thereby
enable.
(a) This is frequently repeated on the authority of Mr Gordon and others. Theory fays otherwife ; and the
experiments of Sir Ifaac Newton (how in the moft unexceptionable manner, that the refiftance of a ball dec
fcending through the water is the fame at all depths ; nay, the heaping up of the yrater on the bow,.occafionin^
a hydroftatical preffure in addition to the real refiftance, will make the whole oppofition to an equal furfact^
but of greater horizontal dimenfions, greater, becaufe it bears a greater proportion to the refiftance.
37^
SHIP-BUILDING.
Hidory.
The plan
farther im-
proved by
the adop-
tion of Hi-
ding keel:.
13
The utility
of Aiding
keels pro-
ved by ex-
periment.
14
And a<5tu-
s»Uy imt in
pradlice
upon a
larger fcale
enable her to carry more fail ; and Mr Gordon then
enumerates the feveral advantages that a fhip of this
conftruftion will poflefs.
This plan has lately been put into execution by Cap-
tain Schank, with this difference only, that inftead of
the keels being fixed as propofed by Mr Gordon, Cap-
tain Schank conftruCled them fo as to Aide down to a
certain depth below the bottom, or to be drawn up
within the fhip as occafion might require.
Captain Schank having communicated his plans to
the Navy Board, two veffels were in confequence or-
dered to be built of 1 3 tons each, and fimilar in dimen-
fions, one on the old conftrudtion, and the other flat-
bottomed, with flidinjr keels. In 1790 a compara-
tive trial in prefence of the commiffioners of the navy
was made on the river Thames, each having the fame
quantity of fail ; and although the velfcl on the old
conftruAion had leeboards, a greater quantity of bal-
laft, and two Thames pilots aboard, yet Captain
Schank's veffel with three Aiding keels beat the other
VefTel, to the aftonifhment of all prefent, one half of the
whole diftance failed ; and no doubt flie would have
beat her much more had flie been furnhhed with a
Thames pilot.
This trial gave fo much fatisfaftion, that a king's
cutter of 1 20 tons was immediately ordered to be built
on the fame conllru£tion, and Captain Schank was re-
quefted to fuperintend its building. This velTel was
launched at Plymouth in 1791, and named the Trial.
The length of this velfel is 66 feet, breadth 21 feet,
' and depth of the hold feven feet : ,her bottom is quite
flat, and draws only fix feet water, with all her guns,
ftores, &c. whereas all other veffels of her tonnage on
the old conftruftion draw 14 feet ; fo that (he can go
with fafety into almoft any harbour or creek. She has
three Aiding keels inclofed in a cafe or well ; they are
each r 4 feet in length ; the fore and the after keels are
three feet broad each, and the middle keel is fix feet
broad. The keels are moveable by means of a winch,
and may be let down feven feet below the real keel ;
and they woik equally well in a ftorm as in ftill wa-
ter. Her hold is divided into feveral compartments, all
water-tight, and fo contrived, that fhould even a plank
ror two Hart at fea in different parts of the veffel, Aie
-may be navigated with the greateft fecurity to any
place. If Aie fhould be driven on Aiore in a gale of
■^vind, Aie will not foon become a wreck, as her keels
-will be driven up into their cafes, and the fhip being
ilat-bottomed, will not be eafily overfet ; and being
able to go into fuch fhallow water, the crew may all be
eafily faved. By means of her Aiding keels fhe is kept
ileady in the greateft gale ; fhe is quite eafy in a great
-fea, does not firain in the leafl., and never takes in wa-
ter on her deck ; and when at anchor, fhe rides more
VDrii(ht and even than any other fhip can do : fhe fails
very*faft either before or upon a wind ; no veflel fhe
has ever been in company with, of equal fize, has been
able, upon many trials, to beat her in failing ; and yet
her fails feem too fmall.
It has alfo been propofed to conftruft veflels of other
.materials; than wood ; and lately a veffel was built whofe
feottom, inftead of bciug plank, was copper.
Boo]
Prop<
Book I. Containing the Method of. delineating
the feveral Se 51 ions of a Ship.
15
buildiii
r6
Chap. I. Of ihe Properties of Ships.
A s H I p ought to be confirufted fo as to anfwer the par- Gen
ticular purpofe for which fhe is intended. It would be an princif
eafy matter to determine the form of a fhip intended to ^^JP
fail by means of oars ; but, when fails are ufcd, a fliip
is then adled upon by two elements, the wind and wa-
ter : and therefore it is much more difficulc than is com-
monly imagined to afcertain the form of a fhip fo as to
anfwper in an unfavourable as well as a favourable wind ;
the fhip at the fame time having a cargo of a certain,
weight and magnitude.
Every fhip ought to fail well, but particularly when Properi
the wind is upon the beam ; for this purpofe a confider- that a l|
able length In proportion to the breadth is neceffary, "'uft
and the plane of refiftance fhould be the leaft poffible. ^'^'^^ ^'^y
The main frame fhould alfo be placed in a proper fitua-grf°°
tion ; but according to the experiments of Mr Chap-
man *, its plane is variable with the velocity of the * Tr,?/*
fhip : the mean place of the main fram^has, however, ^""^J
been generally etlimated to be about one-twelfth of the 1"""^''
length of the keel before the middle. Without a fuf- ''"^'^
ficient degree of ftability a fhip v/ill not be able to car-
ry a prefs of fall : a great breadth in proportion to the
length and low uppei -works will augment the ftability.
The following particulars being attended to, the above
property will be gained, and the fhip will alfo fteer
well. The wing tranfom fhould be carried pretty high ;
the fafhion-pieces well formed, and not full below the
lead water-line : the lower part of the ftem to be a por-
tion of a circle, and to have a confiderable rake : the
llernpoft to be nearly perpendicular to the keel } and all
the upper works kept as low as poflible.
Many fhips from conftru6lion are liable to make much niai
leeway. This may in a great meafure be avoided by gi-a flilpj
ving the fhip a long keel, little breadth, and a confider- a
able depth in the hold : whence the bow will meet with^^'*'^'
little refiftance in comparifon to the fide, and therefore
the fhip will not fall much to the leeward.
Another very great retardation to the velocity of a And t«
fhip is her pitching. The principal remedy for this is to fmf>othi
increafe the length of the keel and floor, to diminlflTi'*'
the rifing afore and abaft, and to conftrndl the hull inward'
fuch a maaner that the contents of the fore-body
may be duly proportioned to the contents of the after- 1,
bo^y-s
In a fhip of war the lower tier of guns ought to be'^"
of a fufficient height above the water, otherwife it will lo'^g^^J
be impoffible to work the lee-guns when it blows hard, ^un- tt
This property will be obtained by giving her a longf ifBcie
floor-timber, httle i-ifing, a full midfhip frame, light up- ' ''^'^ ^
per works, and the wing tranfom not too high: And"^^^^^
in every fhip the extreme breadth ougJit always
higher afore and abaft than at midfhips.
A merchant fhip, befides being a faft failer,
to carry a confiderable cargo in proportion to its
length, to fail with little ballaft, and to be navi2;ated ^^'"^ *
with few hands.
That a fhip may take in a confiderable cargo, it Vo tak
S fllQuld a ^reat
go.
to be
ao
ought Proper
of a m<
SHIP-BUI
tietfhonld have a great breadth and depth in proportion to
its length, a full bottom, ar.d a long and flat floor.
But a lihip of this conftruftion will neither fail faft, nor
carry much fail.
If a fhip be filled out much towards the line of float-
ation, together with low upper works, fhe will require
little ballalt : and that fiiip which is ftiflf from conftruc-
tion is much better adapted for failing faft than one
which, in order to can7 the fame quantity of canvas,
ia obliged to be loaded with a much greater weight :
for the refiftance is as the quantity of water to be re-
moved, or nearly as the area of a tranfverfe feftion of
the immerfed part of the body at the midPaip frame ;
and a body that is broad and rtiallow is much ftiffer
than one of the fame capacity that is narrow and deep.
" The advantages (fays Mr Gordon) are numerous,
important, and obvious. For it is evident, that by eti-
hoo perhaps doubling, the bi-eadth of veffels, and
'forming their bottoms flat and well fiirnilhed with
3^ keels, they muft, in the Jir/l place, become much Hea-
dier, roll little, if any, and be enabled to carry greatly
more fail, and that in a better direction, at the fame
, time that they would be in no danger of being difmaft-
ed or overfet, imlefs the mafts were of a moft extraor-
dinary hei'iht indeed. Secondly, They would have little
or no oecafion ibr ballaft, and if any was ufed, could
incur lefa danger from its (hifting. Thirdly^ That there
■would be much more room upon deck, as well as ac-
commodation below ; the breadth being fo much in-
creafed without any diminution of the height above the
-load-water line. Fourthly, That they would deviate
much lefs from t1ie intended courfe, and penetrate the
water much eafier in thef proper diredion : for doubhng
the breadth, v/ithout any increafe of weight, would di-
minifti the depth or draught of water one half; and
though the extent of the direftly oppofing furface
would be the fame as before, yet the velfel in moving
would meet vpith half the former refillance only : for lo
great is the difference between the preflure, force, or
reaiftion, of the upper and the under water. Fifthly,
That they would by this means be adapted for lying
unfupported in docks and harbours when dry, be ren-
dered capable of being navigated in (hallow water, and
of being benefited by all the advantages attending that
■very important circumftance ; and it is particularly to
\)C obferved, that making veffels which may be navlga-
ttd in {hallow water, may, in many refpefts, juftly be
re;)arded as a matter of equal importance with increa-
fmg the number of harbours, and improving them, as ha-
ving identically the fame efFedls with regard to navi-^a-
tion ; at the fame time, that the benefits which would re-
fult from fuch circumflances are obtained by this means
without either expence, trouble, or inconvcniency : be-
fides, it would not only enable vefllls to enter many ri-
vers, bays, and creeks, formerly inacccfllble to Ihips of
btirden, but to proceed to fuch places as are moft
land- locked, where they can lie or ride moft lecare,
and with leaft expence of men and oround tackle. As
Ihips of war would carry their guns well by being fo
Iteady, there could be but little oecafion for a high
top fide, or much height of hull above water ; and as
little or no ballaft would be required, there would be
tio necefiity, as in othet veffels, for increafing their
weight on that account, and thereby pre-fiing them
ideeper into the- water . I'hefe-are very i-inpoptant circ um-
VouXVIL Part L
L D I N G. 377
ftances, and would contribute much to irtpr»v* the (ailing Properties
of fuch velfels." From whence it appears, that there f
would be united, what has hitherto been deemed irrecon-
cileable, the greatttt poffible ftabiiity, which is nearly aa
the area of a tranverfe left ion of the immerfed pait oi
the body at the midfhip frame : and a body that ia broad
and (hallow is mucli ftiffer than one of the- fame capa*.
city that is narrow and deep. A (hip of this coijftruc-
tion may take in a confiderable cargo in proportion to
her fize ; but if deeply loaded will not fail faft, for then
the area of a feilion of the immerfed part at th« mid-
fhip frame will be very confiderable ■, and as the fails of
fuch a (hip muft neceffarily be large, more hands will
therefore be required. 2^4
The lefs the breadth of a fliip, the fewer hands will And to be
be neceffary to work her; as in that cafe the quantity J^*.'J|'-'JJ^
of fail will be lefs, and the anchors alfo of fefs weight.
hands.
We fliall gain much (fays M. liouguer) by making the Traite d»
extreme breadth no more than the fifth or fixth part Navire.
of the length, if, at the fame time, we diminilh the
depth proportionally ; and likewife this moft furprifing
circumftance, that by diminifliing thefe two dimenfions,
or by increafing the length, a (hip may be made to go
foroetinies as faft as the wind.
In order to obtain the pieceding properties, very op- ImpofTiMft
pofite rules muft be followed ; and hence it appears to'o "'^j^'^^
be impofTible to conftruft a fhip fo as to be poffefled ofiie^s?"*he
them all. The body, however, muft be fo formed, thatf^me fhip*
as many of thefe proper ties may be retained as pofTible,
always obferving to give the preference to thofe which
are moft required. If it is known what particular trade
the fliip is to be employed in, thofe qudities are then
principally to be adliercd to which are molt efTentially
neceffary for that employment. _ _ 26
Tt may eafily be demonftrated that fmall fliips will Small Mf%
not have the fame advantages as large ones of a hmilar 1^'^"^'°^^^
form, when employed in the fame trade : for a large jp'^^^n" "f
fiiip will not only fail fafter than a fmall one of a fimi- failing, &c,
lar form, but will alfo require fewer hands to work her.
Heace, in order that a fmall (hip may pofTefs the fame
advantages as a large one, the correfpondmg dimenfions
will not be proportional to each other. The reader will
fee in Chapman's Ai-cbh-eaura Navalis Mcrcatoria
ample tables of the feveral dimenfions of fliips, of dif-
ferent claftes and fizes, deduced from theory combined
with experiment. Tables of the dimenfions of the
principal (hips of the Britifti navy, and or other (hips,
are contained in the Ship-builder's Repofitory, and in
Murray's Treatife on Ship-building.
Chap. XL Of the different Plans of a Ship.
When it is propofed to huild a fnip, the propor-
tional fize of every part of her is to be laid down ; from
whence the form and dimenfions of the timbers, and oi:*
every particular piece of wood that enters into the coit-
ftrudion, is to be found. Aa a fhip has length,
breadth, and depth, three different pkns at leaft are
neeceffary to exhibit the form of the feveral parts of a
fhip : thefe are ufually denominated the Jheir plan, the
half breadth afid Ledy plans.
The fhetr plan or drattght^ otherwife called the plan -hesr
of elevation, is that fedion of the Clip which is made ti-aug!^f|«f
by a vertical plane psfling through the keel. Upon elevatioa.
this. plan, are laid down the length of the keel; the
hei'>ht and rake of the ftem and fternpoll ; the lituation
3 B and
378
D fFerent
Plans of a
Ship.
as
Half
breadth
plan or
horizon-
tal plane.
Body plan,
or projec-
tion.
S H I P.B U I L D I N G,
30
The vari-
ous lines
laid down
on thefe
plans.
and height of the midfhip and other frames ; the place
of the mads and channels ; the projeftion of tlie head
and quarter gallery, and their appendages ; and in a ihiip
of war the polition and dimeniions of the gun-ports.
Several imaginary lines, namely, the upper and lower
height of breadth lines, water lines, Sec. are alfo drawn
in . this plan.
The /jalf breadth or Jloor flan, or, as it is frequently
called, the horizontal plane, contains the feveral half-
breadths of every frame of timbers at different heights ;
ribbands, water lines, &c. are alfo defcribed on this
plane.
The body plan, or plane of projeSton, is a feftion of
the (hip at the midfhip frame or broadeft place, perpen-
dicular to the two former. The feveral breadths, and the
particular form of every frame of timbers, are defcribed
on this plane. As the two fides of a fhip are fimilar to
each other, it is therefore unnecefTary to lay down both;
hence the frames contained between the main frame and
the flem are defcribed on one fide of the middle Hne,
commonly on the right hand fide, and the after frames
are defcibed on the other fide of that line.
Several Hnes are defcribed 0!i thefe planes, in order
the more readily to affiit in the formation of the tim-
bers ; the principal of which are the following :
The top-limber i'lne, is a curve limiting the height of
the fliip at each timber.
The top'timber half breadth line., is a feftion of the
fhip at the height of the top-timber line, perpendicular
to the plane of elevation..
The height of breadth lines, are two lines named the
upper and lower heights of breadth. Thefe lines are
defcribed on the plane of elevation to determine the
height of the broadeft part of the fliip at each tim.ber ;
and being defcribed in the body plan, limits the height
and breadth of each frame at its broadeft part.
Main half breadth, is a fection of the finp at the
broadeft part, perpendicular to the flieer plan, and
jcprcfents the greateft breadth at the outfide of every
timber.
Water lines, are lines fuppofed. to be defcribed on the
bottom of a ftip when afloat by the furface of water ;
and the uppermoft oF thcfe lines, or that defcribed by
tlie water on the fhip's bottom when fufficiently load-
ed, is called the /o(;J water line. According aS the
iliip is lightened, fhe will rife higher out of the water ;
und hence new water lines will be formed. If Hie be
lightened in fuch a manner that the keel may preferve
the fame inclination to the furface of the water, thefe
lines will be parallel to each other ; and if they are pa-
rallel to the keel, they will' be reprefented by ftraight
lines parallel to each other in the body plan ;. otherwife
by curves. In the half breadth plan, thefe lines are
curves limiting the half breadth of the Hiip at the height
of the correfponding lines in the iheer plan. In or-
der to diftinguilh thefe lines, they are ufually drawn in
green.
Ribband lines, arc curves on a fhip's bottom by the in-
tetfeftion of a plane inclined to the plane of elevation ;
and are denominated diagonal or horizontal, according
£s they are meafured upon the diagonal, or in a direc-
tion perpendicular to the plane of elevation. Both
thefe anfwcr to the fame curve on the fliip's bottom,
but give very different curves when defcribed on the
fealf breadth plan.
Be
Frames, are circular pieces of timb«r bolted toge- D
ther, and raifed upon the keel at certain diftances, and to
which the planks are faftened. A frame is compofed _J
of one floor-timber, two or three futtocks, and a top-
timber on each fide : which being united together, form Fra
a circular inclofure, and that which inclofes the greateft
fpace is called the midjoip^ or main frame. The arms[' '
of the floor-timber of this frame form a very obtufe
angle ; but in the other frames this angle decreafes withe oc
the diftance of the frame from midfhips. Thofe floor top:
timbers which form very acute angles are called
crutches. The length of the midfnip floor timber is in
general about half the length of the main frame.
A frame of timbers is commonly formed by arches
of circles called fiveeps. There are generally five'^'^^
fweeps : 17?, The jfloor fweep ; which is limited by a line P
in the body plan perpendicular to the plane of eleva-
tion, a little above the keel ; and the height of this line
above the keel at the midfhip frame is called the dead
riftng. The upper part of this arch forms the head of
the floor timber. 2d, The loiuer breadth fnueep ; the
centre of which is in the line reprefenting the lower
height of breadth, ^d. The reconciling fuoeep. This
fweep joins the two former, without interfering ei-
ther ; and makes a fair curve from the low^er height of
breadth to the rifing line. If a ftraight line is drawn
from the upper edge of the keel to touch the back of
the floor fweep, the form of the midfliip frame below
the lower height of breadth will be obtained. 4M,
The upper breadth fweep ; the centre of which is in the
line reprefenting the upper height of breadth of the
timber. This fweep defcribed upwards forms the lower
part of the top timber. 5/Z), The top timber fweep is
that which forms the hollow of the top timber. This
hollow is, however, very often formed by a mould, fo
placed as to touch the upper breadth fweep, and pafs
through the point limiting the half breadth of the top
timber.
The main frame, or as it ia ufually called dead-faf, is Na
denoted by the charafter 0. The timbers before dead-fra
flat are marked A, B, C, &c. in order ; and thofe abaft
dead-flat by the figures i, 2, 3, &c. The timbers ad-
jacent to dead-flat, and of the fame dimenfions nearly^
are diftinguiflied by the charafters ( A), (B), ^c. and
(:i),(2), &c. That part of the ftiip abaft the main
frame is called the after body ; and that before it the.
fore body.
All. timbers are perpendicular to the half breadth
plan. Thofe timbers whofe planes are perpendicular to
the flieer plan, are called fquare timbers ; and thofe
whofe planes are inclined to it are called canted timbers.
The rijing line, is a curve drawn in the fheer plan, at
the heights of the centres of the floor fv^eeps in tlie
body plan. As, however,, this hne, if drawn in thi*
manner, would extend beyond the upper line of the fi-
gure, it is, therefore ufually lo drawn that its lower part
may touch the upper edge of the keel. This is per-
formed by taking the heights of each of the centres in the,
body plan, from the height of the centre of the.fweep of
dead-flat,, and fetting them off on the corrclponding
timbers in the, iheer plan. from the upper edge of the
keel.
Ha/f breadth of the riftng, is a curve in the floor
plan, which limits the diftances of the centres of the
floor fweeps from, the middle line of the body plan.
S H I P-B U
It 77'^ r'l/in^ of the fioor, is a curve drawn in the flieer
* plan, at the height of the ends of the floor timbers,
' ^ ' It is limited at the main frame or dead flat by the dead
rifmg, and in flat fliips is nearly parallel to the keel for
feme timbers afore and abaft the midfhip frame ; for
which reafon thefe timbers are called flats : but ia (harp
fhips it rifes gradually from the main frame, and ends on
the ftem and poft.
Cutting donvn liney is a curve drawn on the plane of
elevation. It hmlts the depth of every floor timber at
the middle line, and alfo the height of the upper part of
the dead wood afore and abaft.
Timber and room, or room and /pace, is the difl;ance
between the moulding edges of two timbers, which mud
always contain the breadth of two timbers and an inter-
val of about tv^o or three inches between them. In
forming the timbers, one mould ferves for two, the fore-
fide of the one being fuppofcd te unite with the afthde
of the other, and fo make only one line, which is called
\hc joint of the timbers.
In order to illuftratc the above, and to explain more
particularly the principal pieces that compofc a ftiip, it
will be necefiary to give a defcription of them. Thefe
pieces are for the moil part reprelented according to the
order of their difpofition in fig. i. Plate CCCCLIV.
A, Reprefents the pieces of the keel to be feciirely
bolted together and clinched.
B, The ftenipoll, which is tenanted into the keel, and
connefted to it by the knee G.
E, The back of the poft, which is alfo tenanted into
the keel, and fecurely bolted to the poft ; the intention
of it is to give fufficient breadth to the port, which fel-
dom can be got broad enough in one piece. C is the
falfe poft, which is fayed (b) to the fore part of the
fternpoft.
C, The ftem, ia two pieces, to be fcarfed together.
The ftem is joined to the fore foot, which makes a part
of both.
H, The apron, in two pieces, to be fcarfed together,
and fayed on the infide of the ftem, to fupport the fcarf
thereof ; and therefore the fcarf of the apron muft be at
ibme diftance from that of the ftem.
I, The ftemfon, in two pieces, to fupport the fcarf of
the apron.
D, The beams which fupport the decks ; and F the
knees by which the beams are fattened to the fides of
the.fhip,
K, The wing tranfom : it is fayed acrofs the ftern-
poft, and bolted to the head of it, and its extremities
are faftened to the fafliion pieces. L, Is the deck tran-
fom, parallel to the wing tranfom. M, N, Two of the
lower tranfoms : thefe are faftened to the fternpoft and
fafliion pieces in the fame manner as the wing tranfom.
The knee which faftens the tranfom to the ftiip's
fide. And, O, The fafhion piece, of which there is
one on each fide. The keel of the fafhion piece is con-
nefted with the dead-wood, and the head is faftened to
the wing tranfom.
R, S, Breaft'hooks : thefe are fayed in the infide to
%\\t ftem, and to the bow on each fide of it, to which
t]iey are faftened with proper bolts. There are gene-
I L D I N G.
rally four or five in the hold, in the form of that mark- DiiFerent
ed R, and one in the form of that marked S, into which f'^l*/'^*
the lower deck planks are rabbeted: There is alfo one j
immediately under the haufe holes, and another under
the fecond deck.
T, The rudder, which is joined to the fternpoft by
the rudder irons, upon which it turns round in the
googings, faftened to the fternpoft for that purpofe.
There is a mortife cut in the head of the rudder, into
which a long bar is fitted called the tiller, and by which
the rudder is turned.
U, A floor timber : it is laid acrofs the keel, to
which it is faftened by a bolt through the middle.
V, V, V, V, I he lower, the fecond, third, and fourth
futtocka. W, W, 'i'he top tinibers. Thefe teprefent
the length and fcarf of the feveral timbers in the mid-
ftiip frame.
X, The piece% which compofe the kelfon. They
are fcarfed together in the fame manner as the keel, and
placed over the middle of the floor timbers, being fco-
red about an inch and a half down upon each fide of
them, as reprefented in the figure.
Y, The feveral pieces of the knee of the head ; the
lower part of which is fayed to' the ftem, and its keel is
fcarfed to the head of the forefoot. It is faftened to
the bow by two knees, called cheeks, in the form of that
reprefented by Z ; and to the ftem, by a knee called a
Jiaiidard, in the form of that marked 0.
a. The cathead, of which there is one on each fide
of the bow, projecting fo far as to keep the anchor clear
of the fliip when it is hove up.
b. The bits, to which the cable is faftened when the
ftiip is at anchor.
d. The fide counter-timbers, which terminate the fhip
abaft within the quarter gallery.
e, e. Two pieces of dead wood, one afore and the
other abaft, fayed on the keel.
Fig. 2. is a perfpeftive reprefentation of a fhip fra-
med and ready for the planking ; in which A, A is the
keel ; B, the fternpoft ; C, the ftem ; K, L, M, the tran-
foms ; F, F, F, F, F, F, the- ribbands.
Chap. III. Containing Preliminary Problems, &c.
The general dimenfions of a fliip are the length,
breadth^ and depth. .
To afcertain thofe dimenfions that will heft anfwerP-opor-
the intended purpofe is, no doubt, a problem of confi- ''""^
derable difficulty; and, from theory, it i^ay be ^Qwn^^^"j|^°"''
that there are no determinate proportions fubfifting be- 2,6^
tween the length, breadth, and depth, by which thefe To be in-
dimenfions may be fettled ; yet, by combining theory ^^^^^ ^^^^
and praftice, the proportional dimenfions may be ^p-cunibrned
proximated to pretty nearly. y,i^i^ p^ag.
As fhips are conftru6ted for a variety of different tice;
purpofes, their principal dimenfions muft therefore be
altered accordingly, in order to adapt them as nearly as
polTible to the propofed intention ; but fince there is
no fixed ftandard whereby to regulate thefe dimenfions,
the methods therefore introduced are numerous, and in
a great meafure depend upon cuftom and fancy.
With regard, however, to the proportional dimen-
3 B 2 fionsp
(b) To/aj/f is to join two pieces of timber clofe together.
58®
Prelimina-
ry <*ro-
blenis.
37
Arid alfo
from the
circle.
f Prailkal
page
• See Bnok
ii. Chap.. 2.
if;
S H I P-B U
fions, tlicy perlisps may be inferred from the circle.
Thus, if the extreme breadth be made eq-ial to the dia-
meter, the length at the load water line, or the diftatice
betwetfn th^ rabbets of the Rem arrd poft at that place, may
be made equal to the clrciunferer.ee of the fame circle ;
and the depth of the hold equal to the radius, the upper
works being contmued upwards according to circum-
ftartces. Afliip formed from thefe dinienfions, with a bot-
tom more ov Itfs full accor^.ing as may be judged nccelfa-
ry, will uo doubt anfwer the propoftd Intention. Never-
thckfs, one or other of thefe dimenfions may be varied
in order to garn fome eiTential proj>erty, which the
tiade that the vejffol is inteuded for. may require.
I'he followin<v hiats rtrc given by Mr Hutchiufon f
towards hxiivg rules ioi' the beft condruftiou «f (hips
bottoms.
1. " I would recommend (fays he), to prevent (hips
bottoms from hogging * upwards ami<2(hip, to have the
fore and after part of their keels deep enoir^h, that the
upper part may be made to admit a rabbet fur the gar-
board ftreak, that the main body and bearing part of
the fhips bottoms may be made to form an arch down-
wards in their length, fuppofe with the fame laeei «s
their bends, at the rate of about 2 inches for every 30
feet of the extreme len;:rth of the keel towards the mid-
{hip or main frame, which may be reckoned the crown
of the arch ; and the lower part of the keel to be made
ftralght, but laid upon blocks fo that it may form a re-
gular convex curve downwards at the rate of an inch
for every 30 feet of the extreme length of the keel, the
lo\y.eft part exaflly under the main frame ; which curve,
I reckon, is only a fufBcient allowance for the keel to
become ftraight below, after they are launched afloat,
by the preffure of the water upward againft their floors
amidfliip, which caufes their tendency to hog. And
certainly a ftraight keel is a gi-cat advantage in failing,
as well as to fuppert thera when laid upon level ground
or on ftraight blocks in a repairing dock, without ta-
king damage.
2. " As fquare ftemed ft\ip8, from experience, are
found to anfwer all trades and purpofes better than
round or pink fterned ftiips, I would recommend the
fore part of the fternpoft, on account of drawing the
water lines in the draught, only to have a few inches
rake, that the after part may ftand quite upright per-
pendicular to the keel : and for the rake of the ftem I
would propofe the rabbet for the budding ends for the
entrance, and bows from the keel upwards, to form the
fame curve as the water line from the ftem at the har-
pih towards the main breadth, and the bows at the bar-
pin to be formed by a fweep of a circle of half the three-
fourths of the main breadth ; and the main tranfom to
be three-fovtrths of the main-breadth ; and the buttocks,
at the load or failing mark aft, to be formed, in the fame
manner as the bows at the harpin, with a fweep of a
circle of half the three fourths of the main breadth, to
extend juft as far from the ftem and ftern poft as to ad-
mit a regular convex curve to the main frame, and from
thefe down to the keel to form regular convex water-
lines, without any of thofe xmnatural, hollow, concave,
ones, either in the entrance or run ; which rules, in my
opmion, will agree with the main body of the ftiip,
whether flie is defigned to be built full for burden or
fiiarp below for falling.
3. " This rule for raking the ftem will admit all the
I L D I M G.
Boot
water-lines in the Chip's entrance to form convex curves ^^'tWx
all the way from the ftem to the midfhip or main frame, "j^jj
which anfwers much better for failing as well as ma-
king a Ihip more eafy and lively in bad weather. And
the bows Ihould flange off, rounding in a circular fotm
from the bends up to the gunwale, in order to meet the
main breadth the fooner, with a fweep of half the main
breadth at the gunwale amidfhips ; which will not only
prevent them greatly from being plunged under water
in bad weather, but fpread the ftanding fore-ritjging the
more, to fupport thefe material mafts and falls forward
to much greater advantage than in thofe over fharp
bowed (hips, as has been mentioned. And 33 the fail-
ing trim of ftiips in general is more or Icfs by the ftern,
this makes the water lines of the entrance in proportion
the fharper to divide the particles of water the eaficr,
fo that the (hip may prefs through it with the leaft rc-
iiftance.
4. " The run ought to be formed fhorter or longer,
fuller or fharper, in proportion to the entrance and main
body, as the (hip is defigned for burden or failing faft.
The convex curves of the water lines fhould lefTen gra-
dually from the load or failing mark aft, as has been
mentioned, downwards, till a fair ftraight taper is form-
ed from the after part of the floor to the fternpoft be-
low, without any concavity in the water hnes ; which
will not only add buoyancy and burden to the after
body and run of the fliip, but, in my opinion, will help
both her falling and ftecring motions ; for the prefl'are
of the water, as it clofes and riles upon it to come to
its level again, and fill up that hollow which is made
by the fore and main body being preflcd forward with
fail, will impinge, and aft with more power to help the
ftiip forward in her progreflive motion, than upon thofe
unnatural concave runs, which have fo much more flat
dead wood, that muft, in proportion, be a hinderance
to the ftern being turned fo eafily by the power of the
htlm to fteer the fliip to the greateft advantage."
Many and various are the methods which are employ-
ed to defcribc the feveral parts of a flilp. In the follow-
ing problems, however, thofe methods only are giveh
which appear to be moft eafily applied to praftice, and
which, at the fame time, will anfwer any propofed pur-
pofe.
Prob. I. To defcribc in the plane of elevation the-"
fheer or curvature of the top timbers.
Let QR (.ig. 3.) be the length of the fhip bctwrefn
the wing tranfom and the rabbet of the ftem. Then^'^^g
fmce it is generally agreed, efpeoially by the French The pi
conftru61ors, that the broadcft part of the ftiip ought of the
to be about one-twelfth of the length before the main"'^'" ^
frame or dead flat; therefore make Rt9 equal to
twelfths of QR, and 0 will be the ftation of the maint„rc tb
frame; fpace the other frames on the keel, and froramiddlt
thefe points let perpendiculars be drawn to the keel.
Let {^P be the height of the fliip at the rnain frame, ^-^^^^^
VF the height at the aftermoft frame, and llK the^jef^rit
height at the ftem. Through P draw EPL paral. the toj
lei to the keel ; defcribe the quadrants PGI, PMN, the^^" lin
radius being P^ ; make PH equal to EF, and PO
equal KL, and draw the parallels GH, OM : Divide
GH fimilar to @C, andOMfimilar to 0R. Through
thefe points of divifion draw lines perpendicular to EL ,
and the feveial portions of thefe perpendiculars contain-
ed between EJL and the arch will be the rifmgs of .the
% top*.
bok r.
S H I P-B U I L D I N G.
• top-timber line ftbove EL. A curve drawn through
thefe points will form the toptimber line.
This line is more eafily drawn by means of a Curved
or bent ruler, fo placed that it may touch the three
points F, P, and K.
Prob. 11. To defcribe the ftem;
Let K (fipf. 3.) be the upper part of the ftem, thro'
which draw KS parallel to the keel, and equal to twice
KR : Through the termination of the wales on the
ftem draw FW parallel to Qjl. Then from the centre
S, with the diftance SK, defcribe an arch : Take an
extent equal to the neareft diftance between the paral-
lels WT, QR ; and hnd the point W, luch that one
point of the compafs bcinji placed there, the other
point will juft touch the neareft part of the above arch;
and from this point as a centre defcribe an arch until it
meets the keel, and the ftem will be formed.
Prob. III. To defcribe the fternpoft.
Set off Oy (fig. 3.) for the rake of the poft :
draw VX perpendicular to the keel, and equal to
the height of the wintr tranfom, join QX, and it will
rcprefent the aft lide of the poft.
Prob. IV. To defcribe the half breadth line.
Let MN (fig. 4.) be the given length : Make N0
equal to five-twelfths of MN ; draw the line 0P per-
pendicular to MN, and equal to the propofed extreme
half breadth. Let ME be the round aft of the ftern
or wing tranfom ; make EO perpendicular to MN, and
equal to the given half brAidth at the ftern, which is
ffenerally between two-thirds and three-fourths of the
main half breadth ; and defcribe the arch MO, the
centre of which is in the middle line. Space the frames
( A), A, B, &c. and ( i), 1, 2, &c. From the centre
t^, with the radius 0P, defcribe the quadrant PR.S ;
defcribe alio the quadrant PCT, Through the point
O draw ORU parallel to MN ; divide the ftraight hne
RU fimilar to M(^ ; and through thefe points of di-
vifion draw lines perpendicular to MN, and meeting
the arch. Transfer thefe lines to the correfpondent
frames each to each, and a carve drawn through the
extremities will rcprefent that part of the fide contain-
ed between the main frame and the ftern. Again, thro*
the extremity of the foremoft frame, draw QV pa-
rallel to MN. Or make PV a fourth or third part of
PU, according as it is intended to make the fhip more
or lefs full towards the bow. Divide VC fimilar to
<2;C ; through thefe points draw lines perpendicular to
MN, and terminating in the quadrantal arcb : Transfer
thefe hnes to the correfponding timbers in the fore part,
and a curve dtawn through the extreme points will li-
mit that part of the ftiip's fide contained between P and
Continue the curve to the next timber at X. From
Q^draw QZ perpendicular to QX ; make the angle
!ZNQ_equal to ZQN, and the point Z vinll be the cen-
tre of the arch forming the bow. Remark, if it is pro-
pofed that the breadth of the fhip at the frames adja-
cent to the main frame fhall be equal to the breadth at
the main frame ; in this cafe, the centres of the qua-
drantal arches will be at the points of iuterfeftion of
thefe frames with the line MN ; namely at ( A ) and ( 1 ).
Alfo, if the height of the fhip at the frames (A) and
( I ) is to be the fame as at dead flat, the quadrantal
arches in fig. 3. are to be defcribed from the points of
uiterfedllofl oC thefe fr*unts with the lioe ELv
Thefe rules, it is evident, are variable at pTeafure ; and Pre'imlna'
any perfon acquainted with the firft principles of mathe- ^jjjg^^'
matics may apply calculation to find the radii of the , i
fevcral fweeps.
Prob. V. i'o defcribe the main frame or dead-
^^^\ .... 43
This frame is that which contains the greateft fpace, Of the
and the particular form of each of the other frames de-^'^'^^'P'
pends very much on it. If the fhip is intended to carry ^'^^°^^*
a great burden in proportion to her principal dimen-
fions, this frame is made very full ; but if Uie is intend-
ed to fail fait, it is ufually made fharp. Hence arifes
diverfity of opinions refpei^^ing its form ; each conftruc-
tOr ufing that which tt) him appears preferable. In or-
der to fave repetition, it is judged proper to explain
cfertain opetations whii:K neceifarily enter into all the
different methods of conftrufting this frame. 44=
In ilie plane of the upper fide of the keel produced, Generat
draw the line A B ( fig. j . ) equal to the propofed breadth
of the ftiip J bifeft AB in C, and draw AD, CE, and jj;,' fj^*
BF, perpendicular to AB. Then, fince the two fides
T)f a fhip are fimilar, it is therefore thought fufficient to
defcrifie the half of each frame between the main frame
and the ftern on one fide of the middle line CE, and
the half of each of thofe before the main fram« on the
other fide of it. The fitft half is called the aj\er.hody^
and the other the fore-body. The after-body is com-
monly defcribed on the left fide of the middle line \
and the fore-body on the right fide of it : hence the
line AD is called the fjde line of the after body, and
BF the fide line of the foi-e body. Make AD and BF
each equal to the height of the fliip at the main frame.
Make AG, BG, and AH, BH, equal to the lower and
upper heights of breadth refpeft ively, taken from the
fheer plan. Let 1 1 be the load water hne, or line of
floatation when the fhip is loaded, and KK the height
of the rifmg line of the floor at this frame. Make CN,
CO, each equal to half the length of the floof timber,
and N, O, will be the heads of the floor timber, thro*'
which draw perpendiculars to A B. Make C w, E m,.
each equal to half the thicknefS of the fternpoft, and C n,
E «, equal to half the thicknefs of the ftern, and join
W2 w>, « r.
Method I. Of defcfib'm^ a main frame. — From the
centres? (fig- in the lower breadth line, defcribe
the lower breadth fwcep Oe ; make equal to the'
propofed radius of the floor fweep, and from the centre
b defcribe the floor fweep N / Let the radius of the
reconciling fweep be A^, equal to about the half of
AC; then make A h equal to N^, and Aw equal to
G a. Now from the centre a, with an extent equal to
g m, defcribe an arch, and from the centre b, with the
extent g h, defcribe an arch interfering the former in
c, which will be the centre of the reconciling fweep ef.
Join N w by an inverted cui-ve, the centre of which may
be in the hne b N produced downwards ; or it may be
joined by two curves, or by a ftraight hne if there is
httle rifing ; and hence the lywer part of the main frame
will be defctibed.
In order to form the top timber, make Y k equal to
fuch part of the half breadth, agreeable to the propo-
fed found of the fide, as one-feventh ; join H iy and
make k i equal to about two-thirds of H k : make tht
angle H / / equal to i H /j and from the centre / at the
diSaii.c$:
ry Pro
blems.
382 S H I P - B U
^5^^''™*"^- diftanee /Htlefcrlbe the arch Hi; and from, the cen.
tre 0, the interfeftion or' / i and i F produced, defcribe
the arch i i, and the tep timber will be formed,
II. 7(9 defcribe a main frame of an intermediate capacity^
that is, neither too fiat nor too fh a rp. ~T)l\ ids the line AX
(fig. 6), which Hmits the head of the floor timber, into
three equal parts ; and make a ^ equal to one of them.
Divide the line d B, the perpendicular diilance between
the load water line and the plane of the upper fide of
the keel, into feven equal parts ; and fet off one of thefe
parts from d to c, and from c to m. Let GH be the
lower deck, join G m, and pioduce it to q. Draw the
ftralght line V tf, bifeft it in «, and from the points
ti. Of defcribe arches with the radius Gy interfering each
other in P, which will be the centre of the arch n a.
The centre of the aich V n is found by defcribing arches
downwards v/ith the fame radius.
With an extent equal to once and a half of B e, de-
fcribe arches from the points b, e, interfering each other
M in A, and from this point as a centre defcribe the arch
e b ; make a I equal to d m, and join A w, A /. Then,
in order to reconcile two arches fo as to make a fair
curve, the centres of thefe arches and of the points of
contaft muft be in the fame ftraight line. Hence the
point k will be the centre of the arch d m, and 0 the
centre of the arch a I. The arch Im is dtfcribed from
the centre A.
To form the top timber, fet back the tenth part of
the half breadth from K to S upon the line of the fe-
cond deck ; then with an extent equal to two-thirds of
the whole breadth defcribe an arch through the points
S and H, the upper height of breadth. Again, make
MI equal to the fifth part of the half breadth ; defcribe
an arch of a circle through the points S and T, taking
the diagonal GB for the radius. As this arch is in-
verted in refpeft of the arch dS, the centre will be
without the figure. Hence one-half of the main frame
is formed, and the other half is defcribed by fimilar
operations.
Remark. This frame may be made more or lefs full
by altering the feveral radii.
III. To defcribe a main frame of a circular form.—
Let the feveral lines be drawn as before : Then make
Plate Qa (fig. 7.) equal to the half breadth Ga, and from
eccctvi.fj.jjg centres, with the radius G a, defcribe the arch
b G c O. Let d be the head of the floor-timber, and
d X the rifing. Affume the point / in the arch, ac-
cording to the propofed round of the fecond futtock,
and defcribe the arch df-, the centre of which may be
found as in the former method : from the centre a, with
the diftanee a d, defcribe the arch dcO ; make d c
equal to one-third of d O, and the angle dc i equal to
cdh, and from the centre b defcribe the arch dc. The
inverted arch c O may be defcribed as before.
IV. To defcribe a very full main frame, — Let the
vertical and horizontal Hnes be drawn as before : let b^
fig. 8. be the floor-head, and b x the rifing. Divide G c
into two equal parts in the point d, and upon c d de-
fcribe the fquare db a c, in which infcribe the quadrant
dea^ Divide the line b d into any number of equal parts
in the points O, N, M, L, and draw the lines Lm, Mf,
N«, Ob, perpendicular to d h. Divide the line G C,
the depth of the hold, the rifing being dedudled, into
the fame mimber of equal parts in the points E,F,I, K,
0jid make the lines E /, F ^, I r, K in the frame,
I L D I N G,
Book
equal to the lines O b^ N«, M f, I.'w, In the fquare, each Prclimi
to each refpeftivcly ; and tlirough the points G, p, 7, r, 'V
J-, b, defcribe a curve. The remaining part of the frame
may be defcribed by the preceding methods.
V. To defcribe the main frame of a J}np intended to he a
faft failer. — The principal lines being drawn as before,
let the length of the floor-timber be equal to half the
breadth of the fhip, and the rifing one-fifth or one-fixthof
the whole length of the floor-timber, which lay off from
X to E, fig. 9. Through the point E draw the hne T x
perpendicular to GC, and dY, perpendicular to A G.
Join T dy which bifedl in B, and draw BF perpendicu-
lar thereto, and meeting C G produced in F, from the
centre F, at the diftanee F T, defcribe the femicirclc
T ^/ D. Divide G into any number of parts, V W,
&c. and bifeft the Intervals DV, DW, &c. in the
points X, Z, &c. ; then, from the centre X, with the
extent XV, defcribe the femicircle D^ V, interfefting
AG in h. Let VP be drawn perpendicular to GT,
and b P perpendicular to AG, and the point of, inter-
feftion P will be one point through which the curve is
to pafs. In like manner proceed for the others, and a
curve drawn through all the points of interfeftion will
be part of the curve of the main frame. The remain-
ing part of the curve from E to Y will be compofed
o\ two arches, the one to reconcile with the former part
of the curve at E, and the other to pafs through the
point Y, the centre of which may be found by any of
the preceding methods. In order to find the centre of
that which joins with the curve at E, make TR equal
to the half of GD, and join ER, in which a proper
centre for this arch may be eafily found.
The portion G ^ E of the curve is a parabola, whofe
vertex is G and parameter GD.
For GD : G ^ : : G3 ; GV by conftruftlon.
Hence DG XGV = G^% which is the equation
for a parabola.
VI. To defcribe a main frame of a middling capacity. — .
Let the length of the floor timber be equal to one-half
of the breadth of the fliip. Make O d, fig. i o. equal
to one-fourth of the length of the floor timber, and draw
the perpendicular dc equal to the rifing, and divide it
into two equal parts in the point e. Defcribe an arch
through and the extremity a of the fldor timber, the
radius being equal to the half breadth, or more or lefs
according to the propofed round of the floor head. —
Then with the radius O /, half the length of the floor
timber, defcribe the arch e Y.
Draw / m perpendicular to OA : bife£l A n in
and draw the perpendicular p q. From the middle of
A p draw the perpendicular r j, and from the middle
of A r draw the perpendicular t u. Make « z, p
each equal to / « : make the difliances py, rb, each
equal toag \ r F, ^ E, each equal to a ^ ; and / x equal
to aY,. Then a curve drawn through the points a, «, j/,
F, X, T, will form the under part of the midflu'p frame.
We fliall finifii thefe methods of defcribing the main
frame of a flaip with the following remark from M.
Vial du Clairbois f . " It feems (fays he) that they ^ Arelh
have affefted to avoid ftraight lines in naval architec- '"''^
ture; yet, geometrically fpeaking, it appears that a main ^' ^
frame formed of ftraight lines will have both the ad-
vantage and fimplicity over others." To illuftrate this,
draw the ftraight line M N (fig. 9.) in fuch a manner
that the mixtiiineal fpace Mad may be equal to the
mix-
I.
S H I P.B U
a- mixtllltieal fpace D N Y. Hence the capacity of the
main frame formed by the ftraight lines MN, NY will
be equal to that of the frame formed by the curve Ma
D Y ; and the frame formed by the flraioht lines will
for the moll part be always more fufceptible ©f recei-
ving a bow that wiil eafily divide the fluid. It is alfo
evident, that the cargo or ballaft, being lower in the
frame formed of ftraight lines than in the other, it will
therefore be more advantageoufly placed, and will ena-
ble the fhip to carry more fail (c) ; fo that having a bow
equally well or better formed, fhe will fail fafter.
Prob. VI. To defcribe a ftern having afquarctuck.
Let AB (fig. ir.) be the middle hne ot the poft,
and let CD be drawn parallel thereto at a diftance
equal to half the thicknefs of the poft. Make CE
equal to the height of the lower part of the fafliion-
piece above the keel : make CT equal to the height of
the extremity G of the tranfom above the plane of the
keel produced, and CH equal to the height of the tran-
fom on the poft, HT being equal to above one-ninth
or one-tenth of GT, and defcribe the arch GH, the
centre of which will be in BA produced : make EK
equal to five-twelfths of ET : through K dl-aw KL
perpendicular to CD, and equal to EK ; and with an
extent equal to EL defcribe the arch EL. Make GI
equal to the half of ET, and from the centre I defcribe
the arch GM, and draw the reconciling curve ML. —
Let the curve of the fafhion-piece be produced upwards
to the point reprefenting the upper height of breadth,
as at O. Make ON equal to the height of the top-
timber, and BN equal to the half breadth at that place,
and join ON. 1'hrough N and the upper part of the
counter, let arches be defer ibed parallel to GH, The
tafferel, windows, and remaining part of the ftern, may
be finifhed agreeable to the fancy of the artift.
In fig. 1 2. the projeftion of the ftern on the plane of
elevation is laid down, the method of doing which is
obvious from infpeftion.
If the tranfom is to round aft, then fince the fafliion
pieces are always fided ftraight, their planes will in-
terfeft the ftieer and floor planes in a ftraight line. Let
G^ (fig. 14.) be the interfeftion of the plane of the
I. fafhion-piece with the floor plane. From the point g
draw ^ W pcrpendieular to ^ M : make y k equal to the
height of the tuck, and W h being joined will be the
interfe&ion of the plane of the fafhion-piece with the
ftieer plane. Let the water lines in the ftieer plane pro-
duced meet the line W in the points a,/, and draw the
perpendicular&/ii?,/r, From the points «, j, /j (fig- 1 4. )
draw lines parallel to G^ to interfeft each correfpond-
ing water line in the floor plane in the points 3, 2, i.
From the points G, 3, 2, i in the floor plane draw
lines perpendicular to g M, interfering the water lines
(fi,^. 13.) in the points G, 3, 2, \ ; and through thefe
points defcribe the curve G 3 2 i i ; and WG 3 2,
J k will be the projeftion of the plane of the lafliion-
piece on the fheer plane. Through the points G, 3, 2,
1 (fig. 13.) draw the lines GF, 3 A, 2 S, i H, per-
pendicular to J and make the lines WF, a A, s S,
I L D I N G. 383
h H, equal to the lines <?' G, ^ 3, / 5, /5 i (fig. 14.) Prelimina-
refpedlively, and WFASH k will be the true form of
the plane of the aft fide of the faihion-piece. When it
is in its proper pofition, the line WF will be in the * ^
fame plane with the fheer Hne ; the Hnc a A in the fame
plane with the water line a 3 ; the line s S jn the fame
plane with the water Hne j 2 ; and the Hne h H in the
fame plane with the water line h i. If Hnes be drawn from
the feveral points of interfeftion of the water lines with-
the rabbet of the port (fig. 13), perpendicular to ^"M,
and curved Hues being drawn from thefe points to G,
3, 2, I (fig. 14.) refpeftively, will give the form and
dimenfions of the tuck at the feveral water Hnes.
Prob. VII. To bevel the fafhion-piece of a fquare
tuck by water-lines-
As the faftiion-piece both rakes and cants, the planes-
of the water-lines will therefore iaterfe£t it higher oa
the aft than on the fore-fide : but before the heights on
the for^-fide can be found, the breadth of the timber
muft be determined ; wh'ch let be in (fig. 15.) Then,
as it cants, the breadth in the diredion of the water-
line will exceed the true breadth. In order to find the
true breadth, form the aft-fide of the fafliion-piece as
direfted in the laft problem.
Let /5 (fig. 13.) be the aft-fide of the rabbet on-
the outfide of the poft, WM the common fedion
of the plan of the faihion-piece and the fheer-plan-.
Before this laft line can be determined, the feveral
water-Hnes i, 2, 3, 4, and 5, muft be drawn parallel
to the keel, which may reprefent fo many tranfoms. —
Let thefe water lines be form.ed and ended at the aft-
fide of the rabbet, as in fig. 14. where the rounds aft of
the feveral tranfoms are- defcribed, limiting the curves of
the water Hnes. Now the Hne WM muft rake fo ag
to leave room for half the thicknefs of the poft, at the
tuck : in order to which, produce W^ to r ; make r g
half the thicknefs of the poft ; through r draw a Hne'
parallel to ^M to interfeft G in b : then with the ra-
dius rb^ from .v the point of the tuck as a centre, de-
fcribe an arch, and draw the line WM juft to touch the;
back of that arch.
The Hne WM being drawn, let any point k in it
be affumed at pleafure : from k draw k y perpendicu-
lar to .^-M : through j; draw_y / (fig. 14,) parallel to
g G, interfering the line M/ drawn perpendicular tO'
^ M in the point /. From M draw M / perpendicular
to j/> and from j; draw n perpendicular to WM (fig.
13.) Make M n (fig. 15.) equal to Mi (fig. 14.) •,
then MI (fig. 15.) being equal toj; k (iig. 1 3),'^join « i ,
and the angle i n M will be the beveHing to the horizontal:
plane. Again, make Mz, M/ (fig. 15. ) refpeftively equal
tojn (fig. 13.). and M/ (fig. 14.), and join 2, / ; and
the angle M -z. /will be the bevelling to the ftieer plane.
The bcvelHng being now found, draw the line a h
(fig- '5') parallel to z w, a % w b n being the fcant-
ling of the timber. Then 71 x will be the breadth of
the timber on the horizontal plane, and z t its breadth
on the flieer plane, and a c what- it is within a fquare.
Now as the lines ^ G, a 3, j 2, /j i, reprefent
I the
(c) It is not a general rule, that lowenng the cargo of a flrip augments her ftability. This is demonftrated by '
the Chevalier de Borda, in a work pubHflied by M. de Goimpy upon this fubjeft. See alfo U Arcbuecturs Na^-
vale par M. y ial du Clalrboisy 2' '^■l'^
3% S H I P-B U
ih-elimina- £}ie aft fide oF the fafhion-plece on the horizontal plane
ry I'ro- 14.), dotted lines may be drawn parallel to them
to reprefent the fore-fide, makinj^ n x (fig. 15.,) the
perpendicular diftance between the lines reprefentin.y
fore and aft fides of the fafliion-piece. By thefe Hnes
form the fore-fide of the faflilon-picce in the fame man-
ner as the aft-fide was formed. The water lines on the
fore-fide of the plane of the fafhion piece muft, however,
be firft drawn in fig. 15. thus : Draw the lines e by c d
parallel to W M, and whofc perpendicular diftances
therefrom may be equal to ac and %e (fig. 15.) re-
fpeftively. Draw a line parallt4 to WF (fig. 13.)
through the point where the line c d interfefts the fitth
water line. Draw a hne parallel to a A through the
point where the fourth water line interfefts the line cd\
in like manner proceed with the other water lines. The
fore-fide of the fafhion-piece is now to be defcribed by
means of thefe new water lines, obferving that the dif-
tanees in the floor plane muft be fet off from the line
e by and not from WM, as in the former cafe ; and
a curve defcribed through the points 5, 3, 2, i, where
thefe diftances reach to, will reprefent the fore-fide
of the faftiion -piece.
The neareft diftance "between the points ^, 3, 2, I
and the aft fide of the fafhion-piece is what the bevelling
is beyond the fquare when both ftock and tongue of
the bevel are perpendicular to the timber. Make M p
^fig. 16 ) equal to the breadth of the timber, and M5
equal to the perpendicular diftance of the point 5
(fig. 13.) from the aft fide of the fafliion-piece, and
join 5 p. In like manner proceed with the others, and
the bevelllnes at thefe parts will be obtained ; but, in
order to avoid confufion, the -perpendiculars 4, 3, 2,
(fig. 13.), inttead of being laid off from M (fig. 16.),
were fet off from points as far below M as the other ex-
tremities of the lines drawn from thefe points are btlow
the point />.
Prob. VIII. To defcribe the tranfoms of a round
poop.
The tranfoms are faftened to the ftern-poft in the
fame manner that the floor-timbers are faftened to the
ketl, and have a rifing called the jflight fimilar to the ri-
fing of the floor-timbers. The upper tranlbm is called
the nv'.n^ tranfom, the next the deci tranfom, and the
others the jirfl^ fecond^ and third tranfoms in order. The
•wing tranfom has a round aft and a round up : the round
-up of the deck tranfom is the fame as that of the
beams.
The falhlon-piece of a fquare tuck muft be firft de-
fcribed, togethei with the three adjacent frames, by the
method to be explained. The part of the ftern above
the wing tranfom is to be defciibed in the fame manner
as before, and may therefore be omitted in this p^ace.
The part below the keel of the falhion- piece is alfo the
pjate fame in both cafes. Let fig. i > reprefent the fafhion-
ccccLvin.piec; of a fquare tuck, and the three adjoining frames.
Divide the inters'al AB into four equal parts in the
points C, D, E, and draw the perpendiculars AF, CG,
DH, EI, aiui BK : thef« will be ^ortioiK of water
lines anfvvering to the fcveral tranfoms.
Let thefe .water lines be defcribed on the floor plan
(fig. 18.), In which ABC reprefents the wing tran-
foin. Defcribe the arch ^ C to reconcik the curves
A h and CE. Let LEG be the vrater-line aufwjering-
to the lower part oi the fafhion-piece, the diftance be-
I L B I N G. Boo
tween the points L and A being equal to the excefs of i^rfii
the projeftion of the point A beyond that of B '
(fitJ. 20.). Draw CK (fig. i8.) perpendicular to AM,
and make the angle KCM equal to ubout 35- degrees,
and CN will be the projection of the fafhion-piece on
the floor- plane. Make AB (fig. 19.) equal to AB (Hg.
17.) Divide it into four equal parts, and draw the
perpendiculars AF, CH, DI, EK, and EG. Make
AF equal to CM, and BG equal to MN, and draw
the curve PTIIKG, having a kfs curvature than the
fafhion-piece of the fquare tuck s c p g n. Make MO,
MP, MQ__, equ-al to CH, DI, and EK refpeaively.
Divide AL (fig. 18.) into four equal parts, and to
thefe points of divifion draw curves through the points
O, P, fo as to partake partly of the curvature of
A <J C E and partly of that of LNF, but moft of the
curvature of that to which the propoled curve is
neareft ; and hence the form of the feveral tranfoms will
be obtained.
In order to teprefent the curve of the fafhion-piece
on the plane of projection, make the lines AF, CO,
DH, EI, and BK (fig. 17.) refpeclivcly equal to the
perpendicular diftance of the points C, O, P, Q, and N.
From the line AN(fis;- 18.), and through the extremities
of thefe lines, draw the curve FGHIK.
It remains to lay down the projeftion of the fafliloa-
plece on the plane of elevation. In order to which, di-
vide the line AB, fig. 20. (equal to AB, fig. 17.) into
four equal parts, and through the points of divifion
draw the perpendiculars AF, CG, DH, EI, and BK ;
make A F' (fig. 20. ) equal to the perpendicular diftance of
the point C from the line BL (fig. 1 8.) In like manner
make the lines C@> DH, EI, and B K ( fig. 20. ) refpeAi ve-
ly equal to the perpendicular diftances of the points O, P,
Q, and N, from the line BL(fig. 1 8.) ; and a curve drawn
through thefe points wfll be the projection af the fafhion-
piece on the plane of elevation.
Prob. IX. To defcribe the intermediate frames in the
after body.
For this purpofe the midfhip and ftern frames muft
be drawn in the plane of projection. A s the main frame
contains the greateft capacity, and the ftern frame is
that having the leaft, It hence follows that the form
and dimenfions of the Intermediate frames .will be be-
tween thefe ; each frame, however, partaking raoft of
the form of that to which it Is neareft.
Let ACDE (fig. 21.) be the main frame on the
plane of projection, and FGH the ftern frame ; and let
there be any convenient number of Intermediate fraines,
as nine. Draw the floor ribband CF, and the breadth
ribband GD. Divide the carves CI), FG, each into
the fame number of equal parts, as three, in the points
K, M ; L, N ; and draw the fecond and third 1 Ibhands
KL, MN. In order to divide ihefe ribband;> fo as to
form fair curves In different IcCtions, various methods
have been propofed. One of the beft of thefe, being
that which is chiefly employed by the French conftruQ-
tors. Is by means of an eq«ilat€ral triangle, which is coh-
ftruCted as follows.
Draw the Hne ME (fig. 22.), limited at M, but
producrd towards E': take M 1 equal to any convenient
extent; make i, 2 equal to thrice that extent, 2, 3
€qual to five times, and 3, 4 equal t3 feven tin^S the
above cxte»t; and con dime tl>is divifion to E, always
in<:reafing by two^ u»t;l there fee- inawy poiat& as there
t. S H I P-B I
>ia- arc frames, including the mam and ftern frames. Up-
°" on ME defcribe the equilateral triangle MSE, and draw
lines from the vertex S to each point of divifion ; then
the line SM will be that anfwering to the main frame,
and SE that correfponding to the poft ; and the other
lines will be thofe anfwering to the intermediate frames
in order.
Let fig. 23. be the projeAIon of part of the ftern on
the plane of elevation, together with the eighth and
ninth frames. From the points L, N, G, (fig. 21.)
draw the lines LO, NP, GQ^ perpendicular to the
plane of the upper edge of the keel. Make AB (fig.
23.) equal to AF (fig. 21.), and draw the water Hne
BCD. Draw the line BC (fig. 22.) fo that it may be
parallel totthe bafe of the triangle, and equal to CD
(fig. 23.), which produce indefinitely towards H. Make
BD equal to BC (fig. 2 and draw the dotted line
SD (fig. 22.) The ribband FC (fig. 21.) is to be ap-
phed to the triangle, fo that it may be parallel to the
bafe, and contained between the line MS and the dot-
ted line SD. Let c f reprefent this line ; then transfer
the feveral divifions from c f to the ribband CF (fi(r. 21.),
and number them accordingly. Again, make EF (fig.
23.) equal to LO (fig. 2x.), and draw the water line
FGK ; make BF (fig. 22.) equal to FG (fig. 23.),
and draw the dotted line SF ; apply the fecond ribband
LK to the triangle, fo that the extremity K may be
on the line SM, and the other extremity L on the dot-
ted line SF, and making with SM an angle of about
62t degrees. Let i/ be this line, and-transfer the divi-
fions from it to the ribband KL. In like manner make
IK (fig. 23.) equal to NP (fig. 21.), and draw the wa-
ter Hne KLM. Make BG (fig. 22.) equal to KL (fig.
23.), and draw the dotted line SG ; then the ribband
MN is to be applied to the triangle in fuch a manner
that its extremities M and N may be upon the lines
SM, S6 refpeftively, and that it may make an angle
of about 68 degrees with the line SM ; and the divi-
fions are to be transferred from it to the ribband MN.
The fame procefs is to be followed to divide the other
ribbands, obferving to apply the fourth ribband to the
triangle, fo that it may make an angle of 86 degrees
with the Kne SM ; the fifth ribband to make an angle
cf 65 degrees, and the fixth an angle of 60 degrees with
the line SM.
The quantities ef thefe angles are, however, far from
being precifely fixed. Some conftruftors, iri applying
the ribbands to the triangle, make them all parallel to
Its bafe ; and others vary the meafures of thefe angles
according to fancy. It may alfo be remarked, that a
different method of dividing the bafe of the triangle is
1*fed by fome. It is certainly proper to try different
methods ; and that is to be preferred which beft anfwers
the intended purpofe.
Befide the frames already mentioried, there are other
two laid down by forae conftruftors in the feveral plans,
called balance fi ames. The after balance frame is placed
at one fourth of the length ot the Ihip before the ftern-
poft ; and the other, commonly called the looj Irumi , at
one fourth of the Ihip's length aft of a peroendicular to
VoL.XVII. Parti.
r I L D I N O. 385
the keel from the rabbet of the ftem. Let the dotted Prelim I'na-
line at X, between the fifth and fixth frames, (fiff- 23.)
be the place of the after balance frame in the plane of j
elevation. Then, in order to lay down this frame in the * ~'
plane of projeftion, its reprefentation muft be previoufjy
drawn in the triangle. To accompli;h this, draw the
line SV (fig. 22.) ib that the interval 5 V may have the
fame raiio to 5: 6 (fig. 22.) that 5 X has to 56 (rg.
23-) (d)- Then the feveral points in the ribbands in
the plane of projedlion anfwering to this frame are to
be found by means of the triangle in the fame manner
as before.
The loof frame is nearly of the fame dimenfions as
the after balance frame, or rather of a little greater ca-
pacity, in order that the centre of gravity of that part
of the Ihip may be nearly in the plane of the midfhip
frame. Hence the loof frame may be eafily drawn in
the plane of projeftion, and hence alfo the other frames
in the fore body may be readily defcribed.
Prob. X. To defcribe the frames in the fore body.
Draw the middle line of the ftem AB (fig. 24.) ;,
make AC, BD each equal to half the thicknefs of the
ftem, and draw the line CD ; defcribe alfo one half of
the main frame CEFGHI. Let fE,/F,^G, be
water lines at the heights of the ribbands on the main
frame ; alfo let a be the termination of the floor ribband^
and b that of the breadth ribband on the ftem. Divide
the interval a b into three equal parts in the points c, d,
and draw the ribbands aE, iF, dG, and bli. Make
^ty/h hm (fig. 24.) equal to e'tyfk, gl^ hm
(fifl^. 21.) refpeftively, and draw , the curve Ct klm,
which will be the projeftion of the loof frame. Or fince
it is neceffary that the capacity of the loof frame fhould
be a little greater than that of the after balance frame,
each of the above lines may be increafed by a propor-
tional part of itfelf, as one-tentii or oncrtwentieth, as
may be judged proper.
ConftruA the triangle (fig. 25.) in the fame manner
as fig. 22. only obferving, that as there are fewer frames^
in the fore than in the after body,^ its bafe will therefore
be divided into fewer parts. Let there be eight frames
in the fore body, then there will be eight divifions in
the bafe of the triangle befide the extremes.
Let fig. 26. reprefent the ftem and part of the fore-
body in the plane of elevation, and let O be the place
of the loof frame. Divide the interval 4^ 5 (%. 25.)
fo that 4, 5 may be to4Z as 4^ 5 to 4, o (fig.26.),.-
and draw the dotted line SZ, which will be the hne de-
noting the loof frame in. the triangle-
Draw the hnes AB/CD, EF, GH (fig. 26.) paraU
lelto the keel, and whofc perpendicular diftanees there-
from may be equal to C a, C r, C J, C by (fig. z^.) the
interfeftions of thefe lines with the rabbet of the ftem,
namtly, the points I, K, L, M will be the points of
termination of the feveral ribbands on the ftem. in the.
plane of elevation. Divide 8 A (fig. 25.) fo that 8B,
H C, 8 D, and 8 E, may be refpedlively equal to BI,
DK, FL, and HM (fig. 26.), and draw the dotted
hnes SB, SC, SDj SE (i g. 25.) Apply the edge of
a flip of card to the firft ribband (fig. 24.), and mark
3 C thercoa
(d ) It is evident, from xht method ufed to divide the bafe of the triangle, that this proportion does aot agree
«xa£lly with the conftrudion : the di£Ference, however, being fmall, is therefore neglefted in praftice.-
^86 S H I P-B U
i'relimina thetcon the, extremities of the ribband a, E, and alio
ry Pro. ^j^^ p^j^^^ interfedtion of the bof frame. Then ap-
y ^ ply this flip of card to the triangle in fuch a manner
that the point a ma-y be on the dotted Hne SB, the
point E on the line SM, and the point anfwering to the
loof frame on the dotted line SZ ; and mark upon the
'Card tlie feveral points of interfedlion of the lines Si,
•S 2, &c. Now apply the card to the ribband ^ E (fi^.
24.) as before, and transfer the feveral points of divl-
fion from it to the ribband. In like manner proceed
with the other ribbands ; and lines drawn through the
correfoonding points in the ribbands will be the projec-
tion of the lower part of the frames in the fore body.
The projedions of the top-timbers of the feveral frames
tnay be taken from the half breadth plan ; and hence
each top-timber may be eafily defcribed.
In large fliips, particularly in thofe of the French
navy, a different method is employed to form the top-
timbers in the fore body, which is as follows :
■Plste Let BI (fig. 27.) be one fourth of the bi^eadth of
(CCCCLIX.ji^g {hip, and draw IK parallel to AB. Take the
'height of the foremoft frame from the plane of eleva-
tion, and lay it off from A to B : from the point B
draw BH perpendicular to AB, and equal to half the
length of the wing tranfom. Let E be the place of
the breadth ribband on the main frame, xnd F its place
on the flem at the height of the wing tranfom. With
a radius equal to five fixths of half the greatefl: breadth
of the (hip defcribe the quadrant EFG (fig. 28.) :
Make EH equal to FG (fig. 27.), the point F being
at the height of the wing tranfom. Through H draw
HO perpendicular to EH, and interfering the circum-
ference in O ; "then draw OL parallel to HE, and EL
parallel to HO. Divide EL into as many equal parts
as there are frames in the fore body, including the main
frame, and from thefe points of >dlvifion draw the per-
pendiculars II, 22, &c. meeting' the circumference as
in the figure. Take the diftance 11, and lay it off
from G (fig- 27.) towards F to the point i ; and from
the fame point G lay oft" towaixls F the feveral per-
pendiculars contained between the ftraight line and the
■curve to the points 2, 3, Sec. and through thefe points
draw lines parallel to EG.
Take any line AB (fig. 29.) at pleafure : divide it
equally in two in the point 8 ; divide 8 B in two parts
in the point 7, and continue this method of divifion mi-
til there are as many points as there are frames in the
fore body, including the main frame. Upon AB con-
ftrudl the equilateral triangle ACB, and draw the lines
€8, C7, &c. Place a flip of card on the parallel
fl K8 (fig. 27.), anil mark thereon the points oppofite
to a, K, and 8 ; and let them be denoted accordingly.
Then apply this flip of card to the triangle, fo that the
ipo'mt a, which k that anfwering to the rabbet of the
ftem, may be on th€ line AC ; that the point anfwer-
ing to K may be on C 8, and the extremity 8 on the
line CB ; and mark on the card the points of interfec-
tion of the lines C 7, C6, Sec. and number them ac-
cordingly. Now apply this flip of card to the leventh
parallel (fig. 23-). the point a being on the line CD,
and mark on this parallel the point of interfcftion 7 ;
Aide the card down to the fixth parallel, to which tranf-
fer the point n^ 6. In like manner proceed with the
other parallels.
The point K, at the interfeftion of the line IK with
I L D I N G, h
the eighth parallel, is one point through which the J'
eighth frame paffes. From this point upwards a curve
is to be defcribed fo as to reconcile with the lower part
of this frame already defcribed, and the upper part,
forming an inve^'ted arch, which is to terminate at H.
This top-timber may be formed by two fweeps, whofe
radii and centres are to be determined partly from cir.
cumftances and partly according to fancy. It how-
ever may be more readily formed by hand.
Let LM (fig. 27.) be the line of the fecond deck
at the main frame, and let LN be the difference of the
draught of water, if any. Make GN (fig. 28.) equal
to LN ; draw NM perpendicular to GN, meeting the
circle in M ; and threu^h the points G and M draw
■ the parallels GV and MV ; divide GN as before, and
from the feveral pointi of divifion draw perpendiculars
terminaiinar in the curve. Transfer thefe perpendicu-
lars from L upwards (fig. 27.), and through the points
thus found draw the lines i i, 22, &c. parallel to LM.
Apply a flip of card to the eighth parallel, and mark
upon it the point aniwering to the ftem, the eighth and
main frames ; carry this to the triangle, and place it fo
that thefe points may be on the correfponding lines.
Then the points of interfeftion of the lines C 7, C 6,
&c. are to be marked on the card, which is now to be
applied firft to the eighth parallel (fig. 27.), then te
the fcventh, &c. transferring the feveral points of divi-
fion in order as before.
Draw the line HO (fig. 27.) ; mark its length on a
flip of card, and apply it to the triangle, fo that it may
be parallel to its bafe, and its extremities one on the
eighth and the other on the main frame : mark on the
card the points of interfecSlion of the feveral intermedi-
ate lines as before ; then apply the card to HO, and
transfer the divifions.
There are now three points determined through
which each top-timber muft pafs, namely, one in the
breadth ribband, one in the fifth, and one in the upper
ribband. Through thefe curves are to be defcribed,
fo as to reconcile with the lower part of the frame, and
partake partly of the curvature of the einrhth frame,
and partly of that of the main frame, but moil of that
of the frame to which it is neafeft : and hence the
plane of projeAion is fo far finifhed, that it only re-
mains to prove the feveral frarries by water lines.
Another method of defcribing the frames in the
body plan is by fweeps. In this method it is neceffary,
in the firft place, to defcribe the height of the breadth
lines, and the rifing of the floor, in the plane of eleva-
tion. I'he half breadth lines are next to be defcribed in
the floor plan. Tlie main frame is then to be defcri-
bed by three or more fweeps, and giving it fuch a form
as may be moil fuitable to the fervice the ftiip is defign-
ed for. The lower, upper, and top-timber heights of
breadth, and the rifings of the floor, are to be fet upon
the middle line in the body plan, and the feveral half
breadths are then to. be laid off on lines drawn through
thefe points perpendicular to the middle line. A mould
may then "be made for the main frame, and laid upon
the feveral rifings, as in whole mouldings, explained in
Chapter V. v/ith this difference, that here an under
breadth fweep is defcribed to pafs through the point
which limits the half breadth of the timber, the centre
of which will be in the breadth line of that timber.
The proper centres for all the frames berug found, and
r, S H I P - B u
the archies defcribed, the bend mould muft be fo pla.
ccd on the rifing line of the floor, that the back of it
may touch the back of the under breadth fweep. But
the general practice is, to defcribe all the flo<3r fwecps
with compafles, as well as the under breadth fwecps,
and to reconcile thefe two by a mould which is an arch
of a circle, its radius being the lame with that of the
reconciling fweep by which the midfhip frame was
formed. It is ufual for all the floor fweeps to be of
the fame radius ; and in order to find their centres a line
is formed on the floor plan for the half breadth of the
floor. As this hne cannot be defcribed on the furface
of a (hip, it is therefore only an imaginary hne. In-
ftead of it ibme make ufe of a diagonal in the body
plane to Umit the half breadth of the floor upon every
rifmg hne, and to eredt perpendiculars at the feveral in-
terfeCtions, in the lame manner as for the midfhip
frame.
After the fweeps are all defcribed, rec^urfe is had to
moulds, or fome luch contrivance, to form the hollow of
the timbers, much in the fame manner as in whole
moulding ; and when all the timbers are formed, thty
muft be proved by ribband and water Hues, and altered,
it necelfary, to make fair curves.
The preceding methods of defcribing the feveral
planes or feftions of a (hip being well underitood, it
will be a very eafy matter to conilrud draughts for
Hiiy propofed fliip : and as the abovfe planes were de-
fcribed feparately and independent of each other, it is
therefore of little confequence which is firH defcribed.
Iq the following application, however, the plane of ele-
vation will be hrll drawn, then part of the floor plan,
and laltly the body plan : and in connecting thefe
plans the moil j-ational and hmple methods will be
employed.
Chap. IV. Jpplicatisn of the foregoing Rules to
the Conjiru^ion of Ships.
Sect.. I. To conJiruQ a Ship intended ta carry a conft-
deruble Burden in Proportion to her general Dimenfimsy
and to draiv little IVater.
Dimensions.
Length betwten the wing tranfom and a perpendicular
from the rabbet of the flem at the height ^
of breadth Hne
Main half breadth moulded
Half breadth at the height of breadth line at
the ftern
Top-timber half breadth
Height of the ftem above the upper edge of
the keel
Height of the breadth line at the ftem
Height of the breadth line at the ftern
Upper height of breadth at the main frame
Lower height of breadth
Height of middle Hne of wales at the ftera
Height of middle line of wales at the main
frame ...
Height of middle line of wales at the ftera
Breadth of the wales
Height of top-timber at midfhips
„ at ftera
F. In.
80
0
11
0
7
6
10
6
17
0
6
12
3
7
4
5
10
10
0
6
10
10
6
I
9
H
0
j8
0
I L D I N G,
Draw the line ab (fig. 3-.) equal to 80 feet, from
a convenient fcale : divide it into as many equal parts
plus one as there are to be frames, which let be 1 6,
and through e-jch point of divifion draw perpendiculars.
Make b c equal to 1 7 feet, the perpendicular height of
the top of tlie ftem above the upper edge of the keel,
and defcribe the ftem by Prob. TI. Make ad equal
to loi- feet, the height of the middle line of the wales
at the ftern, and a e equal to the propofed: rake of the
por», which may be about z feet ; join d e ; and draw
the line Jg repreienting the aft-fide of the poft. De-
Icribe the counter and Rern by Problem VI. and VII.
Make 0 h equal to 1 4 feet, the top-tlmber height at
the main frame, and /' k equal to 1 8 feet, the height at
the ftern ; and through the three points <r, A, k, del'cribe
the curve limiting the top-timbers by Problem I. Make
bd equal to 10 ket, the height of' the middle Hne of
the wales at the ftem, and @H equal to 6 feet 10
inches, the height at the main frame ; and the curve
ri'H^ being defcribed will reprefent the middle Hne of
the wales. At the diftance of lo^ inches on each fide
of this line draw two curves parallel tliereto, and the
wales will be completed in this plan. Make b I equal
to .' 31 feet, the height of the breadth line at the ftem ;
a m equal to i 2| feet, the height at the ftern ; and 10,
equal to 5 feet 10 inches and 7 feet 4 Inches re-
fpedlvely ; and draw the upper breadth Hne./Kw and
lower breadth line / 1 m. From the line a b lay down-
wards the breadth of the keel,, which may he about
one foot, and draw the Hne L / parallel to a b.-
Let the line L r, which Is the lower edge of die keel;>..
reprefent aUu the middle line of the floor plan. Pro-
duce all the ptrpendiculars reprefenting the framts
make 0 M (fig. 31.) equal to 11 feet, the main half
breadth at midfhips ; through m (fig. 30.) draw the.
hne m N perpendicular to a b, and make p N equal tO:
74 feet, and draw the main half breadth Hne NMr by-
Problem IV. Defcribe aho the top-tirsber half breadth
Hne PO r, O being equal to lo^: feet, and form thc'
projedling part of the ftem^ r st.
In order that the top-timber line may look fair oa
the bow, and to prevent the foremoft top-timbers fromr
being too ftiort, it is neceflary to lift or raife the Iheer
from the round of the bow to the flem. For this pur-
pofe the following method is ufually employed : Pro-
duce the circular flieer before the ftem in the plane of
elevation at pleafure ; then place a batton to the round,
of the bow in the half breadth plan, and mark on it the
ftations of the fquare timbers and the fide of the ftem
apply the batton to the flieer plan, and place It to the
flieer of the flilp, keeping the ftations of the timbers oa
the batton well with thofe on the flieer plan for feve-
ral timbers before dead-flat, where they will not alter
then mark the other timbers and the iium on the flieer
hne produced ; through thefe points draw lines parallel
to the keel, to interfedl their correfponding timbers
and the ftem. in the flieer plan : then a curve defcribed.
thefe laft points will be the flieer of the flilp round
the bow, lifted as reqi^ifed ; and the heights of the tim-
bers thus lengthened are to be transferred to the body-
plan as before.
Draw the line AB (fig. 32.) equal to 22 feet, the
whole breadth ; from the middle of which draw the.
perpendicular CD : make CE equal to half the thicknefa,
Apf Icatiou
of rhe fore-
go!' g Rnlef
to ihe Con.,
ftrudlion of
ships.
,.. — „ . .J
Plate
388 B H I P-B U
/ipulicnannof the poft, fincl CF equal to h^lf that of the ftem, and
of the- fore fj.Qp^ ti^e points A, E, F, B, draw lines parallel to CD.
^'^'Jfe Con-^^^« AG, BG each equal to 14 feet, the height at
i{ruft'on"of the main frame, and draw the line GG parallel to AB.
Ships. Make GH, GH each equal to half a foot, the difference
*— between the main and top timber half breadths. From
A and B fet up the -heights of the lower and upper
breadth lines to I and K, and draw the ftraight lines
T K, IK. Let CL be the rifmg at the main frame, and
0, 0 the extremities of the floor timber. Henca, as
there are now five points determined in each half of
-the main franne, it may be very eafily defcribed.
Make CM equal to L0, join M0, and draw the
other ribbands NO, PQ^ In order, however, to fim-
flify this operation, the reftihneal diftance 01 was
trifedied, and through the points of divifion the lines
NO, PQ were drawn parallel to the ,il®or ribband
Take the diftance ic (hg. 30.), and lay it oft from
F to (fig. 32.); alfo make F^ (fig. s^O equal to
F« (fig- 30.) ; through i draw be parallel to AB, and
equal to FR (fig. 31)- In like manner take the
heights of each top-timber from fig. 30. and lay them
off from C towards D (fig. 32) ; through thefe points
draw lines parallel to AB, and make them equal each to
each, to the correfponding half breadth lines taken from
the floor plan -; Then through the feveral points a, Cy
&c thus found, draw a line acVL, which will be the
projeftion of the top-timber line of the fere body in the
body plan. Proceed in the fame manner to find the
top-timber line in the after body.
Transfer the height of the main breadth line on the
4lem bl (fig, 30.) from F to ^ (fig. 3?). Transfer alfo
the heights of the lower and upper breadth hneis at
timber F (fig. 30.), namely, FW, FX, from F to ^
.and / (fig. S2') ; through which draw the parallels eg^
Jh ; make them equal to FS (fig. 31.), and draw the
ftraight Kne g h. In this manner proceed to lay down
the portions of the extreme breadth at each frame, both
In the fore and in the after body in the body plan, and
draw the upper and lower breadth lines dhY^^ dg \ in
the fore body and K i, I / in the after body. Hence
the portions of the feveral top-timbers contained be-
tween the top-timber and main breadth lines may be
eafily defcribed. It was betore remarked that their
•forms were partly arbitrary. The midfliip top-timber
has generally a hollow, the form of which is left entire-
ly to the artift, though in fome fliips, efpecially fmall
ones, it has none. It is the common praftice to make
a mould for this hollow, either by a fweep or fome
other contrivance, which is produced confiderably above
the top-timber line, in a ftraight line or very near one;
The midfhip top-timber is formed by this mould, which
is fo placed that It breaks in four with the back of the
upper breadth fweep. The other top-timbers are f«rm-
cd by the fame mould, obferving to place it fo that the
ftraight part of it may be parallel to the ftraight part
of the midfliip timber, and moved up or down, ftill
keeping it in that direftion till it jaft touches the back
of the upper breadth fweep. Some conftruftors begin
at the after timber, after the mould is made for the mid-
fliip top-timber, becaufe they think it eafier to keep
the ftraight part of the mould parallel to this than to
the midfliip timber j and by this means the top fide is
^ept from winding. Others,. again, make a mark upon
I L D I N O; Boo
the mould where the breadth line of the mldfi\tp tim- Appl
ber crofles it, and with the fame mould they form theof.'t'
after timber : this will occafion the mark that was made "^^^^^
on the mould when at the main frame to fall below the ftrua
breadth line of the after timber, and therefore another Sh
mark is made at the height of the breadth line at the
after timber ; the ftraight part of the mould is then laid
obliquely acrofs the breadth lines of the top- timbers, in
fuch a manner that it may interfeft the breadth line of
the midfliip timber at one of thefe marks and the
breadth line of the after timber at the other mark ;
then the feveral interfeftions of the breadth lines of the
timbers are marked upon the mould ; which muft now
be fo placed in forming each timber, that the proper
mark may be applied to its proper breadth, and it muft
be turned about fo as juft to touch the upper breadth
fweep. Any of thefe methods may make a fair fide,
and they may be eafily proved by forming another in-
termediate half breadth line.
The remaining parts of the frames may be defcribed
by either of the methods laid down in Problems IX.
and X. In order, however, to iUuftrate this ftill far-
ther, it is thought proper to fubjoin another method of
forming the intermediate frames, the facility of which
will recommend it.
Take FZ (fig. 30.), and lay it from F to i (fig.
32.) ; then defcribe the lower part of the foremofl;
frame, making it more or lets full according as pro-
pofed ; and interfefting the ribbands in the points
/, »i, n. Defcribe alfo the aftermoft frame 0, q.
Make ^P' (fig. 30.) equal to F r (fig. 32.), and pro-
duce it to a (fig. 31.) ; alfo draw y^^ and f C (fig. 30.)
equal to E r and E / (fig. 32.) refpeftively ; and pro-
duce them to h and c : Make F e, F/, FR (fig. 31.)
equal to }/[!, Nw, P« (fig- 32.) each to each. Let
alfo ©i, 0^', and 9/, 9 w, 9« (fig. 31.) be
made equal to M 0, NO, PC^ and Mo, N ^, ?p
(fig. 32 ) ; then through thefe points trace the curves
ae nhlb, rf'tmCy and r^knpy and they will be the
projeftions of the ribbands in the floor plane. Now
transfer the feveral intervals of the frames contained be-
tween the middle line and the ribbands (fig. 31.) to
the correfponding ribbands in the body plan (fig. 32).
Hence there wiU be five points given in each frame,
namely, one at the lower breadth line, one at each rib-
band, and one at the keel ; and confequently thefe
frames may be eafily defcribed. In order to exemplify
this, let it be required to lay down the frame E in the
plane of projeftion. Take the interval E n (fig. 31-),
and lay it from M to w (fig. 32). Lay off alfo E -y,
Ee (fig. 31.) from N to and from P to n ^fig.
32 ); then through the points F, «, u, n and the
lower breadth line defcribe a curve, and it will be the
reprefentatlon of the frame E in the body plan. In
like manner the other frames may be defcribed.
The ribbands may now be transferred from the body
plan to the plane of elevation, by taking the feveral
heights of the interfedllon of each ribband with the
frames, and laying them off on the correfponding
frames in the floor plan ; and if the line drawn through
thefe points make a fair curve, it is prefumed that the
curves of the frames are rightly laid down in the body
plan. Only one of thefe ribbands, namely, the firft, is
laid down in fig. 30. Thefe curves may alfo be far-
ther proved, by drawing water lines in the plane of ele-
3 vation.
S H I P - B U I L D I N G.
389
i!arion vatlon, and in the body pUn, at equal <diftances from the
Rules "PP^** ^<^g^ °f k^^^- Then the diftances between the
'Cq°1 middle line of the body plan, and the feveral points of
jn of interfeftion of thcfe lines with the frames, are to belaid
off from the middle line in the floor plan upon the
correfponding frames; and if the line drawn through
thefe paints fonn a fair <;urve, the frames are truly
drawn in the body plan.
In figs. 30. and 32. there are drawn four water lines
at any equal diftances from the keel, and from" each other.
Thefe lines are then transferred from hg. 32. to fig. 31.;
and the lines paffing through thefe points make fair
curves.
The tranfoms 4te defcribed by Problem Vlll. it is
therefore unneceflary to repeat the procefs. A rifing
line of the floor timbers is commonly drawn in the plane
of elevation.
As this is intended only as an introduftory example,
feveral particulars have therefore been omitted ; which,
however, will be exemplified in the following feAion.
Sbct. IV. To defcrihe the feveral Plans of a SJnp of
JVar propofed to carry 80 Guns upon tivo Decks,
As it is propofed in this place to (how the method
of defcribing the plans of a (hip of a very confiderable
fize, it therefore feems proper to give the dimenfionsof
every particular part neceflary in the delineation of thefe
plans. The feveral plans of this (hip are contained in
Plate CCCCLXI. figs 33, and 34. But as it would
very much confufe the figures to have a reference to every
operation, and as the former example is deemed a fuf-
ficient illuftration, the letters of reference are upon thefe
accounts omitted in the figures.
Principal Dimensions.
Lengths.^ Length on the gun or lower deck F. In.
from the aft part of the rabbet of the ft^em
to the aft part of the rabbet of the poft 182 o
Length from the foremoft perpendicular to
dead flat - - 63 1 1\
Length from the foremoft perpendicular to
timber Y - - 4 O
Length from after perpendicular to tim-
ber 37 - •■ - 34
Room and fpace of the timbers - 2 8J
Length of the quarter-deck from the aft part
of the ftern - - " 95 O
Length of the forecaftlc from the fore part of
the beak-head - - 49 o
Length of round-houfe deck from the aft part
of the fl:ern - - 5^8
Ueights. — Height of the gun or lower deck
from the upper edge of the keel to the
under fide of the plank at dead flat 24 o
Height of the gun or lower deck from the
upper edge of the keel to the under fide of
the plank at foremofl; perpendicular 26 3
Height of the gun or lower deck from the
upper edge of the keel to the under fide of
the plank at after perpendicular - 26 3
Height from the upper fide of the gun-deck
plank to the under fide of the upper deck
plank, all fore and aft - -70
Height from the upper fide of the
upper deck plank to the under fide
of the greater deck plank
Height to the under fide of forecafl:le plank,
afore and abaft
afore
abaft
Height froHi the upper fide of theT ^^q^q
I abaft
fide of the round-houfe plank J
■~-t>"~ — " — — - — ■ — .
quarter-deck plank to the under >■
Height
Height of the lower edge of the main wales
at foremoft perpendicular
Height of the lower edge of the main wales
at dead flat
Height of the lower edge of the main wales
at after perpendicular
of the lower edge of the channel
wales at foremoft perpendicular
Height of the lower edge of the channel
wales at dead flat
Height of the lower edge of the channel wales
at after perpendicular
Height of the upper fide of the wing tran-
fom . . -
Height of the touch of the lower counter at
the middle line
Height of the touch of the upper counter at
the middle line
Height of the top-timber line at the after part
of the ftern timber
Breadths. — Main wales in breadth from lower
to upper edge
Channel wales in breadth from lower to up-
per edge - - .
Waift rail in breadth - -
Diftance between the upper edge of the chan-
nel wales and the under edge of the waift
rail - - -
Sheer rail in breadth
Diftance between the fheer rail and the rail
above from timber 1 3 to the ftern
Diftance between the flieer rail and the rail
above from timber 7 to timber 11
Diftance between the iheer rail and the rail
above from timber C to the forepart of
beak-head
And the faid rail to be in breadth
plank flicer to be in thicknefs
Centres of the maJls.-^ Yxom the foremoft per-
pendicular to the centre of the mainmaft on
the gun-deck
From the foremoft perpendicular to the centre
of the foremaft on the gun-deck
From the after perpendicular to the centre of
the mizenmaft on the gun-deck
Stem. — The centre of the fweep of the ftem
abaft timber P -
Height of ditto from the upper edge of the
keel
Stem moulded
Foremoft part of the head afore the perpen-
dicular
Height of ditto from the upper edge of the
keel
Stern-pofi.'-^Ak part of the rabbet afore the
F. In. Application
of the fore-
6 10 going Rules
6 H to the Con-
ftrudbion of
Shipf.
6 6 — y
6 9
6 10
24 6
20 o
26 6
32 6
29 e
34 o
28 4
33 S
36 2
44 7
4 6
3 o
o 7
2 9
o 6
2 5
« 4
I 2
o 6
O 2t
2
20 5
28 6
o 4
26 I
« 3
2 4
38 3
pe*-
S H I P-B
Application perpendi'cuUr on the upper edge pf the
of the tore- j^^^gj . °
to 'th^ Con- "^^^ part of the port abaft the rabbet at the
ftnuSiion of upper edge of the keel
chips. Aft part of the port abaft the rabbet at the
^''^^r—^ wing tranfoni - . ^
Stern-port fore and aft on the keel
Ditto fquare at Uie kead
Counters, — The touch of the lower counter
at the niiddle line, abaft the aft part of the
winji tranfom
JRound aft of the lower counter
Round lip of the lower counter
The touch of the upper counter at the middle
line, abaft the aft part of the wing tran-
fom ...
Round aft of the upper counter
Round up of the upper counter
Aft part of the ftern- timber at the middle
line, at the height of the top' timber line,
abaft the aft part of the witig tranfom
Round aft of the wing tranfom
Round up of the wing tranfom
F.
3
U
In.
4
I
I
12
O
o
9
34
10
6
6
si
afore
abaft
I L D I N G,
Draught of -water. ^t,o?LA draught of'
water from the upper edge of the
keel - . ^
Channels. — Foremoft end of the fore chan-
nel afore timber R -
The channel to be in length
And in thicknels at the outer edge
The dead eyes to be 12 in number and in
diameter
Foiemoft end of the main channel afore tim-
ber 9 - ^
The channel to be in length
And in thicknefs at the outer edge
The dead eyes to be 14 in number and in
diameter
Foremoil end of the mizen-channel abaft tim-
ber 27 - .
The channel to be in length
And in thicknefs at the outer edge
The dead eyes to be 7 in number and In dia-
meter
F. /«. Appli
of tlie
20 5 going
r to the
^ (txxxa
6h
o
o
4J-
20
I
37
o
I 6
o 10
38 o
0 4f
1 «
2 4
20 o
0 4 ■
Dimensions of the fevtral Parts of the Bodies.
Fore BoJy,
Timbers Nantes.
e ^ c
G
L
P
T
W
y
Ft.
in.
Ft.
In.
ft.
Ft.
111.
Ft. 111.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Lower height of breadth
22
6
22
6
22
7
'^3
0
23 II
25
7
26
10
28
8
Upper height of breadth
24
10
24
10
24
10
24
25 3i
26
41
27
4i
29
0
Height of the top-timber line
37
5
37
7
38
0
38
5
39 I
39
10
40
4
40
9
Height of the rifing line *
0
0
0
3i
3
10
9
10
18 6
Height of the cutting down
Main Iralf breadth
2
3i
2
3^
2
3i
2
8
3 10
6
4
24
5i
24
Si
24
4t
24
of
23 21
20
2
17
0
II
of
Top-timber half breadth
20
1 1
20
10
20
9
5t
20
6
20 0
18
9i
'7
10
i6
6
Half breadth of the rifing
8
7
8
4
6
2
9
5 7
Outfide
Length of the lower breadth fWeeps^
19
2
18
9
18
3
17
3
15 II
14
I
12
7
12
0
Firft diagonal line
7
9
7
H
7
7
7
I
6 3
3
8
Second ditto
13
9
13
13
4i
12
I
10 3
7
4
6
Third ditto
20
0
19
1 1
19
2
17
7
1 1
I
8
3i
3
4i
Fourth ditto
23
4t
23
44
23
0
21
^\
18 II
14
84
1 1
5
6
0
Fifth ditto
24
8
24
8
4i
23
5t
21 2f
17
I
13
8i
7
1 1
Sixth ditto
Seventh ditto -
24
24
If
24
0
23
9
22 10
20
lot
18
64
H
7
* Rifing height 11 feet 10 inches at dead flat, from which all the other rifings muft be fet off.
Jfttf
;L SHIP-BUILDING.
Timbers Na
mes.
37
I
5
9
13
I 7
21
2
r
J
29
33
35
Ft.
In.
Ft,
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft
ia.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In,
wer hels^ht of breadth
22
6
22
6
22
6
22
1\
22
9
23
ot
23
7i
24
^ 6
25
26
94:
28
3
iper ditto - "
24
10
10
24
10
24
1 1
^5
I
25
4
25
8
26
3
27
I
27
Q
28
8
light of the top-timber line
37
5
37
5
37
6
37
10
38
3i
3^^
1 1
39
8
40
6
41
5
42
0
42
6
lijrht of the cutting down
2
3i
2
3t
2
3i
2
3i
2
4
2
71
3
5
5
2f
8
7
light of the rifing
0
0
8i
r
9t
3
6t
6
0
10
'7
0
lin half breadth
24
5t
24
4i
24
4t
24
3i
24
I
23
23
oi
2 r
10
ilf breadth of the rifinsr
8
6
8
3
7
9
6
lOf
5
3i
2
8
2
6
Outfide
ip timber half breadth
20
1 1
20
10
20
9i
20
9
20
7
20
3
19
5
18
2
16
8
lOf
I C
J
>pfides half breadth
19
7
18
4
17
0
15
10
14
1 1
I4-
T
2
ngth of lower breadth fweeps
19
2
19
2
19
0
]8
7
17
I
16
0
5
12
5
9
I of
7
1 1
4
8
■ft diagonal
7
9
7
7
7
7
5
7
6
7
5
9
4
7
2
10
I
8i
0
7
:ond ditto
13
9
13
8f
^3
6
13
I
12
6
1 1
2
9
7
7
7
4
8i
3
I
0
I [
ilrd ditto
20
0
19
'9
71:19
0
18
It
16
H
2
1 1
5i
7
8t
5
5
2
If
urth ditto -
23
3
2?
It
22
6i
2 1
1 1
20
3
18
oi
15
3i
1 1
4
8
7
4
6i
th ditto
24
8
7
24
6
24
It
23
6j-,22
3t
20
18
2
'4
4
1 1
5
7
0
:th ditto
1
i8
8t
16
0
1 1
8
renth ditto
23
9t23
0
21
8i
20
0
18
ri
^7
8i
Diagonal Lines for both the Fore and After Bodies,
Fore and AJter Bodies.
Names of the Diagonal Lines.
2d
3d
4th
5th
6th
7th
Height up the middle line
Diftgnce from the middle line on the bafe line
Height up the fide line
Ft. In.
6 ii
4' 8
Ft. In.
'II 4
9 I
Ff. In.
.6 5i
15 6
Ft. In.
20 8
0 9f
Ft. In.
23 hi
6 7,
Ft. In.
27 5
12 7f
Fr. In.
43 9
32 Si
I. Of the Sheer Draught or Plane of E/evation.
Draw a ftraight line (fig. 33.) to reprefent the up-
per edge of the keel, ereft a perpendicular on that end
to the tight, and From thence fet off 1 82 feet, the length
on the gun-deck, and there ereft another perpendicular ;
that to the right is called the /orm^ perpendicular, and
the other the after one : upcon thefe two perpendiculars
all the foremoft and aftermoft heights mull be fet off,
which are exprefled in the dimenfions.
Then fet off the dillance of the main frame or dead
flat from the foremoft perpendicular, and at that place
creft a third perpendicular, which muft be diftinguiOied
by the character Q7. From dead flat the room and
foacc of all the timbers muft be fet off ; but it will on-
ly be neccffary to ereft a perpendicular at every frame
tiinber ; which in the fore body are called chad flat. A,
C, E, &c. and in the after body (2 ), i, ^, 5, &c. :
hence the diftance between the frame perpendiculars will
be double the room and fpace expreffed in the dimen-
fions. Then fet off the heights of the gun-deck afore
at midftiip or dead fiat, and abaft from the upper fide
of the keel ; and a curve defcribed through thefe three
points will be the upper fide of the gun-deck. Set off
the thicknefs of the gun- deck plank below that ; and
another curve being drawn parallel to tl»e former, the
gun-deck will then be defcribed at the middle line of
the fheer plan.
The centre of the ftem is then to be laid down by-
means of the table of dimenfions ; from which centre,
with an extent equal to the neareli diibnce of the upper
edge of the keel, defcribe a circle upwards ; defcribc
alfo another circle as much without the former as the
ftem is moulded. Then fet off the height of the head
of the ftem, with the diftance afore the perpendicular,
and there make a point ; and within that fet off the
moulding of the ftem, and there make another point :
from this laft mentioned point let a line pafs downwards,
interfering the perpendicular at the height of the gun-
deck, and breaking in fair with the inner circle, and
the after part of the ftern is drawn. J)raw another line
from the foremoft point downwards, parallel to the for-
mer, and breaking in fair with the outer circle ; then
the whole ftem will be formed, except the after or low«
er end, which cannot be determined till hereafter.
The ftern-poft muft be next formed. Set off on the
upper edge of the keel a fpot for the aft part of the
rabbet taken from the dimenfions, and from that for-
ward fet off another point at the diftance of the thick-
nefs of the plank of the bottom, which is 4! inches ;
and from this laft mentioned poijit draw a line upwards
•interfeaing the perpeudicukrs at the height of the lower
4 ilcck;
\
392 S H I P - B U
Application deck ; then fet up the perpendicular the height of the
*oin^'^Ruks^^"^. ^^^"^'^"'» ^"'^ draw a level line, and where that
fo the Con-*^^"^ interfefts, the line firft drawn will be the aft fide of
ftruftion of the wing tranfora ; on the upper, part of the middle line
Shijif. fet off from that place the diftance of the aft fide of the
» ftern-poft ; fet off alfo the diftance of the after part from
the rabbet on the upper edge of the iceel, and a line
drawn through thefe two points will be the aft fide of
the poft. A line drawn parallel to the firft drawn line
at the diftance of 44- inches, the thicknefs of the plank
©n the bottom, will be the aft fide of the rabbet : and
hence the ftern-poft is defcribed, except the head,
which will be determined afterwards.
From the dimenfions take the feveral heights of the
■upper deck above the "un-deck, afore, at midHiipj and
abaft, and fet them off accordingly ; through thefe
points defcribe a curve, which will be the under fide of
the upper deck ; defcribe alfo another curve parallel
thereto, at the diftance of the thicknefs of the plank,
and the upper deck will be then reprefented at the
middle line of the (hip.
Set off the height of the lower counter, at the mid-
dle hne, from the upper edge of the keel, and draw a
horizontal line with a pencil ; then on the pencil line
fet off the diftance the touch of the lower counter is
abaft the aft fide of the wing tranfom : from this point
to that where the fore part of the rabbet of the ftern-
poft interfefts the line drawn for the upper part of the
wing tranfom, draw a curve at pleafure, which curve
will reprefent the lower counter at the middle line.
The height of the upper counter is then to be fet off
from the upper edge of the keel, and a horizontal line
is to be drawn as before, fetting off the diftance the
touch of the upper counter is abaft the aft fide of the
wing tranfom ; and a curve defcribed from thence to
the touch of the lower counter will form the upper
counter at the middle line.
Both counters being formed at the middle line, the up-
per part of the ftern timber above the counters is to be
defcribed as follows : On the level line drawn for the up-
per fide of the wing tranfom fet off the diftance of the
aft fide of the ftern timber at the middle line from the
aft fide of the wing tranfom, at the height of the top-
timber line, and ereft a perpendicular : then upon this
perpendicular, from the upper edge of the keel, fet off
^e height at the middle line of the top-timber line at
^e after fide of the ftern timber ; through this point
draw a ftraight line to the touch of the upper counter,
and the upper part of the ftern timber will be defcribed.
As the ftern rounds two ways, both up and aft, the
ftern timber at the fide will confequently alter from
that at the middle line, and therefore remains to be re-
prefented. Take the round up of the upper counter
from the dinftenfions, and fet it below the touch at the
middle, and with a pencil draw a level line ; take alfo
the round aft, and fet it forward from the touch on the
touch line, and fquare it down to the pencil line laft
drawn, and the point of interfeftiorr will be the touch
of the upper counter at the fide. In the fame manner
find the touch of the lower counter; and a curve, fi-
milar to that at the middle line, being defcribed from
the one touch to the other, will form the upper counter
at the fide.
Take the round up of the wing tranfom, and fet it
off below the line before drawn for the height of the
I L D I N G. B(
wing tranfom, and draw another horizontal line In pen- Ap
oil: then take the round aft of the wing tranfom, and°f ,
fet it forward on the upper hne from the point repre-^""
fenting the aft fide of the wing tranfom ; fquare it down l^^l
to the lower line, and the interfeftion will be the touch
of the wing tranfom : then a curve, fimilar to that at -
the middle line, being- drawn from the touch of the
wing tranfom to the touch of the lower counter at the
fide, will be the lower counter at the fide. Draw a
line from the upper counter upwards, and the whole
ftern timber at the fide will be reprefented. But as the
ftraight line drawn for the upper part of the fide tim-
ber fhoald not be parallel to that at the middle line, its
rake is therefore to be determined as follows.
Draw a line at pleafure, on wliich fet off the breadth
of the ftetn at the upper counter ; at the middle of ttiis
hne fet off the round aft of the upper counter, then
through this point and the extremities of the ftern de-
fcribe a curve. Now take the breadth of the ftern at ,
the top-timber line, and through the point where that
breadth will interfeft the curve for the round aft of the ^
ftern draw a line parallel to that firft drawn, and the di-
ftance from the line laft drawn to the curve at the mid-
dle of the line is the diftance that the fide timber muft ,
be from the middle line at the height of the top-timber
hne.
The fheer is to be defcribed, which is done by fet-
ting off the heights afore, at midftiips, and abaft, and
a curve defcribed through thefe three points will be the
fheer. But in order that the (hcer may correfpond
exaftly with the dimenfions laid down, it will be necef-
fary to proceed as follows : The perpendicular repre-
fenting timber dead flat being already drawn, fet off
from that the diftances of the other frame timbers,
which is double the room and fpace, as the frames are
only every other one ; and ereft perpendiculars, writing
the name under each : then on each of thefe perpen-
diculars fet off the correfponding heights of the top.
timber Hne taken from the table of dimenfions for con-
ftruding the bodies ; and through thefe points a curve
being defcribed, will reprefent the fheer of the fhip or
top timber line agreeable to the dimenfions.
The quarter-deck and forecaftle are next to be de-
fcribed, which may be done by taking their refpeftive
heights and lengths from the dimenfions, and defcribing'
their curves. In the fame manner alfo, the round-
houfe may be drawn. The decks being defcribed re-
prefenting their heights at the middle, it is then ne-
ceffary to reprefent them alfo at the fide. For this,
purpofe take the round of the decks from the dimen-
fions, and fet them off below the lower line drawn for
the middle, and a curve defcribed both fore and aft, ob.f
ferving to let it be rather quicker than the former, will-
be the reprefentation of the decks at the fide.
The ports come next under confideration. In the
placing of them due attention muft be paid, fo as to
preferve ftrength ; or that they fhall be fo difpofed aa
not to weaken the fhip in the leaft, which is often done
by cutting off principal timbers, placing them in too
large openings, having too fhort timbers by the fide of
them, &c. The frames reprefented by the lines al-
ready drawn muft be firft confiilted. Then with a
pencil draw two curves, for the lower and upper parts
©f the lower deck pofts, parallel to the hne reprelentl
ing the lower deck } the diftances of thefe lines from
the
SHIP-BUILDING.
tiotithc deck *H to be taken from the dimenfions, obfer-
^l^^vipar, however, to add to thefe heights the thicknefs of
"th€ deck, as the deck line at the fide repreients the
n of under part of the deck.
Tlie foremoft port is then to be defcribed, ob-
fervinjif to place it as far aft as to give fufficient
room for the manger : the mofl convenient place will
therefore be to put it between the frames R and T,
and equally diftant from each. Tt will then be placed
' in the moft confpicuous point of ftrength, as it will
' have a long top-timber on the aft fide and a long fourth
futtock on the fore fide of it. The fecond port may be
placed In like manner between the next two frames,
which will be eq,ually well fituated for ftrength as the
former; and by proceeding in this manner, the ports
on the gtin-deck may alfo be placed, taking care to
have two frames between every two ports, all fore and
aft.
The upper deck ports are then to be defcribed ; and
iln order to difpofc of them in the ftronjreft fituation
poffible, they muft be placed over the middle between
the gun-deck ports, fo that every frame in the (hip will
'run up to the top of the fide, by their coming between
a gun and upper deck port ; and every port will be
between the frames, which will in a great meafure con-
tribute towards the ftrength of the fhip. With regard
to the ports on the quarter deck, it is not of fuch ma-
terial confequence if they cut the head of the frame, as
in placing them the fituation of the dead eyes muft be
corifidered, placing a port where there is a vacancy be- .
tween the dead eyes large enough to. admit of one ; ob-
/crvin,r always to place them as nearly as poffible at
equal diftances from each other ; and where it happens
that they do not fall in the wake of a frame, then that
frame miift by all means be carried up to the top of the
fide.
The neceffary length of the round houfe being de-
Jiermined in the dimenfions, it may be fet off; obferving,
however, to let it be no longer than is juft fufficient
for the neceffary accommodations, as the fliorter the
round-houfe the works abaft may be kept lower, and a
low fnug ftern is always accounted th^ handforaeft.
Then fet off the round of the deck at the foremoft end,
below the line drawn ; the deck at the fide may be de-
fcribed by another curve drawn quite aft. Now, from
the point for the round of the deck to the ftern timber,
draw a curve parallel to the top -timber line, and that
will be the extreme height of the top of the fide abaft,
which height continues to range fair along to the fore-
moft end of the round houfe, and at that place may
have a fall about 14 inches, which may be turned off
with a drift fcroU. At the fore part of the quarter-
deck, the topfide may have a rife of 14 inches, which
may alfo be turned off with a fcroll. But as the raifing
of the topfide only 14 inches at that place will not be
fufficient to unite with the heights abaft, it will there-
fore be neceffary to raife 14 inches more upon that,
and break it off with a fcroll inverted on the firft fcroll,
and continue thefe two lines, parallel to the top-timber
line, to the diltance of about feven feet aft. At the
foremoft end of the round-houfe there is a break of 14
inches already mentioned ; and in order to make that
part uniform with the breaks at the foremoft end of the
quarter-deck, there muft be fet down 14 inches more
below the former ; and at thefe two heights continue two
yo-^,XVII. Part L
393
curves parallel to the top-timber line, fre^ri the ^t p^r^Apr'icatlo^
of the ftern to the ends of the two curves already drawn
at the foremoft end of the quarter deck. If they fhquld^^''^'|f cbH^
happen not to break in fair with them, they muft be(brSqn°o£
turned off with a round ; but to make them appear Ships. '
more handfome, the lower Hne may be turned off with a
fcroll. Thefe lines^being drawn will reprefent the up-
per edges of the rails.
The height of the top fide at the fofe part of the (hip
muft next be confidered ; which, in order to give proper
height for the forecaftle, muft have a rjfe there of 14.
inches, the break being at the after end of the fore-
caftle, and turned off as before. But as this part qf
the fiilp is ftill confiderably lower than the after part, it
will be neceffary to give another of eight inches upon
the former, and turn it off with a fcroll inverted. Hence
this part of the Ihip will appear more uniform to the af-
ter part.
The finifhing parts, namely the wales, ftern, head,
rails, &c. remain to be defcribed. The wales may bp
firft drawn ; and as the ftrength of the ftiip depend*
very much on the right placing of them, great care
muft therefm-e be taken that they may be as little as
poffible wounded by the lower deck ports, and fo placed
that the lower deck bolts lhall bolt in them, and
alfo that they come as near as poffible on the broadeft
part of the (hip. In the firft place, therefore, the
height of breadth lines muft be chofen for our guide.
Thefe heights of breadth are to be taken from the di.-
menfions, and fet off on the refpeftive frames, and curves
drawn through thefe points will be the upper and lower
heights of breadth lines. The height of the wales
may now be determined ; which in general is in fuch a
manner that the upper height of breadth line comes
about fix inches below their upper edge, and the walea
are then placed right upon the breadth lines. Take the
heights and breadths of the wales afore, at midfhips,
and abaft from the table of dimenfions ; draw curve»
through the points thus found, and the wales will be
reprefented.
The channel wales are then to be defcribed. They
are principally intended to ftrengthen the top fide, and
muft be placed between the lower and upper deck ports j
^nd the lower edge of them at midfhips {hould be placed
as low as poffible, in order to prevent them from being
cut by the upper deck ports afore and abaft. Take their
heights and breadths from the dimenfions ; lay them
off, and defcribe curves through the correfponding
points, and the channel wales will be reprefented.
Lay off the dimenfions of the wafte rail found in the
table ; and through the points draw a line parallel to
the top-timber line all fore and aft. This rail terminates
the lower part of the paint work in the top fide, as all
the work above this rail is generally painted, and the
work of the top fide below it payed with a varniih, ex..
cept the main wales, which are always payed with
pitch.
Take the draught of water from the dimenfions, and
draw the load waler-line, which is always done in gretn.
Divide the diftance between the load water-line and the
tipper edge of the keel into five equal parts, and thiough
thefe points draw four more water-lines.
Set off the centres of the mafts on the gun-deck }
their rake may likcwife be taken from the dimenfions.
Set off alfo the centre of the bowfprit, letting it be
3D four
394. S H I P - B U
i^pplicat'ior four feet from the deck at the after part of the ftenni
of the ff>^e-^jjj(;}j fufficient height for alight and airy ft-
^ruiUon'of Draw the knight-heads fo as to be fufliclently high
ships, above the bowfprlt to admit of a chock between them
-V-~ for the better fecurity of the bovvfprit. The timber
heads mayalfo be drawn above the forecaftle, obferving
to place the moft convenient for the timbers of the frame,
being thofe which come over the upper deck ports, as
they may be allowed long enough to form handiome
heads. There fhould be one placed abaft the cat-head,
. to which the foremofl block is to be bolted, and there
may be two ports on the forecaftle formed by them,
and placed where it is moft convenient to the dead
eyes.
Defcribe the channels, taking their lengths and
thickneffes from the dimenfions, and place their upper
edges well with the lower edge of the fheer rail. The
dead eyes may then be drawn, obferving to place them
in fuch a manner that the chains may not interfere with
the ports ; and the preventer plates muft all be placed
on the channel wales, letting them be of fuch a length
that the preventer bolt at each end may bolt on each edge
of the channel wales. It muft alfo be obferved to
give each of the chains and preventer plates a pro-
per rake, that is, to let them lie in the direftion of
the fhronds, which may be done in the following man-
ner : Produce the maft upwards, upon which fet off
the length of the maft to the lower part of the head ;
thefe ftralght lines drawn from that point through the
centre of each dead eye will give the direftion of the
chains and preventer braces.
The fenders may be then drawn, obferving to place
them right abreaft of the main hatchway, In order to
prevent the (hip's fide from being hurt by whatever
may be hoifted ©n board. The proper place for them
will therefore be at timber 3 ; and the diftance between
them may be regulated by the diftance between the
ports. The cheft-tree may alfo be drawn, which muft
be placed at a proper diftance abaft the foremaft, for
the conveniency of hauling home the fore tack. It
may therefore be drawn at the aft fide of timber C,
from the top of the fide down to the upper edge of
the channel wales ; and the fenders may reach from the
top of the fide down to the upper edge of the
main wales. As the fenders and cheft-tree are on the
outfide of the planks, wales, &c. the lines repre-
fenting the wales, &c. fhould not be drawn through
them.
Draw the fteps on the fide, whick muft be at the fore
part of the main drift or break, making them as long
as the diftance between the upper and lower deck parts
will admit of. They may be about fix inches afunder,
and five inches deep, and continued from the top of the
jade down to the middle of the main wales.
In order to defcribe the head, the height of the beak-
head muft be fiift determined, which may be about two
feet above the upper deck. At that place draw a horizon-
tal line, upon which fet off the length of the beak-head,
which may be 7^ feet abaft the fore part of the ftem, and
from thence fquare a line up to the forecaftle deck ;
which line will reprefent the aft part of the beak-head,
and willlikewife terminate the foremoft end of the fore-
caftle. The length of the head may now be determined,
which by the proportions will be found to be 1 5 feet fix
inches from the fore part of the ftem. Set it off from
I L D I N G.
the fore part of the ftem, and ereA a perpendicukr, which
will be the utmoft limits of the figure forward : thern take "
the breadth of the figure from the proportions, wfhich is
four feet four inches, and fet it t)ff f orward ; and anaother
perpendicular being drawn will fhow the utmoft extcent of
the hair bracket forward, or aft part of the figure. Then
draw the lower cheek, letting the upper edge be welll with
the upper edge of the main wales, and the aftesr end
ranging well with the beak-head line ; fet off the de?pth of
it on the ftem; which is about i f inches, and let a ccurved
line pafs from the after end through the point oan the
ftem, and to break in fair with the perpendiculaar firfl
drawn for the length of the head, the fore part cof tlie
curve will then reprefent the pofition of the figure. .
The upper cheek may be next drawn ; but, in orrder to
know the exa6l place of it on the ftem, the place > of the
main rail muft rirft be fet off on the ftem, the apper
edge of which may be kept on a level with the beak-
head ; then fetting off the depth of it below thaat, thej
place for the upper cheek may be determined, IJetting
it be exaftly in the middle between that and the ; lower ;
cheek : then, by drawing curves for the uppesr and
lower edges of the cheek from the after end paraallel to
the lower cheek, to break in fair with the perpendiicular,
drawn for the back of the figure : then the upper cheek
will be formed. The upper part may run in a feet pen-
tine as high as where the ftioulder of the figure Is ffuppo-
fed to come, at which place it may be turned ofFf witl^
a fcroU. The diftance from the fcroU to the hhecl
the figure is called the hair-bracket.
Tlie head of the block may be formed by conttinuing
the line at the breaft round to the top of the hairr-brac-
ket, obferving to keep the top of It about fix i inches
clear of the under fide of the bowfprlt.
Having the diftance fet off on the ftem for placinng the
main rail, it may next be defcribed, keeping the bbag o!
it as level as poffible for the conveniency of the graatingSj
and letting the foremoft end rife gradually accordling tc^
the rife of the upper cheek and hair-bracket, ancd ma]
turn oft' on the round of the fcroU before drawn ffor th<
hair-bracket. To form the after end, fet off thhe Cizi
of the head of the rail abaft the beak-head linae, an<
ereft a perpendicular ; then defcribe the arch of aa circH
from that perpendicular to break in fair with the ; lowei
fide of the rail in the middle, and alfo another fro^m thi
beak-head perpendicular, to break in fair with thhe up
per fide of the rail at the middle, obferving to cojntinui
the head of it fufficiently high to range with thae tim'
ber heads above the forecaftle.
The head timbers are next to be drawn, placing thheftei
timber its own thicknefs abaft the ftem, and the fooremof
muft be fo placed that the fore fide may be up andd dowi
with the heel of the block or figure, which has nnot ye
been fet off. Take therefore the diftance frojm thi
breaft to the heel on a fquare which is feven feeet, an<
ereft a perpendicular from the lower part of the; lowe
cheek to the lower part of the upper cheek ; whicch per
pendicular will terminate the foremoft end of the; lower
cheek and the heel of the figure, and will alfo term;
natethe lower end of the hair-bracket : then, by conti
nuing the fame perpendicular from the upper ppart 0
the lower deck to the under part of the main raail, the
fore fide of . the foremoft head timber will be defccribed ;
and by fetting off its thicknefs aft, the other ficde may
be drawn. The middle head timber may be fpacced be-
tween the two former cncs ; and there may aHb ) be one
6 timber
S H I P - B U
on timber pl»e«4 abuft the ftem, at a diftance from the
"j^ ftcm, equal to that between the others, and the lower
^^^_*end of H may ftep on the upper edge of the lower
pfrail
To defcribe the middle and lower rails, divide the
^ diftarce between the lower part of the main rail and
the upper part of the upp er cheek equally at every head
timber ; and curves bein^ defcribed through thefe points
.will form the middle and lower rails. The after end of
the lower rail muft terminate at the after edge of the
• after head timber.
The cat4iead ought to be reprefented in fuch a man-
ner as to come againft the aft fide of the head of the main
rail, to rake forward four inches in a foot, and to fteeve
up 54- inches in a foot, and about ©ne foot fix inches
fquare. The lower part of it comes on the plank of the
deck at the fide, and the fupporter under it muft form a
fair curve to break in with the after end of the middle
rail.
The hawfe holes muft come between the cheeks, which
js the moft convenient place for them ; but their place
fore and aft cannot be exadtly determined until they are
laid down in the half breadth plan.
The knee of the head is to projeA from the breaft of
the figure about two inches; and particular care muft be
taken that in forming it downwards it be not too full, as
it is then liable to rub the cable very much : it may there-
,fore have no more fubftance under the lower cheek at the
heel of the figure than is juft fufficient to admit of the
.bobftay holes, and maybe 3^ feet diftant from the ftem
.at the load water-line, making it run in an agreeable fer-
pentine line from the breaft down to the third water
iine, where it may be feet from -the ftem. By con-
tinuing the fame line downwards, keeping it more di-
.ftant from the ftem as it comes down, the gripe will be
formed. The lower part of it muft break in fair with
the imder part of the falfe keel ; and the breadth of the
gripe at the broadtft place will be found by the
proportions to be 41 feet. As the aft part of the gripe
is terminated by the fore foot, or foremoft end of the
keel, it will now be proper to finifh that part as fol-
lows : From the line reprefenting the upper edge of the
keel fet down the depth of the keel, through which
draw a line parallel to the former, and it will be the
lower edge of the keel. From that point, where the
aft fide of the ftem is diftant from the upper edge of
the keel by a quantity equal to the breadth of the keel ,
at midftiips, ert£t a perpendicular, which will limit
the foremoft end of the keel ; and the after or lower
end of the ftem may be reprefented by fetting off the
length of the fcarf from the foremoft end of the keel,
which may be fix feet. Set down from the line repre-
fenting the lower edge of the keel the thicknefs of
the falfe keel, which is feven inches ; and a line drawn
through that point parallel to the lower edge of the
keel will be the under edge of the falfe keel, the fore-
moft end of which may be three inches afore the fore-
moft end of the main keel.
The head being now finifhed, proceed next to the
flern, the fide and middle timbers of which are already
drawn. From the fide timber fet off forward 14 feet,
the length of gallery, and draw a pencil line parallel to
the fide timber ; draw alfo a line to interfedt the touch
of the upper. counter at the fide, producing it' forwards
parallel to the fhcer as far as the pencil line firft drawn j
I L D I N G.
and this iine will reprefent the upper edge of 'the gal- Application
lery rim. From which fet down eight inches,"" ^he
breadth of the gallery rail, and draw the lower edge tjjg con-
of the rail. At the diftancc of eight inches from the ftruAion of
fore fide of the fide timber draw a hne parallel thereto ; Ships^
and from the point of interfeftion of this line with the '""^ '
upper edge of the gallery rim, draw a., curve to the
middle timber parallel to the touches of the upper coun-
ter, which line will reprefent the upper edge of the up-
per counter rail as it appears on the ftieer draught.
The lower edge of this rail may be formed by fetting
off its depth from the upper edge. In the fame man-
ner the lower counter rail may be defcribed : then take
the diftance between that and the upper counter rail,
and fet it off below the rim rail ; and hence the rail
that comes to the lower ftool may be drawn, keeping
it parallel to the rim rail. Underneath that, the lower
jinifiiing may be formed, making it as light and agree-
able as poflible.
Set off from the middle timber on the end of the
quarter-deck the projeftion Of the balcony, which may
be about 2 feet, and draw a line with a pencil parallel
to the middle timber. On this line fet off a point i \
inches below the under fide of the quarter-deck, from
which draw a curve to the fide timber parallel to the
upper counter rail, which curve will reprefent the lower
fide of the foot fpace rail of the balcony as it appears
in the fiieer draught.
Take the diftance between the point of interfeftion
of the upper edge of the upper counter with the mid-
dle line, and the point of interfeftion of the under fide
of the foot fpace rail with the middle line, which fet
up on a perpendicular from the upper edge of the rim
rail at the foremoft end. Through this point draw a
line parallel to the rim rail .to interfeft the lower part
of the foot fpace rail, and this line wiU reprefent the
lower edge of the rail that comes to the middle ftool,
and will anfwer to the foot fpace rail. Then between
this line and the rim rail three lights or fafties may be
drawn, having a muntin or pillar between each light of
about 14 inches broad, and the lower gallery will be
finiftied. Set oif the depth of the middle ftool rail
above the line already drawn for the lower edge, and the
upper edge may be drawn. Then fet off the fame
depth above the curve drawn for the lower edge of the
foot fpace rail, and the upper edge of that rail may then
be drawn.
The quarter- piece muft be next defer ibed, the heel
of which muft ftep on the aft^r end of the middlp
ftool. Draw a line with a pencil parallel to the middle
timber, and at a diftance therefrom, equal to the pro-
jeftion of the balcony. Upon this line fet up from
the round houfe deck the height of the upper part of
the ftern or taff rail, which may be four feet above the
deck. At that height draw with a pencil a horizon-
tal line, and from its interfeftion with the line firft
drawn defcribe a ,curve to the middle ftool rail, obferving
to make the lower part of this curve run nearly parallel
to the fide timber, and the k)wer part about three
inches abaft the fide timber; and this curve will repre-
fent the aft fide of the quarter-piece at the outfide.
There fet off the thicknefs of the quarter-piece, which
is one foot fix inches, afore the curve already drawn ;
and another curve being defcribed parallel to it from the
lower part to the top of the ftieer, and the quarter-piece
3 D 2 at
S H
Application at th'e outfide v;ill be repmfented.
I P - B U
On the horizontal
Sing Rille's^''^^ di-awh *r the upper part of the taff-rail fet off
to the Con- ^o^'^'^^^i ^^e thicknefs of the tafF-raiJ, which is one foot;
ftru«ftron of then draw a curve down to the head of the quarter-
Ships, piece parallel to the firft, and that part of the taff-rail
'"" will be defcribed. Inftead of a fair curve, it is cuftom-
ary to form the upper part of the taff-rail with one of
two breaks, and their curves inverted. Either way may,
however, be ufed according to fancy.
Set off th'e depth of tlie taff rail, which may be about
34- feet, on the hne drawn for the projeilion ; from the
upper part, and from this point, defcribe a curve as low
as the heel of the quarter-piece, and about five inches
abaft it at that place ; obferving to make it rnn nearly
parallel to the after edge of the quarter-piece ; and the
after part of the quarter-piece, which comes neareft to
the fide, will be reprefented.
Set up on the line drawn for the projeftion of the
balcony the height of the upper part of the balcony
or bread rail, which is 34 feet from the deck ; fet off
the thicknefs of the rail below that, and defcribe the
balcony, keeping it parallel to the foot fpace rail, and
terminating it at the line drawn for the after part of the
quarter-piece neareft the fide ; and the whole balcony
will then be reprefented.
'J'he upper gallery is then to be defcribed.^ In order
to tliis-, its length muft be determined, which may be
1 1 feet. Set off this diftance from the fide timber
'forward with the fheer ; and at this point draw a line
parallel to the fide timber, which hne will reprefent the
fore part of the gallery. Then take the diftance be-
tween the upper part of th'e foot fpace rail and the up-
pef part of the breaft rail on a perpendicular, and fet
it off oil a perpendicular from the upper part of the
"middle ftool rail on the line drawn for the fore part of
the gallery, from which to the fore part of the quartet
piece draw a ftraight line parallel to the rail below,
which line will be the upper edge of the upper rim rail;
and its thicknefs being fet off, the lower edge may alfo
fee drawn. From the upper edge of that rail fet up an
'extent equal to the diftance between the lower lim rail
and middle ftool rail, and defcribe the upper ftool rail,
the after end of which Will be determined hy the quar-
ter piece, and the fore end by the line for the length
of the gallery. There may be three faftieS drawn be-
tween thefe two rails as before ; and hence the upper
galler)' will be formed.
The upper finifiiing ftiould be next drawn, the length
of which may be i^^ foot lefs than the upper gallery.
Draw a line parallel to the rake of the ftern for the
fore end of it, and let the upper part of the top fide
fee the upper part of the upper rail, from which fet
down three inches for the thicknefs of the rail, and de-
fcribe it. Defcribe alfo another rail of the fame length
and thicknefs as the former,^ and eight inches below ;
from the end of which a ferpentine line may be drawn
^own to the upper ftool rail, and the upper finifhing
will be completed.
The ftern being now finifhed, the rudder only remains
to be drawn. The breadth of the rudder at the lower
part is to be determined from the proportions, and fet
* off from the line reprefenting the aft part of the ftera-
pcft ; which line alfo reprefents the fore part of the r»d-
der. Then determine on the lower hance, letting it be
no higher thau is juft fulEcientj which may be about
I L D I N G.
one foot abbve the load water-line, and fet off I'te breadth -
at that place taken from the proportions. Then a line °'
dravvn from thence tb the breadth fet off at the lower
part will be the aft fide of the rudder below the lowet lln
hance. There may alfo be another hance abcut the
height of the lower deck. The ufe of thefe breaks o"r
hances is to reduce the breadth as it rifes toward the
head. The aft part "may be drawn above the lower
hance, the break at the lov/er hance being about ten
inches, and the break at the upper hance iix inches.^
The back may be then drawn. It is of elm, about
four inches thick on the aft part. That thicknefs be-
ing fet off, and a line drawn from the lower hance to
the lower end, will reprefent the back. The head of
the rudder fhould be as high as to receive a tiller above
the upper deck. There!^bre fet off the fize of the head '
above the upper deck, and draw a line from thence to
the break at the upper hatice, and the aft part of the
rudder will be repreiented all the way up. Tlie beard-
ing fhould be drawn, by fetting off the breadth of it
at the keel from the fore fide of the rudder, which may
be nine inches. Set off alfo the breadth at the head of
the wing tranfom, which may be a foot. Then a line
being drawn through thefe two points,' from the lower
part of the rudder to about a foot above the wing tranfom,
and the bearding will be reprefented. As the bearding
is a very nice point, and the working of the rudder de-
pending Veiy much upon it, it fhould always be very
particularly confidered. It has been cuftomary to beard
the rudder to a ftiarp edge at the middle line, by which
the main piece is reduced more than neceffary. The
rudder fliould, however, be bearded from the fide of
the pintles, and the fore fide made to the form of the
pintles.
The pintles and braces may next be drawn. In order
to which determine the place of the upper one, which
muft be fo difpofed that the ftraps fhaH come round the
head of the ftandard, wliich is againft the head of the
ftern-poft on the gim-deck, and meet at the middle-
line. By this means there is double fecurity both to
the brace and ftandard. To obtain thofe advantages,
it muft therefore be placed about four inches above the
wing tranfom ; the fecond miift be placed juft below the
gun-deck fo as to bolt in the middle of the deck tran-
iom, and the reft may be fpaced equally between the
lower one, which may be about fix inches above the
upper edge of the keel. The number of them are ge-
nerally feven pair upon this clafs of fhips; but the num-
ber may be regulated by the diftance between the fecond
and upper one, making the diftance between the reft
nearly the fame. The length of all the braces will be
found by fetting off the length of the lower one, which
may be eight feet aFore the back of the ftern-poft, and
alfo the length of the third, which k four feet and a half
afore the back of the ftern-poft ; and a line drawn from
the one extremity to the other will h'mit the interme-
diate ones, as will appear on the fheer draught. Tlie
braces will feem to diminifti in length very much as
they go up ; but when meafnrj^ or viewed on the
ftiape of the body, they will all be nearly of an equal
length. The length of the ftraps of the pintles which
come upon the rudder fnay all be within four inches of
the aft fide of the rudder ; and the rudder being a fiat
furface, they will all appear of the proper length?.
II. 0/ the half-breadth and body //anj.— — The half-
5 breadtiA
r. S H I P - B u
breadth plan tnuft he firft drawn. Then produce the
* lower edge of the keel both ways, and let it alfo re-
'^prefent the middle line of the halt-breadth plan. Pro-
ildnce all the frames downwards, and alio the fore'and af-
ter perpendiculars. Then from the place in the flieer- •
plan, where the height of brcadth-lines interfeft the
Item, fquare down to the middle line the fore and aft
part of the rabbet aftd the fbre' pare of the ftem.
Take from the dimenfions what the ftcm is fided at that
place, and fet off half of ft from the middle Hne in the
half-breadth plan, through which draw a line parallel
to the middle line through the three lines fqnared down,
and the half-breadth of the ftem w ill be reprefented in
the half-breadth plan. Take the thicknefs of the plank
of the bottom, which is 4^ inches, and defcribe tbc rab-
bet of the ftem in the half^breadth plan.
From the poiiats of interfeftion of tlie height of
breadth lines with the counter timber at the fide, and
with the counter timber at the middle line, draw lines
perpendicular to the middle line of the half-breadth
plan, from which fet off the half breadth of the coun-
ter OH the hne firft drawn; and from tliis point to the
interfeftion of the line lafl drawn, with the middle Hne
draw a curve, and the half breadth of the counter will
bie reprefented at the height of breadth, which will be
the broadeft part of the ftern.
Take the main half breadth of timber dead fiat from
the dimenfions, and lay it off" from the middle line on
dead flat in the half-breadth plan. 'I'ake alfo from the
dimtnilons the main half breadth of every timber, and
fet off each from the middle line on the correfponding
timbers in the haU-breadth plan. Then a curve drawn
from the end of the line reprefenting the half breadth
of the counter through all the points, fet off on the tim-
bers, and terminating at the aft part of the ftern, will
be tl'.e main half breadth line. Take from the dimen-
fions the top-timber half breadth, and defcribe the top-
timber half-breadth line in the half-breadth plan, in the
fan e manner as the main half-breadth line.
Take from the dimenfions the half breadth of the ri-
fmg, and fet it oft" from the middle line on lire corre-
fponding timbers in the half-breadth plan, obfei-ving,
where the word outfide is expreffed in the tables, the
half breadth for that timber muft be fet off above or
on the outfide of the middle line. Then a curve drawn
through thefe points will be the half breadth of rifing
an the half-breadth plan.
It will now be neceffary to proceed to the body plan.
Draw a horizontal line (fig. 35.), which is called the
J bafeline, from the right hand extremity of which erefl
a perpendicular. Then fet off on tlie bafe line the-
main half 'breadth at dead flat, and ei-e£l another per-
pendicular, and from that fet off the main half breadth
again, and ereft a third perpendicular. The ffrft per-
pendicular, as already obferved, is called the fide line
of the fore body ; the fecond the middle line j and the
third the fide line of the after body.
Take from the dimenfions the heights of the diago-
fials up the middle line, and fet them from the bafe up
the middle line in the body plan. Take alfo their diftan-
ces from the middle line on the bafe, and fet them off.
Set off alfo their heights up the fide lines, and draw the
diagonals. Then take from the fheer plan the heights
of the lower height of breadth line, and fet them off
upon the middle line in the body plan ; through thcfg
I L D I N G. 397
points lines are to be drawn parallel to the bafe, arfd Application
tcrmiiiating at the fide Hnes. In like manner proceed
with the upper height of breadth line. fo°,heCon!
The lifing is next to be fet off on the body plan ; itamaion of
muft, however, be flrft defcribed in the fheer plan : ships.
Take, therefore, the heights from the dimenfions, and v^—- '
fet them off on the correfponding timbers in the fheer
plan, and a curve defcribed through thefe points will
be the tifing line in the fheer plan. Then take from
the dimenfiens the rifing heights of dead flat. Set it
off in the body plan, and draw a horizontal line. Now
take all the rifing heights from the fheer plan, and fet
them off in the body plan from the lin« drawn for the
rifing height of dead flat, and draw horizontal hnes
through thefe points. Take from the half-breadth
plan the half breadths of the rifing, and fet them off
from the middle hne in the body plan, and the centres
of the floor Iweeps of the correfponding timbers will
be obtained.
From the half- breadth plan take the main half-
brcadth lines, and fet them off from the middle line in
the body plan on the correfponding lines before drawn
for the lower height of breadth ; and from the extre-
mities of thefe lines fet off towards the middle line the
lengths of the lower breadth fwecps refpcAively.
j-ake from the dimenfions the diftance of each frame
from the middle Hne on the diagonals, and fet them off
from the middle line on their refpcdlive diagonal lines.
Now thefe diftances being fet off, and the lower breadth 1
and floor fweeps defcribed, the fhape of the frames
below the breadth line may eafily be drawn as follows :
Place one point of a compafs in the dtftance fet off for
the length of the lower breadth fweep, and extend the
other to the point which terminates the breadth, and
defcribe an arch of a circle downwards, which will in-
terfed the points fet off on the upper diagonal llneSs,
letting it pafs as low as convenient. Then fix one point
of the coinpaffes in the centre of the floor fweep, and
eKtend tJie other to the point fet off on the fourth dia-
gonal, which is the floor head ; and defcribe a circle to
interfeft as many of the points fet off on the diagonals
as it will. Then draw a curve from the back of the
lower brfadlh fweep, through the points on th^ diago-
nals, to tlie b;i<;k of the floor fweep. Deferlbe alfo
another curve from the back of the floor fweep through
the points on the lower diagonals, and terminating at
the upper pan of the rabbet of the keel, and that part
of tlie irame below the breadth will be formed. In like
manner defcribe the other frames.
Through the extremities of the frames at the lower '
height of breadth draw lines parallel to the middle '
line, and terminating at the upper height of breadth ^
line, and from thence fet off the upper bi-eadth fweeps;
now fix »ne point of the compafs in the centres of the
upper breadth fweeps fucceffively, and the other poist
to the ex.tremities of the frames, and defcribe circles
upwards. Then from the flieer plan take off the
heights of the top-timber lines, and fet them off In
the body plan, drawing horizontal Hnes ; upon which
fet off the top-timber half breadths tr»ken from the
correfponding timbers in the half-breadth plan ^ and by
defcrlbing curves from the back of the -upper breadth
fweeps Irhrough the points fet off on the feventh or vp-
per diagonal ; and interfering the top-timber half
breadths, the timbers will then be formed from th^
5^8
SHIP-BUILDING,
Book r.
Application keel to the" top of the fide, The upper end of the
^'oi'n^ Ruttf^'"^^^'^' may be determined by taking the feveral
to the Con^^^'j?''''*^^ '"^'^ Upper part of the top fide above the
iiruftion oftep-timber hne, and fetting them off above the top-"
Ships. timber Hne on the correfponding timbers in the body
*"~~v~-* plan. The lower parts of the timbers are ended at the
rabbet of the keel as follows :- With an extent of 4!
inches, the thicknefs of -the bottom, and one leg of
the compafTes at the place where the line for the thick-
nefs of the keel interfefks the bafe line ; with the other
leg defcribe an arch to interfe<Jt the keel line and the
bafe. Then fix one point at the interfeftion of the
arch and keel, /ind from the point of interfeftion of the
keel and bafe defcribe another arch to interfeft the for-
mer. Then from the interfe(9:ion of thefe arches
draw one ftraight line to the interfeftlon of the keel
and bafe, and another to the intcrfe^tion of the lower
arch and the keel, and the rabbet of the keel will be
defcribed at the main frame. All the timbers in the
middle part of the iliip which have no rifing terminate
at the interfeftion of the upper edge of the rabbet with
the bafe line ; but the lewer part of the timbers, having
a rifing, end in the centre of the rabbet, that is, where
the two circles interfe<ft. Thofe timbers which are near
the after end of the keel muft be ended by fetting off
^ the half-breadth of the keel at the port in the half-
^ breadth plan, and defcribe the tapering of the keel.
Then at the correfponding timbers take off the half,
breadth of the keel ; fet it off in the body plan, and
defcribe the rabbet as before, letting every timber end
where the two circles for its refpeftive rabbet interfeft.
To defcribe the fide counter or ftern timber, take
the height of the wing tranfom, the lower counter, up-
per counter, and top-timber line at the fide ; from the
Iheer plan transfer them to the body plan, affd through
thefe points draw horizontal lines. Divide the dillance
between the wing tranfom an4 lower counter into three
equal parts, and through the two points of divifion
draw two horizontal lines. Draw alfo a horizontal line
equidiftant from the upper counter and the top-timber
line in the (heer plan, and transfer them to the body
plan.
Now, from the point of interfedtion of the aft fide
of the ftern timber at the fide, with the wing tranfom
at the fide in the fheer plan, draw a line perpendicular
to the fpiddle line in the half-breadth plan. Draw alfo
perpendicular lines from the points where the upper and
lower tranfoms touch the ftcrn-poft ; from the points of
interfeftion of the ftern timber with the two horizontal
lines drawn between,|and frepi the interfeftion of the ftern
timber with the horizontal line drawn between the upper
counter and top-timber line. Then curves muft be form-
ed in the half-breadth plan for the fiiape of the body at
each of thefe heights. In order to which, begin with
the horizontal or level line reprefeuting the height of the
wing tranfom in the body plan. I^ay a Hip of paper
to that line, and mark on it the middle line and the
timbers 37, 35, 33, and 29; transfer the flip to the
half-breadth plan, placing the point marked on it for
the middle line exaftly on the middle in the halF-breadth
plan, and fet off the half -breadths on the correfponding
timbers 7,']^ 35, 33, and 29, and defcribe a curve
through thefe points, and to interfeft the perpendicular
drawn from the fheer plan. In h'ke masner proceed
with the horizontal lines at the heights of the coun-
^ ters, between the lower counter and wing tranfom,
above the upper counter and top -timber Hne ; an4 frem Application
the interfe^lions of the curve drawn in the half- breadth °f .^^^^*'''®'*_
plan, with the perpendicular lines drawn from the fheer
plan, take the diftances to the middle line, and fet (truftion oj
them off on the correfponding lines in the body plan ; Ship*
then a curve dtfcribed through the feveral points thus ""
fet off will be the reprefentative of the ftern timber.
The round-up of the wing tranfom, upper and lower
counter, may be taken from the fheer draught, and fet
off at the middle line above their rcfpe<Elive level lines
in the body plan, by which the round-up of each may
be drawn. The round aft of the wing tranfom may
alfo be taken from the fheer plan, and fet off at the
middle line, abaft the perpendicular for the wing tran-
fom in the half-breadth plan, whence the round aft of
the wing tranfom may be defcribed.
The after body being now finifhed, it remains to
form the fore body ; but as the operation is nearly the
fame in both, a repetition is therefore unneceflary, ex-
cept in thofe parts which require a different procefs.
The foremoft timbers end on the ftern, and confe-
quently the method of defcribing the ending of them
differs from that ufed for the timbers ufed in the after
body. Draw a line in the body plan parallel to the
middle line, at a diftance equal to the half of what
the ftern is fided. In the fheer plan take the height
of the point of interfeftion of the lower part of the
rabbet of the ftern with the timber which is required
to be ended, and fet It off on the line before drawn in
the body plan. Then take the extent between the
pomts of InterfeAIon of the timber with the lower and
upper parts of the rabbet, and with one leg of the
compafTes at the extremity of the diftance laid off in the
body plan defcribe a circle, and the timbers may then
pafs over the back of this circle. Now, by applying
a fmall fquare to the timber, and letting the back of it
interfeft the point fet off for the lower part of the rab-
• bet, the lower part of the rabbet and the ending of
the timbers will be defcribed.
The foremoft timbers differ alfo very much at the
head from thofe in the after body : For fince the fhip
carries her breadth fo far forward at the top-timber line,
it therefore occafions the two foremoft frames to fall
out at the head beyond the breadth, whence Ihey are
called knuckle timbers. They are thus defcribed :
The height of the top-tlmber line being fet off In the
body plan, fet off on it the top half breadth taken from
the half-breadth plan, and at that place draw a perpendi-
cular ; then from the fheer plan take the height of the
top of the fide, and fet it off on the perpendicular in
the body plan : Take alfo the breadth of the rail at
the top-timber line in the fheer plan, and fet It off be-
low the top-timber Hne at the perpendicular line In the
body plan, and the ftraight part of the knuckle timber
to be drawn will be determined. Then from the laft
mentioned point fet off defcribe a curve through the
points fet off for the timber down to the upper
breadth, and the whole knuckle timber will be formed.
It will hence be feen that thofe timbers forward will fall
out beyond the main breadth with a hollow, contrary
to the reft of the top fide, which falls within the main
breadth with a hollow.
The fore and after bodies being now formed, the wa-
ter lines muft next be defcribed in the half-breadth plan.
In order to prove the fairnefs of the bodies. In this
draught the water lines are all reprefented parallel to
the
ook S H 1 P - B u
pyilicatioi the keel ; their heiglits may, therefore, be taken from
*^Ru7'^^^ flieer plan, and transferred to the body plan, draw-
tu'e Con-'"S horizontal lines, and the water lines will be repre-
riiClion oflented in the body plan. Iq (hips that draw more wa-
Ships ter abaft than afore, the water lines will not be parallel
to the keel ; in thig cafe, the heights muft be taken at
every timber in the fheer plan, and fet off on their cer-
refponding timbers in the body plan ; and curves being
defcribed through the feveral points, will reprefent the
water lines in the body plan.
Take the diftances from the middle line to the points
■where the water lines interfedl the different timbers in
the body plan, and fet them off on their correfponding
timbers in the half-breadth plan. From the points
where the water lines in the fheer plan interfefts the
aft part of the rabbet of the fternpoft draw perpendi-
culars to the middle line of the half breadth plan, and
upon thefe perpendiculars fet off from the middle line
the half thicknefs of tlu; fternpoft at its correfponding
water line ; which may be taken from the body plan,
by fetting off the fize of the poft at the head and the
keel, and drawing a line for the tapering of it ; and
where the line fo drawn interfedfs the water hnes, that
will be the half thicknefs required : then take an extent
in the compafles equal to the thicknefs of the plank, and
fix one point where the half thicknefs of the poft in-
terfefts the perpendicular, and with the other defcribe
a circle, from the back of which the water lines may
pafs through their refpeftive points fet off, and end at
the fore part of the half breadth plan, proceeding in
the fame manner as with the after part. A line drawn
from the water line to the point fet off for the half
thicknefs of the poft will reprefent the aft part of the
rabbet of the poll ; and In like jnanner the rabbet of
the ftem may be reprefented. The water lines being
all defcribed, it will be feen If the body is fair; and if
the timbers require any alteration, it Ihould be compH-
ed with.
The Cant timbers of the after body may next be de-
fcribed in the half-breadth plan ; In order to which the
cant of the fafliion-piece muft firft be reprefented. Ha-
ving therefore the round aft of the wing tranfom re-
prefented in the half-breadth- plan, and alfo the fhape
of a level line at the height of the wing tranfom ; then
fet off the breadth of the wing tranfom at the end,
which is one foot four inches, and that will be the place
where the head of the fafhion-piece will come : now to
determine the cant of it, the fhape of the body muft be
confidered ; as it muft be canted in fuch a manner as
to preferve as great a ftraightnefs as is poflible for the
fhape of the timber, by which means the timber will be
much ftronger than if it were crooked ; the cant muft
alfo be confidered, In order to let the timber have as
little bevelling as poffiblc. Let, therefore, the heel of
the timber be fet off on the middle line, two feet afore
timber 35 ; and then drawing a line from thence to the
point fet off on the level line for the wing tranfom,
the cant of the fafhlon piece will be defcribed, and will
be found fituated in the beft manner pofTible to anfwer
the before mentioned purpofes.
The cant of the fafhion-piece being reprefented, the
cant of the other timbers may now be eafily determi-
ned. Let timber 29 be the foremoft cant timber in the
after body, and with a pencil draw timber 2 8 ; then
obferve how many frames there are between timber 28
I L D I N O, 399
and the fafhionplece, which will be found to be nm?, Arpllcat'on
nannely, 29, 30, 3'> 32, 3h 34. 35» 36, and 37. N<w"/JJ^rX,
divide tiie diftance between timber 28 and the fafhlon- ((, ^^e Con-
piece on the middle line into 10 equal parts : Divide tlru<5tioo of
alfo the correfponding portion of the main half breadth Ships.
Hnes into the fame number of equal parts ; and ftraight —
lines joining the correfponding points at the middle hne
with thofe in the half-breadth line will reprefent the
cant timbers in the after body.
The line drawn for the cant of the fafhion-piece re-
prefents the aft fide of it, which comes to the end of
the tranfoms ; but in order to help the converfion with
regard to the lower tranfoms, there may be two more
fafb ion-pieces abaft the former ; therefore the foremofV
fafti ion-piece, or that which Is already defcribed in the
half-breadth plan, may only take the ends of the three
upper tranfoms, which are, the wing, filling, and deck :
the middle fafhion-piece may take the four next, and
the after fafti ion- piece the lower ones: therefore fet off in —
the half-breadth plan the fiding of the middle and after
fafhion-piece, which may be 1 3 inches each ; then by
drawing lines parallel to the foremoft fafhion-piece, at
the aforefaid diftance from each other, the middle and
after fafhion-piece will be repreferited in the half-breadth
plan.
The fafhion-piece and tranfoms yet remain to be re.
prefented in the fheer plan ; in order to which, let the
number of tranfoms be determined, which, for fo large
a buttock, may be feven below the deck tranfom draw
them with a pencil, beginning with the wing, the upper
fide of which is reprefented by a level hne at its height ;
fet off Its fiding below that, and draw a level line for
the lower edge. The filling tranfom follows ; which
is merely for the purpofe of filling the vacancy between
the under edge of the wing and the upper part of the
deck plank : it may therefore be reprefented by di-aw-
ing two level lines for the upper and lower edge, lea-
ving about two inches between the upper edge and lowei'
edge of the wing tranfom, and four inches between the
lower edge of the gun- deck plank ; then the deck tran-
fom mhft be governed by the gun-deck, letting the un-
der fide of the gun-deck plank reprefent the upper fide
of it, and fetting oft' its fiding below that ; the under
edge may alfo be drawn ; the tranfoms below the deck
may all be fided equally, which may be 1 1 inches ;
they muft alfo have a fuflBcient diftance between to
admit the circulation of the air to preferve them, which
may be about three incheSi
The tranfoms being oow drawn with a pencil, the fa-
fhion-piece muft next be defcribed in the fheer plan, by
which the length of the tranfoms as they appear in
that plan will be determined. As the foremoft faihion-
piece reaches above the upper tranfom, it may therefore
be firft defcribed ; in order to which, draw a fufficient
number of level hnes In the fheer plan ; or, as the vi-ater.
lines are level, draw therefore one line between the up-
per water line and the wing tranfom, and one above
the wing tranfom at the intended height of the head
of the fafhion-piece, which may be about five feet ;
then take the height of thefe two level lines, and ti anf-
fer them to the body plan ; and take off two or three
timbero and run them in the halt-breadth plan, in the
fame_manner as the water Hnes were done ; then from
the point where the line drawn for the cant of the fa-
fliion-piece, in the half-breudtli plan, interfecls the le» -
400 S H I P-B U
Application vel . line drawn for the head of the fafhion-piece, draw
^ perpendicular to- the faid line in the fheer plan,
to't'jfe Con-™^^'".? a point. Again, from the interfe£lion of the
ftrutftii n of cant line, with the level line for the wing tranfom in
Shi[ia. the half breadth plan, draw a perpendicular to the wing
^""•"^--^ tranfom in the Iheer-plan. Alfo draw perpendiculars
from the points where the cant line in the half-breadth
plan interfefts the level line below the wing tranfom,
and alfo the water lines to the corrcfponding lines in
the fheer plan ; then a curve defcribed through thefe
points will be the reprefentation of the foremoft fa-
(hion-piece in the fheer plan. In the fame manner the
middle and after fafliion-pieces may be defcribed ; ob-
ferving to let the middle one run up no higher than the
under part of the deck tranfom, and the after to the
under fide of the fourth tranfo«i under the deck. The
tranfoms may now be drawn with ink, as their lengths
are limited by the fafh ion-pieces.
Neither the head nor the forefide of the fternpoft are
- yet defcribed ; take, therefore, from the dimenfions, the
breadth of the poll on the keel, and fet it off on the
upper edge of the keel from the aft lide of poft. The
head of the poft muft next be determined, which muft
juft be high enough to admit of the helm-poft tranfom
and the tiller coming between it and the upper deck
beam ; the height therefore that is neceifary will be one
foot nine inches above the wing tranfom. Now draw
a level line at that height, upon which fet off the breadth
9/ the fternpoft at that place, taken from the dimen-
fions, and a line drawn from thence to the point fet off
on the keel will be the forefide of the fternpoft ; obfer-
ving, however, not to draw the line through the tran-
foms, as it will only appear between them. The inner
poft may be drawn, by fetting off its thicknefs forward
• from the fternpoft, and drawing a ftraight line as be-
fore, continuing it no higher than the under fide of
the wing tranfom.
The cant timbers in the after body being defcribed,
together with the parts dependent on them, thofe in the
fore body may be next formed ; in order to which, the
foremoft and aftermoft canttimbers muft be firft deter-
mined, and alfo the cant of the foremoft ones. The
foremoft cant-timber will extend fo far forward as to be
named to" ; the cant on the middle line may be one foot
four inches afore fquare timber W, and on the main half
breath line one foot nine inches afore timber Y ; in
which fituation the line may be drawn for the cant ;
the aftermoft may be timber <^ The cant timbers
; may now be defcribed in the fame manner as thofe in
the after body, namely, by fpacing them cqaally be-
tween the cant timber and the fquare timber P, both
on the main half breadth and middle lines, and draw-
ing ftraight lines between the corrcfponding points, ob-
ferving to let them run out to the top-timber half-
breadth line, where it -comes without the main half
breadth line.
The hawfe pieces muft next be laid down in the half
breadth plan ; the fides of which muft look fore and aft
with the ftiip upon account of tlie round of the bow.
Take the fiding of the apron, which may be alwut four
inches more than th* ftem, and fet oft'half of it from
the middle -Hne, -d.rawing a line from , the main half
breadth to the faremoft cant timber, which wh'U repre-
fent the foremoft edge of the knight-head ; then from
,that fet off the fiding of ihe knight-head, which may
I L D I N G. Book
be one foot four inches, and draw i}\fi sft fid* of Jt, Arp!ica?iJ
The hawfe pieces may then be drawn, which are fouf^^.''^« <w
in number, by fetting off their fidings, namely, one fool
fix inches parallel froni the knight-head- «nd from each ftru^fj^^ ^
other ; and ftraight lines being drawn from the main Ships,
half breadth line to the foremoft cant timber will repre.
fent them.
The hawfe holes (hould be defcribed in fuch a man-,
ner as to wound the hawfe pieces as little as poffible 5
they may therefore be placed fo that the joint of the
hawfe pieces (hall be in the centre of the holes, whence
they w'Al only cut half the hawfe pieces. Take the di-
•menfions of the hawfe holes, which is one foot fix
inches, and fet off the foremoft one, or that next the
middle line, on the joint between the firft and fecond
hawfe piece ; then fet off the other on the joint between
the third and fourth hawfe piece ; and fmall lines bein^
drawn acrofs the main half breadth at tlieir refpeftive
places will reprefent the hawfe koles in the half-breadth
plan.
The hawfe holes fhould next be reprefented in the
ftieer -plan. In this clafs of fhips they are always pla.
ced in the middle between the cheeks ; therefore fet
off their diameter, namely, one foot fix inches, between
the cheeks, and draw lines parallel to the cheeks for
their upper and lower part. Then to determine their
fituation agreeable to the half-breadth plan, which ig
the fore and aft way, draw perpendiculars from their
interfeftlons with the main half-breadth line to the
lines drawn between the cheeks, and l^ieir true fitua-
tions, the fore and aft way, will be obtained ; and, by
defcribrng them round or circular, according to the
points fet off, they will be rep/cfented as they appear
in the ftieer plan.
The apron may Tdc drawn in the fheer plan, fetting
off its bignefs from the ftem, and letting it come fo low
that the fcarf may be about two feet hig^lier than the
foremoft end of the fore foot ; by which it will give fhip
to the fcarfs of the ftem. it may run up to the head of
the ftem.
The cutting down flrould nextbe drawn. Take tliere- '
fere from the tables of dimenfions the different heights
there expreffed, aitd fet them off from the upper edge \
of the keel on the correfpending timbers in the fheer
plan^ then a curve defcribed through the points fet off, i
from the inner poft aft to the apron forward, will be
the cutting down. Next fet off from the cutting down
the thicknefs of the timber ftrake, which is 8t inches,
and a curve defcribdd parallel to the former will repre.
• fent the timiier 'ftrake, from which the depth of the
-hold is always meafured.
The kelfon is drawH, by taking its depth from
the dimenfions, and fettinaf it off above the cutting
down line; and a curve defcribed parallel to the cutting
down will reprefent the kelfon.
The cutting down hue being defcribed, the knee of
the dead -wood abaft - timber 27, being the after floor
tirhber, luay then be reprefented* Set off the fidin(J>
•of the ftoor abaft it, and erect a perpendicular in the
fheer plan, which will terminate the foremoft -end of
the dead wood : then the fore and aft arm of the knee
may be half the length of the wchole dead wood, and
the up and down arm may reach to the ^ndtv part of
the lower tranfom ; and the whole knee may be placed
in fuch a manner that the upper piece *of the dead
wood
Book L
S H I P-B U
Application wood fliall belt over it, and be of as much fubftance as
rLngRSe?^^ ^"^^ t^ierefore the knee muft confequently
■othe Coii-^^ placed its whole thicknefs below the cutting down
■ rudioii of line reprefenting the upper part of the dead wood,
hips. The fheer draught, the body, and half-breadth plans
are now finifhed, from whence the (hip may be laid
down in the mould loft, and alfo the whole frame ereft-
ed. As, however, the ufe of the diagonal lines in the
body plan has not been fufficiently explained, it is
therefore thought proper to fubjoin the following illu-
45 ft rat ion of them,
^^^fd-*"*^- The diagonal lines in the body plan are mentioned
'onallinei ^" ^^^^^^ dimenfions merely for the purpofe of
' *' forming the body therefrom ; but after the body is
formed, they are of very principal ufe, as at their fta-
tions the ribbands and harplns which keep the body of
the (hip together while in her frames are all defcribed,
and the heads of the different timbers in the frame like-
1^ife determined.
The lowermoft diagonal, orn^ i. which is named the
lower ftrmarh^ at which place the bevellings are raken
for the hollow of the floors ; its fituation is gene-
rally in the middle between the keel and the floor fir-
mark.
Second diagonal is placed in the midfhips, about i8
inches below the floor head, and is the ftation where the
floor ribband is placed in midfhips, and likewife the floor
harpin forward ; there is alfo a bevelling taken at this
<3iagonal all the way fore and aft, from which it is term-
ed the jloor Jirmarh.
Third diagonal, terminates the length of the floors,
and is therefore called the floor head. There are likewife
bevellings taken at this diagonal as far forward and aft
as the floor extends. The placing of this diagonal is
of the utmoft confequence to the ilrength of the fliip,
it being fo near to that part of the bulge which takes
the ground, and of confequence is always liable to tKe
greatefl; flrain ; it fliould therefore be placed as much
■above the bearing of the body in midfhips as could
be conveniently allowed by converfion of the timber ;
but afore and abaft it is not of fo much confequence.
Fourth diagonal is placed in the middle between the
floor head and the fifth diagonal, at which place a rib-
band and harpin are ftationed for the fecurity of the firil
or lower futtock, from whence it is named thcjirjl fut-
tockjirmark. There are alfo bevellings taken at this
diagonal all afore and aft, which being part of the body
where the timbers moft vary, occafions them to be the
greatefl: bevellings in the whole body.
Fifth diagonal terminates the heads of the firfl: fut-
tocks, and is therefore called the frjl futtock head. It
ihould be placed at a convenient diftance above the
floor head, in order to give a fuflicient fcarf to the
lower part of the fecond futtocks. There are likewife
beveUings for the timbers taken at this diagonal, all fore
and aft.
Sixth diagonal fhould be placed in the middle be-
Tween the firil futtock head and the feventh diagonal ;
at which place the ribband and harpin are fl:ationed for
the fupporc of the fecond futtocks. Bevellings are ta-
ken at this diagonal all fore and aft. It is named the
fecond futtock ftrmark.
Seventh diagonal terminates the fecond futtock
fieads from the fore to the aftermofl: floors, and afore
ar.d abaft them it terminates the double futtock heads
Voi.. XVII. Part 11.
I L D I N G.
in the fore and aft cant bodies. It fliculd be placed In Application
midfliips, as much above the fi'rft futtock head as the °^
firfl; futtock is above the floor head : by which it givesf^ '"jj
■ the fame fcarf to the lower part of the third futtock (h-udion^of
as the firfl; futtock does to the fecond. 'i'herc are be- Ships,
veilings taken all fore and aft at tlus diagonal. It is — v— ^
named the fecond futtock head.
Eighth diagonal is the ftation for the ribband and
harpin which fupports the third futtocks, and is there-
fore placed between the fecond futtock head and ninth
diagonal. It is alfo a bevelling place, and is named the
third futtock ftrmark.
Ninth and laft diagonal is placed the fame diftance
above the fecond futtock head as that is above the firft,
and terminates all the heads of the third futtocks which
are in the frames, as they come between the ports j but
fuch as are between the frames, and come under the
lower deck ports, muft run up to the under part of the
ports, as HO fliort timbers fliould by any means be ad-
mitted under the ports, which require the greateft pof-
fible ftrength. This diagonal is likewife a bevelling
place for the heads of the third futtocks, and is there-
fore called the third futtock head.
The fourth futtock heads are terminated by the un-
der part of the upper deck ports all fore and aft, and
a ribband is placed fore and aft at the height of the
upper breadth line, another between the lower and up-
per deck ports, and one at the top-timber line ; which,
with the ribbands and harplns before-mentioned, keep
the whole body of the ftiip together, and likewife in its
proper form and fliape.
It muft be obferved, that the diagonal lines laid dowfs
in^ the dimenfions will not correfpond to what has been
faid above upon diagonals, as they were drawn difcre-
tlonally upon the body for the purpofe of giving the
true dimenfions of it. Therefore, when the body is
drawn in fair, the firft diagonals (which fliould only be
in pencil) are to be rubbed out, and the proper diago-
nals drawn with red ink, ftridly adhering to what ha«
been faid above.
Sect. III. q/" Inboard Works of the Ship defcribed
in thmpreceding SeSion.
Draughts of the outboard works being now con-
ftrufted, in which every part is defcribed that is necef-
fary to enable the artift to put the fliip in her frames, wc
muft now proceed to form another draught of the cavity
of the ftiip or inboard works, which mull be fo contrived
that every thing within the fliip may be arranged in the
moft commodious manner and to the beft advantage.
It is ufual to draw the inboard works in the ftieer- Ship-Buitd'
draught ; but as this generally occafions much confu-"''-' ^'M*"
fion, it is therefore the beft and eafieft method to ap-
proprlate a draught to this particular purpofe.
Take from the flieer draught the ftem, ftern-poft,
counter timbers, and keel, and defcribe them on an-
other paper ; draw in alfo the cutting down, kelfon,
apron, tranfoms, fafkion-pieces, and decks, and the up-
per line of the fheer all fore and aft, alfo the timbers
and ports.
The beams come firft under confideration, and fliould
be fo difpofed as to come one under and one between
each port, or as near as can be to anfwer other works
of the fliip ; but where it happens that a beam cannot
pofSbly be placed under the port, then a beam arm
3 E fliould
4o: S H I P-B U
AppHcatlon fhould be introduced to make good the deficiency,
of the foic- Every beam, and alfo the beam arms, fhould be kneed
to tifeS^at each end with one lodging and one hanging knee ;
ft'ruaion of and in thofe parts of the Hiip which require the knees
Ships. to be very acute, fuch as ' the after beams of the gun-
V "■ deck, and in fome fhips, whofe bodies are very fharp,
the foremoit beams of the gun-deck, there fhould be
knees of iron. Care fhould be taken always to let the
upper fide of the knees be below the furface of the
beams in large fhips one inch and a half, and in fmall
ftiips an inch, by which means the air will have a free
pafTage between the knees and under part of the
deck.
In the converfion of the beams the fide next the
lodging knee fhould be left as broad at the end of the
beam as can poffibly be allowed by the timber, the
beam retaining its proper fcantling at the end of the
lodging knee : by fo doing the lodging knees will be
more vvithout a fquare, which confequently makes them
the more eafy to be provided.
In fliips where the beams can be got in one piece,
they n^ould be fo difpoled as to have every other one
with the butt end the fame way ; for this reafori, that
■ the butts will decay before the tops. In large (hips the
beams are made in two or three pieces, and are there-
fore allowed to be llronger than thofe that are in one
piece. The beams in two pieces may have the fcarf
one-third of the length, and thofe in three pieces fhould
have the middle piece half the length of the whole
beam. The cuftomary way of putting them toj-rether
is to table them'*, and the length of the tablings fhould
be one-half more than the depth of the beam. It is
very common to divide the tablings in the middle of
the beam, and that part which is taken out at the up-
per fide to be left at the lower fide, and then kerfey or
flannel is put into the fcarf : but in this cafe the wa-
ter is liable to lie in the fcarf, and muft be the means
of rotting the beams. If, however, the beams were ta-
bled together in dovetails, and taken through from fide
to fide, putting tar only between them, which hardens
the wood ; then the water occafioned by the leaking
of the decks would have a free paffage, and the beam
would dry again ; and this methbd would not be found
inferior in point of ftrength to the other. The length
of the fore and aft arm of the lodging knee fliould ex-
tend to the fide of the hanging knee next to it ; but
there is no neceffity for that arm to be longer than the
other. In fattening the knees, care fhould be taken to
let one bolt pafs exaftly through the middle of the
throat, one foot fix inches from each end, and the reft
divided equally between ; obferving always to have the
holes bored fquare from the knee. The bolts for the
thwartftip arms of both hanging and lodging knees
may go through the arms of each knee, and drive every
one the other way.
In order to draw the beams in the draught, take the
moulding of the lower deck beams, and fet it off below
the line reprefenting the deck at the fide, and draw a
line in pencil parallel thereto, v/hich will reprefent the
under fide of the beams. In like manner reprefent the
under fide of the beams for the upper deck, quarter
deck, forecaftle, and roundhoufe. Then take the fiding
of the lower deck beams, and place one under and one
between each port, all fore and aft, drawing them in
pencil. Determine the dimenfions of the well fore
I L D I N G. Book:
and aft, which is ten feet, and fet it off abaft the beam ^^rP 'cati
under the eighth port, placing the beam under the ninth "[,j^^^f f^"'
port at that diftance : thofe two beams may then be f^l'^^e Cp
drawn in ink, and will terminate the extent of the well arudiou
the fore and aft way ; and as a beam cannot go acrofs Shij s.
the O'.ip at that place upon account of its being the — v—
well and maft room, ther e muft therefore be a beam
arm between thefe two beams. j
The main hatchway fliould then be determined, let-
ting the beam that forms the foi-e part of the well
form the aft part of it, and the beam under the next
part may form the fore fide of it, which beam may alfo *
be now drawn In ink : there fhoidd alfo be another
beam arm introduced in the wake of the main hatch-
way.
The fore hatchway may be next determined ; the
fore fide of which (hould range well up and down with
the after end of the forecaftle, and it may be fore and
aft about four-fevenths of ths main hatchway. At the
forefide of the fore hatchway there muft be a ladder-
way down to the orlop, which may be as much fore
and aft as the beams will allow. The reft of the beams
afore the fore hatchway may i-emain as firft placed,
there being nothing in the way to alter the fhip. Then
determine on the after hatchway, the forefide of which
comes to the aft fide of the main maft room.
There (hould alfo be a hatchway, the forefide of
which may be formed by the aft fide of the beam un-
der the twelfth port ; which is for the convenleney of
the fpirit and filh rooms : and there ftiould be a ladder-
way abaft it to lead down to the cockpit. There may
be alfo another hatchway, the forefide of it to be form-
ed by the aft fide of the beam under the eleventh port.
The fize of the ladder and hatchways muft be governed i
by the-beams, as when there is a good nilft of beams '
they fhould not be altered for ladder and hatchways,
unlefs it is the three principal hatchways, which mufl
always be of a proper fize, according to the fize of the
Ihip.
The after capftan muft be placed between the two
hatchways laft defcrlbed, and the beams abaft may
ftand as they arc already fiilfted, obferving only the
mizenmaft. There fhould be a fmall fcuttle placed
afore the fecond beam from aft, for the convenience of
the bread room : it muft be on one of the middle lines,
as there is a calling at the middle under the four or
five after beams to receive the pillars for the fupport
thereof.
The bits may be placed, letting the forefide of the
after ones come againft the aft fide of the beam abaft
the third port, and the forefide of the foremoft ones >
againft the next beam but one forward ; then at the
forefide of each bit there ftiould be drawn a fmall fcut-
tle for the convenleney of handing up the powder from
the magazine. The breaft hook (hould alfo be drawn,
which may be three feet the moulding away, and fided
nine-tenths of the beams of the lower deck.
The gun-deck, beams, knees, &c. being defcrlbed ;
in which, as well as all the decks having ports, the fanue
precautions are to be ufed as in the gun-deck ; and ob-
ferving to keep the beams upon one deck as nearly as
poflible over the beams of the other, for the conve-
niency of pillaring, as they will then fupport each
gther.
The hatchways are to be placed cxadlly over, thofe
BookL S H I P-B U
^.pplication on the lower deck, each over each ; and therefore,
f the foie -^j^gj-g there is a beam arm in the lower deck there
'''the Gon-™^^^ alfo be one above it in the upper deck, and the
tru(5lioa pf fame in the middle deck in three-deck fhips. It com-
ihips. monly happens in fhips of the line that there cannot be
a whole beam between the deck breaft hook and the
beam that fupports the ftep of the bowfprit, becaufe the
bowfprit paffes through that place : in this cafe, there
muft be a^beam arm placed, letting the end come equal-
ly between the beam and the breaft hook : but in fliips
that the bowfprit will allow of a whole beam, then the
ports and the reft of , the beams muft be confulted in or-
der to fpace it ; and when it fo happens that the fore-
maft comes in the wake of a port, then a beam arm
muft be neceffarily Introduced.
Having placed the beams accordincf to the difpofi-
tion of the other beams below, the ladder-ways fhould
be contrived : there fhould be one next abaft the fore
hatchway, which is a fingle ladder-way ; and one next
afore the main hatch, which is a double ladder-way ;
the ladders ftanding the fore and aft way. There
ihould alfo be another next abaft the after hatch, and
one over the cockptt correfponding with that on the
lower deck.
The capftans are next to be confidered ; the after
one is already placed on the lower deck, the barrel of
which muft pafs through the upper deck to receive the
V'helps and drumhead there, it being a double capftan.
In fhips having three decks, the upper part of each
capftan is in the middle deck ; but in fhips with one
deck there is only this one capftan, the upper part of
■which is placed on the quarter deck. The foremoft
capftan fhould be placed in the moft convenient fpot, to
admit of its being lowered down to the orlop out of
the way of the long boat : it may therefore be placed
between the main and fore hatchways ; the beam under
the fixth port of the lower deck may form the aft fide
of its room, and the beams on each fide of it fhould be
placed exaftly over or under the beams on the other
decks, and they fhould be at a diftance from each other
fufficient to let the drumheads pafs between them. The
<;entre of the capftan fhould then be placed in the
middle between the beams which compofe its room ;
■and the partners (hould be fitted in fuch a manner as to
Ihift occafionally when wanted, which is by letting them
be in two pieces fitted together. The partners on
• the lower deck, wherein the capftan fteps, muft be fup-
^orted by a pillar on the orlop deck, the lower part of
which may be fitted in an oak chock ; fo chat when the
pillar is taken away, and the capftan lowered down,
that chock ferves as a ftep for the capftan. Thofe two
beams on the orlop, by having the pillar and chock
upon them, have therefore the whole weight of
the caoftan preffing downwards : for the fupport of
them, there fhould be a carling placed underneath the
fore and aft way, with three pillars, one under each
beam, and one between ; all of them being ftept in the
kelfon, by which the orlop deck will be well fiipported
in the wake of the capftan, and the other deckvS will
feel no ftrain from it.
The fire hearth is next to be difpofed ; which is
placed differently according to the fize of the fhip. In
three-deckers it is found moft convenient to place it on
the middle deck ; whence there is much more room un-
, der the forecaftle than there would have been had it
I L D I N G. 403
been placed there. In all two-deck fhips it is placed Application
under the forecaftle, becaufe on the deck ""derneath
the bits are in the way. It is alfo under the forecaftle fg the Con-
in one-deck fhips, though confined between the bits : ftrudion of
in this cafe it fhould be kept as near as poffibk to the ^>fiip»'
after bits, that there may be more room between it and '
the foremoft bits to make a good galley.
The pofitions of the main-topfail-fheet bits are next
to be determined; the foremoft of which muft be fo
placed as to let its forefide come againft the af t fide of
the beam abaft the main hatchway, and to pafs down
to the lower deck, and there ftep in the beams : admit-
ting it to be a ftraight piece, it would come at, the aft
fide of the lower deck beam the fame as it does at the
upper deck beam, in confequence of thofe two beams
ranging well up and down with each other : jt muft
therefore have a caft under the upper deck beam, by
which the lower part may be brought forward fuflicient
to ftop in the lower deck beam. The aftermoft muft
be placed againft the forefide of the beam abaft the
mafl, and ftep on the beam below ; but there is no ne-
ceflity to provide a crooked piece- as before, for the
beam of the upper deck may be moved a little farther
aft, till it admit of the bit flopping on the lower deck"
beam, unlefs the beam comes under a port, as in that
cafe it muft not by any means be moved. The crofs
pieces to the bits fhould be on the forefide, and in
height from the upper deck about one-third of the
height between it and the quarter deck. With regard
to the heads of the bits, the length of. the fhip's wafte
fhould be confidered ; and if there is lengjth enough
from the forecaftle to the foremoft bits to admit of the
fpare geer being ftowed thereon without reaching far-
ther aft, the quarter deck may then run fo far forward
that the head of the foremoft bits fhall tenon in the
foremoft beam ; this gives the mainmafl another deck,
and admits of the quarter deck being all that the long-
er : but if there is not the room before mentioned,
then the quarter deck muft run no further forward than
the after bits, which will then tenon in the foremoft
beam ; and the foremoft bits muft have a crofs piece let
on their heads, which is termed a hor/e, and will be for
the purpofe of receiving the ends of the fpare geer.
The length of the quarter deck being now deter-
mined, the beams are then to be placed. For this pur-
pofe the feveral contrivances in the quarter deck muft
be previoufly confulted. It is neceffary to obferve, that
there arc neither carlings nor lodges, the carlings of the
hatches excepted, in the quarter deck, round-houfe, and
forecaftle ; as they would weaken inftead of flrengthen-
ing the beams, which fhould be as fmall as the fize gf
the fhip will permit, in order that tlie upper works may
be as light as poflible. Hence, as there are to be nei-
ther carlings nor lodges, the deck will require a great-
er number of beams, and a good round up, as on the
contrary the deck would be apt to bend with its oy/n
weight. The moft approved rule is therefore to have
double the number of beams in the quarter deck as
there are in a fpace of the fame length in the upper
deck.
Then proceed to fhift the beams to the beft advan-
tage, confulting the hatchways, ladder-ways, malls, bits,
wheel, &c. With refpeft to the ladder-ways on the
quarter decks of all fhips, there fhould be one near the
fore part of the great cabin for the officers, and an-
3 E 2 other
404 ^ S H I P . B U
Application ©tfier near tfie foremoft end of the quarter deck, con-
of the fore- (jguble ladders for the conveyance of the men
Komg: Rules .'^ ...... .
10 the Con- the other decks in caies oi emergency; and
ftrudlion ofhkewife one on each fide of the fore part of the quar-
Sfejps. ter deck from the gangway : and in every flup of the
^"—"V^^ line all the beams from the foremoft ladder-way to the
after one fliould be open with gratings, both for the
admiflion of air, and for the greater expedition of con-
veying different articles in the time of adlion.
Two fcuttles are to be dilpofed one on each fide of
the mainniaft, if it happens to come through the quar-
ter deck, tor tlie top tackles to pafs through, to hook
to the eye bolts drove iia the upper deck for that pur-
pofe.
The fleering wheel fhould be placed under the fore-
part of the roiindhoufe, and the two beams of the quar-
ter deck, which come under it, fiiould be placed con-
formable to the two uprights, fo that they may tenon
in them. The quarter deck beams fhonld be kneed at
each end with one hanging and one lodging knee ;
which adds greatly to the ftrengtli of the fide. The
hanging knees which come in the great cabin may be
of iron ; their vertical arms to be two-thirds of the
kngth of that of wood, and to reach the fpirketing.
It fliould be obfetved, that the beam abaft, which
eomes under the fcreen bulkhead, fhould round aft
agreeable to ihe round of the bulkhead, for the fupport
of the fame.
The forecaftle beams fhould be placed according as
the works of the deck will admit. The hatchways are
therefore to be confidered f rft. There fhould be one
for the funnel of the fire hearth to pafs through, and
one for the copper to admit of vent for the fleam ; and
alfo one or two over the galley as the forecaflle will
admit of. The fore-topfail-fheet bits fhould be fo dif.
pofed as to come one pair on the fore and one on the
aft fide of the mall, to let into the fide of the forecaftle
beams, and ftep on the upper deck beams below : there
fhould alfo be a ladder-way at the fore part of the fore-
caftle for the conveniency of the fore part of the fhip.
The beams may now be placed agreeable thereto,
their number being four more than there are in a fpace
In the upper deck equal in length to the forecaftle ;
and where there happens to be a wide opening between
the beams, as in the cafe' of a hatchway, maft room,
' ice. then half abeam of fir may be introduced to make
good the deficiency. The foremoft beam fhould be of
a breadth fufficient to take the aft fide of the inboard
arms of the catheads, as they are fecured upon this
beam by being bolted thereto. Every beam of the
forecaftle ftiould be kneed at each end with one hang-
ing and one lodging knee : the vertical arms of the
hanging knees fhould reach the fpirketing, and the
knees well bolted and carefully clenched.
Proceed to the roundhoufe ; the fame things being
obferved with refpeft to the beams as in the quarter
deck ; for as the roundhoufe beams are fided very fmall,
it hence follows that they muft be near to each otlier.
Let therefore the number of beams on the roundhoufe
be four more than in the fame length of the quarter
deck ; every other beam being of fir for lightnefs, and
every oak beam may be kneed at each end with one
hanging and one lodging knee ; the hanging knees abaft
may be of iron, their vertical arma to be in length two
I L D I N G. Book
thirds of thofe of wood. The roundhoufe fhould al- Applicatii
ways have a great round up, both forflrength and con."^P'^^
veniency. There muft be on the roundhoufe a fmall ^J^^^^
pair of knee-bits on each fide of the mizenmaft, turned ilrudiou
round and fcarf ed over each other, and bolted through Ships.
the maft carlings. There muft alfo be a companion on
the roundhoufe placed over the middle of the coach,
in order to give light thereto.
With regard to placing the roundhoufe beams, the
uprights of the fteering wheel and the mizenmaft arc
to be obferved ; as when the beams which interfere
with thofe parts are properly fpaccd, the reft may be
difpofed of at difcretion, or at an equal diftance from
each other, and letting the beam over the fcreen bulk-
head have a proper round aft, agreeable to the quarter
deck beam underneath.
The upper parts of the inboard works being now de-
fcribed, proceed next to the lower parts, or to thofe
which come below the lower deck. Draw in the orlop,
by taking the heights afore, at mid:hips, and abaft,
between that and the gun-deck, from the dimenfions,
and a curve defcribed through thefe points will repre-
fent the upper part of the- deck. Set oft" the thicknefs>
of the plank below, and the under fide of the plank will
be reprcfented. As this deck does not run quite for-
ward and aft as the other decks, the length of it muft
be therefore determined ; for this purpofe let the after
beam be placed at a fufficient diftance from aft to ad-
mit of the bread rooms being of a proper iize for the
fhip, which will be under that beam of the gun- deck
that comes at the fecond part from aft. The after
beam being drawn in, proceed to fpace the other beams, ■
placing them exadlly under thofe of the gun-deck ; and ^
that which comes under the foremoft beam of the gun-
deck may terminate the fore part of the orlop. Draw
the limber ftrake, by fetting off its thicknefs above the
cutting down line, and a line drawn parallel thereto will
repreicnt the limber ftrake. That part of the orlop
which is over the after magazine, fpirit room, and fifli
room, and alio that which is over the fore magazine, is
laid with thicker planks than the reft of the deck ;
which is for the better fecirity of thofe places, the
planks being laid over the beams ; but in the midfhips>
from the fore part of the fpirit room to the aft part of
the fore magazine, the beams are laid level with the fur-
face of the deck, and the planks are rabbeted in from
one beam to the other.
In order to reprefent the orlop as juft defcribed, the
dimenfions of the different apartments above mentioned
muft be determined : Let the aft fide of the after beam
be the aft fide of the after magazine, and from thence
draw the bulkhead down to the limber ftrake ; and the ;
forefide of the third beam may be the forefide of the af-
ter magazine, drawing that bulkhead likewife, which;
will alfo form the aft fide of the fifh room ; the forefide
of the fifh room may be drawn from the aft fide of the
fifth beam, which will alfo reprefent the aft fide of the j
fpirit room j then the forefide ©f the fpirit room may ]
be drawn from the forefide of the fixth beam. Hence
from the forefide of the fixth beam quite aft the deck,
will be reprefented by the two lines already drawn, and
the upper fide of the beams will be reprcfented by the
lower line.
Proceed next to the forepart of the orlop, letting the
fore*
hokt S H I P"B U
ethod forcfide of the after bits be the aft part of the foremoft
Whole- nwgazine, drawuig the bulkhead thereo^, which will
mlding. ^^^Q ^j^g of the fj^th beam ; therefore, from
the fixth beam to the foremoft end of the orlop, the
plank and beams will be reprefented juft in the fame
manner as before mentioned for the after part of the
orlop ; then the midfliip part of the deck will be re-
prefented by letting the upper line be the upper fide
of the plank, and Ukewife the upper fide of the beams ;
and the lower line will reprefcnt the lower edge of the
plank, only drawing it from beam to beam, and obfer-
ving not to let it pafs threugh them.
The hatchwayg, &c. may now be reprefented on the
orlop, letting the main, fore, and after hatchway, be
cxaftlv under thofe of the gun-deck : there muft be
one over the fi(h room, and one over the fpirit room.
There muft be two fcuttles over the after magazine
for the paftage to the magazine and light room.
There fhould alfo be one afore the fourth beam from
forward for the paffage to the fore magazine, and one
abaft the fecond beam for the paflage to the light
room.
The bulkheads for the fore and after parts of the
well may be drawn from the lower deck beams to the
orlop, and from thence to the limber ftrakc in the hold.
The fliot lockers may alfo be reprefented, having one
afore and one abaft the well : there ftiould alfo be one
abaft the foremoft magazine, the ends of which may be
formed by the after bits. The fteps of the mafts may
be drawn in by continuing their centres down , to the
limber ftrake ; and likewife two crutches abaft the mi-
zen ftep divided equally between that and the after part
of the cutting^ down : the breaft hooks may alfo be
drawn letting them be five in number below the
lower deck hook, and all equally divided between that
and the fore ftep. Hence every part of the inboard is
decribed as far as neceflary.
Chap. V. 0/ the Method of Whole-moulding,
Having now finiftied the methods of laying down the
feveral plans of a fhip, any farther addition on this fub-
jeft might appear unnecelfary. We cannot, however,
with propriety, omit to defcribe the method called
tuhole-moulding, ufed by the ancients, and which ftiM
continues in ufe among thofe unacquainted with the
more proper methods already explained. This method
will be illuftrated by laying down the feveral plans of
a long boat ; the length of the keel being 29 feet, and
breadth moulded nine feet.
Draw the ftraight line PO (fig. 37.) equal to 29
. feet, the extreme length of the boat, and alfo to repre-
fent the upper edge of the keel. Let 0 be the ftation
• of the midftiip frame. From the points F, 0, and O,
draw the lines PT, 0M, and OS, perpendicular to
PO. Maka 0M, 0N, equal to the upper and lower
heights of breadth refpeftively at the main frame, PT
the height of breadth at the tranfom, and OS the height
at the ftem. Defcribe the curve TMS to reprefent
the ftieer or extreme height of the fide, which in a Ihip
would be called the upper height of breadth I'lney or up*
per edge of the wale. Through the point N draw a*
curve parallel to TMS, to repr<jfent the breadth of the
lapper ftrake of a boat, or lower edge of- the wale if in
I L D I N G.
a fhip. The dotted line TNS may alfo be drawn t©'
Method
of Whole-
reprefent the lower height of breadth.
Set off the rake of the port from P to />, and draw "^^"'^'"g
the line pt X.o reprefent the aft fide of the port ; then
7^ t will reprefent the round up of the tranfom. Set
off" the breadth of the port from p to r, and from T to
s, and draw the line r s to reprefent the forefide of the
port, which may either be a curve or a ftraight line at
pleafure. Set up the height of the tuck from p to k,-
Let if X be the thicknefs of the tranfom, and draw the
line ZX to reprefent the forefide of the tranfom.
There is given the point S, the height of the Iheer
on the forefide of the ftem ; now that fide of the ftem
is to be formed either by fweeps or foine other contri-
vance. Set off the breadth of the ftem, and fomi the
att fide of it.
Set up the dead-rihng from ^ to d., and form the ri-
fing line r i %. Draw the line KL parallel to PO to
reprefent the lower edge of the keel, and another to re-
prefent the thicknefs of the plank or the rabbet. The
rabbet on the poft and ftem may alio be reprefented ;
and the ftations of the timbers afligned, as®, ( i ), i, 2,.,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ; and®, (A), A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H ; and the fheer plan will be completed.
The half-breadth plan is to be formed next ; for thits
purpofe the perpendiculars TP, 9, 8, &c. muft be pro-
duced. Upon M 0 produced fet off the half breadth
from the line KL to R (fig. 38.) ; fet off alfo the
half breadth at the tranfom from K to and defcribe
the extreme half breadth line b RX, m.aklng the fore-
part of the curve agreeable to the propofed round of
the tranfom.
We may next proceed to form the timbers in the
body plan. Let AB (fig. 39.) be the breadth mould-
ed at 0. Ereft the perpendicular CD in the middle
of the line AB ; draw the line m n diftant there-
from the half thicknefs of the poft, and the half
thicknefs of the ftern. Then take off the feveral por-
tions of the perpendiculars 0, J, 2, Sec. intercepted ,
between the upper edge of the keel and the rifing
line in the fheer plan, and fet them up from C upon
the line CD ; through thefe points draw lines paral-
lel to AC ; take off alfo the feveral lower heights of
breadth at® , i, 2, &c. from the llieer plan ; and fet
them up from C upon the middle line in the body plan;
and draw line8^ parallel to AC through thefe points ;
Then take off the feveral half breadths correfponding
to each from the floor plan ;. and fet them off on their
proper half-breadth lines from the middle line in the
body plan.
Conftruft the mldfhlp frame by Problem V. the form
©f which will in fome raeafure determine the form of"
the reft. For if a mould be made on any fide of the
middle line to fit the curve part of it, and the rifing,
line, or that marked bend mould (fig. 40.), and laid in
fuch a manner that the lower part it, which is ftraight,,
may be fet upon the feveral rifing hnes, and the upper
part juft touch the point of the half breadth in the
breadth line correfponding to that rifing upon which*
the mould is placed, a «urve may then be drawn by
the mould to the rifing line. In this manner we may
proceed fo far as the rifing line is parallel to tlie lower
height of the breadth line. Then a hollow mould muftr
be made, the upper end of which is^left ftraight, as
406
Meth' d
cf Whole.
" moulding
S H I P'B U
tliat marked holhiv mould (fig. 40.). This is applied
■ in fuch a manner, that fome part of the hollow may
' touch the fide of the keel, and the ftraight part touch
*the back of the curve before defcribed by the bend
•mould ; and, beginning abaft, the ftraip,ht part will al-
ways come lower on every timber, till we come to the
midfhip timber, when it comes t© the fide of the keel.
Having thus formed the timbers, fo far as the whole
mouldings will ferve, the timbers abaft them are next
formed. Their half breadths are determined by the
fheer and floor plans, which are the only fixed points
through which the curves of thefe timbers muft pal's.
'Some form thefe after timbers before the whole is
moulded, and then make the hollow mould, which will
be ftraighter than the hollow of cither of thefe timbers.
It is indifferent which are firft formed, or what methods
are ufed ; for after the timbers- are all formed, though
' every timber may appear very fair when confidered by
itfelf, it is uncertain what the form of the fide will be.
In order to find which,, we muft form feveral ribband
and water lines ; and if thefe do not make fair curves,
they muft be reftified, and the timbers formed from
thefe ribband and water lines. In \ifing the hollow
mould, when it is applied to the curve of each tim-
ber, if the ftraight part is produced to the middle
line, we fhall have as many points of interfeftion as
there are timbers ; and if the heights above the bafe be
transferred to the correfponding timbers in the fiieer
plan, a curve pafling through thefe points is what is
called a rifing Jira 'tt. This may be formed by fixing
a point for the aftermoft timber that is whole moulded,
and transferring that height to the fiieer plan. The
curve muft pafs through this point, and fall in with the
rifing line fomewhcre abaft dead flat ; and if the feve-
ral heights of this line be transferred from the fheer to
the middle line in the body plan, thefe points will regu-
late what is called the hauling doivn of the hollow mould.
The timbers in the after body being all formed, thofe
in the fore body are formed in the fame manner, by
transferring the feveral heights of the rifing and breadth
lines from the fiieer to the body plan ; the half
breadths correfponding to each height muft alfo be
transferred from the floor to the body plan. The fame
hollow mould will ferve both for the fore and after
•body ; and the level lines, by which the water lines to
prove the after body were formed, may be produced
into the fore body, and by them, the water lines to prove
the fore body, may be defcribed.
Another method of proving the body is by ribband
lines, which are formed by fe£lions of planes inclined
to the fheer plan, and interfering the body plan diago-
nally, as before obferved, of which there may be as many
as may be judged neceflary. As this has been already
explained, we fliall therefore lay down only ©ne, repre-
•fented in the body plan by the lines marked d i a.
Thefe are drawn in fuch a manner as to be perpendi-
cular to as many timbers as convei!iently may be. After
they are drawn in the body plan, the feveral portions
of the diagonal intercepted between the middle line
and each timber muft be tr.n.stcrrred to the floor plaq.
Thus, fix one foot of the compafles in the point where
the diagofial interfe&s the middle line in the body plan ;
extend the other foot to the point where the diagonal in-
"terfefts the timber ; for example, timber 9 : Set off" the
^ame extent upon the perpendicular reprefenting the plane
I L D I N G. BooM
of timber 9 from the point where it Jnterfeda the line Mety
KL on the floor plan : in like manner proceed with all ''f
the other timbers both in the fore and after body ; and "'""'"^
thefe fhall have the points thro' which the curve muft
pafs. If this fiiould not prove a fair curve, it muft be
altered, obferving to conform to the points as nearly
as the nature of the curve will admit : fo it may be car-
ried within one point, and without another, according
as we find the timbers will allow. For after all the
ribband lines are formed, the timbers muft, if needful,
be altered by the ribband lines : this is only the reverfe
of forming the ribband lines ; for taking the portions
of the feveral perpendiculars intercepted between the
line XL and the curve of the ribband line in the floor
plan, and fetting them off" upon the diagonal from
the point where it interfe£ks the middle line, we fiiall
have the points in the diagonal through which the
curves of the timbers muft pafs. Thus the diftance
between the line KL and the ribband at timber 3 on
the floor plan, when transferred to the body plan, will
extend on the diagonal from the middle line to the
point where the curve of timber 3 interfe^ls that dia-
gonal. The like may be faid of all the other tinabers ;
and if feveral ribband lines be formed, they may be fo
contrived that their diagonals in the body plan ftiall
be at fuch diftances, that a point for every timber be-
ing given in each diagonal, will be fufficient to deter-
mine the form of all the timbers.
In ftationing the timbers upon the keel for a boat,
there muft be room for two futtocks in the fpace be-
fore or abaft ; for which reafon, the diftance between
thefe two timbers will be as much more than that be-
tween the other as the timber is broad. Here it is
between 0 and (A); which contains the diftances be-
tween 0 and (i), and the breadth of the timber be-
fides.
The timbers being now formed, and proved by rib-
band and water lines, proceed then to form the tranfom,
fafiiion-pieces, &c. by Problem "VI.
This method of whole-moulding will not anfwer for
the long timbers afore and abaft. They are generally
canted in the fame manner as thofe for a fhip. In or-
der to render this method more complete, we fliall here
defcribe the manner of moulding the timbers after they
are laid down in the mould loft, by a rifing fquare,
bend, and hollow mould.
It was fhewn before how to form the timbers by the
bend and hollow moulds on the draught. The fame
method muft be ufed in the loft ; but the moulds muft
be made to their proper fcantlings in real feet and
inches. Now when they are fet, as before directed, for
moulding each timber, let the middle line in the body
plan be drawn acrofs the bend mould, and draw a line
acrofs the hollow mould at the point v,^here it touches
the upper edge of the keel ; and let them be marked
with the proper name of the timber, as in fig. 40. The
graduations of the bend mould will therefore be exact-
ly the fame as the narrowing of the breadth. Thus,
the diftance between (g) and 7 on the bend mould is
equal to the diff"erence between the half breadth of tim-
ber 7 and that of 0, The height of the head of each
timber is likewife marked on the bend mould, and alfo
the floor and breadth firmarks. The floor firmark is
in that point where a ftraight edged batten touches the
back of the bend mould, the batten being 10 placed
ok J. S H I P - B U
thod as to touch the lower eir^e of the keel at the fame
time. The feveral rlfings of the floor and heights of
the cutting down hne are marked on the rifing fquare,
^ and the half breadth of the keel fet off from the fide
of it.
The moulds being thus prepared, we {hall apply them
to mould timber 7. The timber being firft properly
fided to its breadth, lay the bend mould upon it, fo as
may beft anfwer the round according to the grain of
the wood ; then lay the rifing fquare to the bottom of
the bend mould, fo that the line drawn acrofs the bend
mould at timber 7 may coincide with the line repre-
fenting the middle of the keel upon the rifing fquare ;
and draw a line upon the timber by the fide of the
fquare, or let the line be fcored or cut by a tool made
for that purpofe, called a rafe'mg knife ( e ) ; this line fo
rafed will be the fide of the keel. Then the fquare
mull be moved till the fide of it comes to 7 on the
bend mould, and another line muft be rafed in by the
fide of it to reprefent the middle of the keel. The
other fide of the kecL muft likewife be rafed after the
fame manner, and the point 7 on the rifing fquare be
marked on each fide of the keel, and a Hne rafed acrofs
at thefe points to reprefent the upper edge of the keel.
From this line the height of the cutting down line at
7 muft be fet up, and then the rifing fquare may be ta-
hen away, and the timber may be rafed by the bend
mould, both infide and outfide, from the head to the
floor firmark ; or it may be carried lower if neceflary.
After the firmarks and head of the timbers are marked,
the bend mould may likewife be taken away, and then the
hollow mould applied to the back of the fweep in fuch a
ipanner that the point 7 upon it may interfe£i the upper
fide of the keel, before fet off by the rifing fquare ; and
■when in this pofition the timber may be rafed by it,
which will complete the outfide of the timbers. The
infide of the timbers may likewife be formed by the
hollow mould. The fcantling at the keel is given by
the cutting down before fet olF. The mould muft be
fo placed as to touch the fweep of the infide of the tim-
ber formed before by the bend mould, and pafs through
the cutting down point.
The ufe of the firmarks is to find the true places of
tlie futtocks; for as they are cut off three or four
inches ftiort of the keel, they muft be fo placed that
the futtock and floor firmarks may be compared and co-
incide. Notwithftanding which, if the timbers are not
very carefully trimmed, the head of the futtock may
1 be either within or without its proper half breadth ; to
prevent which a half breadth ftalF is made ufe of.
The half breadth ftaff may be one inch fquare, and
of any convenient length. Upon one fide of it are fet
off from one end the feveral half breadths of all the
timbers in the after body, and thofe of the fore body
upon the oppofite fide. On the other two fides are fet
off" the feveral heights of the ftreer, the after body on
one fide, and the fore body on its oppofite. Two fides
of the ftaff are marked half breadths ^ and the other two
fides heights of the Jheer.
The ftafF being thus prepared,, and the floor-timbers
I L D I N G. 407
faftened on the keel, and levelled acrofs, the fultocks Pj^a^'ce
muft next be faftened to the. floor timbers ; but they ^^jf^j^'"'
muft be fet firft to their proper half breadtli and height.
The half breadth ftaff, with the affiftance of the ram-
linc ferves to fet them to the half breadth : for as § See next
the keel of a boat is generally perpendicular to the ho^ Chapter,
rizon, therefore the hne at which the plummet is fuf-
pended, and which is moveable on the ram line, will be
perpendicular to the keel. Whence we may by it fet
the timbers perpendicular to the keel, and then fet them
to their proper half breadths by the ftafl^ : and wher.
the two firmarks coincide, the futtock will be at its
proper height, and may be nailed to the floor timbers,
and alfo to the breadth ribband, which may be fet to
the height of the f^ieer by a level laid acrefs, taking the
height of the ftieer by the ftaff from the upper fide of
the keel ; by which means we fliall difcover if the rib-
band is exaftly the height of the fheer ; and if not, the
true height may be fet off by a pair of compaffes from
the level, and marked on the timbers.
Chap.. VI. Of the Praffice of Shlp-luilding.
The elevation, .projeftlon, and half-breadth plans, of
a propofed ftiip being laid down on paper, we muft
next proceed to lay down thefe feveral , plana on the
mould loft of the real dimenfions of the fliip, propofed
to be built, and from which moulds for each feparate
part are to be made. The method of laying down . *
thefe plans, from what has been already faid, will. It is .
prefumed, be no very difficult tafk to ,accomplifh, as it i
is no more than enlarging the dimenfions of the origi-
nal draughts ; and with refpeA to the moulds, they are ;
very eafily formed agreeable to the figure of the feveral ■
parts of the fhip laid down in the mould loft. ^ ,
Blocks of wood are now to be prepared upon which
the keel is to be laid. Thefe blocks are to be placed
at nearly equal diftances, as of five or fix feet, and in
fuch a manner that their upper furfaccs may be exaftly
in the fame plane, and their middle In the fame ftralght
line. This laft is eafily done by- means of a line ftretch-
ed a little more than the propofed length of the keel j
and the upper planes of thefe blocks may be verified by
a long and ftraight rule ; and the utmoft care and pre-
caution muft be taken to have thefe blocks properly
bedded. Each block may be about fix or eight inches -
longer than the keel is in thicknefs ; their breadth from
1 2 to 14 inches, and their depth from a foot to a foot ^
and half.
The dimenfions of the keel are to be taken from the ■
mould loft, and the keel is to be prepared accordingly.
As, however, it is feldom pofTible to procure a piece
of wood of fufiiclent length for a keel, efpecially if for
a large fliip, it is, therefore, for the moft part neceffary
to compofe it of feveral pieces, and thefe pieces are to
be fcarfed together, and fecurely bolted, fo as to make
one entire piece. It muft, however, he obferved, that
the pieces which compofe the keel ought to be of fuch -
lengths, that a fcarf may not be oppofite to the ftep of
any of the mafts. Rabbets are to be. formed on each -
fide of the keel to receive the edge of the planks next v
ta *
(e) The term rafetng is ufed when any line is drawn by fuch an inftrument inftead of a peiK;il»
7;
PraflicC
-of Ship-
f ibuilding.
SHI P-B U
to it, or garboard ftrake, and tlie keel is to be laid on
the blocks (f).
, The ftem, and the poft, and the feveral tranfoms be-
longing to it, are to be prepared from the moulds, and
rabbeted in like manner as the keel, to receive the ends
•of the plank. The tranfoms are to be bolted to the
fpoft at their middle, each at its refpeftive height, ta-
Icen from the elevation in tlie moiild loft, and the ex-
tremities of tlie tranfoms are to be firmly connefted with
the fafhion-pieces. Both ftem and poll are then to be
•crefted, each at its refpedlive extremity of the keel.
The (tenons at tbe beel of each being let into mortifes
;preparcd to receive them, and being fet to their proper
rakes or angles with the keel, are to be fupported by
props or fhores. Pieces of wood called dead nuood are
to be laid upon and fixed to the upper fide of the keel
towards the fore and aft parts of it ; the deepnefs of
the dead wood increafing with its diftance from the mid-
dle, agi-eeable to the propofed form of the cutting
down line.
A line ig to be ftretched from the middle of the head
of the ftem to that of the poft, called the ram line.,
upon which is a moveable line with a plummet affixed
to it. The midfliip and other frames are to be eredled
upon the keel at their proper ftations. The extremities
of each frame are fet at equal diftancea from the vertical
longitudinal feftion of the fhip, by moving the frame
in its own plane until the plumb-line coincides with a
mark at the middle between the arms of each frame ;
and although the keel is inclined to the horizon, yet
the frames may alfo be fet perpendicular to the keel by
means of the plumb-line. The ftiores which are fup-
porting the frames are now to be fecurely fixed, that the
pofition of the frames may not be altered. The rib-
bands are now to be nailed to the frames at their pro-
per places, the more efFeilually to fecure them ; and the
intermediate vacancies between the frames filled up with
fiUino; timbers. For a perfpeftive view of a fliip framed,
fee Plat* CCCCLIV. fig. 2.
The frames being now ftationed, proceed next to
fix on the planks, of which the wales are the principal,
being much thicker and ftronger than the reft, as is re-
prefented in the midftiip frame, Plate CCCXIV. The
harpins, which may be confidered a« a continuation of
the wales at their fore ends, are fixed acrofs the hawfe
pieces, and furround the fore part of the fhip. The
planks that inclofe the (hip's fides are then brought about
the timbers ; and the clamps, which are of equal thick-
nefs with the wales, fixed oppofite to the wales within
the (hip. Thefe are ufed to fupport the ends of the
beams, and accordingly ftretch from one end of the ftiip
to the other. The thick fluff or ftrong planks of the
bottom within board are then placed oppofite to the
feveral fcarfs of the timbers, to reinforce them through-
out the ftiip's length. The planks employed to line the
Ihip, called the celling or foot-tifaiins^, is next fixed in
the intervals between the thick ftuff of the hold. The
beams are afterwards laid acrofs the (hip to fupport the
decks, and are connected to the fide by lodging and
I L D I N G. Boo
hanging knees : the former of which are exhibited at F, Pra<
Plate CLVI. See alfo the article Deck ; and the
hanging-knees, together with the breadth, thicknefs,
and pofition of the keel, floor timbers, futtocks, top-
timbers, wales, clamps, thick (tuff, planks within and
without, beams, decks, &c. are feen in the midfhip
frame, Plate CCCXIV. and in that article thefe feveral
parts have already been explained.
The cable-bits beinj^ next crefted, the catlings and
/edges, reprefented in Plate CLVI. are difpofed between
the beams to ftrcngthen the deck. The tvater-nvays are
then laid on the ends of the beams throughoHt the (hip's
length, and the fpirketing fixed clofe above them. —
The upper deck is then planked, and the Jlring placed
under the gunnel, or planjheer, in the waift. The difpo-
fition of thofe latter pieces on the timbers, viz. the wa-
ter-ways, fpirketing, upper deck, ftring, and gunnel,
are alfo reprefented in the midfliip frame, Plate CCCIV.
Then proceed next to plank the quarter-deck and
forecaftle, and to fix the partners of the mafts and cap-
fterns with the coamings of the hatches. The hreajl-'
hooks are tht^n bolted acrofs the ftem and bow within-
board, the ftep of the foremaft placed on the kclfon,
and the riders, exhibited in the Midship Framk, fay-
ed to the infide of the timbers, to reinforce the fides in
different parts of the (hip's length. The pointers, i£
any, are afterwards fixed acrofs the hold diagonally to
fupport the beams ; and the crotches ftationed in the af-
ter hold to unite the half timbers. The Jleps of the
mainmaft and capfterns are next placed ; the planks of
the lower decks and orlop laid ; the navehhoods fayed
to the hawfe holes ; and the knees of the head, or cut-
water, connefted.to the ftern. The figure of the head
is then ereded, and the trail-board and cheeks fixed on
the fide of the knee.
The taffarel and quarter -pieces, which terminate the
{hip abaft, the former above and the latter on each fide,
arc then difpofed, and the ftern and quarter galleries
framed and fupported by their brackets. The pumps^
with their well, are next fixed in the hold ; the limber
boards laid on each fide of the kelfon, and the garboard
jlrake fixed on the (hip's bottom next to the heel with-
out.
The hull being thus fabricated, proceed to feparate
the apartments by bulkheads or partitions, to frame
the port-lids, to fix the catheads and chefs-trees ; to
form the hatchways and fcuttlcs, and fit them with pro-
per covers or gratings. Next fix the ladders at the dif-
ferent hatchways, and build the manger on the lower
deck, to carry off" the water that runs in at the hawfe-
holes when the fhip rides at anchor in a fea. The
bread-room and magazines are there lined; and the
gunnel, rails, and gangways fixed on the upper part of
the (hip. The cleats, kevels, and ranges, by which the
ropes are fattened, are afterwards bolted or nailed to the
fides in different places.
The rudder, being fitted with its irons, is next hung
to the ftern-poft, and the tiller or bar, by which it is
managed, let into a mortife at its upper end. The
/cuppers.
(f) In fhlps of war, which are a long while in huilding, it has been found that the keel is often apt to rot
before they are fini(hed. Upon this account, therefore, fome builders have begun with the floor timbers, and add-
fid the keel afterwards.
8
\
►ok I.
S H I P-B U
it8 in
Mads
Rud.
je 2op.
)rove- fcupperst or leaden tubes, that carry the water off from
the decks, are then placed In holes cut through the
fhip's fides ; and the Jlandards reprefented in the Mid-
ship Frame, Plate CCCXIV. bolted to the beams
-V ' and fides above the decks to which they belong. The
poop lanthorns are laft fixed upon their cranes over the
•ftern, and the bilge-iuays or cradles placed under the
bottom to conduct the fhip fteadily into the water
whilft launching.
As the various pieces which have been mentioned
above are explained at large in their proper places, it is
therefore fuperfluous to enter into a more particular de-
fcription of tliem here.
Chap. YII. 0/ Improvements in the Majls and Rudder.
prove- Since the article Mast was printed, an account of
a method for reftoring mafts of fhips when wounded,
or othci-wife injured, in an eafy, cheap, and expeditious
w^imd •^^""^*"» by Captain Edward Pakenham of the royal
mafts navy, has been publifhed in the tenth volume of the
Cajitain Tranfaftlons of the Society for the Encouragement of
tcnham. Arts, &c. Captain Pakenham introduces his invention
with the following obfervations :
" Among the various accidents which flilps are liable
to at fea, none call more for the attention and exertion
of the officer than the fpeedy refitting of the mafts ;
and having obferved, in the courfe of laft war, the very
great deftruftion made among the lower mafts of our
(hips from the enemy's mode of fighting, as well as the
very great expence and delay in refitting a fleet after
an adlion, particularly acrofs the Atlantic — a very
fimple expedient has fuggcfted itfelf to me as a refource
in part ; which appears fo very fpeedy and fecure, that
the capacity of the meaneft failor will at once conceive
it. I therefore think it my duty to ftate my ideas of
the advantages likely to refult from it ; and I fhall feel
rnyfelf exceedingly happy fhould they in anywife con-
tribute to remedy the evil.
" My plan, therefore, is, to have the heels of all
lower mafts fo formed as to beconie the heads : but it
is not the intention of the above plan to have the fmall-
eft alteration made in the heels of the prefent lower
mafts ; for as all line-of-battle fliips mafts are nine inches
in diameter larger at the heel than at the head, it will
follow, that by letting in the treflel-trees to their pro-
per depth, the maft will form its own cheeks or hounds ;
and I flatter myfelf the following advantages will refult
from the above alteration.
Firft, I mutt beg to obferve, that all line-of-battle
fhips bury one third of their lower mafts, particularly
three-deckers ; it therefore follows, that if the wounds
are in the upper third, by turning the maft fo as to
make the heel the head, it will be as good as new ; for,
in eight a&Ions I was prefent in laft war, I made the
following obfervations :
" That in the fald aftlons fifty-eight lower mafts were
wounded, and obliged to be fhlfted, thirty-two of
which had their wounds in the upper third, and of courfe
the fliips detained until new mafts were made. And
when it is confidered that a lower maft for a 00 or 74
ftands government in a fum not lefs, I am informed,
than 2000 1. to 23C0I. the advantages acrofs the At-
lantic refulting from the aforefaid plan will be particu-
larly obvious ; not to mention tlie probability of there
being no fit fpars in ihe country, which was the cafe in
Vol. XVII. Part II.
I L D I N a 409
the Inftances of the Ifis and Princcfs Royal; and as^i^P'^oye-
I was one of the lieutenants of the Ifis at that the^^^ftg
X am more particular In the circumftance of that^j^^ BmA-
fliip. The Ifis had both her lower m.afts wounded der.
above the cathar pins in her aftion with the Cse- — ^ ' '*
far, a French 74 ; and as there were no fpars at New
York, the Ifis was detained five weeks at that place-
Now, if her mafts had been fitted on the plan I have
propofed, I am confident flie would have been ready for
fea in 48 hours ; and as a further proof, I beg leave
to add, that the whole fleet, on the glorious 1 2th of
April, had not the leaft accident of any confequence ex-
cept what befel their lower mafts, which detained them
between eight and ten weeks at Jamaica.
" The delay of a fliip while a new maft is making,
and probably the fleet being detained for want of that
fhip, which frequently occurred in the courfe of laft
war, the taking of fhipwrights from other work, wiih a
variety of inconveniences not neceffary to mention here,
muft be obvious to every officer that has made the
fmalleft obfervations on fea actions.
" You will further obferve, that this fubftltute is
formed on the moft fimple principle, fitted to the
meaneft capacity, and calculated to benefit all fliips,
from a firft-rate down to the fmalleft merchantman, in
cafes of an accident by fliot, a fpring, a rottennefs,
particularly as thefe accidents generally happen in the
upp er third of the maft and above the cheeks.
" It might probably be obje<3;ed, that a difficulty and
fome danger might arife from the wounded part of the
maft being below ; but this will at once be obviated,
when it Is remembered, that as the wounded part is be-
low the wedges, it may with eafe be both fiflied, cafed,
and fecured, to any fize or degree you pleafe, with the
addition of its being wedged on each deck."
Fig. 41. reprcfents a maft of a firft-rate in its proper
ftate, the figures reprefenting its thicknefs at the diffe-
rent divifions.
Fig. 42, the fame maft inverted, the heel formiag the
head, and the treflel-trees let into their proper depth,
the additional thicknefs of the maft forming its owa
cheeks.
Fig. 43. the propofed maft, the figures reprefenting
the thicknefs of the maft in the propofed alterations ;
a, the heel made fquare ; b, the letting in of the treflel-
trees ; c, the third proportion of thicknefs contin,ued up
to where the fourth is in the prefent maft, or at leaft
fome little diftance above the lower part of the cheeks,
which is always looked upon as the weakeit part of the
maft ; and by its being fo proportioned, the maft, when
turned, will be nearly as ftrong in the partners a9>-before.
As the expence of a maft is much greater than is
generally imagined, it is therefore thought proper ta
fubjoln the following ftateraent of the feveral articles
ufed in making a 74 gun fhip's mainmaft.
Fiflies for a fpindie, 2 1 inches, 2 nails of Value.
two mafts, - - L. loi 3
Two fide fiflies, 22 inches, 2 ditto, 133 10
Fore and aft fiflies, 22 inches, 2 nails of
one maft, - - 66 1 3
Fifli ^ 21^ inches, i nail of half a maft, 29 8
V On the fore pait.
Iron J 3 qrs 19 lbs 15
Aries load baulk, 2 loads 22 feet, - .12 2
J J Tapers eii
Na-ual Ari
9 chiteSiurc^
part
10
9
•5
3F
Carried over L. 344 5 i
Brought over
* 2 loads 7 feet,
Dantzic fir timber.
4 loads 2 feet,
2 qrs 241b.
U
Value.
L'344 5
1 1
-20
8
0
0
410 SHI
Improve-
nients in
the Maftg _ , , ,
and Rud. Breadthning
d.'r. J
V— fCheeks
1^ Iron, 5 cwt
Knees, elm timber, 1 3 fc<!t,
Iron, 2 qrs. 14 lb.
Hoops and bolts on the body, 1 3 cwt. i qr.
16 lb.
TrefTel trees, ftraight oak timber, fecond fort,
2 loads 10 feet, - - 10
Iron, 3 qrs. 10 lb. - I
Crofs trees, ftraight oak timber, fecond fort
1 load 1 2 feet, - - 5
Iron, 2 qrs. 2 lb. - - o
Cap, elm timber, i load 24 feet, - 4
Iron, 2 cwt. 14 lb. • 2
Fullings, bolfters, bollins, and Dantzic fir,
I load 2 feet, - - 5
Wovkmanfhip, - " 7^
I L D I N G.
Boo
18
o
«7
18 15
2
3
14
H
6
19
7
6
Main-topmaft of a 74 gim fhip.
Main tep-gallant-mall,
5'3 6
50 16
8 II
c/Na^'al • in order to leflen the enormous expence of mafts, a
yirchitsc- propofal was made fome years ago to conftruft them
iure,^. 50. }ioiiow . gnd the author having prcmifed fcveral experi-
to ments which he had made, proceeds as follows :
Mr Gor. <t Galileo taught us, that the refiftance or ftrength
bildin" ^ hollow cylinder is to that of a full cylinder, con-
nialls. '"^ taining the fanne quantity of matter, as the total dianve-
ter of the hollow one is to the diameter of the full one ;
and thefe experiments fhow us, that the ftrength or re-
fiftance of two or more pieces of wood, fattened toge-
ther at 'each end, and conneded by a pillar, pillars, or
framing, increafes, at leaft to a certain degreee, cater'ti
■paribus, as the dittance between them and number of
pillars, provided the force is applied in the line or direc-
lion of the pillars.
It is furprlfing that this difcovery of Galileo has not
been made fnbfervient to more ufeful purpofes. It is
particularly applicable to the conftruftion of mafts, as
not requiring that the hollow cylinder (hould be made
of one iohd piece of wood ( g).
" However, the foregoing experiments teach us, that
the fame advantages may be obtained by other forms
tiefides that of a cylinder ; and that perhaps not only in
a fuperior degree, but likewife with greater facility of
Execution ; as by adopting a fquare figure, but more
j>articularry by conftruaing them of feparate pieces of
wood, placed ait proper diftances from each other, in
the following or any other manner that may be found
moft convenient. Fig. 44, 45, and 46, exhibit each
the tranfverfe fedion of a maft, in which the fmall cir-
cles reprefent the trees or upright pieces of wood, and
5«
the lines the beams or framing of wood, which are em- Improve
ployed at proper places and at proper diftances from J^g"^*'
each other, for connefting them together. Perhaps fo-^nd Ru
lid frames of wood, placed at proper diftances from eachder
other, and filling up the whole dotted fpace, would' an- —
fwer better ; in which event, the maft could be ftrong-
ly hooped with iron at thofe place?, and the upright
trees formed fquare, or of any other convenient form,
" It will be evident to thofe acquainted with this fub»
je£l, that fuch mafts would be greatly ftronger thari com-
mon ones containing the fame quantity of materials. It is
likewife evident that they would be lefs apt to fpring, a&
being fupported on a more extended bafe, and affording
many conveniences for being better fecured ; and that
they might be conftruCled of fuch wood as at prefent
would be deemed altogether improper for mafts : a
circumftance of importance to Britain at all times, but
more particularly now, when there is fuch difficulty in
procuring wood proper for the kind of mafts in com-
mon ufe."
An improvement In the rudder has lately taken place An itnj.
In feveral fhips, particularly in fome of thofe in the f*^*"' j^'^*^^*"^
vice of the Eaft India company. It will, however, be ]j" ^ ^
neceflary previoufly to defcribe the ufual form of the
rudder, in order to fliow the advantages it pofleiTes when
conftruAed agreeable to the improved method.
N" I. (fig. 47) reprefents the rudder according to^'^p^"
the common method of conftruftion ; in which AB Is
the axis of rotation. It is hence evident that a fpace ^^^j
confiderably greater than the tranfverfe feclion of the
rudder at the counter muft be left in the counter for the
rudder to revolve in. Thus, let CAB (n° 3.) be the
feftlon of the rudder at the counter ; then there muft
be a fpace fimilar to CDE in the counter, in order that
the rudder may be moveable as required. Hence, to
prevent the water from waftiing up the rudder cafe, a
rudder coat, that is, a piece of tarred canvas, is nailed
in fuch a manner to the rudder and counter as to co-
ver the intermediate fpace : but the canvas being con-
tinually waftied by the fea, foon becomes brittle, and'
unable to yield to the various turns of the rudder with-
out breaking ; in which cafe the fhip is of courfe left
pervious to the waves, even of three or four feet high j
in faft, there are few men bred to the fea who have not
been witneffes to the bad effefts of fuch a fpace being
left fo ill guarded againft the ftpoke of the waves ; and
many fhips have, with great pirobabllity, been fuppofed
to founder at fea from, the quantity of water fhipped
between the rudder and couilter.
It was to remedy this defeft that the alteration abore.
alluded to took place ; which confifts in making the
upper part AFG (fig. 48, n° i.) of the rudder ABD
cylindrical, and giving that part at the fame time a;
caft forward, fo that the astis of rotation may by that
means be the line AD, paffing as ufual from E to D,
through the centres of the braces which attach the rud-i
der to the ftern-poft, and from E to A through the
(g) The ftrength of thefc cylindero would be ftill further augmented by having folid pieces of wood placed'
within them at proper diftances, and fecurely faftcned to them, in the fame manner, and on the fame princi-
ples, that nature has furnifhed reeds with joints j and for anfwering, in fome refpeds, the lame purpofe a» tiie
jpiUars in the experimedts alluded to.
»ok 1;
SHIP- B U
axis the cylinder AFG, in order that the tranfverfe fee-
tioB KH (n** 2.) at the counter may be a circle re-
volving upon its centre ; in which cafe the fpace of
halt an inch is more than fufficient between the rudder
and the counter, and confequently the neceflity of a
rudder coat entirely done away. But as it was fore-
feen, that, if the rudder by any accident was unlhipped,
this alteration might endanger the tearing away of the
counter, the hole is made much larger than the tranf-
verfe fe<Sion of the cylindric part of the rudder, and
the fpace between filled up with pieces of wood fo fit-
ted to the counter as to be capable of withftanding the,
fhock of the fea, but to be eafily carried away with the
rudder, leaving the counter, under fuch circumftances,
in as fafe a ftate as it would be agreeable in the pre-
fent form of making rudders in the navy.
Chap. VIII. Upon the Pqfitton of the Load water L'tne^
and the Capacity of a Ship.
e Uydtf The weight of the quantity of water difplaced by
tiiu the bottom of a lliip is equal to the weight of the
(hip with its rigging, provifions, and every thing on
board. If therefore the exaft weight of the thip when
ready for fea be calculated, and alfo the number of cu-
bic feet in the (hip's bottom below the load-water line,
and hence the weight of the water flie difplaces ; it
will be known if the load-water line is properly placed
in the draught.
Vip.BuUd- The pofition of the (hip in the draught may be ei-
's Refofi. ther Qn an even keel, or to draw moll water abaft ; but
^y- an even keel is judged to be the beft pofition in point
of velocity, when the fliip is conftrufted fuitable there-
to, that is, when her natural pofition is fuch. For when
a (liip is conftruAed to fwim by the ftern, and when
brought down to her load-water made to fwim on an
even keel (as is the cafe with moft ihips that are thus
built), her velocity is by that means greatly retarded,
and alfo her llrength greatly diminifhed : for the fore-
part being brought down lower than it (hould be, and
the middle of the (hip maintaining its proper depth in
the water, the after part is by that means lifted, and
the (hip is then upon an even keel : but in confequence
of her being out of her natural pofition, t^ie after part
is always pre(rmg downwards with a confiderable ftrain,
which will continue till the fliip's (heer is entirely
broke, and in time would fall into its natural pofition
again : for which reafon we fee fo many fliips with bro-
ken backs, that is, with their (heer* altered in fuch a
manner that the (heer rounds up, and the highell part
is in the mid(hips.
Such are the difadvantages arifing from not paying
a due attention to thofe points in the conftrudllon of a
draught; therefore, 'when the load-water line is found
to be fo fituated at a proper height on the draught,
according to the weight given for fuch a (hip, and alfo
drawn parallel to the keel, as fuppefing that to be the
beft failing trim, the next thing is to examine whether
the body is conftrufted fuitable thereto,, in order to
avoid the above-menticned ill confequences.
In the firft place, therefore, we muft divide the (hip
equally in two lengthwife between the fore and after
perpendiculars J and the exaft number of cubic feet in
the whole bottom beneath the load-water line being
I L D I N a 4M
known, we muft (5nd whether the ntimbcr of cubic
feet in each part fo divided are the fame ; and if tltey ^^[^^'^1^,^
are found to be- equal, the body of the (hip may then Capacity.
be faid to be conftruaed in all refpeds fuitable to her - — v *
fwimming on an even keel, let the (hape of the body be
whatever it will ; and which will be found to be her
natural pofition at the load-water line. But if either
of the parts (hould contain a greater number of cubic
feet than the other, that part which contains the great-
eft will fwim the moft out of the- water, and confer
qucntly the other will fwam deepeft, fuppofing the (hip
in her natural pofition for that conftrudion. In order,
therefore, to render the flifp fuitably conftrufl'ed to- the
load-water line in the draught,, which is parallel to the
keel, the number of cubic feet in, the ii?fs. part muft be
fubtrafted from the number contained in the greater
part, and that part of the body is to be filled? out till
it has increafed^ half the dilference of their quantities,
and the other part is to be drawn, in, as much : hence*
the two parts will be ec^ual, that is, each will contain
the fame number of cubic feet, and the flu'p's body will
be conllrufted in a manner fuitable to her fvtimming on
an even keel.
If it i§ propofed that the fliip laid down on the
draught (hall not fwim on an even keel, but draw more
water abaft than afore, then the fore and after parts o£
the (hip's body below the load-water hwe are to be
compared ; and if thefe parts are unequal, that part
which is. leaft is to be filled out by half the difterence,
and the other part drawn in as much as before.
It will be necelTary, in the firft place, to calculate the
weight of a (hip ready equipped for fea, from the know-
lcd,^e of the weight of every feparate thing in her and
belonging to her, as the exaft weight of all the timber,
iron, lead, mafts, fails, rigging, and in (hort all the ma-
terials, men, provifions, and every thing elfe on board
of her, from which we (liall be able afterwards to judge
of the truth of the calculation, and whether the load-wa-
ter line in the draught be placed agreeable thereto.
This is indeed a very laborious taflt, upon account of
the feveral pieces of timber, &c. being of fo many diffe-
rent figures, and the fpecific gravity oi feme of the
timber entering the conftruftion not being precifely de*.
termincd.
In order to afcertain the weight of the hull, the
timber is the firft thing which comes under confidera-
tion : the number of cubic feet of timber contained in
■ the whole fabric muft be found ; which we fliall be
able to do by help of the draught and the principal
dimenfions and fcantUngs ; obfervlng to diftinguifli the
different kinds of timber from each other, as they differ
confiderably in weight ; then the number of cubic feet
contained in the different forts of timber being reduced
into pounds, and added, will be the weight of the tim-
ber. In like manner proceed to find tlie weight of the
iron, lead, paint, Sec. and the true weight of the whole
will be found.
In reducing quantity to weight, it may be obferved^ee /fyir»<=
that a cubic foot of oak is equal to 66 pounds, and thcJ'-'*''"'
fpecific gravity of the other materiali are as ^uliovr •:
Water being • looo Oak is 891.89
Lead is - H34j: Dry elm 702-70
Iron " 7643 Dry fir 648.64
3 F2
j4n
Load- wa-
ter Line
and Ship's
Capacity.
S H I P - B U I t
M EJllmate of the Weight of the Eighty Gun Ship in
Plates CCCCLX. and CCCCLXI.aj fitted for Sea,
nvith fix Months Provlfions.
Weight of the Hull.
5 *
Eflima te of Oak timber at 66 lb. to
N" of Ft
the weight the cubic foot ' f 4^497
tySr^ I^Virnber at 48 lb. to~
before laid cubic foot
dtiwa. Elm timber at 52 lb. to
the cubic foot
Carve work and lead work
Iron work, rudder irons,
_ chain-plates, nails, &c
Pitch, tar, oakum, and
paint
Cook-room fitted with
fire hearth
Sum
Weight of the Furniture.
, ^ N°ofIbf.
Complete fet of mails and yards,
with the fpare geer
Anchors with their flocks, and
matter's ftores
Rigging
Sails, complete fet, and fpare
Cables and hawfers
Blocks, pumps, and boats
N°ofIbs.
Tons.
Lbs.
T A
14-'"
2082
213936
95
I136
27040
12
1 60
4651
2'
171
88254
39
894
17920
8
16125
7
443
3568726
'593
406
Sum
I 6 1000
39996
69128
32008
73332'
Tons.
71
.Lbs.
i960
62056. 27
17 1916
J928
648
1652
M76
30
32
437520195
Weight of the Guns and Ammunition.
Guns with their carriage*
Powder and fhot, powder barrels,
&c.
Implements for the powder
Ditto for guns, crows, handfpikes
Sum - - .
377034
1 16320
6500
21573
521427
1 63
51
2
9
720
714
2080
2020
1413
232 1747
Weight of the Officers Stores,
Carpenter's ftores
Boatfwain's ffcorea
Gunner's ftores
Caulker's ftores
Surgeon and chaplain's efFedls
Sum
Weight of the Provlfions
Provifiena for fix months for 700 Ton
men, with all their equipage y S 91'-'
Water, cafks, and captain's table 93390Q
20187
9
27
21 1 12
9
952
8964
4
4
5200
z
720
1 1096
4
21 36
66sS9
29
1599
i7928;^o
383
416
1050
2060
DING.
PVeight of the Men, ^c.
Seven hundred men with their!
eff'edls, including the officers >
and their effeds - J
Ballaft
Sum
Recapitui/ition.
The hull
TKe furniture
Guns and ammunition
Officers ftores
Provifions
Weight of the men and ballaft
of lbs.
Tons.
Lbs.
3 1 696 1
141
II21
1478400
660
1795361
801
II2I
Book
Load.vi
ter lAai
and Shi;
Sum
1593 40^
195 720
232 1747
29 1599
800 870
01 II2t
31552 I9S3
^ Agreeable to the above eftimate, we find that the
eighty gun ftiip, with every thing on board and fit for
fea, when brought down to the load water line, weighs
8,182,463 pounds, or nearly 3653 tons. It may now
be known if the load water line in the draught be pro.
perly placed, by reducing the immerfed part of the bs-
dy into cubic feet. For if the eighty gun fhip, when
brought down to the load water line, weighs 3653
tons, the quantity of water difplaced muft alfo be 3653
tons : now a cubic foot of fait water being fuppofed to
weigh 74 pounds, if therefore 8182463 be divided by
74, the quotient is 1 10573, number of cubical feet
which. ftie muft difplace agreeable to her weight.
It js now neceffary to find the number of cubic feet
contained in the fliip's bottom below the load water
line by calculation. If the bottom was a regular folid,
this might be very eafily done ; but as it is otherwife,
we muft be fatisfied with the following method by ap.
proximation, firft given by M. Bouguer.
Take the lengths of every other of the lines that rc-j^^jj^fj^j
prefentthe frames in the horizontal plane upon the up-calculatm
per water line ; then find the fum of thefe together,the cont
with half the foremoft and aftermoft frames. Now mul-°f ^'^^ ^
800 870
tiply that fum by the diftance between the frames, and
the produdl is the area of the water line contained be-
tween the foremoft and aftermoft frames : then find the
area of that part abaft the after frame,, which forms a
trapezium, and alfo the poft and rudder ; find alfo the
area of that part afore the foremaft frame, and alfo of
the ftem and gripe ; then thefe areas being added to
that firft found,- and the fum doubled, will be the area
of the furface of the whole water line. The reafon of
this rule will be obvious to thofe acquainted with the
firft principles of mathematics.
The areas of the other water line may be found in
the fame manner : then the fum of all thefe areas, ex«
cept that of the uppermoft and lowermoft, of which on-
ly one half of each muft be taken, being multiplied by
the diftance between the water lines (thefe lines in the
plane of elevation being equidiftant from each other),
and the produft will be the folid content of the fpace
contained between the Iowa and load water lines.
Add
torn jf i
Ihip.
wa-
ne
lip's
k I. S H I P - B U
Add tht a?ea of the lower water line to the area of
the upper fide of the keel ; multiply half that fum hy
the diftance between them, the produft will be the fo-
lid content of that part between the lower water line
and upper edge of the keel, fuppofing them parallel to
each other. But if the lower water line is not parallel
to the keel, the above half fum is to be multiplied by
the diftance between them at the middle of the (hip.
The I'olid contents of the keel muft be next found,
by multiplying its length by its depth, and that pro-
duct by the breadth. Then the fum of thefe folid con-
tents will be the number of cubic feet contained in the
immerfed part of the ftiip's bottom, or that part below
the load water line.
Determ'tnatlon of the number of Cubic Feet contained in
the Bottom of the Eighty Gun Ship, See Plates
CCCCLX. and CCCCLXI.
ied to The fore body is divided into five, and the after bo-
ighty (jy into ten, equal parts in the horizontal plane ; be-
fides the parts contained between the foremoft tinUjer
and the ftem, and the aftermoft timber and the poft.
The plane of elevation is alfo divided into five equal
parts by water lines drawn parallel to the keel. Thefe
water lines are alfo defcribed upon the horizontal
plane.
It is to be obferved that there muft be five inches
a<ided to each line that reprefents a frame in the hori-
zontal plane for the thicknefs of the plank, that being
nearly a me&n between the thicknefs of the plank next
the water and that on the lower part of the bottom.
Upper Water L'uu abaft Dead Flat,
which is
fiame (4 J
fraine 3
frame 7
frame 1 1
S <J frame 15
frame 19
frame 25
frame 27
frame 31
frame 35 is
which is
Sum
Diftance between the frames
Produa
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poft
Sum - ■
Area of the load water line from dead ilat aft 53 32 5
Ft.
In
of
12
5
24
10
24
la
24
10
24
10
24
9\
24
5
10
22
9
20
1 1
of
8
236
7
10
1 1
25^2
8i
78
0
5
6
2666
2i
2;
5332
J
I L D I N G.
Second Water Line abaft Dead FhU
'frame dead flat is 23 feet lof inches, the
half of which is - -
frame (4)
frame 3 - .
frame 7 » «
frame il
frame 15 - "
frame 19 •
frame 23
frame 27 » »
frame 31 - - -
frame 35 is 8 feet 6 inches, the half of
which is -
Ft.
II
23
23
23
23
23
23
22
20
17
Load-wa*
. ter L.ine
' and Ship's
Capacity,
—
loi:
lot
lot
si
5
10
8
4 3
Sum
Diftance between the frames
Produa
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poft
Sum - - «
219
7f
10
I r-
2397
4
7
5
5
2434
4-
2
Area of the 2d water line from dead flat aft 4868
Third Water Line abaft Dead Flat.
'frame dead flat is 22 feetii inches — half 11
frame (4)
frame 3 - . .
frame 7 - .
frame 11 . «. ,
^ <{ frame 15 -
frame 19
frame 23, .
frame 27
frame 31
;frame 35 is 4 feet 3 inches — half
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poft
Ft. \ti.'
o|
It
I
5
^1
3^
5
24
14^
2^2
22
22
22
21
20
19
i6
1 1
2
J 90
Si
10
I I
2c8i
. 14
5
6
2IOI
7t
2
4203
3
Area of the 3d water line from dead flat aft 4203
Fourth Water Line abaft Dead Flat,
I inch — hat?'^
[-frame deadflat is 20 feet
I frame (4)
frarne 3
frame 7
frame 1 1
I frame 1 5
Carry over
Ft.
10
20
20
19
19
19
In.
oi
I
I
i I
li
o
loS 9>
Brought
4^4
lioad- wa-
ter Line
and Ship's
Capacity.
SHIP-
Brought over
'frame 19 ■
Z frame 23 - -
^ < frame 27
w frame 31
l_ frame 35 is i foot iii inches-
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poU
-half
B
TT
u
Fr.
In.
to8
9
^7
7t
H
10
ro
11
5
I 1
0
Hi
a
1 1
*735
9
9
9
5
0
1750
6
2
3ic»
0
I L D I N G.
Boo
Area of the 4th water line from dead flat aft 3301 o
frame (4) . - .
frame 3 •• ~ .
frame 7 - -
frame u
frame 15 - «
frame 19
^ frame 23 - -
^ frame 27 - - . .
frame 31
^ frame 35 is i foot 2T inche8 — ^half
Area of that part abaft frame 35
rudder and poll
Area of the 5th or lower water line from
dead fiat aft -
Half the area of the load water Kne
Area of the fecond water line
Area of the third water line
Area of the fourth water line
Half the area of the lower water line
Sum ...
Diftance between the water lines
Content in cubic feet between the lower
and load water lines
Area of the lower water line 2678 10
Areaof the upper fideof the keel 206 4
Sum - . 2885 2
Half - - 1^42 -7
Diftance between the lower wa-
ter line and the keel 4 i
Ft.
tn.
•half 8
7
17
2
17
2
17
I
16
4
^5
4
«3
I
8
9
4
10
2
1 1
0
121
10
1330
2
4
4
6i
»339
5
2
2678 10
2666 2-^
4868 8
4203 3
3501 o
1339 ?
16578 61-
'4 I
I-oad-'
Ifpper or Load water Line afore Dead FtaK
Ft, In. fr"*
{-frame dead flat is 24 feet 10 inchea—half iz 5, '
•5 j frame E
"rt j frame I .
^ 1 frame N
^ 1 frame
f-« I frame W is 15 feet i inch — half
Sum ....
Diftance between the frames
Produft
Area of the part afore frame W
flexn and knee
Snm
Multiply by - -
Area of the load water line from dead flat
forward
Second IVater^Line afore Dead' Flat.
% frame deadflat is 23 feet 10^ inches — half 11 1 1 1;
"5 1 frame E - - - - _
"rt j frame I - -
^ 1 frame N - -
^ , frame Ct
L frame W is 1 1 feet 1 1 inches — half
Sum - .
Diftance between the frames
Produft - . .
Area^ of the part afore frame W, with the
ilem and knee
Sum <• > . .
24
10
24,
24
0
7 1
7
Ox
115
4i
10
H
1259
6
80
3
4
0
*343
-9
2
2687
6
Ft,
In.
alf II
Hi
23
10
23
5
22
5
19
11
5
Hi
107
10
H
"73
9
43
9
1217
6
2
67595 8f
Area of the fecond water line from dead flat
forward - , 2435 o
Third Water Line afore Dead Flat,
^ Ft. In.
"rt j- frame dead flat is 22 feet i J inch— half 1 1 o|
-S j frame E - , 22 i
'S J frame I - - 2i 8
^ i frame N •
4J 1 frame Q_
5-, ■ I frame W is 7 feet — half
22
20 t
16 I'r
3 6
Cub. feet contained between low.
er water line and the keel 5890 6t
Content of the keel, lower part ©f rudder,
and falfe keel
Cubic feet abaft the midfliip frame under
water when loaded
Sum
Diftance between the frames
94
TO
1 1
Produft
Area of the part afore W, with the fl;em
IO3I
10
and gripe - . .
25
10
5890
Sum - ~ - ►
1057
8
464
3
2
Area of the third water line from dead flat
74050 6 forward . .
2II5 4
Fourth
T.
S H I P - B U
Fourth Water Line afore Dead Flat.
w ^ frame dead flat is 20 feet i inch— half
•5 . frame E • -
"rt frame I -
^ ! frame N - -
aj I frame
pi I frame W is 2 feet 9 inches— half
Sam
Diftance between the frames
Produa
Area of part before W, with the ftem and
gripe
Sum
In.
10
20
19
3
j6
5.
IX
2
I
4-1-
78
3r
10
11
■854
8
8
863
H
Area of fourth wat€r line from dead flat for-
ward - - 1^2^ li
Fifth Water Line afore Dead Flat,
Ft. fn.
^ f .frame dead flat is 1 7 feet 2 inches — half 8 7
^ I frame E « -
^ <{ frame I - -
S frame N - -
W [frame Qjs 5 feet — half
16 9
14 10
2 6
Sum
Diftance between the frames
Produa
Area of part afore
ilem and knee
Sum
Area of the fifth or lower water line from
dead flat forward
Area of the upper fide of the keel
Sum - - - -
Half
Difl;ance between the lower water line and
keel
53 Si
10 11
583 7
26 24-
5
.615 9
2
123 1
6
87
4
1318
10
659
5
4
I
Content of the part contained between the
lower water line and the keel in cub. feet 2692 ']\
"Half the area of the load water line 1343 9
JVrea of the fecoqd water line - 2435 o
third water line - 2115 4
fourth water line - 1727
Half the area of the fifth or lower water line 67 5 9
Sum - - -
Difl^ance between the water lines
S236 II;
I L D I N G.
Cubic feet contained between the lower and Ft.
load water lines - 33^34
Cubic feet contained between lower water
line and keel - - 2692
Content of the keel and falfe keel - 196
415^
In. Tonnage of
a Shipr
2i
7i
6
Content afore midftilp frame under water
when loaded - - 3*^5^3 4
Content abaft midfliip frame - 74050 6
Content under water
Weight of a cubic foot of fait water
H0573 10
74 lbs.
Weight of the whole ftiip with every thing
onboard - - 8182463.8 lbs.
As the weight of the fliip, with everything on board,
found by this calculation, is equal to that found by eili-
mate ; it hence appears that the water line is properly-
placed in the draught. It now only remains to and-
whether the body is conftruaed fuitably thereto, that
is, whether the flap will be in her natural pofition when^
brought down to that line. For this purpofe a perpen-
dicular muft be ereded 27 feet ^ inch, abaft dead flat,
which will be the middle between the two perpendicu-
lars and the place where the centre of gravity fhould
fall, that the fliip may fwim on an 'even keel. The fo-
lidity of that part of the bottom contained between the
faid perpendicular and dead fiat is then to be calculated,
which will be found to be 25846 feet 7 inches.
Solidity of the bottom afore dead flat 36523 f. 4 in,
■ between the middle and dead flat 25846 7
SoHd content of the fore part of the bot-
tom - - 62369 IT
Solidity of the bottom abaft dead flat 74050 6
— - between the middle and deadflat 25846 7
Solid content of the aft part of the hot. 48203
i fore part of the" bottom 62369
1 1
1 1
Difi"erence
Half
141 6'6
7083
S5
Henoe the after -part ot the Ihip*8 bottom is too lean
by 7083 cubic feet, andthefore part as much too full.
The after part muft therefore be filled out until it has
received an addition of 7083 fret, and the fore part
muft be drawn in till it has loft the fame quantity, and
the bottom will then be conftruflcd'fuitable to the fliip's
fwimming on an even keel;
C H A p. IX. Of the Tonnage of a Ship.
This is aqueftion of equal importance and difScuI- Pi"<'per me=
ty. By the tonnage of a ftiip is meant the weight of^^^fj*^*^*^^^"
every thing that can with fafety and expediency be ta-tfj^. tonfage
ken on board that fhip for the purpofe of conveyance: of a Ihip,
it is alfo called the Jhip's burthen ; and it is totally
different from the weight of the whole as flie floats in
the water. It is perhaps beft exprefled by calling it the
'weight of the cargo. It is of importance, becaufe it is by
this that the merchant or freighter judges of the litnefs
.of
4^^
S H I P-B U
^ a""lin ^^'^^ ^^^^ ^'P ^"'^ purpofe. By this government judg^
^' of the fhi'ps reqiiifite for tranfport fer%'ice, and by this
are all revenue charges on the fhip computed. It is no
lefs difficult to anfvver this queftion by any general rule
which (hall be very exaft, becaufe it depends not on-
ly on the cubical dimenfions of the fhip's bottom, but
alfo on the fcantling of her vi'hole frame, and in fhort
on the weight of every thing which properly makes
part of a fiiip ready to receive on board her cargo.
The weight of timber is variable ; the fcantling of the
frame is no lefs fo. We muft therefore be contented
with an average value which is not vety remote from
the truth ; and this average is to be obtained, not by
any mathematical difcuffion, but by obfervation of the
fcurthen or cargo adlually received, in a great variety of
cafes. But fome fort of rule of calculation muft be
made out. This is and mull be done by perfons not ma-
thematicians. We may therefore expedl to find it inca-
pable of being reduced to any principle, and that every
^builder will have a different rule. Accordingly the rules
.given for this purpofe are in general very whimfical,
finealures being ufed and combined in a way that feems
^uite unconnefled with ftercometr)'- or the meafurement
of folids. The rules for calculation are even affedled
by the interefts of the two parties oppofitely concerned
in the refult. The calculation for the tonnage by which
the cuftoms are to be exafted by government are quite
-different from the rule by which the tonnage of a tran-
iport hired by government is computed ; and the fame
fhip hired as a tranfport will be computed near one half
bigger than when paying importation duties.
Yet the whole of this might be made a very fimple
bufinefs and very exaft. When the (hip is launched,
let her light- water line be marked, and this with the
cubical contents of the immcrfed part be noted down,
and be engroffed in the deed by which the property of
the (hip is conveyed from hand to hand. The weight
of hermafts, fails, rigging, and fea-ftores, is moft eafily
obtained ; and every builder can compute the cubical
contents of the body- when immcrfed to the load water
line. The difference of thefe is unqueftionably the bur-
then of the fhip.
It is evident from what has been already faid in the laft
chapter, that if the number of cubic feet of water which
the fhip difplaces when light, or, which is the fame, the
number of cubic feet below the light water line, found
by the preceding method of calculation, be fubtrafled
from the number of cubic feet contained in the bottom
below the load water line, and the remainder reduced
to tons by multiplying by 74, the number of pounds in
a cubic foot of fea water, and divided by 2240, the
number of pounds in a ton, the quotient will be the
tonnage.
But as this method is very troublefomc, the follow-
ing rule for this purpofe is that which is ufed in the
king's and merchant's fervice.
Let fall a perpendicular from the forefide of the ftem
at the height of the hawfe holes (h), and another per-
pendicular from the back of the main poft at the height
rule.
I L D I N G. 3Bqg
of the wing tranfom. From the length between thefe two Tom
perpendiculars deduft three-fifths of the extreme breadth
( i), and alfo as many times 2^: inches as there are feet
in the height of the wing tranfom above the upper edge
of the keel ; the remainder is the length of the keel for
tonnage. No\v multiply this length by the extreme
breadth, and the product by half the extreme breadth,
and this laft product divided by 94 is the tonnage re«
quired.
Or, multiply the length, of the keel for tonnage by
the fquare of the extreme breadth, and the product di'
vided by 188 will give the tonnage.
Calculation of the Tonnage of an Eighty Gun Ship,
I. According to the true method.
The weight of the fhip at her launching tons lbs Calcf
draught of water ^ 1593 406 J^^^
The weight of the furniture - 195 yzOeij^ht
— fliip.
The weight of the (hip at her light wa-
ter mark - - 1788 1 126
The weight of the (hip at the load water mark 3 65 2 1983
Real burthen
II. By the common rule.
Length from the forefide of the ftem at
the height of the hawfe holes, to the
aft fide of the main poft, at the height
of the wing tranfom
Three-fifths of the extreme breadth
is - - 29 f. 9x in.
Height of the wing tranfom
is 2 8 f. 4 in. which mul-
tiplied by 2 ^ inches is 6 Si-
Sum 36 6
Lengthof the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
Produft
Half the extreme breadth
1864 857
Ft inch.
185
36
10
149
49
7416
24
10
^ 94)184(85 8^
Burthen according to the common
rule
. Real burthen
Difference
1959 929
1864 857
95 72
Hence an eighty gun fliip will not carry the ton-T^j^g-
nage (he is rated at by about 95 tons. As the body ofuK.n
this (hip is fuller than in fliips of war in general, there isS'^e*
therefore a nearer agreement between the tonnages found ^'""^
by the two different methods. It may be obferved that ^y-il^X
(liips of war carry lefs tonnage than they are rated at by of mci
the common rule, and that moft merchants (hips carrycfiant
(h) In the merchant fervice this perpendicular is let fall from the fore fide of the ftem at the height of the
wing tranfom, by reafon of the hawfe-holes being generally fo very high in merchant fhips, and their ftems aUb
iiaving a great rake forward.
(i) The breadth underltood in tb's place is the breadth from outfide to outfide of the plank.
ok r.
ivage of a great deal more. In confirmation of this, it is thouj^ht
'^'P- proper to fubjoin the dimenfions of feveral (hips, with
the tonnage calculated therefrom.
S H I P-B U 1 L D
Tonnae;e
Real tonnage
1. Audacious of feventy four guns.
Length on the gun deck
Length of the keel for to
EKtreme breadth
Depth of the hold
Load draught of water
1 68 f. o in.
e
138
0
46
9
^9
9
afore
12
0
abaft
17
4
afore
20
6
abaft
21
6
The weight of the (hip at her launching
draught of water - - 15091.
The weight of the furniture
120
6781bs.
1500
Weight of the (hip at her light water
mark
Weight of the fliip at her load water
mark
Real burthen
By the common rule.
Length of the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
Produd
Half the extreme breadth
1629 2178
2776 498
1 146 560
138 f. o in.
46 9
645:1
23
6
44:
94)150803
Tonnage according to the common rule 1 604 643
Real burthen - - 1146 560
Difference - - 45 8 83
2. An Eafi Indtaman.
Length between the perpendiculars for-
ward and aft - - 1 3 2 f. 8 in.
Length of the keel for tonnage 105 o
Extreme breadth - - 380
Depth in hold - - i5 o
Launchiugr drauecht of water \ ^ ^'^
^ ° abaft II 10
Load draught of water pf""? ?
^ abaft 20 8
The weight of the (hip at her launching
draught of water - 6o2 t. 21 l6lbs.
The weight of the furniture , 50 124
Weight of the (hip at her light water
mark - - 653
Weight of the (hip at her load water
mark - . 1637 1670
Real burthen
Keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
By the common rule.
984 1670
105 f.
38
Produft
Half extreme breadth
Tonnage
Vol. XVn. Part It
3999
19
94)75810
8q6 109^
Difference
I N G.
3. A Cutter,
4^7
806 1096'rontiSKe of
984 1670 **''*p-
Length of the keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
Launching draught of water 1 ^^^f^
Load draught of water < abaft
The weight of the cutter at her launch-
ing
Weight of the furniture
Weight of the cutter at her light wa-
ter mark
Weight of the cutter at her load water
mark
Real burthen
By the common rule.
Keel for tonnage
Extreme breadth
Produft
Half extreme breadth
Tonnage by the common rule
Real tonnage
Difference
178 574
58 f. o in.
29 o
5 10
9 8
9 o
12 o
147 1. 64olbj.
9 199
156 83^
266 1970
no 1131
58 f.
29
94)24389
259 1024
no H31
148 2133
The impropriety of the common rule is hence mani-
feft, as there can be no dependence on it for afcertaining
the tonnage of veffels.
We (hall now fubjoin the following experimental
method of finding the tonnage of a fhip.
Conftruft a model agreeable to the draught of the Experl-
propofed (hip, to a fcale of about one-fourth of an inch"^^"'^! inc-=
to a foot, and let the light and load water lines be ^''^
marked on it. Then put the model in water, and load [hc'^oru ^
it until the furface of the water is exaftly at the light nage of
water line; and let it be fufpended until the water 'vefiels.
drains off, and then weighed. Now fince the weights
ef fimilar bodies are in tlie triplicate ratio of their ho-
mologous dimenfionfi, the weight of the (hip when light
is, therefore, equal to the produ-ft of the cube of the
number of times the (hip exceeds the model \)y the
weight of the model, which is to be reduced to tons.
H ence, if the model is con(lru6ted to a quarter of an
inch fcale, and its weight expreffed in ounces ; then to
the conftant lagarithm 0.4893556, add the logarithm of
the weight of the model in ounces, and the fum wHl
be the logarithm of the weight of the (hip in tons.
Again, the model is to be loaded until the furface of .
the water coincides with the load water line. Now the
model being weighed, the weight of the (hip is to be
found by the preceding rule : then the difference he-,
twcen the weights of the fhip when light and loaded
is the toanage required.
3<J
It
4,8 S H I P-B U
t'-'tir aee of It will alfo be worth while to add the following ex-
jiShip. jj^j^ Mr Parkins, who was many years foreman
'""^ of the fhipwrightsun Chatham dockyard.
I. For Men of War.
fake the length of the gun-deck from the rabbft of
the Item to the rabbet of the ftern-poft. \\ of this is
to be affumed as the hngth for tonnage, — L.
Take the extreme breadth from outfide to outfide of
the plank ; add this to the length, and take ^'^^
fum ; call this the depth for tonnage, z= D.
Set up this height from the limber ftrake, and at
that height take a breadth alfo from outfide to outfide
of plank in the timber when the extreme breadth is
found, and another breadth in the middle between that
and the limber ftrake; add together the extreme
breadth and thefe two breadths, and take y of the fum
lor the breadth for tonnage, = D.
Multiply L, D, and B together, and divide by 49.
The quotient is the burthen in tons.
The following proof may be given of the accm-acy
of this rule. Column i. is the tonnage or burthen by
the king's meafurement ; cob 2. is the tonnage by this
rule ; and, col. 3. is the weight a£lually received on
board thefe ftiips at Blackftakes ;
I L D I N G. Bool
alfo the additional weight neceiTary to bring her down
to the load water line.
In order to conftruft this fcale for a given fhip, it 1*3
neceffary to calculate the quantity of water difplaced by
the keel, and by that part of the bottom below each
water line in the draught. Since the areas of the feve,
ral water lines are already computed for the eighty <rur\
fhip laid down in Plates CCCCLX. and CCCCLXI.
the contents of thefe parts may htnce be eafily found
for that ftiip, and arc as follow.
Viftory
London
Arrogant
Diadem
Adamant
Dolphin
Amphion
Daphne
100
90
74
64
50
44
20
guns.
21 62
^^39
1840
1845
»575
1677
1614
1308
1314
1.369
1 1 4 1
965
1044
870
886
879
73-7
758
667
554
549
429
329
374
2. For ships of Burthen,
Take the length of the lower d-eck from the rabbet
of the ftem to the rabbet of the ftern-poft ; then |i of
this is the length for tonnage, = L.
Add the length of the lower deck to the extreme
breadth from outfide to outfide of plank y and take y\-
of the fum for the depth for tonnage, = D.
Set up that depth, from the hmber ftrake, and at this
height take a breadth from outfide to outfide. Take
another at \ of this height, and another at -f of the
height. Add the extreme breadth and thefe three
breadths, and take the 4th of the fum for the breadth
for tonnage, = B.
Multiply L,, D, and B, and divide by 36^. The
quotient is the burthen in tons.
This rule refts on the authority of many fuch trials,
as the following
King's Aftu^illy
Meafm. Rule. rec^'.onbJ.
Northlngton Indiaman 676 ^053 1064
Granby Indiaman 7Ni§ 1^79 ^^79
Union coallier ^93 2^66 289
Another coallier 182 254 2.77
Ch A p . X. Of the Scak of Solidity. ^
By this fcale the quantity of water difplaced by the
bottom of the (hip, for which it is conftrudted, anfwer-
iflg to a given draught of water is eafily obtained } and
Draught of water.
IVater difplaced in
Cubic feet. | tons. lbs.
Keel and falfe keel
Dift. bet. keel )
and 5th w. line J
Sum
Dift. 5th and")
4th w. line J
Sum
Dift. 4th and")
3d w. line 3
Sum
Dift. 3d and")
2d w. line J
Sum
Dift. 2d and 1
1 ft w. line J
Sum
2 f. 3 in.
4 I
7~4
4 I
66;.9
8583.II
21 1855
283 1333
9243. 1 oj:
18657.8^1
305 848
616 828
10 5
4 I
2790>-7^1
23574-6ii
921 1676
778 1795
14 6
4 I
51476.2^
27812.1^';,.
1700 1235
918 1775
18 7
4 I
79288.3U
3'285.7^f
2619 766
1033 '218
22 8
110573.11^
3652 1984
Con(lru6l any convenient fcale of equal parts to re-
prefent tons, as fcale n* i . and another to reprefent
feet, as n^* 2.
Draw the line AB (fig. 36 ) limited at A, but pro- ccc(
duced indefinitely towards B. Make AC equal to the ,
depth of the keel, 2 feet 3 inches from fcale n' 2, and^'j^^''^
through C draw a- line parallel to AB, which will re-flX*^
prefcnt the upper edge of the keel ; upon which fet ofFlidity
C c equal to 21 tons 1855 lbs, taken from fcale n*^ 1. 'he Ih
Again, make AD equal to the diftance between the°^"^
lower edge of the keel and the fifth water line, namely,^"
6 feet 4 inches, and a Hue drawn through D parallel ta
AB will be the reprefentation of the lower water hne
and make D b equal to 305 tons 848 lbs, the corre-
fponding tonnage. In like manner draw the other wa-
ter lines, and lay off the correfponding tonnages ac»
cordingly : then throuah the points A, c, b, e, /,
g,.h, draw the curve Acbefgh. Through A draw
h B perpendicular to AB, and it will be the great-
eft limit of the quantity of water expreffcd in tons dif-
placed by the bottom of the fhip, or that when ftie
is brought down to the load water line. And fince the
fhip difplaces 1788 tons at her light water mark, take
therefore that quantity from the fcale n° i, which be-
ing laid upon AB from Ato K, and KL drawn per-
pendicular to AB, will be the reprefentation of the
light water line for tonnage. Hence the fcale will be
completed.
Let
bkir. S H I P"B u
e of Let it now be requireil to find the number of cubic
^"^y- feet difplaced when the draught of water is 1 7 feet, and
^ ' the number of additional tons neceffaiy to bring her
)f the down to the load water mark.
8 fcaie. Tal<.e the given draught of water 17 feet from the
fcale n° 2, which laid from it will reach to T ; through
which draw the line IMN parallel to AB, and inter-
fefting the curve in AC ; then the diftance IM applied
to the fcale n° i. will meafure abo)it 2248 tons, the dif-
placement anfwerable to that draught of water ; and
MN applied to the fame fcale will meafure about 1405
tonf?, the additional weight neceffary to bring her down
I to the load water mark. Alfo the neareft diftance be-
I tween M and the line KL will meafure about 460 tons,
I the v/eight already on board.
• It will conduce very much to facilitate this operation
to divide KB into a fcale of tons taken from the fcale
n° I, beginning at B, and alfo h L, beginning at h.
Then when the drauaht of water is taken from the fcale
I 2, and laid from it to I, as in the former example,
I and IMN drawn parallel to AB, and interfe£ling the
curve in M. Now through M draw a line perpendicu-
lar to AB, and it will meet KB in a point reprefenting
the number of tons aboard, and alfo ^ L in a point de-
noting the additional weight neceffary to load her.
Again, if the weight on board be given, the corre-
fponding draught of water is obtained as follows.
Find the given number of tons in the fcale KB,
through which draw a line perpendicular to AB ; then
through the point of interfeftion of this line with the
curve draw another line parallel to AB. Now the
diftance between A and the point where the parallel
interfeited AH being apphed to the fcale n^ 2, will
give the draught of water reqiured.
Any other cafe to which this fcale may be applied
will be obvious.
Book II. Containing the Properties of Ships, Sec.
Chap. I. Of the Equilibrium of Ships.
Ksdro' Since the preffure of fluids is equal ia every direc-
tion, the bortom of a fliip is therefore afted upon by
the fluid in which it is immerfed ; which preffure, for
any given portion of furface, is equal to the produft of
that portion by the depth and denfity of the fluid : or
it is equal to the weight of a column of the fluid whofe
bafe is the given furtace, and the altitude equal to the
diftance between the furface of the fluid and the centre
of gravity of the furface preffed. Hence a floating
body is in equilibrio between two forces, namely, its
gravity and the vertical preffure of the fluid ; the hori-
zontal preffure being deftroycd.
late Let A.BC (fig. 49.) be any body immerfed in
cxxiv. a fluid whofe line of floatation is GH : hence the
preffure of the fluid is exerted on every portion of
the furface of the immerfed part A FCH. Let EF,
CD be any two fmall portions contained between the
lines ED, FC, parallel to eacli other, and to the line
of floatation GH : then the preffure exerted upon EF
is expreffed by EF X IK, IK being the depth of EF
I L D I N G. 419
or CD ; the denfity of the fluid beln-y fuppofed'cqual Er''i''Hr '
to T. Jn like manner the preffure upon CD is equal
to CD X IK. Now fince the preffure is in a direftion
perpendicular to the furface, draw therefoi-e the line
EL perpendicular to EF, and DM perpendicular to
DC, and make each equal to the depth IK, below the
furface. Now the effort or preffure of the fluid upon
EF will be expreffed by EF X EL, and that upon
CD by CD X DM. Complete the parallelograms
ON, QS, and the preffure in the dii-eftion EL is re-
folved into EN, EO, the firft in a horizontal, and the -
fecond in a vertical dir-eftion. In like manner, the
preffure in the direillon DM is refolved into the pref-
fures^DS, DQ^ Hence the joint effedl of the prelTures
in the horizontal and vertical diredlions, namely, EF X
EN, and EF X EO, will be equal to EF X EL : For
the fame reafon, CD X DP + CD XDQj= CDXDM.
But the parts of the preffures in a horizontal direction
EF X EN, and CD X DP, arc equal. For, becaufeof
the fimllar trian-les ENL, ERF, and DPM, DSC,
EL ^EF , DM DC
we have = j^p" = • Hence DM
XCS = DPxDC,andELX FR=ENXEF. Now
fmce EL = DM, and FR = CS, therefore EL X FR
= DM X CS = DP X DC = EN X EF. Hence,
fince EF X EN =: DP X CD, the effeds of the pref-
fures In a horizontal direction are therefore equal and
contrar)', and confequently deftroy each other.
The preffure in a vertical direction is reprefented by
EO X EF, DQj< DC, &c. which, becaufe of th€ fiml-
lar triangles EOL, ERF, and DLM, DSC, become
EL X ER, DM X DS, &c. or IK X ER, IK X DS,
&c. By applying the fame reafoning to every other
portion of the furface of the immerfed part of the body,
it is hence evident that the fum of the vertical preffures
is equal to the fum of the correfponding difplaced co-
lumns of the fluid.
Hence a floating body is preffed upwards by a force The we'gixt
equal to the weight of the quantity of water difplaced; ^ '^^'P
and fince there is an equilibrium between this force a"dt^3t^of°,},e
the weight of the bedy, therefore the weight of a float- qug.itity of
ing body is equal to the weight of the difplaced fluid water dif-
(k). Hence alfo the centre of gravity of the body p'^^'^'^*
and the centre of gravity of the difplaced fluid are in /^^^^^^
the fame vertical, otherwife the body would not be at ct-ntre of
reft. gravity of
borh are in
Chap. II. Upon the EJorU of the Water to lend ^ tlie famt;
VeffeL '
When it is faid that the preffure of the water upon ThcorU
the immerfed part of a veffcl counterbalances ks weight, '^''mphtu^
it is fiippofed that the different parts of the velfel are fo ^lifj^'^
clofely connefted together, that the fore es which adl tranflated
upon its furface are not capable of producing any by Watfon,
change. For we may eafily conceive, if the connec-
tion of the parts were not fufiiciently ftrong, the veffei
would run the riilc either of being broken in pieces, or
of fuffering fome alteration in its figure.
The veffei is in a fituation fimilar to that of a rod
AB (fig. 50.), which being afted upon by the forces
A fl, C f , D ^, B ^, may be maintained in equilibrio,
3 G 2 pro-
(k) Upon this principle the weight and tonnage of the 80 gun (hip laid down was calciJated.
4-20
K Sort 8 of
th ; Water
!o be:icl a
Vcffcl
plate
CCCCLXV.
The caufe
•f a fhip's
65
Aid fag-
ging.
frnHieat
S H I P-B U
provided it has a fufficlent degree of ftlfFnefs : but as
foon as it begins to give way, it is evident it muft bend
in a convex manner, fince its middle would obey the
forces C c and D while its extremities would be ac«
tually drawn downwards by the forces A a and B b.
The veffel is generally found in fuch a fituation ; and
fince fimilar efforts contiiuially aft whilll the veffel is
immerfed in the water, it happens but too often that
the keel experiences the b?.d effeft of a ftrain. It is
therefore very important to inquire into the true caufe
of this accident.
For this purpofe, let us coiTccive the veffel to be di-
vided into two parts by a tranfverfe fe£lion through
the vertical axis of the veffel, in which both the centre
of gravity G (fio. 51.) of the whole veffel and that of
the immerfed part are fituated : fo that one of them
will reprefent the head part, and the other that of the
ffern, each of which will be confidered feparately. Let
^ the centre of gravity of the entire weight of the
firlt, and 0 that of the immerfed part correfponding.
In like manner, let y be the centre of gravity of the
whole after part, and w that of its immediate por-
tion.
Now it is plain, that the head will be aAed upon by
the two forces g m and 0 «, of which the firft will prefs
it down, and the latter pufh it up. In the fame man-
ner, the ftern will be preffed down by the force y^y and
pufhed up by the force a v. But thefe four forces will
maintain themfelves in equilibrium, as well as the total
forces reunited in the points G and O, which are equi-
valent to them ; but whilft neither the forces before
nor thofe behind fall in the fame direftion, the veffel
will evidently fuftain efforts tending to bend the keel
upwards, if the two points ° « are nearer the middle
than the two other forces g m and y f^. A contrary
effe£l would happen if the points " and a were more
diftant from the middle than the points g and y.
Bat the firft; of thefe two caufes ufually takes place
almoft; in all veffels, fmce they have a greater breadth
towards the middle, and become more and more narrow
towards the extremities ; whilll the weight of the veffel
is in proportion much more coniiderable towards the
extremities than at the middle. From whence we fee,
that the greater this difference becomes, the more alfo
will the veffel be fubjeft to the forces which tend to bend
its keel upwards. It is therefere from thence thafc'
we muft judge how much ftrength it is neceffary to
give ta this part of the veffel, in order to avoid fuch a
confequence.
If other circumftances would permit either to load
the veffel more in the middle, or to give to the part
immerfed a greater capacity towards the head and ftern,
fuch aa effedt would no longer be apprehended. But the
deftination of moft veffels is entirely oppofitc to fuch an
arrangement ? by which means we arc obliged, to ftrength-
cn the keel as much as may be neceffary, in order to
avoid fuch a difafter.
We ftiall conclude this chapter with the following
practical obfervations on the hogging and fagging of
fhips by Mr Hutchinfon of Liverpool :
** When fhips with long floors happen to be laid a-
dry upon mud or fand, which makes a folid rtfiftance
againft the long ftraight floors amidfliips, in compari-
fon with the two fharp ends, the entrance and run meet
with little fupport, but are preffed down, lower than, the
I L D I N G. Boo
flat of the floor, and in proportion hogs the fhip amid- ^f*"
fhips ; which is too well known from experience to oc- '^^^
cafion many total loffes, or do fo much damage by vdi;
hoggii^g them, as to require a valt deal of trouble and
expence to fave and repair them, fo as to get the hog
taken out and brought to their proper ftieer again : and
to do this the more effeAually, the owners have often
been induced to go to the expence of len£>thening them;
and by the common method, in proportion as they add
to the burden of thefe fhips, by lengthening their to6>
long fb-aight floors in tlieir main bodies amidfhips, fa
much do they add to their general vvtaknefs to bear
hardfhips either on the ground or afloat ; for the fcant-
ling ot their old timber and plank is not proporiion-
able to bear the additional burden that is added to
them.
" But defefts of this kind are beft proved from real
and inconteftable j'atts in common pradtice. At the
very time I was wi iting upon this fubjet^, I was called
upon for my advice by the commander of one of thofc
flrong, long, ftraight floored fhips, who was in much,
trouble and diftradtion of mind for the damage hiS'
fhip had taken by the pilot laying her on a hard,
gentle floping fand, at the outfidc of our docks at Li-
verpool, where it is common for fliips that will take
the ground to lie for a tide, when it proves too late to
get into our wet docks. After recommending a pro-
per fhip carpenter, I went to the fhip, which lay with
only a fmall keel, yet was greatly hogged, and the
butts ot her upper works ftrained greatly on the lee-
fide ; and the learns of her bottom, at the lower fut-
tock heads, vaftly opened on the weather fide : all
which ftrained parts were agreed upon not to be caulk-
ed, but filled with tallow, putty, or clay, &c. with raw
bullocks hides, or canvas nailed with battor.s on her
bottom, which prevented her finking with tht flow of
the tide, without hindering the preffure of water from
righting and doling the feams again as Pae floated, fo as.
to enable them to keep her free with pumping. This
veffel, like many other inftances of fhips of this conftnic-
tion that I have known, was faved and repaired at a.
veiy great expence in our dry repairing docks. And
that therr bottoms not only hog upwards, but fag (or
curve) downwards, to dangerous and fatal degrees, ac-
cording to the ftrain or preffure that prevails upon
them, will be proved from the following tafts :
*• It has been long known from experience, that
when fhips load deep with very heavy cargoes or ma-
terials that are flowed too low, it makes them fo very
labourfome at fea, when the waves run high, as to roll,
away their mafts ; and after that misfortune caufes them
to labour and roll the more, fo as to endanger their
working and ftraining themfelves to pieces: to prevent
which, it has been long a common praftice to leave a
great part of their fore and after holds empty, and to
flow them as high as poffible in the main body at mid-
fhips, which caufes the bottoms of thefe long ftraight
floored fhips to fag downwards> in proportion as the.
weight of the cargo flowed there exceeds, the preffure
of the water upwards, fo much fo as to nuke them,
dangeioufly and fatally leaky.
" I have known many inftances of thofe ftrong fliips
of 500 or 600 tons burdens built with long ftraight
floors, on the eaft coall of England, for the coal and
timber trade, come loaded with timber from the Baltic
3^ to
>kir.
SHIP-BUILDING.
■ts of
Vater
ind a
to Liverpool, where thejr commonly load deep with
rock fait, which Is too heavy to fill their holds, fo that
for the above reafons they ftowed it high amidfhips,
and left large empty fpaces in their fore and after holds,
which caufed their long Itraight fleors to fag down-
wards, fo much as to make their hold ftaunchions amid-
fhips, at the main hatchway, fettle from the beams tliree
or four inches, and their mainmafts fettle fo much as
to oblige them to fet up the main rigging when roil-
ing hard at fea, to prevent the mafts being rolled
away ; and they were rendered fo leaky as to be obliged
to return to Liverpool to get their leaks flopped at
great expence. And in order to fave the time and ex-
pence in difcharging them, endeavours were made to
tind out and ftop their leaks, by laying them afliore
dry on a level fand ; but without elleft : for though
their bottoms were thus fagged down by their cargoes
when afloat, yet when they came a-dry upon the fand,
fome of their bottoms hogged upwards fo much ?.s to
raife their mainmafts and pumps fo high as to tear their
coats from their decks ; fo that they have been obliged
to difcharge their cargoes, and give them a repair in
the repaiiing dock, and in fome to double their bot-
toms, to enable them to carry their cargoes with fafe-
ty, ftowed in this manner. From this caufe I have
known one of thefe ftrong fhips to founder. ,
" Among the many inftances of {hips that have been
dillrelfed by carrying cargoes of lead, one failed from
hence boifnd to Marfeilles, which was foon obliged to put
back again in great diftrels, having had four feet water
in the hold, by the commander's account, owing to the
fhip's bottom fagging down to fuch a degree as made
the hold ftaunchions fettle fix inches from the lower
deck beams amidfhips ; yet it is common with thefe long
ftraight floored fhips, when thefe heavy cargoes arc dil-
<:}iarged that makes their bottom fag down, then to hog
upwards: fo that when they are put into & dry repair-
ing dock, with empty holds, upon ftiaight blocks, they
commonly either fplit the blocks clofe fore and aft, or
damage their keels there, by the whole weight of the
fiiip lying upon them, when none lies upon the blocks
under the flat of their floors amidfhips, that being hog-
ged upwards ; which was the cafe of this fliip's bottom ;
though fagged downwards fix inches by her cargo, it
was now found hogged fo much that her keel did not
touch the blocks amidfhips, which occafioned fo much
damage to the after part of the keel, as to oblige them
to repair it ; which is commonly the cafe with thefe
ihips, and therefore dcferving particular notice."
In order to prevent thefe defedls in fhips, " they
fhould all be built with their floors or bottoms length-
wife, to form an arch with the projecting part down-
wards, which will naturally not only contribute greatly
to prevent their taking damage by their bottoms hog-
ging and ftraining upwards, either aground or afloat, as
has been mentioned, but will, among other advantages,
be a help to their failing, fleering, flaying, and wa-
ring."
Chap. ITI. Of the Stalility af Ships.
When a velTel receives an impulfe or prefTure in a
horizontal diredlion, fo as to be inclined in a fmall
degree, the veffei will then, either regain its former
poiitioQ as the preiTure is taken off, and is in this cafe
faid to be pofTefTed of ftability ; or it will continue in
its inclined ftate ; or, laftly, the inclination will In<5reafe
until the veffei is overturned. With regard to the firil
cafe, it is evident that a fufficient degree of ftabiUty ia
neceffary in order to fuftain the efforts of the wind ; but
neither of the other, two cafes muft be permitted to
have place in vefTels.
Let CED (fig. 52.) be the feftion of a fhip pafiing
through its centre of gravity, and perpendicular to the
fheer and floor plans ; which let be in equilibrium in a
fluid ; AB being the water line, G the centre of gra-
vity of the whole body, and g that of the immerfed
part AEB. Let the body receive now a very fmall
inclination, fo that <3 E 3 becomes the immerfed part>
and y its centre of gravity. From y- draw y M perpen-
dicular to a b, and meeting g G, produced, if neceflkry,
in M. If, then, the point M thus found is hi^rher
than G the centre of gravity of the whole body, the
body will, in this cafe, return to its former pofkion,
the prefTure being taken off. IF the point M coin-
cides with G, the vtfTel will remain in its inclined
ftate ; but if M be below G, the inclination, of the
veffei win continually increafe until it is entirely over-
fet.
The point of interfeftion M is called the metacenter^
and is the limit of the altitude of the centre of gravity
of the whole veffei. Whence it is evident, from what
has already been laid; that the ftability of the veflel in-
creafes with the altitude of the metacenter above the
centre of gravity : But when the metacenter coincides
with the centre of gravity, the vefi'el has no tendency
whatever to move out of the fkuation into which it may
be put. Thus, if the veffei be inclined either to the right
or left fide, it will remain in that pofition until a new
force is irapreffed upon it : in this cafe, therefore, the.
veflel would not be able to carry fail, and is hence un-
fit for the purpofes of navigation. If the metacenter
is below the common centre of gravity, the veffei will
inftantly overfet.
As the determination of the metacenter is of the ut-
moft importance in the conftruition of fhips, it is there->
fore thought neceffary to illuftrate this fubjedl more par-
ticularly.
Let AEB (fig. 52.) be a feftion of a fhip perpen-
dicular to the keel, and alfo to the plane of elevation,,
and paffmg through the centre of gravity of the fhip,
and alfo through the centre of gravity of the immerfed.
part, which let be g.
Now let the fhip be fuppofed to receive a very fmalt
inchnation, fo that the line of floatation is a, b, and y the-
centre of gravity of the immerfed part a E^. From y
draw y M perpendicular to a b, and interfering GM in.
M, the metacenter, as before. Hence the preffure of
the water will be in the direftion y M.
In order to determine the point M, the metacenter^
the pofition of y with refpeft to the lines AB and g G,.
muft be previoufly afccriained. For this purpofe, let
the fhip be fuppofed to be divided into a great number
of fedlions by planesj perpendicular to the keel, and pa-
jallel to each other, and to that formerly drawn, thefe
planes being fuppofed equidiftant. Let AEB (fig. 53- ^
be one of thefe feftions, g the centre of gravity of the
immerfed part before inclination, and y the CQjitre of
gravity of the immerfed part when the fhip is in its
inclined ftate j tixe diftance g y between the two centres
of
421
Stability
aflips.
421
Mecianiijfui ,
«rt. 36.5.
S H I P-B U
Stab ll'v of of gravity in eacli feftion is to be found. Let AB be
^^'' f-'* the line of floatation of the (hip when in an upright
' ftatc, and a b the water Hne when inclined. Then, be-
caufe the weight of the falp remains the fame, the
* quantity of water difplaced will alfo be the fame in both
cafes, and therefore AEB — aY^b, each fuftaining the
fame part of the whole weight of the fliip. From each
of thet'e take the part AE h, which is common to
both, and the remainders AO a, BO b will be equal ;
and which, becaufe the inclination is fuppofed very fmall,
may be confidertd as reftilineal triangles, and the point
O the middle of AB.
Now, let H, I, K, be the centres of gravity of the
fpacesAOfl, AE ^, and BO ^, refpeftively. From
thefe points draw the hnes H h, I i, and K i, perpen-
dicular to AB, and let IL be drawn perpendicular to
EO. Now to afcertain the dlRance y q o{ the centre
of gravity y of the part a E i from the line A B, the
momentum of a E with refpeft to this line muft be
put equal to the difference of the momentums of the
parts AE b, AO fl, which arc upon different fides of
t B«9uf', |_ ntnct ,iE bXy q, or AEB X y q = AE b
X I i — AO a X H ^. But fjnce g is the common centre
of gravity of the two parts AE^, BO b, we have there-
fore AEB X^ O = AE 3 X I i+BO bXKL Hence
by expunging the term AE 3 X I i from each of
thefe equations, and comparing them, we obtain AEB
Xy 7=rAEBx^0— BO ^ X Kk-~AOa.xHh.
Now, fmce the triangles AO a, BO b, are fuppofed
infinitely fmall. their momentums or produfts, by the
infinitely little lines H h, K will alfo be infinitely
fmall with refpcft t® AEB X ^ O; which therefore be-
ing rcjefted, tht former equation becomes AEB X y q
=:AEB x^r O, and hence y q— gO. Whence the
centres of gravity y, g, being at equal diftances below
AB, the infinitely little line y g \& therefore perpendi-
cular to EO. For the fame reafon^>, fig. 52. may
be confidered as an arch of a circle whole centre is M.
To determine the value of g y, the momentum of
o E ^ with refpeft to EO muft be taken, for the fame
Teafon as before, and put equal to the momentums of
the two parts AO a, AE b ; and we fliall then have
aEbXgy, or AEB Xgy = AEB X IL -f AO a
X O But fmce g is the common centre of gravity
of the two fpaces AE b, BO b, we fliall have A E~^ X
IL — BO ^ X O ^ = O, or AEbxlL = BO b X
Oi. HenceAEBX^y=. BO^xOi+AOflXOyi
= 2B0^X0i; becaufe the two triangles AO ^,
BO ^ are equal, and that the diftances O i, 0 6, arc
slfo evidently equal.
Let X be the thicknefs of the feftion reprefented by
ABC. Then the momentum of this feft ion will be
2 BOiXjcXO which equation will alfo ferve for
each particular leftlon.
Now let /' reprefent the fum of the mofnentums of
b11 the feftions. Hence /, AEB Xw X g y = /, 2.
"BO bX X X O L Now the fwft member being the
fum of the momentums of each fedior, in proportion
to a plane paffnig throuah the keel, ought therefore to
be equal to the fum of all the feftions, or to the volume
of the immerfed part of the bottom multiplied by the
diftance g y. Hence V reprefenting the volume, we
fhall have W Xgy 2'£>0 b X x O k.
In order to determine the value of the fecond member
of this equation, it may be remarked, that when the
I L D I N G,
Book
and confequently
fliip is inclined, the original plane of floatation CBPQjt^^^'
(fig. 54.) becomes G b p Q. Now the triangles NIb,
BO by being the fame as thofe in figures ^ 2. and 53. ;
and as each of thefe triangles 4iave one angle equal, they
may, upon account of their infinite fmallnefs, be confi-
dered as . fiinilar ; and hence B03:NIn::OBj*
— oEr
: I<N^ ; whence BO b ==— X N I". Moreover, we
TNh
have (fig. 53.) O i = -f O for the points K and j5
may be confidered as equidiftant from the point O :
whence BO ^XO k =i££l X NI n.
INT
' OBI'
Hence YXgy~ f, X s; X NI «. From thia
^ iNr ,
equation the value of g is obtained.
To find the altitude ^ M (fig 55.) of the meta-
center above the centre of gravity of the immerfed part
of the bottom, let the arc NS be defcribed from the
centre I with the radius IN ; then NI n = INxNS -^^^
2
fince the twb ftraight lines y M, g M are perpendicular
to fl« and AN refpedl ively, the angles M and NI n
are therefore equal : and the infinitely little portion ^5.,
which is perpendicular to ^M, may be confidered as an
arch defcribed from the centre M. Hence the two fee-
tors NTS, g My are fnnilar ; and therefore g^ ig y
IN : NS. Hence NS -i^^f^ ;
_ g^
NI n —l^^—^f-I, Now this being fubftituted in the
2 ^ M ^ ^
former equation, and reduced, we have YXgy=/
4 0B|'X.rX^y TVT J
-T-i . But lince g M and g y are the
^ M * ^
fame, whatever feftion may be under confideratlon^ the
equation may therefoi-e btf expreffed thus, \ Xg y ^
iir ./,OBl-'x^.
g M
Let y = OB, and the equation becomes M =
HZl-?' " ■ Whence to have the altitude of the me-
V
tacenter above the centre of gravity of the immerfed part
of the bottom, the length of the ftftion at the w^ter-
line muft be divided by hnes perpendicular to the middle
line of this feftion into a great number of equal parts,-
fo that the portion of the curve contained between any
two adjacent perpendiculars may be confidered as a
ftraight line. Then the fum of the cubes of the half ■
perpendiculars or ordinates is to b^ multipHed by the
diftance between the perpendiculars, and two thirds of
the product is to be divided by the volume of the im-
merfed part of the bottom of the fliip.
It is hence evident, that while the feftor at the wa-
ter line is the fame, and the volume of the immerfed part
of the bottom remains alfo the fame, the altitude ot the
metacenter will remain the fame, whatever may be the
figure of the bottom.
Chap. IV. 0/ the Centre of Gravity of the immerfed Part
of the Bottom of a fhip.
The centre of gravity * of a fhip, fuppofed komo-'*
geneous, and in an upright pofitiou in the water, is in^a*^
4 vcr-
Hence g M =-iA-9-^''^ -
^ V
becomes
SHIP- BUILDING.
6
nee
e
e of
the
tre of verticil region pHiTiaar through the keel, and dividing
l^'^y* the fhip into two equal and iimllar jparts, at a certain di-
ftance from the ilern, and altitude above the heel.
In order to determine the centre of gravity of the
immerfed part of a (hip's bottom, we mud begin with
determining the centre o'' gravity of afedion of the fliip
parallel to the keel, as ANDFPB (fig. 56.), bounded
by the parallel lines AB, DF, and by the equal and fi-
milar curves AND, EPF.
If the equation of this curve were known, its centre
of gravity would be eafdy found : but as this is not the
cafe, let therefore the line CE be drawn through the
middle C, E, of the lines AB, DF, and let this line
CE be divided into fo great a number of equal parts
by the perpendiculars TH, KM, &c. that the arches of
the ciirves contained between the extremities of any two
adjacent perpendiculars may be confldered as ftraight
lines. The momentums of the trapeziums DTHF,
TKMH, &c. relative to the point E, are then to be
found, and the fum of thefe momentums is to be divided
by the fum of the trapeziums, that is, by the furface
ANDFPB.
The diftance of the centre of gravrty of the trape-
zium THFD from the point E is = Ti^^^H±!2-^
DF+TH X-
aK/^i/?, For the fame reafon, and becaufe of the equality of the
79' lines IE, IL, the diftance of the centre of gravity of
the trapezium TKMH from the fame point E will be
-fIEx( TH+zKM) _-fI£x(4TH4-5KM)
TH + KM TH + KM"'
In like manner, the diftance of the centre of gravity of
the trapezium NKMP from the point E will be
^JEX(KM+2NP) ^ ^ jj.^ 4IEj<(7KM+8NP)
'.out s
KM+NP
KM + NP
&c.
Now, if each diftance be multiplied by the furface of
the correfponding trapezium, that is, by the produft of
half the fum of the two oppofite fides of the trapezium
into the common altitude IE, we fhall have the momen-
tumsof thefe trapeziums, namely,.^ lEf X(DF-f-2 TH),
^ IE|» X (4 TH + 5KM);iEi'x(7 KM-f-8NP),
&c. Hence the fum of thefe momentiuTis will be ^
TE\'X (DFi-6 TH4-i2 KM+18 NP-f 24 C)S-|-i4
A]}). Whence it may be remarked, that if the line
CE be divided into a great number of equal parts, the
faftor or coefficient of the laft term, which is here 14,
will be = 2-I-3 (n — 2) or 3 « — 4, n being the number
of perpendiculars. Thus the general expreffion of the
fum of the rtiomentums is reduced to IE| ^ DF S-
TH + 2 KM + 5 NP + 4 QS +, &c. — + i^Hi
XAB).
The area of the figure ANDFPB is equal to
IE X a DF + TH + KM + N P &c + 4.
AB) ; hence the diftance EG of the centre of gravity
G from one of the extreme ordinates DF is equal to
IE X (4DF+TH+2 KM+3 NP+, &c. ^iZlllx AB)
6
tlancc I DF + IH+KM + NP+, &c. + | AB
cen- Whence the following rule to find the diftance of the
centre of gravity G from one of the extreme ordinates
'Ihe DF. To the fixth of the firft ordinate add the fixth
le of the laft ordinate multipHed by three times the num-
ber of ordinates minus four ; then tlic fecor.d ordinate,
twice the third, three times the fourth, &c. the fum
will be a firft term. Then to half the fum of the ex-
treme ordinates add all the intermediate ones, and the
fum will be a fecond term. Now the firft term divided
by the fecond, and the quotient multiphed by the in-
terval between two adjacent perpendiculars, will be the
diftance fought.
Thus, let there be feven perpendiculars, whofe va-
lues are 18, 23, ZcS, 33, ^c, 2i, o, feet refpcftively,,
and the common interval between thefe perpendiculars.
20 feet. Now the fixth of tlie firft term 18 is 3 ; and
as the laft term is c, therefore to 3 add 2^, twice 28:
or 56, thrice 30 or 90, four times 30 or 1 20, five times
21 or 105 ; and the fum is 397. Then to the half of
i8-f-c, or 9, add the intermediate ordinates, and the-
fum will be 141. Now 397^3 7940 _
4n
centre nf
Giavity.
-, =59 feet
6B
14' 141
4 inches nearly, the diftance of the centre of gravity
from the firft ordinate.
Now, when the centre of gravity of any feftion 13.
determined, it is eafy from thence to find the centre of
gravity of the folid, and confequently that of the bot-
tom of a ftiip.
The next ft.ep is to find the height of the centre of Height ofT
gravity of the bottom above the keel. For this pur-'^'^'= ccntrc-
pofe the bottom muft be imagined to be divided into abov'^^h^
fedions by planes parallel to" the keel or waterdine, tTel!^
57' 58.) Then, the folidity of each portion con-
tamed between two parallel planes will be equal to half
the fum of the two oppofed furfaces multiplied by the
diftance between them ; and its centre of gravity wilt
be at the fame altitude as tliat of the trapezium a h c dy.
(fi'T- 58- )> which is in the vertical ledion paffing
through the keel. It is hence obvious, that the fame
rule as before is to be applitd to find the altitude of the
centre of gravity, with this difference only, that the
word perpendicular or ordinate is to be changed into,
feaion. Hence the rule is, to the fixth part of the
loweft fedlion. add the produft of the fixth part of the
uppermoft fedion by three times the number of feftions.
minus four ;. the fecond fedion in afcending twice the
third, tliree times the fourth, &g. the fum will be
a firft term. To half the fum of upper and lower fee-
tions add the intermediate ones, the fum will be a fe-
cond term. Divide the firft term by the fecond, and'
the quotient multiplied by the diftance between the fee-
tions will give tlie altitude of the centre of gravity-
above the keel.
With regard to the centre of gravity of a ftiip, whe*
thcr it is confidered as k)aded. or light, the operation
becomes more difficult,. The momentum of every dif-
ferent part of the ftiip and cargo muft be found fepa-
rately with refped to a horizontal and alfo a vertical'
plane. Now the fums of thefe two momentums being
divided by the weight of the ftiip, will give the alti-
tude of the centre of gravity, and its diftance from the-
vertical plane ; and as this centre is in a, vertical plane-
paffing through the axis of the keel, its place is
therefore determined. In the calculation of the mo-
mentums, it muft be obfervcd to multiply the weight,,
and not the magnitude of each piece, by the diftance of
its centre of gravity.
A more eafy method of finding the centre of gravity
©fa fhipis bya mechaaical operation,ksfo]iov^s: Conftrud:
<-.9
A mecha-
nical me-
thod for
afcertain-
ing the
centre (if
gravity of
a ihip.
S H I P-B U
a block of as tight wood as pofllble, exaftly fimilar to the
parts of the propofed draught or (hip, by a fcale of
about one-fourth of an inch to a foot. The block is
then to be fufpended by a filk-thread or very fine line,
placed in different fituations until it is found to be in a
ftate of equilibrium, and the centre of gravity will be
pointed out. The block may be proved by faftening
the line which fufpends it to any point in the line join-
ing the middles of the ftem and poll, and weight? are
to be fufpended from the extremities of this middle line
at the ftem and poft. If, then, the block be properly
conttrufted, a plane paffing through the line of fufpen-
fion, and the other two lines, will alfo pafs through the
keel, ftem, and poft. Now, the block being fufpend-
ed in this manner from any point in the middle Kne, a
line is to be drawn on the block parallel to the line of
fufpenfion, fo that the plane paffmg through thefe two
lines may be perpendicular to the vercical plane of the
Ihip in the direftion of the keel. The line by which
the block is fufpended' is then to be removed to fome
I L D I N G. Boo
other convenient point In the middle line ; and another Ce
line is to be drawn on the block parallel to the line fuf-
pending it, as before. Then the point of interle6tion
of this line with the former will give, the pofitifin of
the centre of gravity on the block, which may now be
laid down in the draught.
Chap. V. JppUcation of the preceding Rules to the De-
termination of the Centre of Gravity and the Height of
the Metacenter above the Centre of Gravity of a Ship of
74 Guns.
In fig. ?9. are laid down the feveral feftions In a
horizontal direaion, by planes parallel to the keel, and
at equal diftances from each other, each dittance being
lO feet o inches 4 parts.
I. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the upper Ho-
rizontal SeSion.
To find the diftance of the centre of gravity of the
plane % g oG from the firft ordinate 8 ^.
Ordinates.
Feet. Ill P.
14 9 O
17 I 6
18 9 o
19 10 o
20 7 6
Double Ord.
feet. In. P.
29 6
34
37
39 8
41 3
21
21
21
21
21
20 10
199
17 4
»3 •
9
3
9
9
6
o
6
o
6
3
42
43
43
43
43
42
4»
39
34
26
jft Faftore.
,ft Produa8. ^P^^^^g^
Feet In. P.
2dProdufts.
Feet. hi. P.
4
1 1
XD
oi
H
9 <5
1
34
3
I
34
3 0
2
75
0
0
I
37
6 0
3
119
0
0
I
39
8 0
4
165
0
0
I
41
3 ©
5
21 1
5
6
I
42
3 6
6
258
3
0
X
43
0 6
7
303
0
6
I
43
3 6
8
346
4
0
z
43
3 6
9
389
3
0
I
43
3 0
lO
426
S
0
I
42
8 0
ji
459
3
0
I
41
9 0
12
474
0
0
I
39
6 0
»3 N
45'
9
0
I
34
9 0
Xi5)~4)x^
179
I
I
o4
»3
' 3
3897
3
I
554
4 3
29 1 13 582 2 6
Hence *he diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane %goG from the firft ordinate
8^, is - - " "
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of ftern-poft,
Diftance of the centre of gravity from the aft fide of poft,
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR g 8 from Its ordinate AR,
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the ftern-poft,
Diftance of the centre of ^gravity of this plane from the aft fide of the ftern-poft,
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium Co yy from its ordinate G 0,
Diftance of this ordaiate from the aft fide of the poft,
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this ttapezium from the aft fide of the poft,
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fedion of the ftern-poft from the aft part of the poft,
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fcaion of the ftem frem the aft fide of the poft,
Feet.
70.J
'3-5
84.0
8.42
0.58
»
9.0
5-44
»53-78
159.22
0.29
169.76
The
ik IT.
'e of
SHIP-BUILDXNa
The area? of thefe fevcral plants, calculated by the common method, will be as follow j
^^^^.go for that of the plane, and its momentum 5558.9 X 84 a- 4(5^947.5000
1 99.13 for that of double the trapezium AR^ 8, and its momentum 199.13 X 9 = i 792.1700
2 14-59 fo"" ^hat of double the trapezium G Oyy, and its momentum 214.59 X 159.22 s 34i67.*02«5
0.77 for that of the feftion of the ftern-poft, and its momentum 0.77 X G.29 =: o.'225«
0.77 for that of the feftion of the ftem, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 = i30*7i5«
503037-732'
5974.16 Sum
503037.732 I
'5974.16 Alliance of the centre of gravity of the whole fcaion frem the aft fide of
the ftern-poft.
IT. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the fecond Hori»otaal SeSioa.
4«.r
Centre cf
Cravitf.
Ordinates.
Double Ord.
I* Faftors.
I. Produdle.
2. Faa.
2. Produfts.
Feet. In. Ptg.
Feet.
In.
Pti.
Feet.
In.
Pts.
Feet.
In.
Pt«.
If 2
3
22
4
6
3
8
9
oi
II
2
3
»5 3
0
30
6
0
I
30
6
0
30
6
e
17 5
0
34
10
0
2
69
8
jO
34
10
0
18 10
3
37
8
6
3
"3
I
6
37
8
6
19 10
6
39
9
0
4
159
0
0
39
9
0
20 7
0
4»
2
0
5
205
10
0
4^
2
0
21 0
42
0
6
6
252
3
0
42
0
6
21 2
0
42
4
0
7
296
4
0
42
4
0
21 0
6
42
X
0
8
336
8
0
42
I
0
20 lO
9
41
9
6
9
376
I
6
4i
9
6
20 6
6
41
I
0
10
410
10
0
41
I
0
19 10
0
39
8
0
II
436
4
0
39
8
0
18 6
0
37
0
0
12
444
0,
0
37
0
0
15 9
6
31
7
0
«3
410
7
0
31
7
0
II 2
9
22
5
(3Xij)-4) X
i 153
5
6
oi
II
2
9
273 2
3
546
4
6
3698
5
3
523
II
6
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8/n G from its firft ordinate 8n is
3608 5 3 ^5698 43
^-^ — ^— I X 10.0.4 = — rr^^ X 10.03 = - - - -
523 II 6 ^ ^ 523-9?
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the ftern-poft - - ,
Diftanre of the centre of gravity of the above plane from the aft fide of poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR/8 from Its ordinate- AR
Diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of ftern-poft - , _
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the Centre of gravity of the trapezium before the ordinate G « from that ordinate
Diftance of that ordinate from the aft fide of the poft: ...
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftlon of the ftern-poft from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feAIon of the ftem from the aft fide of the poft
The areas of thefe feveral plans being calculated, will be as follow t
5255.22 for that of the plan 8/« G, and its momentum 5255.22 X 84.29 =
1 53.11 for that of double the trapezium AR/8, and its momentum 1 55.1 1 X 8.95 =:
1182.40 the area of the trapezium before, and its momentum 182.40X159.52 =
0.77 the area of the feftion of the ftempoft, and its momentum 0.77 X 0 29 =
0.77 the area of the fedion of the ftem, and Its moitientum 0.77 X 169.76 =
5592.27 Sum
Vol. XVII. Part II.
3 H
70.79
84.29
8.38
0.57
8.95
5-74
159-52
e.29
169.76
442962.4938
1370.3345
29096.4480
0.2235
130.7152
473560.2148
Now
Centre of
SHIP-BUILDING. Book
^ . Cen
Gravny Now i^^-i^^— ^ = 84.68, the dlftancc of the centre of gravity of the .whole fedlion from the aftfidft Q«
^ 5952.27 ^
of the ilern-poft.
III. Detirmlnatlon of the Centre bf Gravity of the third Horizontal SeSlion.
Dlftance of the centre of gravity of double the plan 8 e m G from its firft ordinate 8 e.
Ordinates.
Fee.
In.
Pts.
6
7
6
I i
7
6
35
I
0
17
I
3
18
3
0
19
3
0
^9
9
0
20
0
0
20
0
0
19
8
3
39
I
3
18
I
0
16
3
9
^3
2
3
8
4
6
242
5
3
Double Ord.
Fett. In. Pt?.
13 3 o
I. Faftors. I. Produas. 2. Fad. 2. Produfts.
2.^
30
34
36
38
39
40
40
39
38
36
32
26
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
*i
12
»3
23
60
Feet. In. Pta.
226
3
4
7
o
6
o
102
146
192
237
280 o
320 o
354 4
382 I
397 10
391 ^
342 10
16 9 o ((3X15)— 4)x }= 114 5 6
484 10 6
3347
6
Feet
In.
Pts
of
6
7
6
I
■z
0
I
30
2
0
I
34
2
/" ■
0
I
36
6
0
1
3§
6
0
I
39
6
0
I
40
0
0
I
40
0
0
I •
39
4
6
I
3^
2
6
I
36
2
0
I
32
7
6
I
26
4
6
8
4
6
469
10
6
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane S^mG from its firft ordinate 8 . h
3347 o 6
X 10
3547.04
469 lo 6
Diftance of this ordinate fronrw the aft fide of the poft
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of this plan from the aft fide of the poft is
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR ^ 8, from its ordinate AR
t)iftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from its ordinate G m
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fcaion of the poft from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feaioa of the ftem from the aft fide of the poft
The areas of thefe feveral planes will be found to be as follow :
4712.7961 for that of double the plan BemG, and its momentum 4712.7961 X 84.94 =
93.84 the area of double the trapezium AR 3^88, and its momentum 93.84 X8.61 =
13 1. 1 for the area of foremoft trapezium, and its momentum 131.1 X 158.97 =
©.77 the area of the feftion of the poft, and its momentum 0.77 X 0.^29 =z
0.77
71.44
135
84.94
8.03
0.58
8.61
5.19
^53-78
158.97
0.29
169.76
400304.9007
807.9624
20840.967
0.2235
130.7152
4939.2761
422084.7706
Now
the poft.
the area of the fedion of the ftem, and its montentum 0.77 X 169.76 —
Sum . - -
1^1^= 85.45, the diftance of the centre of gravily of the whole fedion from the aft fide of
422084. 7 7 06 __
~~4939^
rc of
vity.
9
9
o
o
9
6
3
o
6
35
34
31
27
19
o
o
6
o
6
6
o
o
6
o
6
o
o
of
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 1
1 2
13
04
SHIP-BUILDING.
IV. Determination 0/ the Centre of Gravity of the Fourth Horizontal Seaion.
Diftance ©f the centre of gravity of double the plan %dlG from its firft ordinate 8 d.
Double Ord. i. Faftars. i. Produdi. 2. Faft. 2. Produfts.
Feet, In. Pt^
336
15 6
23 10
29 5
32 6
34 9
36 3
36 10
36 6
9
5
427
Centce of
Gravity.
tf '-^
Ordinates.
Feet. In. Pts.
3 3 6
790
9 1 II O
14 8 9
16 3 o
17 4
18 I
18 5
18 3
17 10
17 2
15 10
13 6
9 7
Feet. fn. Pts.
670
15 6
23 10
29 5
3a 6
34 9
36 3
36 10
36 6
9
5
Feet. In. Pts.
112
15 6
47 8
88 4
130 o
173 II
217 9
257 10
292 o
322 I
340 10
348 9
324 o
250 3
35
34
31
27
19
5 4 9
10 9
6((3Xi5)--4) X 4 73 8 II oi 5 4
205 7
4" 3
2883 II o
402 6 9
Hence the dJftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane %dlG from ita firft ordinate 8 4 is
2883 no 2883.916
402 6 9 ^
4 = -—^ X 10.03 =
^ 402.56
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Biftance of the centre of gravity of the plan from the aft fide of the poft
Biftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR d 8 from its ordinate AR
X)iltance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Diftancc of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
DIftance of the centre of gravity of the foreraoft trapezium from its ordinate G./
Diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of the poft » «
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the poft from its aft fide -
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fedtion of the ftem from the aft fide of^he poft
The areas of thefe feveral plans being calculated, will be as follow t
4037.6768 for that of double the plan 8 ^/G, and its momentum 4037.6768 X 85.35 =^
51.12 the area of double the trapezium AR 8, and its momentum 5 1. 1 2 X M7 —
79. 1 6 the area of the foreraoft trapezium, and its momentum 79.16 X 158.M —
o.'77 the area of the fcdlon of the poft, and its momentum 0.77 X 0.29
0.77 the area of the feftion of the ftem, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 —
4169.4968 Sum -
71.85
13-5
85-35
7.89
0.58
8.47
4-83
»53.78
158.61
0.29
1 69.7 6
344615.7140
432.986I
12555.5676
0.2233
130.7I52
357735-2074
Then 357715-2274 _ g diftance of the fourth horizontal fcdion frt)m the aft fide of the ftern-poft.
4169.4968 ^'
V. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the fifth Horizontal SeSion.
Diftancc of the centre of gravity of double the plan 8^0 from its firft ordinate 8 c, '
Ordinates. Doable Ord. i. Faftors. 1. Produas. 2. Faft. 2. Produds.
Feet. In. L. Feet. In. 1..
070 oi 190
000 I 900
Feet. In L.
190
460
Feet In. L..
360
900
©5-
I
Over 630 12 6 o
9 7
3H«
10 9 o
Centre of
SHI P-B U I L
Feet.
rn.
L.
Feet.
In.
L.
over 5
3
0
12
6
0
8
3
o
l6
6
0
2
11
8
3
^3
4
6
3
^3
10
3
27
8
6
4
15
3
0
30
6
0
5
i6
o
3
32
0
6
6
lO
5
o
32
10
0
7
i6
3
o
32
6
0
8
I c
Q
o
6
0
n
y
14
10
0
29
8
0
10
1 2
ID
3
25
0
0
6
U
9
8
9
19
5
6
12
6
I
6
12
3
0
13
3
3
o
6
6
0
((3Xi5}~V
i66
6
3
333
0
6
33
70
Feet. In. L,
970
o
I
110 10
152 6
192 3
229 10
260 o
283 6
296 8 o
282 9 6
233
159
44
2358 3 o
G
Feet.
Fit.
L,
Cam
10
9
0
Grai
16
6
0
23
4
6
27
8
30
6
0
32
0
6
32
10
0
0"
0
31
6
0
20
8
0
a
6
5
<
12
3
0
3
3
0
328
0
6
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 c i G from Its firft ordinate is -^^^ ^
2358.25 o 6
Xio o 4 = -J;-^^ X 10.03 = - . -
328.04
Diftance of this ordinate frona the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the plan from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR c 8 from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of poft
Diftance of centre of gravity of trapezium from aft fide of the poft
DIftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from its ordinate G k
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of poft . .
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the poft from the aft fide of poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feAion of the ftem from the aft fide of poft
The areas of thefe feveral planes being calculated, will be as follow.
3290.2412 for the area of double the plan 8 t )f G, and its momentum 3290.2412 X 85,6 =
31.21 the area of double the trapezium AR c 8, and its momentum 31.21 X 8 =:
42.43 the area of the foremoft trapezium, and its momentum 42.43 X 158 =
0.77 the area of the feftion of the poft, and its momentum 0.77 X 0.29 =
0.77 the area of the fedlion of the ftem, and its m©mentum 0.77 X 169.76 =:
3365.4212 Sum
72.10
85.60
7.42
0.58'
8.00
4.22
153-78
158.00
0.29
169.7$
281644.6467
249.68
6703.94
0.2235
130.7152
288729.a05a
288729.2052 ' / v J
"~3^5'^42i2 ^ ^S'19f the diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole feaion frem the aft fide of
the ftern.
VI. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the Jtxth Horizontal SeSion.
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plan 8 3 1 G from its firft ordinate 8 h
Ordinates. Double Ord. i. Faaors. i. Produds. 2. Faft. i. Produfts.
Feet.
In.
L.
Feet.
In.
L.
Feet.
In.
L.
Ftet. In. L,
I
0
0
0
0
oi
0
4
0
oi
100
2
5
0
4
10
0
1
4
10
0
1
4 10 0
4
5
0
8
10
0
2
17
8
0
I
8 10 0
7
3
6
H
7
0
3
43
9
0
X
14 7 0
10
I
9
20
3
6
4
81
2
0
I
20 3 6
12
I
3
24
2
6
5
121
0
6
I
24 2 6
-Over 37
4
6
74
9
0
268
9
6
73 9 c
of
SHIP-BUILDIN
Feet.
In.
L.
Fecf.
Id.
L.
tover 37
4
6
74
9
0
»3
3
0
26
6
0
6
»3
9
9
27
7
6
7
13
7
0
27
2
0
8
12
Q
0
25
4
0
0
10
6
6
21
I
0
10
7
I
0
2
0
II
4
7
3
9
2
6
12
2
10
6
5
9
0
13
I
6
9
3
I
6X
((3X^5)
117
4
3
234
6
6
Feet. In. JL.
268 9 6
G.
Feet. In. L.
73 9 o
Centre of
Gravity.
159 o
193 4
217 4
228 o
210 10
155 10
no 6
74 9
I
I
2
I
I
I
I
I
26
27
27
25
21
14
9
5
1639 9 3
232
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity ©£ double the plane %bvO from its firft ordinate 8 b h
1^39 9 3
4 =
16^9.77
X 10.03 =
232 I 9^'° ° =^32-14
Diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of poft
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of the plan from the aft fide of the poft i^
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium AR b 8 from its ordinate AR
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance ofthe centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from the ordinate Gt -
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feftion of the poft from its aft fide
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fedion of the ftem from the aft fide of the poft
The areas of thefe plans will be found to be as foUovir ;
2^28 C2642 for that of double the plan 8 * i G, and its momentum 2328.3642 X 84.34 =
21 52 for the area of double the trapezium AR b 8, and its momentum 21.52X 7.46 —
I c'.04 thexarea of the foremoft trapezium, and its momentum 15.04 X 156.7 -
0.77 the area of the feftion of the poft, and its momentum 0.77 X 0.29 —
0^77 the area of the fedion of the ftem, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 -
70.84
13-50
84-34
6.83
0.58
7-4^
2.92
153-78
156.70
169.76
196374-236^
160.5392
2356.7680
0.2233
130.7152
199022.4825
2366.4642 Sura - - *
vr„^ I99£1M823 _ g diftance of the centre of gravity ofthe vsrhole from the aft fide of the poft.
^ 2366.4642 ^
VII. Determination ofthe Centre of Gravity of ihefeventh Horizontal Section,
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plan 8 a A G from its firft ordinate 8 a.
I. Produfts. 2. Fad. 2. Produds.
Ordinates.
Double Ord.
I. Fadors,
Feet. In,
L.
Feet.
In.
L.
0 8
0
I
4
0
I I
6
2
3
0
X
J 7
6
3
3
0
2
1 10
9
3
9
6
3
2 I
3
4
2
6
4
2 I
0
4
2
0
5
I 10
9
2
9
6
6
I 8
0
3
4
0
7
I I
0
2
2
0
8
0 9
0
I
6
0
9
0 8
0
I
4
0
10
Over 15 f>
9
30
I
6
Feet. In. L,
Feet. In.
L,
0 2
8 oi
0
8
0
2 3
0 I
2
3
0
6 6
0 I
3
3
0
II 4
6 1
3
9
6
16 10
0 I
4
2
6
20 10
0 I
4
2
0
22 9
0 I
3
9
6
23 4
0 I
3
4
0
17 4
0 1
2
2
0
13 6
0 I
I
6
0
13 4
0 I
I
4
0
t48 3
2
30
5
6
Centre of Fest. In. L.
Grivity, Brought ovcr 15 6 9
^ 080
080
080
H
Feet.
30
I P-B U I L D I
F et. Ir. L.
148 3 2
14 8 O
16 o O
17 4 O
II
12
13
G»
Feet.
■ SO
B
4 o . ((3Xi5)-4) X
rn. L.
5 6
4 o
4 o
4 o
18 2 9 36 5 6
Hence the diftaiice of the centre of gravity of double
. 201; 4 6
this plane from Its firfl ordinate is — — rXio o 4
:e ^-^^X 10.83 = . . 58.65
The diftance of this ordinate from aft fide 6f
poft = - - 13.50
Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of
this plane froni the aft-'fide of the poll is 72.15
Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the
reftangle AR a 8 from its ordinate AR 6.45
..Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of
the poft - - G.58
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this rec-
tangle from the aft fi.de of the poft 7.03
. Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fore-
moft reftangle from its ordinate 7' 7 e 7' 1.25
Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of
the poft - . 153-78
Diftance of the centre of gravity of this rec-
tangle from the aft fide of the poft ^55'^3
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fec-
tion of the poft from its aft fide G-29
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fec-
tion of the ftem from the aft fide of the
poft - - 169.76
Now the areas of thefe feveral plans being calculated
will be as followe.
.352.2536, the area of double the plan
8 a /jG, and its momentum
352.2536X72.15 =
■17.1570, the area of double the reftan-
gle AR a 8, and its mo-
■mentum 17. 1 570X7.03=: 120.6137
.-3-3250, the area of the foremoft rec-
tangle, and its momentum
3.3250X155.03 =
the area of the feftion of the
port, and its momentum
0.77X0.29 =
the area of the fcftlon of the
ftem and its momentum
0.77X169.76 =
25415.0972
-0.77,
•0.77,
5^5 -4747
0.3233
130.7152
74.2756
Sum
Then
26182. 1242
■26182.1242
374.2756 69.95, the diftance of the
centre of gravity of the whole ftdion frc«i the aft fide
of the pofto
205 4 6
35
VIII. Determination of the Centre 0/ Gravity o/the eighth
Plane.
1*his plane is equal in length to the feventh horizon-
tal plane, and its breadth is equal to that of the keel.
The difta-nce between the feventh and eighth planes is
three feet, but -w^hich is here taken equal to 2 feet i ly
inches.
Diftance between the aft fide of the poft and
the firft ordinate
Fourteen intervals between the fifteen ordi-
nates, each interval being 10.03 ^^"^^ 140.42
Diftance of the laft ordinate from the fore foot 2 . 2
135
Hence the length of the eighth plane is
Which multiphed by the breadth
The produft is the area of this plane
The diftance of its centre of gravity from the
aft fide of the pt^ft, being equal to half its
length, is
156.12
1-33
2o8»
78.06
The centres of gravity of thefe eight planes being
found, the diftance of the centre of gravity of the bot-
tom of the ftiip from the aft fide of the poft, and alfa
its altitude, may from thence be cafily determined.
From the principles already explained, the diftance
of the centre of gravity of the bottom from the^aft fide
of the poft, fs- equal to the fum of the momentums of
an infinite number of horizontal planes, divided by the
fum of thefe planes, or, which is the fame, by the foli-
dity of the bottom. As, however, we have no more
than eight planes, wemuft therefore conceive theii* mo-
mentums as the ordinates of a curve, whofe diftances
may be the fame as that of the horizontal planes. Now
the fum of thefe ordinates minus half the, fum of the ex-
treme ordinates being multiplied by their diftance, gives
the furiace of the curve ; of which any ordinate what-
ever reprcfents the momentum of the horizontal plane
at the fame altitude as thefe ordinates ; and the whole
furface will reprcfent the fum of the momentums of all
the horizontal planes.
Hor. Planes. Fad>. l'rodu(5ls.
Momentums.
Fad.
Produdls.
5974.16
2987.08
503037-73
ol
251518.86
5592.27
I
5592.27
473560.21
I
473560 21
4939.27
I
4939.27
422084.77
I
422084.77
4169.50
I
4169.50
357735.21
I
357735-2 1
3365-42
I
3365.42
288729.20
I
288729.20
23^6.46
1
2366.46
199022.48
I
199022. 48
374-27
I
374-27
2 1682. 12
I
21 682.13
208kOO
04
104.00
1623648
oi
8118.24
23898.27
2022451.00
2022451,09
iNow —0-0 - = 84.63, the diftance of the
23898.2-7
centre
HL . S H I P - B tJ
of centre of gravity of the bottom of the fhip from the
■y aft fide of the poft.
The height of the centre of irravity of the bottom
sbdve the lower ed;^e of the keel may be determined
by the fame principles. Thus,
To one fixth of the lowermoft horizontal feftion add
the produft of one fixth of the uppermoll fettion by
three times the number of feftions mums four the fe-
cond feaion in afcending, twice the third/ three times
the fourth, &c. ; and to half the fum of the extreme
planes add all the inter mediate ones. Now the firft of
thefe furas, muhipUed by the diilance between the planes
or feftions, and divided by the fecond fum, gives the
altitude of the centre of gravity of the bottom of the
ftip above the lower edge of the keel as required.
Hon Planes.
208.00
374-27
2366.46
3365-42
4169.50
4939-27
5592-27
I L D I N G.
Ordinate at 10.03 feet abaft the or-
dinate 8^, = 4, of wliich the cube
is 64, and 64 X 4-
Ordinate at 10.03 feet afore the or-
dinate G 0 = 6, cube of which k
2 1 6, and 2 1 6 X T
Sum
Diftance between the ordinates
ift Fad.
iftProducT.s. a-i Fad.
ad Pro(!u<9:i.
0-^
34-67
oi
104.00
I
374-27
I
374-27
2 ;
4732.92
I
2366.46
3
ICO96.26
I
3365-42
4
16678.00
I
4 1 6*/. 50
5
24696.35
1
4939-27
6
33553-62
I
5592.27
8)-4^
1 99 '3-87
2987.08
110079.96
>
23898.27
iioo79'96_ _
13.588, the height of
3
tnira
the
of
Ord. of the Plane of Floatation.
Ft.
Inch.
Ft. & dec. of Foot.
14
9
0
14.7
17
I
6
17. 1
18
9
0
18.7
10
0
19.8
20
7
6
20.6
2 1
I
9
21.2
21
6
3
2^-5
21
7
9
21.7
2 £
7
9
21.7
21
7
6
21.7
21
4
0
21.3
30
10
6
20.9
19
9
0
19.7
17
4
6
17.4
13
1
3
13. 1
2gi
I
3
291.1
Cub.ofOtdinates.
3 209.046
5c 00. 2 1 1
6591.797
7762.392
874 f. 8 16
9595-703
9938-375
10289.109
10289.109
10289 1C9
9663-597
9129.329
7703 734
5268.024
2248.091
Centre of
Gravity.
32.
108.
Produft
Half the cube of the after-
moft ordinate
Half the cube of the thick-
nefs of the item
Sum
Diftance between the ordinates
Product
Half the cube of the fore-
mod ordinate
Half the cube of the thick-
nefs of the Item
Sum
Diftance between the ordinates
the centre of gravity of the bottom of tlie fhip above
the lower edge of the keel.
We have now found the diftance of the centre of gra-
vity of the b'ottom of the fliip from the aft fide of the
poft, and its altitude above the lower edge of the keel.
Hence the fliip being fuppofed in an upright pofition,
this centre of gravity will neceflarily be in the vertical-
longitudinal feftion which divides the (hip into two
ecjual and fimilar parts the pofition ©f this centre is
therefore determined.
„. It now remains to find the height of the metacenter
f tlie above the centre of gravity ; the expreflion for this al-
titude, as found in Chap. III. is — y — ; which we fhall
now apply to determine the metacenter of the fhip of
of 74 guns, whofe centre of gravity we have already
found.
115859.442
10.03
1 162070.20326
32.
0.14
96,4 a '
108.
Produd
594-7r
» • 1162761.393-26
2325522.78658
775 1 74.262 1 7
The folidityof the bottom is 2527^ tons= 700 1 8,67
cubic feet: hence
fy^x 77517-26
,r _ o ^ = 11.07 feetj
V 700J8.67 ' ^
the altitude of the metacenter above the centre of gra-
vity of the bottom of the ihip.
115719.443
APPENDIX.
When a fliip is built, ftie muft be fitted with
mafts, yards, fails, ropes, and blocks, or, in other
words, ftie muft be rigged before Ihe can ^go to fea.
To complete this article, it may therefore be thought
neceffary to tre»t of the art of rigging veffels ; but we
have elfewhere (fee MwsT-Rigging, Rope-Making,
and Sail) ftiown how the feveral parts of a fhip's
rigging are made ; and the art of putting them proper-
ly tosTcther, fo as to make the fhip beft anfwer the pur-
pofe for which ftie is intended, depends upon a juft
knowledge of the impulfe and refiftance of fluids, and of
the theory and practice of feamanftiip. (See Resistancs
of Fluids and Seamanship). Nothing, therefore, of
the fubjeft is left to us here, except we were to ftate in
few words the progreffive method of rigging ftiips ; but
there is no one undeviating mode which is purfued, as
the nature of the operation is fnch that all the parts of
it may be advancing at the fame time. We ftiall there-
fore take our leave oi JInf:i ^nd J hip-liui /ding with a few
general obfervations on Jat/-?na king, which were omitted
under the article Sail, referring our readtrs for farther
information to tlie very elegant work ktely publifhed, m.
^ . two
432 S H I P-B U
Appendix, two volumes 4to, on the Elements and PraSke of Rigging
^ " V ' arid Seamanjhip.
Sails ait made of canvas, of different textures, and are
extended on or between the mails, to receive the wind
that fui'ces the veffel through lliE water. They are
c[uadrilateral or trian;{ular^ as has been elfcwJiere de-
fcribed, and are cut out of the canvas cloth by cloth.
The width is governed by the length .of the yard, gaff,
boom, or flay ; the depth by the height of the maft.
> In the valuable work to which wre have juft referred,
tshe following direftions are given for cutting fails,
*' The width and depth being given, find the number
of cloths the width requires, allowing for feams, tabling
on the keches, and flack cloth ; and? in the depth, al-
low for tabling on the head and foot. For fails cut
fquare on the head and foot, with gores only on the
leeches, as feme topfails, &c. the cloths on the head,
between the leeches, are cut fquare to the depth ; and
the gores on the leeches ars found by dividing the depth
of the fail by the mimber of cloths gored, which gives
the length of each gore. The gore is fet down from a
Iquare with the oppofite felvage; and the canvas being
cut diagonally, the longefl. gored fide of one cloth
makes the (horteft fide of the next ; confequently, the
flrft gore being known, the reft are cut by it. In the
leeches of topfails cut hollow, the upper gores are long-
er than the lower ones ; and in fails cut with a roach
leech, the lower gores are longer than the upper ones.
This muft be regulated by judgment, and care taken
that the whole of the gores do not exceed the depth of
the leech. Or, by drawing on pajier the gored fide of
the fail, and delineating the breadth of every cloth by
a convenient fcale of equal part* ef ^n inch to a foot,
the length of every gore may be found with precifion.
Sails, gored with a fweep on the head or the foot, or
on both, have the depth of their gores marked on the
felvage, from the fquare of the given depth on each
cloth, and are cut as above ^ the longeft felvage of one
ferving to meafure the fhorteft felvage of the next, be-
ginning with the firft gored cloth next the middle in
fome fails, and the firft cloth next the maft leech in o-
thers. For thofe gores that are irregular no ftriA rule
can be given; they can only be determined by the judge-
ment of the fail-maker, or by a drawing.
Eltmenu " In the royal navy, mizen topfails are cut with three
*2nd I'raillce quarters of a yard hollow in the foot ; but, in the mer-
vfJ!^'ggi"g chant fervice, top and topgallant fails are cut with more
and Sea. |^j[g hollow in the foot. Flying jibs are cut with a
vou/p! or roach-curv£ on the ftay, and a three-inch gore in each
cloth, ftiortening from the tack to the clue. Lower
ftudding.fails are cut with fquare leeches, and topmaft
and topgallant-maft ftudding fails with goring leeches.
*' The length of reef and middle bands is governed by
the width of the fail at their refpeftive places; the leech-
linings, buntline-cloths, top-linings, maft-cloths, and cor-
lier-pieces, are cut agreeably to the depth of the fail ;
each cloth and every article fhould be properly marked
with charcoal, to prevent confufion or miftake. Sails
that have bonnets are cut out the whole depth of the
fail and bonnet included, allowing enough far the ta-
blings on the foot of the fail and head and foot of the
I L D I N G.
bonnet. The bonnet is cut off after the fail is fewed Ap
together. If a drabler is required, it is allowed for in
the cutting out the fame as the bonnet."
^ When the cloth is thus properly cut, the different
pieces are to be joined together in the form of a fail ;
and for doing this properly we have the following dil
rc£tioHs in the work already quoted, « Sails have a
double flat feam, and fliould be fewed with the beft Eng-
lifh-made twine of three threads, fpun 360 fathoms to
the pound, and have from one hundred and eight to one
hundred and fixteen ftitches in every yard in length.
The twine for large fails, in the royal navy, is waxed by
band, with genuine bees-wax, mixed with one-fixth part
of clear turpentine ; and, for fmall fails, in a mixture
made with bees wax, 4 lb; hogs lard 5 lb ; and clear
turpentine 1 lb. In the merchantVervice, the twine is dip-
ped in tar (l), foftened with a proper proportion of oil.
*' It is the erroneous praftice of fome failmakers not
to few the feiins any farther than where the edge is
creafed down for the tabling ; but all fails fhould be
fewed quite home to the end, and, when finifhed, fhould
he well rubbed down with a rubber. In the merchant
fervice feams are fometimes made broader at the foot
than at the head, being ftrortger. Broad feams are not
allowed to be made on courfes, in the royal navy, but
goring leeches are adopted in lieu of them. Boom-
-mainfails and the fails of floops generally have the feams
broader at the foot than at the head. The feams of
courfes and topfails are ftuck or ftitched up, in the
middle of the feams, along the whole length, with doH-
ble feaniing -twine ; and have from 68 to 72 ftitches in
a yard. In the merchant fervice it is common to ftick
the feams with two rows of ftitches, when the fail is half
worn, as they will then laft till the fail is worn out.
" The breadth of the feams of courfes, topfails," and
other fails, in the royal navy, to be as follow, viz. cour-
fes and topfails, for 50 gun fliips and upwards, one inch
and a half, and, for 44 gun fhips and under, one inch
and a quarter, at head and foot j all other fails, one inch
at head and foot.
" The tablings of all fails are to be of a proportion-
able breadth to the fize of the fail, and fewed at the
edge, with 68 to 72 ftitches in a yard, Thofe for the
heads of main and fore courfes to be four to fix inches
wide ; for fprit courfes and mizens, drivers, and other
boom fails, 3 to 4 inches wide ; for topfails, 3 inches to
4 mches and a half ; topgallant and fprit topfails, 3
mches ; royal fails, 2 inches and a half; jib and other
ftayfails, 3 inches to 4 inches and a half, on the ftay or
hoift ; and for ftudding fails, 3 inches to 4 inches on the
head. Tablings on the foot and leeches of main and
fore courfes to be 3 inches to 5 inches broad ; fprit
courfe and topfails, 3 inches ; topgallant and fprit top-
fails, 2 inches and a half ; royals, 2 inches ; fore leeches
of mizen, driver, and other boomfails, 3 inches and a half
to 4 inches ; after leech, 3 inches ; and on the foot 2 or
3 inches. Tablings on the after leech of jibs and other
ftayfails to be from 2 to 3 inches broad ; and, on the
foot, 2 to a inches and a half : on ftudding fail leeches
one inch and a half to two inches and a half; and on
the foot, from one to two inches.
" Main
(l) The dipping of the twine in tar, we are perfuaded, is a very bad pradice, for the reafon affigned in Rope-
Making. See that article, n^' 32.
S H I P-B U
it. ** Main and fore courfes are lined on the leeches,
from clue to earing, with one cloth feamed on and Uuck
or ftitched in the middle, and have a middle band half
■way between the lower reef band and the foot, alfo four
buntline cloths, at equal diftances between the leeches,
the upper end of which are carried under the middle
band, that the lower hde of the band may be tabled up-
on or fewed over the end of the buntline pieces. They
have likewife two reef bands ; each in breadth one third
of the breadth of the canvas ; the upper one is one fixth
of the depth of the fail from the head, and the lower
band is at the fame diftance from the upper one ; the
ends go four inches under the leech linings, which are
feamed over the reef bands. All linings are feamed on,
and are ftuck with 68 to 72 ftitches in a yard.
" Main, fore, and mit,en, topfails have leech linings,
mail and top linings, buntline cloths, middle bands and
reef bands. The leech linincrs are made of one breadth
of cloth, fo cut and fevfed as to be half a cloth broad
at the head, and a cloth and a half broad at the
foot ; the piece cut out being half the breadth of the
cloth at one end, and tapering to a point at the o-
ther. The middle bands are put on half way between
the lower , reef and foot, the buntline cloths join the
top-linings, and the buntline cloths and top-linings arc
carried up to the lower fide of the middle band, which
is tabled on them. The maft lining is of two cloths,
and extends from the foot of the fail to the lower reef,
to receive the beat or chafe of the maft. The middle
band is made of one breadth of canvas, of the fame
number as the top-lining. It is firft folded and rubbed
down, to make a creafe at one third of the breadth ;
then tabled on the felvage, and ftuck along the creafe ;
then turned down, and tabled and ftuck through both
the double and (ingle parts, with 68 to 7 2 ftitches in
a yard. It is the opinion of many, that middle bands
ihould not be put on until the fail is half worn.
" Main and fore topiaila have three and fometimes
four reef bands from leech to leech, over the leech li-
nings ; the upper one is one eighth of the depth of the
fail from the head, and they are the fame diftance afun-
der in the royal navy, but more in the merchant fervice.
The reef bands are each of lialf a breadth of canvas put
on double ; the firft^fide is ftuck twice, and the laft turn-
ed over, fo that the reef holes may be worked upon the
double part of the band, which is alfo ftuck with 68 to
72 ftitches in a yard.
" The top-lining of topfails is of canvas n° 6 or 7.
The other linings of this, and all the linings of other
fails, ftiould be of the fame quality as the fails to vrhich
they belong.
" Top-linings and maft cloths are put on theaft fide,
and all other linings on the fore fide, of fails. Mizens
are lined with one breadth of cloth from the clue five
yards up the leech, and have a reef band fevved on, in
the fame manner as on other lails, at one fifth the depth
of the fail from the foot ; they have alfo a nock-piece
and a peek-piece, one cut out of the other, fo that each
contains one yard. Mizen topfails of ifo gun {hips and
upwards have three reefs, the upper one is one eighth
of the depth of the fall from the head, and the reefs are
•At the fame diftance afunder. Mizen topfails of (hips
of 44 guns and under have two reefs one feventh part
t)f the depth of the fail afunder, the upper one being at
die fame diftance from the head. Main and main top
Vol. XVII, Part II.
I L D I N a 43;!
ftudding fails have each one reef, at one eighth of the Appendix,
depth of the fail from the head. Reef bands ftiould not — -v—
be put on until the fail is fewed up, a contrary praftice
being very erroneous. Lower ftayfails, fore top and
main top ftayfails, and flying jibs, have clue-pieces two
yards long. Square tack ftayfails have half a breadth
of cloth at the fore part, with a clue-piece containing
two yards, and a peek-piece, containing one yard.
" Sails have two holes in each cloth, at the heads
and reefs of courfes, topfails, and other fquare fails ; one
hole in every yard in the ftay of flying jibs, and one in
every three quarters of a<yarcl in the ftays of fquare tack
and other ftayfails. Thefe are made by an inftruraent
called a pegging aivl, or a ftabber, and are fenced round
by ftitching the edge to a fmall grommet, made with
log or other line ; when finifhed, they fhould be well
ftretched or rounded up by a pricker or a marHne-fpike.
Reef and head holes of large fails have grommets of
twelve-thread line, worked round with 18 to 21 ftitch-.
es ; fmaller fails have gromraets of nise-thread line,
with 16 to 18 ftitches, or as many as fhall cover the
line, and fmaller holes in proportion. The holes for
marling the clues of fails and the top-brims of topfaila
have grommets of log-line, and ftiould have from 9 to
1 I ftitches ; twelve holes are worked in each cloth.
Main courfes have marling holes from the clue to the
lower bow line cringle up the leech, and from the clue
to the firft buntHne cringle on the foot. Fore courfes
have marling holes one eighth of the depth of the fail
up the leech, and from the clue to the firft buntline
cringle at the foot. Main and fore topfails have mar-
ling holes three feet each way from the clue and at ths
top-brims. Rpritfails, mizen topfails, lower ftayfails,
main and fore top ftayfails, and jibs, have marling holes
two feet each way from the clues. All other fails are
fevved home to the clues. Marling holes of courfes are
at three fourths of the depth of the tablings at the clues
from the rope, and thofc of Mpfails are at half the depth
of the tablings at the clues and top brim from the rope.'*
The rope, which is fewed oh the edges of fails to
prevent their rending, and which is called bolt-rope^
ftiould be well made of fine yarn, fpun from the bell
Riga rhine hemp well topt, and fewed on with good
Englifti-made twine of three threads, fpun 200 fathom
to the pound ; the twine in the royal navy is dipped in
a corapofitlon made with bees-wax, 4 lbs ; hoi;s lard
3 lbs ; and clear turpentine one pound ; and in the
merchant fervice, in tar foftened with oil. They
fliould be ftoved in a ftove by the heat of a flue, and
not in a baker's oven or a ftove tub ; and tarred in the
beft Stockholm tar. The flexibility of them fliould be
always confidered, in taking in the flacky which mull
reft on the judgm.ent of the failmaker.
" Bolt- ropes of courfes, topfails, and all other fails,
ftiould be neatly fewed on through every buntline of
the rope ; and, to avoid ftretching, the rope muft be
kept tightly twifted while fewlng on, and care taken
that neither too much nor too little flack is taken in ;
they are to be crofs-ftitched at the leeches every twelve
inches in length ; at every feam, and in the middle of
every cloth at the foot, with three crofs-ftltches : four
crofs-ftitches fhould be taken at all beginnings and faf-
tenings off ; the firft ftitch given twice, and the laft
three times. Small fails have two crofs ftitches at every
feam, and three at every fattening off.
I I « On
434 S H I P - B U
Appendix. « On main and fore courfes two inches flack cloth
' V fhould be allowed in the head and foot, and one inch and
a half in the leeches, in every yard in length. Topfails
are allowed 3 inches flack in every cloth in the foot,
one inch and a half in every. yard in the leech, and two
inches in every cloth left open in the top-brim. Mi-
zen courfes have two inches flack in every yard in the
foremoft leech, but none in the after leech or foot.
Spritfail courfes have no flack cloth. Jibs have four
inches flack in every yard in the flay, one inch in every
cloth in the foot, and none in the leech. Stayfails have
three, inches flack in every yard in the flay, one inch in
S H I
^^'P- , Ship's Form Gauge, an inftrument recommended by
Mr Hutchinfon as fit to afcertain any alteration in the
bottom of a fliip, by its hogging or fagging ; and alfo
to regulate the fl:owage of a flilp.
" All fliips (fays he) of any confequence are built
with ftaunchions fixed from the kelfon to the middle
of all the lower-deck beams fore and aft, in order to
fupport them in their exa£l, regular height, as well
as the whole frame of the flilp in the regular form
in which flie was built upon the ftocks ; yet notwith-
ftanding thefe ftaunchions, it is preved from experience
that our ftiips bottoms, hitherto, by the prefTure of wa-
ter, and improper ftowage, have generally been hogged
upwards, or fagged downwards, and moft about the
midfhip frame or main body of the fliip, which is com-
monly about the fore part of the main hatchway ;
which naturally makes it the beft place at which to fix
the fliip's form gauge, where either the hogging or
fagging of her bottom may be obferved and feen foon-
eft and beft, to regulate the ftowage of heavy materials
to the greateft advantage, fo as to keep her bottom
nearly in the fame form in which ftie was built.
" The gauge I recomn.rad is nothing more than a
narrow plate of iron divided into inches and quarters
like the flide of a carpenter's rule. Let this be fixed
to the after fide of the ftaunchion now mentioned, with
its upper end projefting two or three inches above the
ftaunchion ; a groove being cut out for it in the after
fide of the lower-deck beam, and a mark being made
(when the fliip is on the ftocks) at the part of the beam
which correfponds to the o on the gauge. When the
fhip alters in her fliape, the gauge will flide up and
down in this groove, and the quantity of hogging or
fagging will be pointed out on the gauge by the mark
on the beam. The ftowage may then be fo managed
as to bring this mark to coincide again with the o, or
to approach it as near as we fee neceflary."
Sh IP-Money, was an impofitlon charged upon the
ports, towns, cities, boroughs, and counties of this
realm, in the reign of king Charles I. by writs, com-
monly called Jhip-turits, under the great feal of Eng-
land, in the years 1635 and 1636, for the providing
and furnifliing of certain ftiips for the king's fervice, &c.
which was declared to be contrary to the laws and fta-
tutes of this realm, the petition of right and liberty of
the fubjeft, by ftat. 17 Car. I. c. 14. See Blackjlone's
Commentaries, vol. iv. p. 30.
Sh IP-Shape, according to the faftiion of a fliip, or in
the manner of an expert failor ; as. The maft is not
rigged ftiip fliape ; Trim your fails Ihip-ftiape.
I L D I N G.
every cloth in the foot, but none in the leech. Topgallant
fails have two inches flack in every cloth in tlie foot,
and one inch in every yard in the leech. Studding
fails have an inch and a half flack in every yard in go-
ting leeches, but no Hack in fquare leeches, and one inch
in every cloth in the head and foot."
I'hefe diredllons for failmaking, we truft may be ufe-
ful. They are indeed very general, but the limits pre-
fcrlbed us will not permit of a more minute detail. The
failmaker will find every inftruftion that he can v^-ant in
the Elements of Rigging and Seamanfhip, a work whicb
we therefore recommend to his attention.
SHI
Stowing and Trimming of Ships, the method of dlf-
pofing of the cargo in a proper and judicious manner
in the hold of a fliip.
A fliip's failing, fteering, ft:aying, and wearing, and
being lively and comparatively eafy at fea in a ttorm,
depends greatly on the cargo, ballaft, or other mate-
rials, being properly ftowed, according to their weight
and bulk, and the proportional dimenfions of the built
of the fln'p, which may be made too crank or too ftiff
to pafs on the ocean with fafety. Thefe things ren-
der this branch of knowledge of fuch confequence, that
rules for it ought to be endeavoured after, if but to
prevent, as much as poffible, the danger of a (hip over-
fetting at fea, or being fo labourfome as to roll away her
mafts, &c. by being improperly ftowed, which is often
the cafe.
When a fliip is new, it is prudent to confiilt the
builder, who may be fuppofed beft acquainted with a
fliip of his own planning, and moft likely to judge what
her properties will be, to advife how the cargo or mate-
rials, according to the nature of them, ought to be dif-
pofed of to advantage, fo as to put her in the beft fail-
ing trim ; and ac every favourable opportunity after-
wards it wIU be proper to endeavour to find out her beft
trim by experiment.
Ships muft differ in their form and proportional di-
menfions ; and to make them anfwer their different pur-
pofes, they will require different inanagement in the
ftowage, which ought not to be left to mere chance, or
done at random, as goods or materials happen to come
to hand, which is too often the caufe that fuch Impro-
per ftowage makes ftiips unfit for fea : therefore the
ftowage fliould be confidered, pla nned, and contrived,
according to the built and properties of the fliip, which
if they are not known fliould be inquired after. If ihe
is narrow and high-built in proportion, fo that flie will
not fliift herfelf without a great weight in the hold, it
is a certain fign fuch a fliip will require a great part of
heavy goods, ballaft, or materials, laid low in the hold,
to make her ftiff enough to bear fufiiclent fail without
being in danger of overfetting. But If a ftilp be bulk
broad and low In proportion, fo that flie is ftiff and will
fupport herfelf without any weight in the hold, fuch a
fliip will require heavy goods, ballaft, or materials, ftow-
ed higher up, to prevent her from being too ftiff and
labourfome at fea, fo as to endanger her mafts being
rolled away, and the hull worked loofe and made
leaky.
In order to help a fliip's failing, that ftie fliould be
lively and eafy in her pitching and afcending motions.
S H I
[
it fhould be contrived by the ilowage, that the piunci-
pal and weiq;htielt part of the cargo or materials fhould
lie as near the main body of the Ihip, and as far from
the extreme ends, fore and aft, as thinr>s will admit of.
For it fhould be confidered, that the roomy part of our
(hips lengthwife forms a fweep or curve near four times
as long as they are broad ; therefore thofe roomy parts
at and above the water's edge, which are made by a
full harping and a broad traniom to fupport the fhip
fteady and keep her from plunging into the fea, and
alio by the entrance and run of the fhip having httle or
no bearing body under for the prefTure of the water to
fupport them, of courfe fhould not be ilovyed with
heavy goods or materials, but all the neceffary vacan-
cies, broken ilowage, or light goods, fhould be at thefe
extreme ends fore and aft ; and in proportion as they
are kept lighter by the ftowage, the fhip will be more
lively to fall and rife eafy in great feas ; and this will
contribute greatly to her working and faihng, and to
prevent her from ftralning and hogoing ; for which rea-
fon it is a wrong praftice to leave fuch a large vacancy
in the main hatchway, as is ufual, to coil and work
the cables, which ought to be in the fore or after hatch-
way, that the principal weight may be more eafdy
flowed in the main body of the fhip, above the flatteil
?uid loweft floorings, where the prefTure of the water
afts the more to fupport it.
Machine for meafuring a Ship's Way. We have al-
ready defcribed a variety of machines or inftruments
which have been propofcd for this purpofe under the
article Log. In this place, 'there Fore, we fhall confine
ourfelves to the machine invented by Francis Hopkin-
fon, Efq; Jud^e of the Admiralty in Pennfylvania.—
After having fhown the fallacies to which the common
log, and alfo'that particular kuid of inflrument invent-
ed by M. Saumarez, are liable, he proceeds to defcribe
his own machine as follows :
aai nt This machine, in its moft fimple form, is reprefented
An,e- by fir. 5. Plate CCCCLIII. wherein A B is a ftrong
i^/j;7o-rod of iron moveable on the fulcrum C. D is a thin
.^j'^Yj circular palate of brafs 1 1 vetted to the lower extremity
" ' of the rod. E an horizontal arm conneded at oile end
with the top of the rod AB by a moveable joint F,
and at the other end with the bottom of the index H,
by a like moveable joint G. H is the index turning
on its centre I, and travelling over the graduated arch
K ; and L is a flrong fpring, bearing againft the rod
AB, and conftantly counterailing the prefTure upon
the palate D. The rod AB fhould be applied clofe to
the cut-water or ilem, and fhould be of fuch a length
that the palate D may be no higher above the keel than
is neceflary to fecure it from injury when the vefTel is
aground, or fails in fhoal water. As the bow of the
fhip curves Inward towards the keel M, the palate D
will be thrown to a diftance from the bottom of the
vefTel, although the perpendicular rod to which it is
annexed lies clofe to the bow above ; and therefore the
palate will be more fairly afted upon. The arm E
Ihould enter the bow fomewhere near the hawfe hole,
and lead to any convenient place in the forecallle, where
a fmooth board or plate may be fixed, having the index
H, and graduated arch K, ujpn it.
It is evident from the fia,ure, that as the fhip is
urged forward by the wind, the palate D will be prefT-
ed' upon by the refifllng medium, with a greater or lefs
435 1 SHI
force, according to the progrefTive motion of the fhip ;
and this will operate upon the levers lo »-s to immediate- "
ly afteft the index, making the leafl increafe or diminu-
tion of the fliip's way vifible on the graduated arch ;
the fpring L always counteratling the prefTure upon
the palate, and bringing back the index, on any relax-
ation of the force ImprefTed.
This machine is advantageoufly placed at the bow of
the fhip, where the current Hrfl begins, and afts fairly
upon the palate, in preference to the ftern, where the
tumultuous clofing of the waters caufes a wake, vifible
to a great diftance. The palate D is funk neatly as
low as the keel, that it may not be influenced by the
heaping up of the water and the daflilng of the waves
at and near the water Une. The arch K Is to afcertain
how many knots or miles fhe would run in one hour at
her then rate of falling. But the graduations on this
arch muft be unequal ; becaufe the refiftance of the
fpring L will increafe as it becomes more bent, fo that
the index will travel over a greater fpace from one to
five miles than from five to twelve. Laftly, the palate,
rod, fpring, and all the metallic parts of the inftrument,
fhould be covered with a ftrong varnifh, to prever.t rufl
from the corrofive quality of the fait water and fea
air.
This machine may be confiderably improved as fol-
lows : Let the rod or fpear AB (fig. 5.) be a round
rod of iron or fteel, and inftead of moving on the ful-
crum or joint, as at C, let it pafs through and turn
freely in a focket, to which focket the moveable joint
muft be annexed, as reprefented in fig. 6.' The rod
muft have a (houlder to bear on the upper edge of the
focket, to prevent its flipping quite down. The rod
muft alfo pafs through a like locket at F, fig. 5. The
joint of the lower focket muft be fixed to the bow of
the ftiip, and the upper joint or focket muft be conneft-
ed with the horizontal arm E. On the top of the up-
permoft focket let there be a fmall circular plate, bear-
ing the 32 points of the matiner's compafs ; and let
the top of the rod AB came through the centre of this
plate, fo as to carry a fmall Index upon it, as is repre-
fented in fig. 7. This fmall index muft be fixed to the
top of the rod on a fquare, fo that by turning the in-
dex round the plate, the rod may alfo turn in the foc-
kets, and of courfe carry the palate D round with it ;
the little index always pointing in a direAion with the
face of the palate. The fmall compafs plate ftiould not
be fattened to the top of the focket, but only fitted
tightly on, that it may be moveable at pleafure. Sup-
pole then the intended port to bear S. W.. from the
place of departure, the palate muft be turned on the foc-
ket till the fouth-well point thereon looks directly to
the ftiip's bow ; fo that the fouth-wefl and north-eaft
line on the compafs plate may be precifely parallel with
the fhlp's keel, and in this pofition the plate mufl
remain during the whole voyage. Suppofe, then, the
fliip to be failing in the direCl courfe of her intended
voyage, with her bowfpnt pointing fouth-well. Let the
little index be brought to the fouch-wclt point on the
compafs plate, and the palate D will necefTarlly prefent
its broad face toward the port of deftination ; and this it
muft always be made to do, be the ftiip's courfe what it
may. If, on account of unfavourable winds, the fhip Is
obliged to deviate from her intended courfe, the little in-
dex muft be moved fo many points from the iouth-weft
3 I 2 line
SHI [ 431
nl^^n^I^^^ cenipaft plate ig the eompafi In the binnacle
fhall (how that deviates from her true eourfe ; fo
that 111 whatever direftJou the (hip flaall fail, the pdate
B will always look full to the fouth-wed point of the
horizon, or towards the port of deflination, and confe-
quently will prefcnt only an oblique furface to the re-
idling medium, more or lefs oblique as the fhip deviates
more -or lefs fi om the true eourfe of her voyage. As,
therefore, the refiftarce of the water will operate lefs
upon the palate in an oblique than in a diredt pofition,
m txzet propf;rtion to its obliquity, the index H
V'lU not fliow how many knots the velTel runs in her
then eourfe, but will indicate how many fhe ^ains in
the dired line of her intended voyac^e —Thus, in
fig. 9. if the fliJp's eourfe lies in the direaion of
the hue AB, but flie can fail by the wind no nearer
than AC ; fuppofe, then, her proirrefiive motion fuch
as to perform AC equal to five knots or miles in an
hour, yet the index H will only point to four knots on
the graduated arch, becaufe fhe gains no more than at
that rate on the true line of her voyage, viz. from A to
B. Thus will the difference between her real motion and
that pointed out by the index be always in proportion
to her deviation from her intended port, until flie fails
in a hne at right angles therewith, as AD ; in which
cafe the palate would prefent only a thin fharp edge to
the refitting medium, the prefl'ure of which fliould not
be fufficient to overcome the friftion of the machine
and the bearing of the fpring L. So that at whatever
rate the fhip may fail on that line, yet the index will
not be aflPeaed, fhowing that fhe gains nothing on her
true eourfe. In this cafe, and alfo when the veffel is
not under way, the aftion of the fpring L fliould caufe
the index to point at O, as leprefented by the dotted
lines in fig. 5. and 8.
As the truth of this inftrument muft depend on the
equal preffure of the refitting medium upon the palate
D, according to the fhip's velocity, and the propor-
tionable adion of the fpring L, there Ihould be a
pin or fcrew at the joints C and F, fo that the rod may
be readily unfiiipped and taken in, in order to clean the
palate from any foiilnefs it may contraa, which would
greatly increafe its operation on the index H, and there-
by render the graduated arch falfe and uncertain.
Further, the fpring I. may be expofed too much to
injury from the fait water, if fixed on the outfide of the
ihip's bow. To remedy this, it may be brought under
cover, by conftruding the machine as reprefented by
fig. 8. where AB is the rod, C the fulcrum or centre
of Its motion, D the palate, E the horizontal arm
leading through a fmall hole into the forecaftle ; M is
a llrong chain fattened at one end to the arm E, and at
the other to a rim or barrel on the wheel G, which by
means of its teeth gives motion to the femicircle I and
mdex H. The fpring L is fpiral, and enclofed in a box
or barrel, like the main fpring of a watch. A fmall
chain is fixed to, and paffing round the barrel, is fatten-
ed by the other end to the fuxee W. This fnzee is
coniieaed by its teeth with the wheel G, and counter-
ads the motion of the palate D. N, N, are the two
fockets through which the rod AB pafTes, and in which
It is turned round by means of the little index R. S
is the Imall corapafs plate, moveabl* on the top of the
upper focket N. The plate S hath an upright rim
round its edge, cut into teeth or notches, fo that when
the index K is a fitlle raiftd up, in order to bring it
M SHI
romi to my intended pei'nt, it m^y fall int^ me of 85
thefe notches, and be detained there ; otberwUe the
preffure of the water will force the palate D from its
oblique pofition, and turn the rod and index round to
the dircdion in which the fhip fhall be then failing.—
Should it be apprehended that the palate D, bein;*
placed fo far forward, may affed the ttiip's tteerage, or
obttrud her rate of failing, it fnould be confidered that
a very fmall plate will be fufficient to work the machine,
as one of three or four inches in diameter would pro-
bably be fufficient, and yet , not large enough to have
any fenlible effed on the helm or fhip's way!
^ The greateft difficulty, peihaps, will be in gradua-
ting the arch K, (if the machine is conttruded as in
^g- 5;) ; the unequal divifions of which can only be al-
cei tained by adual experiment on board of each fhip
relpedively, Inalmuch as the accuracy of thefe gradu-
ations will depend on thfee circumftauces, viz. the pofi-
tion of the fulcrum C with refped to the length of the
rod, the fize of the palate D, and the ttrength or
bearing oF the fpring L. When thefe graduations,
however, are once afcertained for the machine on board
of any one yeflcl, they will not want any future alte-^
rations, provided the palate D be kept clean, and the
fpring L retains its elafticity.
But the unequal divifions of the graduated arch will
be unneceffary, if the machine is conttruded as in fig. 8.;
for as the chain goes round the barrel L, and then
winds through the fpiral channel of the fuzee W, the
force of the main fpring muft operate equally, or nearly
for in all pofitions of the index, and confequently the
divifions of the arch K may in fuch cafe be equal.
After all, it is not cxpeded that a fliip's, longitude
can be determined to a mathematical certainty by this
mftrument.^ The irregular motions and impulfes to
which a fliip is continually expofed, make fuch an ac
curacy unattainable perhaps by any machinery : But if
it fhould be found, as we flatter ourfelves it will on fair
experiment, that it anfwers the purpofc much better
than the common log, it may be confidered as an acquis
fition to the art of navigation.
_ It fliould be obferved, that In afcertaining a fliip's lon-
gitude by a time-piece, this great inconvenience occurs,
that a fmall and trifling mittakc in the time makes a
very great and dangerous error in the diftance run ■
Whereas the errors of this machine will operate no far-
ther than their real amount ; which can never be great
or dangerous, if correded by the ufual obfervations
made by mariners for correding the common log,
A hke machine, made in its hmple form (as at fig.5.)j,
fo conttruded as to fl^ip and unfliip, might occafionally
be applied alongfide about midfliips, in order to afcer.
tain the leeway j which, if rightly fliown, will give the
fliip's precife longitude. As to fea currents, this and
all other machines hitherto invented muft be fubjed
to their influence ; and proper allowances muft be made
according to the flcill and knowledge of the navic/a-
tor.
Laftly, fome difcretion will be neceflary in taking ob«
fervations from the machine to be entered on the loa,
book; that is, the moft favourable and equitable me-
mcnt fhould be chofen fcr the obfervation.} not whIHt
the fhip is rapidly defcending the dcchvity of a wave,
or is fiiddenly checked by a ftroke of the fea, or is in
the very ad of plunging. In all cafes, periods may be
found in which a ftip proceeds with a true average
velocity j
8 H 0
I 437 1
S H 0
velaeUy j te dif^Qvep whieh, 1 little experteneg mi at
tentien vviil lead the Hdlful Rwingr (a),
SHIRAUZ. See Sciuras.
. SHIRE, is a Saxon word lignifylnor a divifion ; but
a county, comitatus, of the fame import, is plainly derived
from^wn^J, " the coxmt of the Franks that is, the earl
or alderman (as the Saxons called him) of the fhire, to
whom the government of it was entrulled. This he ufu-
ally exercife'd by his deputy, ftill called in Latin vice-i-omes^
and in Englifli the Jhenf. jhrkve, oxjlnre reeve, fjgnifying
the " ofrlcer of the Ihire upon whom, in procefs
of time, the civil adminiftration of it totally devolved.
Jn feme counties there is an intermediate divihon be-
tween the fhire and the hundred ; as lathes in Kent and
rapes in SufTex, each of them containing about three
or four hundreds apiece. Thefe had formerly their
lathe-reeves and rape-reeves, adting in fubordination to
the fhire-reeve. Where a county is divided into three
of thefe intermediate juriidictions, they are called tri-
things, which were anciently governed by a trithing
reeve. Thefe trithings Hill fubfift in the large county
of York, where, by an eafy corruption, they are deno-
minated ridings ; the north, the eaft, and the well ri-
ding.
8HIRL, or Cockle, in mineralogy. See Cockle,
SHIRT, aloofe garment, commonly of linen, worn
next the body.— Some doubt the propriety of changing
the linen when a perfon is fick. Clean linen promotes per-
fpiration ; and it may be renewed as often as the patient
pleafes, whether the diforder be of the acute or the
chronical kind. Except during a crifis in fevers, whilft
the patient is in a fweat, a change ofhnen, if well dried
and warmed, may be daily ufed.
Shirts were not worn by Jew^s, Greeks, or Romans,
but their place was fupplied by thin tunica of wool.
The want of Unen among the ancients made frequent
wafhings and ablutions necefTary.
SHIVER. See ScHisTUs and Shale.
SHIVERS, in the fea language, names given to the
little rollers, or round wheels of pulleys.
SHOAD, among miners, denotes a train of metal-
line ftones, lerving to dlreft them in the difcovery of
mines.
SnoAD-Stones, a term ufed by the miners of Cornwall
and other parts of this kingdom, to exprefs fuch loofe
mafles of flone as are ufually found about the entrances
into mines, fom.etimes running in a ftraight courfe from
the load or vein of ore to the furface of the earth,
Thefe are ftones of the common kinds, appearing to
have been pieces broken from the ftrata or larger maf-
fes ; but they ufually contain mundic, or marcafitic mat-
ter, and more or lefs of the ore to be found in the mine.
They appear to have been at fome time rolled about in
water, their corners being broken off, and their furface
fmoothed and rounded.
The antimony mines in Cornwall are always eafdy dif-
covered by the fhoad-ftones, thefe ufually lying up to
the furfa^f , ar very nearly fp ; and the matter pf the
ftone bf;ing » white fpnr, or debaled eryflal, m which
the native colour ot the ore, which is a ihlning bluilh _
black, eafdy difcovers itlelf In ftreaks and threads.
Shoad-ilones are of fo many kinds, and of fuch va-
rious appearances, that it is not eafy to defcrlbe or know
them : but the miners, to whom they are of greateft
ufe in the tracing or fearching after new mines, diftin^
guidx them from other ftones by their weight ; for if
very ponderous, though they look ever fo much hke
cornmon ftones, there is great reafon to fufpeft that
they contain fome metal. Another mark ot them is
their being fpongy and porous; this is a fign of efpe-
cial ufe in the tin countries ; for the tin flioad-ftones
are often fo porous and fpongy, that they refemblc
large bodies thoroughly calcined. There are many
other appearances oi tin thoads, the very hardeft and
firmeft ilones often containing this metal.
When the miners, in tracing a flioad up hill, meet
with fuch odd ftones and earths that they know not
well what to make of them, they have recourle to van-
ning, that is, they calcine and powder the ftone, clay,
or whatever elfe is fuppofed to contain the metal ; and
then wafliing it in an inftrument, prepared for that pur--
pole, and called a vanning Jhovel, they find the earthy
matter walhed away, and of the remainder, the ftony or
gravelly matter lies behind, and the metaUIne matter at
the point of the ftiovel. If the perfon who performs
this operation has any judgment, he eafily difcovers not
only what the metal is that is contained in the flioad,
but alfo will make a very probable guefs at what quan-
tity the mine is likely to yield of it in proportion to the
ore.
SHOAL, in the fea-language, denotes a place where
the water is lhallow ; and hkewife a great quantity of
fifties, fuch as a Jhoal of herrings.,
SHOCK, in ele4lricity. The effed of the explo-
fion of a charged body, that is, the difcharge of its elec-
tricity on any other body, is called the electric Jhock,
SHOE, a covering for the foot, ufually of leather.
Shoes,, among the Jews, were made of leather,
linen, rufh, or wood ; thofe of foldiers were fome-
times of brafs or iron. They were tied with thongsi
which paffed under the foles of the feet. To put off
their ftioes was an ad of veneration ; it was alfo a fign
of mourning and humiliation : to bear one's fhoes, or to
untie the latchets c^f them, was confidered as the mean-
eft fervicc.
Among the Greeks ftioes of various kinds were ufed.
Sandals were worn by women of diftindion. The La-
cedemonians wore red fhoes. The Grecian flioes gene-
rally reached to the middle of the leg. The Romans
ufed two kinds of fhoes ; the calceus^ which covered the
whole foot fomewhat like our flioes, and was tied
above with latchets or ftrings ; and the folea or flipper,
which covered only the fole of the foot, and was faften-
ed with leathern thongs. The calceus was always worn
along
II
6hoc>>.
(a) An ingenious mechanic would probably conftrud this machine to better advantage m many lelpeds.
The author only meant to fuggeft the principle ; experiment alone can point out the beft method of applying it.
He is fenfible of at leaft of one deficiency, viz. that the little index R, f g. 4- will not be ftrong enough to retain
the palate D in an oblique pofition when the ftiip is failing by the wind ; more efpeciaUy as the compais plate S, m
whofe notched rim the index R is to faU, is not fixed to, but only fitted tight oft the focket N. Many means^
however, might be contrived to remedy this inconvenieiwe^ o
S H O
Sh cs.
along with the toga when a perfon went abroad; flip
~ perg were put on during a journey and at feafts, but it
was reckoned eifeminate to appear in public with them.
Black fhoes were worn by the citizens of ordinary rank,
and white ones by the women. Red fhoes were fome-
times worn by the ladies, and purple ones by the cox-
combs of the other fex. Red ilioes were put on by the
chief magiftrates of Rome on days of ceremony and
triumphs. The fhoes of fenators, patricians, and their
children, had a crefcent upon them which ferved for a
buckle ; thefe were called cakei lunati. Slaves wore no
fhoes ; hence they were called cretat'i from their dufty
feet. Phocion alfo and Cato Uticenfis went without
fhoes. The toes of the Roman fhoes were turned up
in tlie point ; hence they were called calcei rojlrati, re-
pandi, &c.
In the 9th and loth centuries the greateft ptinces of
Europe wore wooden fhoes, or the upper part of lea-
ther and the fole of wood. In the reign of William
Rufus, a great beau, Robert, furnamed the horned^ ufed
Ihoes with long fharp points, Ituffed with tow, and
twilled Hke a ram's horn. It is ieXdi the clergy, being
highly offended, declaimed againfl the long-pointed
ihoes with great vehemence The points, however,
continued to increafe till, in the reign of Richard 1 1,
they were of fo enormous a length that they were tied
to the knees with chains fometimes of gold, fometimes
of filver. The upper parts of thefe flioes in Chaucer's
time were cut in imitation of a church windovi*. The
long-pointed fhoes were called crackoives, and continued
in fafhion for three centuries in fpite of the bulls of
popes, the decrees of councils, and the declamations of
the clergy. At length the parliament of Enc!;land in-
terpofed 'by an a6t A. D. 1463, prohibiting the ufe of
^hoes or boots with pikes exceeding two inches in
length, and prohibiting all (hoemakers from making fhoes
or boots with longer pikes under fevere penalties^ But
even this was not fuificient : it was neceffary to de-
nounce the dreadful fcntence of excommunication againft
all who wore flioes or boots with points longer than
two inches. The prefent fafhion of ihoes was intro-
duced in 1633, but the buckle was not ufed till
1670.
In Norway they ufe fhoes of a particular conftruc-
tion, confifling of two pieces, and without heels ; in
which the- upper leather fits clofe to the foot, the fole
being joined to it by many plaits or folds.
The fhoes or flippers of the Japanefe, as we are in-
formed by Profeffor Thunberg, are made of rice-ftraw
woven, but fometimes for people of dittinftion of fine
flips of ratan. The fhoe confifts of a fole, without up-
per leather or hind-piece ; forwards it is crofled by a
Itrap, of the thicknefs of one's linger, which is lined
with linen ; from the tip of the fhoe to the ftrap a cy-
hndrical ftring is carried, which paffes between the great
and fecond toe, and keeps the fhoe fall on the foot.
As thefe flioes have no hind-piece, they make a noife,
when people w'alk in them hke flippers. When the Ja-
panefe travel, their fhoes are furniihed with three firings
made of twilled draw, with which they are tied to the
legs and feet, to prevent them from falling off. Some
people carry one or more pairs of fhoes with them on
their journeys, in order to put on new, when the old
ones are worn out. When it rains, or the roads are
very dirty, thefe fhoes are foon wetted through, and one
[ J
S H O
continually fees a great number of worn-out fhoes lying Sh.
on the roads, efpecially near the brooks, whei-e travel-
lers have changed their fhoes after wafhing their feet. "
In.flead of thefe, in rainy or dirty weather they wear
high wooden clogs, which underneath are hollowed out
in the middle, and at top have a band acrofs like a flir-
rup, and a firing for the great toe ; fo that they can
walk without foihng their feet. Some of them have
their, ftraw fhoes faflened to thefe wooden clogs. T\\tt
Japanefe never enter their houfes with their fhoes on ;
but leave them in the entry, or place them on the bench
near the door, and thus are always barefooted in their
houfes, fo as not to dirty their neat mats. During the
time that the Dutch live at Japan, when they are fome-
times under an obligation of paying vifits at the houfls
of the Japanefe, their own rooms at the faftory being
likewife covered with mats of this kind, they w-ear, in-
flead of the ulual fhoes, red, green, or black flippers,
which on entering the houfe 'they pull off: however,
they have ftockings on, and flioes made of cotton fluff
With buckles in them, which flioes are made at Japan,
and can be waflied wheHever they are dirty. Some
have them of black fattin, in order to avoid wafliinsr
them. ^
SfioE of an Anchor, a fmall block of wood, convex on
the back, and having a fmall hole, fufficient to contain
the point of the anchor fluke, on the forefide. It is
ufed to prevent the anchor from tearing or wounding
the planks on the Ihip's bow, when alcending or de-
fcending ; for which purpofe the flioe flides up and
down along the bow between the fluke of the anchor
and the planks, as being prefled clofe to the latter by
the weight of the former.
To Shoe an Anchor, is to cover the flukes with a
bi-oad triangular piece of plank, whole area or fuper-
ficies is much larger than that of the flukes. It is in-
tended to give the anchor a fl;ronger and furer hold of
the bottom in very faft and oozy ground.
Horfe-SHOE. See Farriery, Seft. 47.
SHOOTING, in the military art. See Artillery,
Gunnery, and Projectiles.
Shooting, in fportfmanfliip, the killing of game by shoot
the gun, with or without the help of dogs. fportfi
Under this article we fliall lay down all the rules *^ip
which are neceffary to be obferved in order to ren-
der one accompliflied and fuccefsful in the art of ftioot-
The firfl thmg which the fportfman ought to attend Dirp-'llc
to is the choice of his fowling-piece. Cokvenlency re-^'"
quires that the barrel be as light as pofiible, at the famef*''*' l*"
time it ought to pofl"efs that degree of ftrength which
will make it not liable to burfl. Experience has pro-
ved, that z. thin and light barrel, which is of equal
thicknefs in every part of its circumference, is much
lels liable to burfl than one which is confiderably thick-
er and^ heavier, but which, from being badly filed or
bored, is of unequal ftrength in different places.
It is alfo of importance to determine of what length
the barrel ought to be, in order to acquire that range
which the fportfman has occafion for. On this fub-
jedl we have received the following information from
an experienced fportfman. We have, at different times,
compared barrels of all the intermediate lengths be-
tween 28 and 40 inches, and of nearly the fame caliber,
that is to fay, from 22 to 26 ; and thefe trials were
7 made
S H O [4:
^Inff. made both by firing- the pieces from the {lioulder, and
I from a firm block, at an equal diftance, and with equal
weiehts of the fame powder and of the fame fhot.
To avoid every poflibllity of error, the quires of
paper at which we fired were fixed againft. planks in-
ttead of being placed againft the wall. From thefe
trials frequently repeated, we found that the fhot pier-
ced an equal number of (heets, whether it was fired
from a barrel of 28, 3.-, 32, 34, 36, 38, or 40, inches
in length. Nay more, we have compared two barrels
of the fame caliber, but one of them 33, and the other
66 inches long, by repeatedly firing them in the fame
manner as the others, at different dillances, from 45 to
100 paces, and the refults have always been the fame,
e. the barrel of 33 inches drove its fhot through as
many fheets of paper as that of 66 did. The conclu-
fion from all this is, that the difference of i o inches in
the length of the barrel, which fcems to be more than
is ever infilled upon among fportfmen, produces no fen-
fible difference in the range of the piece ; and therefore,
that every one may pleafe himfelf in the length of his bar-
rel, without either detriment or advantage to the range.
It may appear as an objeftion to this, that a duck-
gun which is five or fix feet long kills at a greater
diftance than a fowling-piece ; but this is not owing to
its length, but to its greater weight and thicknefs, which
give it fuch additional ftrength, that the fiiot may be
increafcd, and the charge of powder doubled, trebled,
and even quadrupled. But a barrel of five or fix feet
:h of length would be very inconvenient for fowling. Thofe
»arrel. who confult the appearance of the piece, lightnefs, and
the eafe with which it is managed, will find that a bar-
^ rel from 32 to 38 inches will anfwer beft.
iber. The next thing to be confidered is, of what dimen-
fions the caliber or bore of a fowling-piece ought to be.
This matter has been fubjefted to experiment, and it
has been found, that a barrel of 22 or 24, which
is the largeft caliber ufually employed in fewling-pieces,
throws its fhot as clofely as one of the fmalleft caliber,
J viz. of 30 or 32 (a).
t,tb and As to the length and form of the ftock, it may be
i of the laid down as a principle, that a long ftock is preferable
to a fhort one, and at the fame time rather more bent
than ufual ; for a long ftock fits firmer to the fhoulder
than a fhort one, and particularly fo when the fhooter
is accuftomed to place his left hand, which principally
fupports the piece, near to the entrance of the ramrod
into the ftock.
It is certain, however, that the ftock may be fo form-
ed as to be better fuited to one man than another.
For a tall, long-armed man, the ftock of a gun fhould
be longer than for one of a lefs ftature and fhorter arm.
That a ftraight ftock is proper for him who has high
fhoulders and a fhort neck ; lor, if it be much bent, it
would be very difficult for him, efpecially in the quick
motion required in (hooting at a flying or running ob-
jeft, to place the butt of the gun-ftock firmly to the
fhoulder, the upper part alone would in general be fix-
ed ; which would not only raife the muzzle, and confc-
quently ftioot high, but make the recoil much more
fenfibly felt, than if the whole end of the ftock were
9 ] s H o
firmly placed on his fhoulder. Befides, fuppofing the Shooting,
fhooter to bring the butt home to his fhoulder, he would — — v——^
fcarcely be able to level his piece at the objeft. On
the contrary, a man with low fhoulders, and a long-
neck, requires a ftock much beat ; for if it is ftraight,
he will, in the aft of lowering his head to that place of
the ftock at which his cheek fhould reft in taking aim,
feel a conftraint which he never experiences, when by
the effeft of the proper degree of bent, the ftock lends
him fome afliftance, and, as it were, meets his aim half
way.
Having now defcribed the fowHng-piece which has
been found to anfwer beft, it will next be proper to
give fome inftruftions for the choice of gunpowder,
fhot, and wadding. ^
The various kinds of gunpowder are well known ; Befl gun-
but, in the opinion of fome experienced fportfmen, powder.
Hervey's battle-powder is the beft. Thofe who wifh
to examine the ftrength of powder, may determine it
by drying fome of it very well, and then trying how
many fheets of paper it will drive the fliot through, at
the diftance of 10 or 12 yards. In this trial we fnould
be careful to employ the fame fized fhot in each experi-
ment, the quantity both of the fhot and the powder
being regulated by exaft Aveight ; otherwife we cannot,
even in this experiment, arrive to any certainty in com-
paring the ftrength of different powders, or of the fame
powder at different times. ^
Powder ought to be kept very dry, for every degree To be kept
of moifture injures it ; and if confiderable, the faltpetre dry.
is diffolved, and the intimate combination of the feveral
ingredients is entirely deftroyed. It is obferved, that
after firing with damp powder the piece becomes
very foul, which feems to arife from the diminution
of the aftivity of the fire in the explofion. Flaflcs of
copper or tin are much better for keeping povfrder in
than thofe made of leather, or than fmall caflcs. Their
necks ought to be fmall and well ftopped with cork. g
The patent milled Jhot is now very generally ufed, and Size of
is reckoned fuperior to any other. The fize of the fhot.
fhot muft vary according to the particuliar fpecies of
game which is the objedl of the fportfman's purfuit, as
well as be adapted to the feafon. In the firft month of
partridge fhooting, i. is moft proper; for fince at this
time the birds fpring near at hand, and we feldom fire at
more than the diftance of 40 paces, if the fhooter takes
his aim but tolerably well, it is almoft impoflible for a
bird at this diftance to efcape in the circle which the
fhot forms.
As hares fit clofer, and are thinly, 'covered with fur
at this feafon, they may eafily be killed with this fhot
at 30 or 35 paces. N" i. is equally proper for fhoot-
ing fnipes or quails. About the beginning of Ofto-
ber, when- the partridges are ftronger, N'*- 3. is the moft
proper fhot to be ufed. Many fportfmen ufe no other
during the whole feafon. The direftions which have
now been given refer only to the patent fhot.
We fhall now fubjoin a table, which, will fliow at one
view the number of pellets compofing an ounce weight
of each fort of fhot, the patent and the common, begin-
ning with the fmalleft lize.
Patent
(a) In fpeaking of the fize of the caliber, we mean by 22 or 24, that fo many balls exadly fitting it welg:h
Juft one pound } and every caliber is marked ia the fame way.
StiOfsting.
S H O
Patent Shot.
[ ]
S H O
Common Shot.
Proportion
of powder
and fhot in
the charge
10
Vf&ddiag-
It
Powder
and fhot
to'.be flight-
ly rammed
4own.
620
480
300
220
J 80
105
83
35°
260
235
190
140
1 10
95
For a fowling-piece of a common caliber, which is
from 24 to 30 balls to the pound weight, a dram and
a quarter, or at moft a dram and a half, of good pow-
der; and an ounce, or an ounce and a quarter of ihot, is
fufficient. But when fhot of a larger fize is ufed, fuch
as N° 5. the charge of fhot may be increafed one-
fourth, for the purpofe of counterbalancing in forae de-
gree what the fize of the fhot lofes in the number of
pellets, and alfo to enable it to garnifh the more. For
this purpofe the fportfman will find a meafure marked
with the proper gauges very convenient to him. An
inilrument of this nature has been made by an ingeni-
ous artifl of London, Egg, of the Haymarket,
A confequence of overloading with ihot, is the pow-
der has not fufficient ftrength to throw it to its proper
diflance ; for if the objeft fired at be diftant, one-half
of the pellets compofing the charge, by their too great
quantity and weight, will ftrike againft each other, and
fall by the way ; and thofe which reach the mark will
have fmall force, and will produce but little or no ef-
feft.
The ufe of the tvaJd'mg is to carry the fliot in a
body to a certain diftance from the muzzle of the piece.
It ought to be of foft and pliable materials. The beft
kind oi wadding, in the opinion of an experienced fow-
ler, is a piece of an old hat ; but this cannot be obtain-
ed in fufficient quantity. Next to it nothing is better
than foft brown paper, which combines fupplenefs with
confiflence, moulds itfelf to the barrel, and never falls to
the ground within 12 or 15 paces from the muzzle of
the piece. Tow anfwers very well, and cork has been
extolled for poffeffing the peculiar virtue of increafing
the range and clofenefs of the fhot.
The wadding ought to be quite clofe in the barrel,
but not rammed too hard ; for if it be rammed too clofe,
or be of a rigid fubftance, the piece will recoil, and the
fhot will fpread too much. On the other hand, if the
wadding be very loofe, or is compofed of too foFt ma-
terials, fuch as wool or cotton, the difcharge will not
pofTefs proper force.
In loading a piece, the powder ought to be flightly
rammed down by only prcffing the ramrod two or three
times on the wadding, and not by drawing up the ram-
rod and then returning it into the barrel with a jerk of
the arm feveral times. For when the powder is vio- Shoot
lently comprefTed, fome of the grains muft be bruifed, — v-
which will prevent the cxplofion from being quick, and
will fpread the fhot too wide. In pourin the powder
into the barrel, the meafure ought to be held fo as that
the powder may fall moft readily to the bottom. That
BO grains may adhere to the fides of the barrel, the
butt-end of the piece may be ftruck agaj.ift the ground.
The fhot ought never to be rammed down vvlth force :
it is fufficient to ftrike the butt-end of the gun againft
the ground as before. Then the wadding is to be put
down gently. A fportfman ought never to carry his gun
under his arm with the muzzle inclined downwards,
for this praftice loofens the wadding and charge too
much.
Immediately after the piece Is fired it ought to be re- Diredli
loaded ; for while the barrel is flill warm, there is no ^"^ l®^'
danger of any moifture lodging in it to hinder the pow-^"^ ^""^
der from falling to the bottom. As it is found that the
coldnefs of the barrel, and perhaps the moifture con-
denfed in it, diminifhes the force of the powder in the
firft fliot ; it is proper to fire off a little powder before
the piece is loaded. Some prime before loadino-, but
this is not proper unlefs the touch-hole be very large.
After every difcharge the touch-hole ought to be prick-
ed, or a fmall feather may be inferted to clear away any
humidity or foulnefs that has been contracted.
The fportfman having loaded his piece, muft next
prepare to fire. For this purpofe he ought to .place
his hand near the entrance of the ramrod, and at the
fame time grafp the barrel firmly. The muzzle fhould
be a little elevated, for it is more ufual to fhoot low
than high. This diredlion ought particularly to be at-
tended to when the obje£l is a little diftant ; becaufe
fliot as well as ball only moves a certalo diftance point
blank, when it begins to defcribe the curve of the pa-
rabola.
Pradlce foon teaches the fportfman the proper di-DIftanc
ftance at which he fliould fhoot. The diftance at which whxh
he ought infallibly to kill any kind of game with pa- ^P'^'"'^^"
tent fliot, N^" 3. provided the aim be well taken, is from ^-ij/^
25 to 35 paces for the footed, and from 40 to 45 paces
for the winged, game. Beyond this diftance even to
50 or 55 paces, both partridges and hares are fometimes
killed ; but in general the hares are only flightly wound-
ed, and carry away the fhot ; and the partridcjes at that
diftance prefent fo fmall a furface, that they frequently
efcape untouched between the fpaces of the circle. Yet
it does not follow that a partridge may not be killed
with N* 3 patent fliot at 60 and even 70 paces diftance,
but then thefe fhots are very rare.
In fliooting at a bird flying, or a hare running acrofs, H
it is neceffary to take aim before the objeft in propor-ain.
tlon to its diftance at the time of firing. If a partridge
flies acrofs at the diftance of 30 or 35 paces, it will be
fufficient to aim at the head, or at moft but a fmall
fpace before it. If it be 50, 60, or 70 paces diftant, it
is then requifite to aim at leaft half a foot before the
head. The fame practice ought to be obferved in
fhooting at a hare, rabbit, or fox, when running in a
crofs diredlion ; at the fame time making due allowance
for
(b) The reader will obferve, that the patent fhot has no N'' 6. the X being fubftituted in its place, and
that tlie numbers do not follow each other in the order of progreflion : the reafon of this we cannot affign.
S H O
part
jicce
ept
Ing for the dlftance and fwiftnefs of the pace. Another
thing to be attended to is, that the (hooter ought not
involuntarily to Hop the motion of the arme at the mo-
ment of puUing the trigger ; for the inftant the hand
ftops in order to hre, however inconfiderablc the time
be, the bird gets beyond the line of aim, and the (hot
will mifs it. A fportfman ought therefore to accu-
ftom his hand while he is taking aim to follow the ob-
jedl. When a hare runs in a ftraight line from the
fliooter, he (liould take his aim between the ears, other-
wife he will run the hazard either of miffing, or at
leaft not of klUing dead, or as it is fometimes called
clean.
A fowling-piece (hould not be fired more than 20
or 25 times without being waflied ; a barrel when foul
neither (hoots fo ready, nor carries the fhot fo far as
when clean. The flint, pan,^nd hammer, (hould be
well wiped after each (hot ; this contributes greatly to
make the piece go off quick, but then it fhould be done
with fuch expedition, that the barrel may be reloaded
whilft warm, for the reafons we have before advanced.
The flint fhould be frequently changed, without wait-
ing until it miffes fire, before a new one is put in. Fif-
teen or eighteen (hots, therefore, fliould only be fired
with the fame flint ; the expence is too trifling to be re-
garded, and by changing it thus often much vexation
will be prevented.
A gun alfo fhould never be fired with the prime of
the preceding day ; it may happen that an old priming
will fometimes go off well, but it will more frequently
contract moifture and fuze in the firing ; then the ob-
jeft will mofl; probably be miffed, and that becaufe the
piece Was not frefh primed.
For the information of the young fportfman we
'fhall add a few more general direftions. In warm wea-
ther he ought to feek for game in plains and open
grounds, and in cold weather he may fearch little hills
expofed to the fun, along hedges among heath, in
ftubbles, and in paftures where there is much furze and
fern. The morning is the bed time of the day, before
the dew is exhaled, ancf before the game has been di-
[ ]
S H O
am
nie'
for.
couraged, will always kill the greateft quantity of Shooting.
game ; and if he is fliooting in company, he w^ill find
game where others have paffed without dlfcovering any.
When he has fired he fhould call in his dog, that he
may not have the mortification to fee game rife which
he cannot flioot. When he has killed a bird, inflead
of being anxious about picking it up, he ought to fol-
low the reft of the covey with his eye till he fee them
fettle.
Three fpecies of dogs are capable of receiving the Dogs^L
proper inftruftion, and of being trained. Thefe arefor iport.
the fmooth pointer, the fpaniel, and the rough pointer.
The laft is a dog with long curled hair, and feems to
be a mixed breed of the water-dog and the fpaniel.
The fmooth pointer is aftive and lively enough in his
range, but in general is proper only for an open coun-
try.
T he greateft part of thefe dogs are afraid of water,
brambles, and thickets ; but the fpaniel and the rough
pointer are eafily taught to take the water, even in cold
weather, and to range the woods and rough places as
well as the plain. Greater dependence may therefore
be had on thefe two laft fpecies of dogs than on the
fmooth pointer. jj
The education of a pointer may commence when he Diredlion*
is only five or fix months old. The only lefTons which t''*'"*''?
he can be taught at this time are to fetch and carry any ^ pointer,
thing when defired ; to come in when he runs far off,
and to go behind when he returns ; ufing, in the one
cafe, the words here, come irtf and m the other back or
behind. It is alfo neceffary at this period to accuftom
him to be tied up in the kennel or ftable ; but he ought
not at firll to be tied too long. He fhould be let loofc
in the morning, and faftened again in the evening.
When a dog is not early accuftomed to be chained, he
difturbs every perfon in the neighbourhood by howHng.
It is alfo of importance that the perfon who is to train
him fhould give him his food.
When the dog has attained the age of 16 or 12
months, he may be. carried into the field to be regular-
ly trained. At firft he may be allowed to follow his
llurbed. The colour of the (hooters drefs ought to be own inclination, aTi4 to run after every animal he fees.
the fame with that of the fields and trees ; in lummer
it ought to be green, in winter a dark grey. He
ought to hunt as much as poffiblc with the wind, not
only to prevent the game from perceiving the approach
of him and his dog, but alfo to enable the dog to fcent
the game at a greater diftance.
He fhould never be difcouraged from hunting and
ranging the fame' ground over and over again, efpeci-
ally in places covered with heath, brambles, high grafs,
or young coppi(^e vs^ood. A hare or rabbit will fre-
quently fuffer him to pafs fcveral times within a few
yards of its form without getting up. He fhould be
ftlll more patient when he has marked partridges into
fuch places, for it often happens, that after the birds
have been fprung many times, they He fo dead that
they will fuffer him almoft to tread upon them before
they will rife. PheafaTits, xjuails, and woodcocks do the
fame.
He ought to look carefully about him, never paffing
a bufli or tuft of grafs without examination ; but he
ought never to ftrike them with the muzzle of his gun
for it will loofen his wadding. He who patiently beats
and ranges his ground over again, without being dif-
Vol. XVII. Part IL
His indifcriminating eagerncfs will foon abate, and he
will purfue only partridges and hares. He will foon
become tired of following partridges in vain, and will
content himfelf after having flufhed them to follow them
with his eyes. It will be more difiicult to prevent him
from following hares.
^ All young dogs are apt to rake ; that is, to hunt
with their nofes clofe to the ground, to follow birds ra-
ther by the track than by the wind. But partridges
lie much better to dogs that ivind them, than to thofe
that follow them by the track. The dog that winds
the fcent approaches the birds by degrees and without
diflurbing them ; but they are immediately alarmed
when they fee a dog tracing their footfteps. When
you perceive that your dog is committing this fault,
call to him in an angry tone holdup: he will then grow
uneafy and agitated, going firfl to the one fide and then
to the other, until the wind brings him the fcent of
the birds. After finding the game four or five times in
this way, he will take the wind of himfelf, and hunt
with his nofe high. If it be difiicult to correft this
fault,' it will be neceffary to put the puzzle peg upon
him. This is of very fimple conftrudion, confifting
3 1^ only
S H O [ 442 ]
Shooting, only of a piece of oak or deal Incli board, one foot in re£l him
^"""y^^ length, and an Inch and a half in breadth, tapering a
little to one end ; at the broader end are two holes run-
iiinjr lon;Titudinally, throu ^li which the collar of the dog
is put, and the whole is buckled round his neck ; the
piece of wood being {)ro)e£led beyond his nofe, is then
iaftened with a piece of leather thong to his under jaw.
By this means the peg advancing feven or eight inches
l)eyond his fnout, the dog is prevented from putting his
nofe to the ground and raking.
As foon as the young dog knows his game you muft
bring him under complete fubjeCtion. If he is tradable,
this will be cafy; but if he is ilubborn, it will be necef-
fary to ufe the tra/h cnrd, which is a rope or cord of
20 or 25 fathoms in length fallened to his collar. If
he refufe to come back when called upon, you mull
check him fmartly with the cord, which will often bring
him upon his haunches. But be fure you never call to
him except when you are within reach of the cord. Af-
ter repeating this fevcral times he will not fail to
come back v/hen called ; he ought then to be carefied,
and a bit of brt.ad fhould be given him. He ought now
conftuntly to be tied up, and never unchained, except
Avhen vou give him his food, and even then only when
lie has done fomething to deferve it.
The next ftep will be to throw down a piece of
bread on the ground, at the fame moment taking liold
of the dog by the collar, calling out to him, " take
lieed, — fofily." After having held him in this manner
for fome (pace of time, fay to him, " feize — lay hold."
If he is impatient to lay hold of the piece of bread be-
fore the fignal is fjiven, correft him gently with a fmall
whip. Repeat this lelTon until he " takes heed" well,
snd no longer requires to be held fait to prevent him
from laying hold of the bread. When he is well ac-
< uilomed to this manege, turn the bread with a ftick,
holding it in tin.' manner you do a fowhng-piece, and
having done fo, cry fei%e. Never fuffer the dog to eat
*-itlier in tlie houfe or field without having firll made
})im take heed In this manner.
Then, in order to apply this lelTon to the game, fry
fmall pieces of biead in hogs lard, with the dung of par-
tridge ; take thefe in a linen bag into the fields, ttub-
bles, ploughed grounds, and paftures, and there put the
pieces in feveral different places, marking the fpots with
h'ttle cleft pickets of wood, which will be rendered
more diftlng-uifl-iable by putting pieces of card in the
nicks. This being done, call off the dog and conduft
}iim to thefe places, always hunting in the wind. After
he has caught the fceot of the bread, if he approaches
loo near, and fecms eager to fall upon it, cry to him in
a menacing tone, " take heed ," and if he does not flop
immediately, corredl him with the whip. He will foon
comprehend what is required of him, and will ftand.
At the next leffon, take yourgun charged only wilhpow-
der, walk gently round the piece of bread once or twice,
and fire inftead of crying y^/zf. The next time ofprac-
tifing this leffon, walk round the liread four or five times,
but in a greater circle than before, and continue to do
this, until the dog is conquered of his impatience, and
■will ftand without moving until the fignal is given him.
When he keeps his point well, and ftands fteady in thic
leffon, you may carry him to the birds ; if he runs in
upon them, 01 barks when they fpring up, you mull cor-
S H O
and if he continues to do fo, you muft return Sho
to the fried bread ; but this is leldom necelfary.
When the dog has learned by thlh ufe of the bread
to take heed, he may be carried to the fields with the
tradi-cord dragging on the ground. When he fprings
birds for the firll time, if he runs after them or harks,
check him by calling out to him, takt heed, if he poirit
properly, carefs him ; but you ou;.^ht never to hunt
without the cord until he point ftaunch.
If the dog riuis after ftieep, and it be difficult to cure ^n<l,
him, couple him with a ram, and then whip the dog as^*!"^!
long as you can follow him. His cries will at fiift
alarm the ram ; he will run with all his fpeed, and drag
the dog along with him ; but he will at length take
courage, turn upon the dog, and butt him feverely with
his horns. When you think the dog is fufficlently chaf-
lifed, untie him : he wilFnever run at fheep aorain.
Having now given a few general iaftrucllons con-
cerning the bell method of training pointers, we lhall
fubjoin a few obfervations refpetting the moft common
fpecies of game, the ]iartridge, pheafant, groufe, wood-
cock, fnipe, and wild duck.
Partridges pair in the fpring, and lay their eggs (ge-olf!
nerally from 15 to 20) during May and part of June, tmnj
The young begin to fly about the end of June, and their i- cm
plumage is complete in the beginning of Odlober. The P^'''
male has a confpicuous horfefhoe upon his breaft, an
obtufe fpur on the hinder part of the leg, which dl-
ftinguifiics him from the female. He is aUb rather lar-
When a fportfman is ftiooting in a country where
the birds are thin, and he no longer choofes to range
the field for the bare chance of meeting with them,
tlie fcjUowing method w-ill fliow him where to find then^
on another day. In the evening, from fun-fet to night-
fall, he fliould poll himfelf in a field, at the foot of a
tree or a bufh, and there wait until the partridge begin
to call or juck, which they always do at that time ;
not only for the purpofe of drawing together when fe-
parated, but alfo when the birds compofing the covey-
are not difperfed. After calhng in this manner for
fome little fpace of time, the partridges will take to
flight ; then, if he mark the place where they alight,,
he may be affured they will lie there the whole night,
unlefs difturbed. Let him return to the fame poR the
next mopning by break of day, and there watch a whllej
being careful to keep his dog hi a ftring, if he is not
under perfedi command.
As foon as the dawn begins to peep, the partridges
will begin to call, and foon afterwards will perform the
fame manoeuvre as on the preceding evening; that
is, after having called a while, they will take their
flight, and will moft commonly fettle at a little diftance.
There in a few minutes they will call again, and fome-
times take a fecond flight, but that will be to no great
dillance. Then as foon as the fun is rifen, and the
fportfman can fee to fltoot, he may call off his dog' and
purfue them.
The pheafant Is of the fize of a common dunghill Ph
cock, and lays its eggs generally \\\ the woods, the
number of which is 10 or I2.
Pheafants are accounted ftupid birds -f for when they
are furprifed they will frequently fquat down like a rab-
bit; fuppofing themftlves to be in fafety as foon as their
heads.
S H O
heads are concealed ; and in this way they will fome-
times fuffer themfelves to be killed with a llick. They
love low and moid places, and haunt tlie edges of thofe
pools which are found in woods, as well as the hiy h grafs
of marflies that are near at hand ; and above all, places
where there are clumps of alders.
Groufe, or muir-game, are found in Wales, in the
northern counties of England, and in great abuwdance
in Scotland. They chiefly inhabit thofe mountains and
muirs which arc covered with heath, and feldom de-
fcend to the low grounds. They fly in companies of
four or five braces, and love to frequent mofly places,
particularly in the middle of the day or when the wea-
ther is warm. In purfuinfi this game, when the pointer
fets, and the fportfman perceives the birds nmning with
their heads ereft, he muil run alter them as faft as he
can, in the hope that he may get near enough t® (hoot
when they rife upon the wing ; for he may be pretty
certaiii they will not lie well that day. As thefe birds
are apt to grow foon putrid, they ought to lie drawn
carefully the inftant they are fliot and Huffed with any
heath, and if the feathers happen to be wetted they mull
be wiped dry.
The -woodcock is a bird of paffage ; it commonly ar-
r 443 1
S H O
which Is fmallcr ; by "the tiails, which are more black ;
and above all, by the web of the foot, which is much
finer and fofter to the touch. ^
Tn tile fummer feafon, when it is known that a team
of young ducks are in a particular piece of water, and
jud beginning to fly, the fportfman is fure to find them
early in the morning dabbling at the edoes of the pool,
and amongfl the long grafs, and then he may get very
near to them : it is ufual alfo to find them in thofe pla-
ces at noon.
In the beginning of autumn almoft every pool is fre-
quented by teams of wild ducks, which remain theic
during the day, concealed in the rufhes. If thefe pools
are oi fmall extent, two (hooters, by going one on each
fide, making a noife and throwing ftones into the rufhes,
will make them fly up ; and they will in this way fre-
quently get fhots, efpecially if the pool is not broad,
and contrafts at one end. But the fureft and mofl fuc-
cef&ful way, is to launch a fmall boat or trow on the
pool, and to traverfe the ruflies by the openings which
are found ; at the fame time making as little noife as
poffible. In this manner the ducks will fufiPer the fportf-
men to come fufliciently near them to flioot flying ; and
it often happens that the ducks, after havin r flown up.
rives about the end of Otlober, and remains until the only make a circuit, return in a little time, and again
middleof March. Woodcocks are fattefl in December and ali!)ht upon the pool. Then the fportfmen endeavour
January, but from the end of February they are lean.
At their arrival they drop anywhere, but afterwards take
up their refidence in copfts of nine or ten years growth.
They feldom, however, flay in one place longer than 1 2
or 15 days. During the day they remain m thofe parts
of the woods where there arc void fpaces or glades,
picking up earth-worms and grubs from the fallen leaves.
In the evening they go to drink and wafh their bills at
pools and fprings, after which they repair to the open
fields and meadows (or tht night. It is remarkable,
that when a woodcock fprings from a wood to go into
a fecond time to come near them. If feve^al (hoot-
ers, are in company, they Ihould divide, two fhould
go in the boat, whilll the others fpread themfelves a-
bout the edge of the pool, in order to fhoot the ducks
in thtir flight. In pools which will not admit a tro\^',
water-fpanicls are abfolutely neceffary for this fport.
In winter they may be found on the margins of little
pools ; and when pools and rivers arc frozen up, they
mud be watched for in places where there are fprings
and waters which do not freeze. The fport is then
much more certain, becaufe the ducks are confined to
the open country, he always endeavours to find fome thefe places in order to procure aquatic herbs, which
pe.
glade or opening, which he follows to the boundaries of
the wood. At his return he purfues the fame path a
good way, and then turns to the right or left oppofite
to fome glade, in order to drop Into a thick part of the
wood, wher e he may be fheltered from the wind. He
may therefore be watched with advantage in thefe nar-
row paffes and little alleys on the edges of woods which
lead CO a pool or fpring, or he may be watched in the
duflc of the evening near the pools which he frequents.
The fnipe is a bird of paffage as well as the wood-
cock. This bird is fcarcely worth fhooting till the
frofl commences. In the month of November they be-
gin to grow fat. Snipes, like woodcocks, frequent
fprings, bogs, and marfhy places, and generally fly a- always covered with water
duck
eainfl the wind. The flant and crofs fhots ait rather
difficult, as the birds are fmall and fly very quickly.
The fportfman ought to look for them in the direftion
of the wind ; becaufe then they will fly towards him,
and prefent a fairep mark.
The ivi/d duck is alfo a bii'd of paffage, and arrives
here in great flocks from the northern c<juntries in the
beginning of winter. Still, however, a great many re-
main in our marfhes and fens during the whule year,
and breed.
The wild duck differs little in plumage from the tame
duck, but is eafily diftinguifhed by its fize, which is
kfs ; by the neck, which is more flender ; by the foot^
ShoDtIng
II
Shore.
are almofl their only food at this period.
SHOP-LIFTERS, are thofe that Ileal goods privately
out of (hops ; which, being to the value of 5 s. though
no perfon be in the (hop, is felony without the benefic
of clergy by the I o and i i W. III. c. 23.
SHORE, a place wallied by the fea, or by fome large
river.
Count Marfigli divides the fea-fliore into three por-
tions : the firlt of which is that track of land which the
fea jufl reaches in llorms and high tides, but which it
never covers ; the fecond part of the (hore is that which
is covered in high tides and (lorms, but is dry at other
times ; and the third Is the defcent from this, which is
The firfl part is only a continuation of the continent,
and fuffers no alteration from the neiohbourhood of the
fea, except that it Is rendered fit for the growth of fome
plants, and wholly unfit for that of others, by the faline
fleams and impregnations : and It is fcarce to be con-
ceived by any, but thofe who have obferved it, how far
on land the effe£ls of the fea reach, fo as to make the
earth proper for plants which will not grow without
this influence ; there being feveral plants frequently
found on high hills and dry places, at three, four, and
more miles from the fea, which yet would not grow un-
lets in the neighbourhood ot it, nor will ever be found
elfc where.
3 K 2 The
Shore
II
Short.
S H O
llie fecond part or portion of the fhore is
more afFefted by the fta than the former, being fre
^ quently wafhed and beaten by it. Its produftions are ren-
dered fait by the water, andit is covered with fand, or
with the fragments of {hells in form of fand, and in fc^me
places with a tartarous flatter depofited from the water ;
the colour of this whdle extent of ground is ufiially
dufity and dull, efpecially where there are rocks and
ilones, and thefe covered with a flimy matter.
The third part of the fhore is more affefted by the
fea than either of the others ; and is covered with an
uniform cruft of the true nature of the bottom of the
fea, except that plants and animals have their refidence
in it, and the decayed parts of thefe alter it a little,
SHORE (Jane), the celebrated concubine of the
licentious k'mcr Ea>Ard IV. was the wife of Mr Mat-
thew Shore, a goldfmith in Lombard ftreet, London.
KingB are feldom unfuccefsful in their amorous purfuits;
therefot-e there was nothings wonderful in Mrs Shore's
removing from I^ombard-flreet to fhine at court as the
royal favourite. Hiflorians reprefent her as extremely
beautiful, remarkably cheerful, and of moft uncommoji
generofity. The king, it is faid, was no lefs captivated
with her temper than with her peribn : fhe never made
life of her influence over him to the prejudice of any
perfon ; and if ever fhe importuned him, it was in fa-
vour of the unfortunate. After the death of Edward,
fhe attached herfelf to the lord Hattings ; and when
Richard III. cut off that nobleman as an obflacle to
his ambitious fchemes, Jane Shore was arrelled as an
accomplice, on the ridiculous accufation of witchcraft.
This, however, terminated only in a public penance ;
excepting that Richard rifled her of all her little pro-
perty : but whatever feverity might have been exercifed
towards her, it appears that flie was ahve, though fuf-
ficiently wretched, under the reign of Henry VIII.
when Sir Thomas More faw her poor, old, and fhri vei-
led, without the leafl trade of her former beauty. Mr
Rowe, in his tragedy of Jane Shore, has adopted the
popular flory related in the old hiflorical ballad, of her
perifhing by hunger in a ditch'where Shoreditch now
ftands. But Stow afTures us that ftreet was fo named
before her time.
SHORL. See Schorl.
SHORLING and Morling, are words to diflin-
gullh fells of flieep ; JJjor&ig being the fells after the
fleeces are fhorn off the fheep's back ; and morling, the
fells flead off after they die or are killed. In fome
parts of England they underftand by a Jborling, a fheep
whofe face is fhorn off ; and by a mor/ing, a fheep that
dies.
SHORT (James), an eminent optician, was born in
Edinburgh on the loth of June, O. S. in the year 1 7 lo.
At ten years of age, having l©fl his father and mother,
and being left in a flate of indigence, he was received
into Heriot's" Hofpital, (fee Edinburgh Public Build-
ings, n° 16.), where he foon difplayed his mechanical
genius in confl:rufting, for himfelf, little chefts, book-
cafes, and other conveniences, with fuch tools as fell in
kis way. At the age of twelve he was removed from
the Hofpital to the liigh School, where he fhowed a
confiderable tafle for elaflical literature, and generally
kept at the head of his forms. In the year 1726 he
was entered into the unlverfity, where he pafied through
[ 444 1 S H O
much the ufual" courfe of education, and took his mafter's de-
gree with great applaufe.
By his friends he was intended for the church ; but
after attending a courfe of theological leftures, his mind
revoked from a profefTion which he thought little fuit-
ed to his talents ; and he devoted his whole time to ma-
thematical and mechanical purfuits. He had been for-
tunate enougli to have the celebrated M'Laurin for his
preceptor ; who having foon difcovered the bent of his
genius, and made a proper eft:imate of the extent of his
capacity, encouraged him to profecute thofc ftudies ia
which nature had qualified him to make the greatefl fi-
gure. Under the eye of that eminent mafter, he began
in 1732 to conftruft Gregorian telefcopes ; and, as the
profeflbr obferved in a letter to Dr Jurin, " by taking
care of the figure of his fpecula, he was enabled to give
them larger apertures, and to carry them to greater
perfection, than had ever been done before him." See
Optics, n^ 97.)
In the year 1736 Mr Short was called to London,
at the defire of Queen Caroline, to give inftrudlions in
mathematics to William duke of Cumberland; and imme-
diately on his appointment to that very honourable of&ce
he was eledled a fellow of the royal fociety, and patro-
nifed by the earls of Morton and Macclesfield. In the
year 1739 he accompanied the former of thofe noble
lords to the Orkney Ifles, where he was employed in
adjufling the geography of that part of Scotland : and
happy it was for him that he was fo employed, as he
might otherwife have been involved in a fcufHe which
took place between the retainers of Sir James Stewart
of Barra and the attendants of the earl, in which fome
of the latter were dangeroufly wounded.
Mr Short having returned to London, and finally
cftablifhed himfelf there in the line of his profeffion, was
in 1743 employed by lord Thomas Spencer to make
for him a refledfor of twelve feet focus, for which he
received 600 guineas. He made feveral other telefcopes
of the fame focal diflance with greater improvement*
and higher magnifiers ; and in 1752 finifhed one for the
king of Spain, for which, with its whole apparatus, he
received 1 200I. This was the nobleft inflrument of the
kind that had then been conflruded, and perhaps it haa
never yet been furpaffed except by the aftonifhin<r re-
fledfors of Herfchel. See Telescope. °
Mr Short was wont to vifit the place of his nativity
once every two or three years during his refidence iu
London, and in 1766 he vifited it for the laft time. Oa
the 15th of June 1768 he died, after a very fhort ill-
nefs, at Newington Butts, near London, of a mortifica-
tion in his bowels, and was buried on the izd of the
fame month, having completed, within a few days, his
fifty-eighth year. He left a fortune of about 20,oool.
of which 15,0001. was bequeathed to two nephews,
and the refl; in legacies to his friends. In gratitude for
the fteady patronjige of the earl of Morton, he left to
his daughter the Lady Mary Douglas, afterwards coun-
tefs of Aboyne, loocL and the reverfion of his fortune,
fhould his nephews die without iffue ; but this rever-
fionary legacy the lady, at the defire of her father, ge-
neroufly rehnquifhed by a deed in favour of Mr Sliort's
brother Mr Thomas Short and his children. Mr
Short's eminence as an artifl is univerfally known, and
we have often heard him fpokcn of by thofe who had
known
S H O
r 445 1
S H O
Ot.
known him from his youth, as a man of virtue and of
very amiable manners.
SnoRT-handlVrUing. See Stenography.
SHORT-joitited, in the manege. A horfe is faid to be
fhort -jointed that has a (hort paftern ; when this joint,
or the paftern is too fhort, the horfe is fubjedt to have
his fore legs from the knee to the cornet all in a ftraight
line. Commonly your fhort-jointed horfes do not ma-
nege fo well as the lontr .jointed ; but out of the manege
the flaort-jointed are the beft for travel or fatigue.
SnoRT-S'ightednefs, a certain defeft in vifion, by which
objefts cannot be diftinftly feen unlefs they are very
near the eye. See Optics, n" 155.
SHORTFORD, q. d. fore-clofey an ancient cuftom
in the city of Exeter, when the lord of the fee cannot
be anfwered rent due to him out of his tenement, and
BO diflrefs can be levied for the fame. The lord is then
to come to the tenement, and there take a ftone, or
fome other dead thing off the tenement, and bring It
before the mayor and bailiff, and thus he muft do feven
quarter days fucceffively; and if on the feventh quarter-
day the lord is not fatlsfled of his rent and arrears, then
the tenement fhall be adjudged to the lord to hold the
fame a year and a day ; and forthwith proclamation is
to be made in the court, that if any man claims any
title to the faid tenement, he mufl appear within the
year and day next following, and fatlsfy the lord of the
faid rent and arrears : but if no appearance be made,
and the rent not paid, the lord comes again to the
court, and prays that, according to the cuftom, the
faid tenement be adjudged to him in his demefne as
of fee, which is done accordingly, fo that the lord hath
from thenceforth the faid tenement, with the appurte-
nances to him and his heirs.
SHOT, a denomination given to all forts of balls for
fire-aims ; thofe for cannon being of iron, and thofe for
guns, piftols, &c. of lead. See Shooting.
Cafe Shot formerly confiftcd of all kinds of ©Id iron,
nails, muflcet-balls, ftones, &c. ufed as above.
Shot of a Cable, on fhlp-board. Is the fpllcing of two
cables together, that a fhip may ride fafe in deep waters
and In great roads; for a fhip will ride eafier by one (hot
of a cable, than by three fhort cables out ahead.
Grape Shot. See GsAPE-Shot.
Patent milled Shot Is thus made : Sheets of lead,
whofe thicknefs correfponds with the fize of the fhot
required, are cut into fmall pieces, or cubes, of the
form of a die. A great quantity of thefe little
cubes are put Into a large hollow iron cylinder, which
not being always to be had in every place fit for the pur-
pofe, we fhall fet down the true method of making all
forts and fizes under the name of mould-Jhol. Its prin-
cipal good properties are to be round and folld.
Take any quantity of lead you think fit, and melt It
down in an Iron veffel ; and as It melts keep it ftlrring,
with an iron ladle, flclmming off all Impurities whatfo-
ever that may arife at the top : when it begins to look
of a greenifh colour, ftrew on it as much auriplgmentum
or yellow orplment, finely powdered, as will lie on a fhll-
ling, to every 12 or 14 pound of lead; then ftlrring
them together, the orplment will flame.
The ladle fhould have a notch on one fide of the
brim, for more eafily pouring out the lead ; the ladle
muft remain In the melted lead, that its heat may be the
fame with that of the lead, . to prevent inconveniences
which otherwife might happen by Its being either toa
hot or too cold : then, to try your lead, drop a little of
it into water, and if the drops prove round, then the
lead is of a proper heat ; if otherwife, and the fh®t have-
tails, then add more orplment to Increafe the heat, till
it be found fufficient.
Then take a plate of copper, about the bignefs of a
trencher, which muft be made with a hollownefs in the
middle, about three Inches compafs, within which muft
be bored about 40 holes according to the fize of the
fhot which you intend to caft: the hollow bottom ftiould
be thin ; but the thicker the brim, the better It will re-
tain the heat. Place this plate on a frame of Iron, over
a tub or veffel of water, about four Inches from the wa-
ter, and fpread burning coals on the plate, to keep the
lead melted upon It : then take fome lead and pour it
gently on the coals on the plate, and It will make its
way through the holes Into the water, and form itfelf
into fhot ; do thus till all your lead be run through-
the holes of the plate» taking care, by keeping your
coals alive, that the lead do not cool, and fo ftop up the
holes.
While you are cafting in this manner, another perfon-
with another ladle may catch fome of the fliot, placing,
the ladle four or five inches underneath the plate in the-
water, by which means you will fee if they are defec-
tive, and reftify them..
Your chief care is to Iceep the lead In a juft degree
of heat,, that It be not fo cold as to ftop up the hole*
in your plate, ner fo hot as to caufe the fhot to crack 5.
to remedy the heat, you muft refrain working till it is
of a proper coolnefs \ and to remedy the coolnefs of your
lead and plate, you muft blow your fire ; obferving, that
is mounted horizontally and turned by a winoh ; when the cooler your lead is, the larger will be your fhot j as
• ■ ' -n , the hotter it Is, the fmaller they will be.
After you have done cafting, take them out of the
water, and dry them over the fire with a gentle heat,^
ftirring them continually that they do not melt ; when
dry, you are to feparate the great fhot from the fmall;,
by the help of a fieve made for that purpofe, according,
to their feveral fizes. But thofe who would have very
large fliot, make the lead: trickle with a ftick out of the
ladle into the water, without the plate.
If it ftop on the plate, and yet the plate be not too
cool, give but the plate a little knock, and it will run-
again ; care muft be had that none of your implements
be greafy, oily, or the like ; and when the fliot, being
feparated, are found too large or too fmall for your pur-
pofe*
by their frifilion againft one another and agalnft the
fides of the cylinder, they are rendered perfedlly round
and very fmooth. The other patent fhot is caft in
mouMs, in the fame way as bullets are.
SnoT-Flaggon, a fort of flaggon fomewhat bigger than
ordinary, which In fome counties, particularly Derby-
fhlre, it Is the cuftom for the hoft to ferve his guefts in,
after they have drank above a fhllling.
Small Shot, or that ufed for fowling, fhould be well
fjzed, and of a moderate bignefs : for fhould it be too
great, then It flies thin, and fcatters too much ; or if
too fmall, then it hath not weight and ftrength to pe-
netrate far, and the bird Is apt to fly away with it. In
criir, therefore, to have it fuitable to the occafion, it
S H O [ 446
pofe, or otlaerwife imperfeft, they will ftrve again at
the next operation.
The fizes of common fhot for fowling are from N'' i to
6, and fmaller, wliich is called milliard feed, or duft Ihot;
butN''5 is fmall enough for any fliooting whatfoever. The
I may be ufed for wild geefe ; the N'' 2 for ducks,
widgeons, and other water-fowl ; the N=' 3 for phea-
fants, partridges after the firft month, and all the fen-
fowl ; the N° 4 for partridges, woodcocks, &c. ; and
the N° 5 for fnipcs and all the fmaller birds.
Tin-Cafe SnoTy in artillery, is formed by putting
a great quantity of fmall iron fhot into a cylindrical
tin-box called a cannifter, that juft fits the bore of the
gun. Leaden bullets arc fometlmes ufed in the fame
manner ; and it muft be obferved, that whatever num-
ber or fizes of the fliots are ufed, they muft weigh with
their cafes nearly as much as the (hot of the piece.
SHOVEL (Sir Claudelly ), was born about the year
1650 of parents rather in the lower rank of life. He
was put apprentice to a fiioemaker ; but difliking this
profeffion, he abandoned it a few years after, and went
to fea. He was at firft a cabin boy with Sir Chrifto-
pher Mynns, but applying to the ftudy of navigation
with indefatigable induftry, his flcill as a feaman foon
ralfed him above that ftation.
The corfairs of Tripoli having committed great out-
rages on the Englifh in the Mediterranean, Sir John
Narborough was fent in 1674 to reduce them to rea-
fon. As he had received orders to try the efFefts of
ne2;oc:ation before he proceeded to hoftilitics, he fent Mr
Shovel, who was at that time a lieutenant In his fleet,
to demand fatlsfaftion. The Dey treated hlm_ with
a great deal of difrefpeft, and fent him back without
an anfwer. Sir John difpatched him a fecond time,
with orders to remark particularly the fituation of things
on fliore. The behaviour of the Dey was worfe than
ever. Upon Mr Shovel's return, he informed Sir John
that it would be poffible, notwithftanding their fortifi-
cations, to burn all the fhips in the harbour. The boats
were accordingly manned, and the command of them
given to Lieut. Shovel, who feized the guardfhip, and
burnt four others, without lofing a man. This aftion
fo terrified the Tripolins, that they fued for peace.—
Sir John Narborough gave fo favourable an account of
this exploit, that Mr Shovel was foon after made captain
of the Sapphire, a fifth rate (hip.
In the battle of Bantry-Bay, after the revolution, he
commanded the Ed^ar, and, for his gallant behaviour
In that atllon, was foon after knighted by king William.
Next year he was employed in tranfporting an army in-
to Ireland; a fervice which he performed with fo much
diligence and dexterity, that the king raifed him to
the rank of rear-admiral of the blue, and dehvered his
commiflion with his own hands. Soon after he was
made rear admiral of the red, and ftiared the glory of
the vI£lory at La Hogue. In 1694, he bombarded
Dunkirk. In i 703, he commanded the grand fleet in
the Mediterranean, and did every thing in his power to
afiifl the Proteftants who were in arms in the Cevenncs.
Soon after the battle off Malaga, he was prefented
by prince George to Queen Anne, who received him
gracioufiy, and next year employed him as commander
in chief.
In 1705 he commanded the fleet, together with the
carls of Pttcrbcrough and Monmouth, which was fent
Shrcv
1 S H R
into the Mediterranean; and it was Owing to him chief- Sho
ly that Barcelona was taken. Attet an unfuccefsful
attempt upon Toulon, he failed for GIbralt. *, and from
thence homeward with apart of the fleet. On the 22d
of Odlober,.at night, his fhip, with three others, was
call away on the rocks of Scllly. All on board perifli-
ed. His body was found by fome fifhernien on the
ifland of Scilly, who ftripped it of a valuable rinj, and
afterwards burled it. Mr Paxton, the purfer of the
Arundel, hearing of this, found out the fellows, and
obliged them to difcover where they had buried the
body. He carried it on board his own fliip to Portf-
mouth, from whence it was conveyed tc London, and in*
terred with great folemnlty in Wellmlnfter Abbey. A
monument was afterwards erefted to his memory by the
direftlon of the Queen. He married the widow of his
patron, Sir John Narborough, by whom he lelt two
daughters, co-helreflcs.
SHOVELER, in ornithology, a fpecies of Anas.
SHOULDER-BLADE, a bone of the (houlder, of a
triangular figure, covering the hind part of the ribs,
called by anatomllls the fcapula and omopluta. See An .'V-
TOMY.
SHOUT, CLAMOUR, In antiquity, was frequently
ufed on ecclefiaitical, civil, and military occafions, as a
fign of approbation, and fometlmes of indignation. —
Thus as Cicero, in an affembly of the people, was ex-
pofing the arrogance of I^. Antony, who had had the
impudence to caufe himfelf to be infcribed the patron
of the Romans, the people on hearing this railed a fliout
to fhow their indignation. In the ancient mllltaiy dif-
cipllnc, fl-.outs were ufed, i. Upon occafion of the ge-
ntral's making a fpeech or harangue to the army from
bib trlbunah This they did In token of their approving
what had been propofed. 2. Before an engagement, in
order to encourage and fplrlt their own men, and fill
the enemy with dread. This Is a praftice of great an-
tiquity ; befides which, it wants not the authority of
reafon to fupport it ; for as mankind are endowed with
two fenfes, hearing and feeing, by which fear is raifed
in the mind, it may be proper to make ufe ol the ear
as well as the eye for that purpofe. Shouts were alfo
raifed in the ancient theatre, when what was adled pleafed
the fpeftators. It was ufual ior thofe prefent at the
burning of the dead to raife a great fliout, and call the
dead perfon by his name before they fet fire to the pile.
SHOWER, in meteorology, a cloud condenicd in-
to Rain.
SHREWMOUSE. See Sorex.
SHREWSBURY, the capital of Shropfliire in
England. This town, the metropolis of the county,
grew up out of the nuns of Uriconium, anciently a
city, now a village called IVroxeter, about four miles
from it. The Saxons called it Scrobles Benn, from
the fhrubs tliat grew about it ; and from thence the
prefent name of S/jreni/Jjury is fuppoftd to have been
formed. It is pleafantly fituated upon a hill near the
Severn, over which there are two handfome bridges.
It was a place of note in the Saxon times ; after
which it was granted by William the Conqueror, toge-
ther with the title of earl and mofl: of the county, to
Roger de Montgomery, who built a cafl:le upon the
north fide of it, where the Severn, that encompafles it on
all other fides, leaves an opening. His fon Robert built
<dfo a wall acrofs this neck of land, when he revolted
2 from
wfb 1- from Heni7 I.
S H R [ 447 ] S H R
We learn from doomfday-book, that may be feen for feveral miles, ^where Roman coins arc
at that time, when a widow of this town married, flie
paid 20 ihiliings to the kincr, and a . virgin 10. 'I'he
above-mentioned Rojrer founded alfo, and endowed
here, a Jknedidine monaile'-y and a collegiate church.
Whea old a.^e came npon him, he quitted the world,
and fpent the reft of his days as a monk ih the abbey,
and when he died was interred in its church. From
the hiftory of this church and monaftery, it appears,
that ecclefiaftical benefices about th^t time were here-
ditary. The abbey became fo rich afterwards, that the
abbot was mitred, and fat in parliament. Befides this
abbey, in after times there were three others, viz. a
Francifcan, Dominican, and Auguflin, and likewife
two collegiate churches ; one dedicated to St Chad
and the other to St Mary. In the contcft between the
emprcfs Maud and Stephen, this town, and its gover-
nor William Fitz-Allan, fided with the emprefs. In
Henry III.'s time, a part of it was burnt down by
tlie Welch ; and in Richard II. V leign a parliament
was held in it. At a place called Battlefield, near this
town, Henry Percy the ^^oun^jrer, furnamed Hotfpur,
was killed in an engagement with Henry IV. againft
whom he had rebelled. The king afterwards built a
chapel upon the fpot, and endowed it for the fupport of
two prieits toprayfor the fouls of the flain. Twoof Edw.
IV. 's fons were born here ; namely, Richard, duke of
York, whom Perkin Warbeck afterwards perfonated,
and who was murdered in the Tower ; and George
Plantagenet, who died before his brothers. Here firft
broke out the fweating-ficknefs, which carried off great
numbers fo fuddenly, that thofe who were feized w-ith
it cither died or recovered in the fpace of 24 hours. In
the beginning of the civil wars, king Charles I. came
hither, and formed an army, with which he marched
towards London ; but was met by the parliament's forces
at Edgehill. He continued here from the 20th ot Sep-
tembeV to the 12th of Oftober, during which time he
was joined by prince Rupert, and many of the gentry
and nobility of thcfe parts. This town anciently gave
title of earl to the Montgomeries, and afterwards to the
Talbotfr, l)y whom it is dill retained. Here is a free
grammar-ichool, with three mailers, and feveral ufhers,
well endowed by Edward VI. and queen Elizabeth,
and not inferior to many colleges in the univerfitics.
It has a p,ood library and chapel, and there are feveral
fcholarfhips appropriated to it in the univerfity of Cam-
bridge. Here are alio feveral hofpitals, alms-h'^ufes,
and charlty-fchools. 'Hiis town is one of the mod ffou-
rilhing in England, having two great weekly markets
for corn, cattle, and provifions ; aud another tor Welch
cottons and flannels, of which great quantities are fold.
A great trade is carried on with the Welch, who bring
their commodities hither, as to the common mart of
both nations. The town is large and well-built, and
the fituation extremely pleafant. I'here is a very bean-
tiful walk called the quarry, between the town walls and
the Severn, delightfully fliaded with rows of lime-trees,
io that it is not inferior to the Mall in St James's Park.
The town is alfo noted for its gallantry and polite-
nth, being full of gentry, for whom there arc always
balls and affemblies once a- week all the year round. —
Here is a fine houfe and gardens, which belonged to
the earl of Bradford ; and in the neighbourhood, at
Wroxeter, the lloman highway, called Watling-ftrcet,
Shrike
frequently found. In Shrewfoury are 12 i"*^o''PO'^^'*^<^ gi^^,, Jfi^ij.,,.
trading companies ; and the corporation has a power to ^ .^^ , ^
trv even capital caufes of itfel!, except high treafon.
It' is faid that thigh-Lones of dead men have been
found here a yard long, and teeth three inches round
and three long.
SHRIKE. SeeLANius.
SHRIMP, in ichthyology. See Cancer, n° 5. and 6.
SHRINE, in ecclefiailical hiftory, a cafe or box
to hold the relics of fonie faint.
SHROPSHIRE, a county of England, bounded
on the fouth by Worcellerftiire, Herefordfhire, and
Radnorfliire ; on the north, by Che (hire ; on the eaft,^
by Staffordfhire ; on the weft, by Montgomerylhire
and Denbighfhire, in Wales. Its length is between
49 and 50 miles, its breadth about 38, and its circum-
ference about 210. It is an inland county, contain-
ing 890,000 acres, 1 1 3,680 inhabitants, and 15 hun-
dreds, in which are 170 parilhes^ and 15 market
towns. It makes a part of three bifhoprics, viz.
Hereford, Coventry and Litchfield, and St Afaph.
Some part of it lies on the north, and fomc on the
fouth fide of the Severn. Befides the Severn, it is
alfo watered by the Temd or Tejidinuc, as it is called
in Welch, which flows from the mountains of Rad-
norfhire ; and by the Tern, which has its rife and
name from one of thofe pools called tearnes, in Staf-
fordfiiire. All thefe abound wath filh, efpecially
trouts, pikes, lampreys, graylings, carp, and eels.
The air, efpecially upon the hills, with which the
county abounds, is very wholefome. There is as great
a diverfity of foil as in moil other counties. On
the hills, where it is poor, is very good pafture for
fheep ; and in the low grounds, where it is very rich,
along the Severn in particular, there is plenty of grafs
for hay and black cattk, with all forts of corn. No
county is better provided with fuel than this, having
in it many inexhaullible pits of coal, and alfo mines of
lead and iron. Over moll of the coal-pits in this coun-
ty lies a ftratum or layer of blackilh porous rock, of
which, by grinding and boiling, they make pitch and
tar, which are rather better than the common fort for
caulkina; fhips, as they do not crack, but always con-
tinue clofe and fmooth. QUiarries of lime-ftone and
iron-ilone arc common enough in the county, and the
foil in many places is a reddifh clay. As it lies" upon
the bo'. ders of Wales, it was anciently full of catties
and w^alled towns. On the tide next that country there
was an almoft continued line of callles, to guard the
county againft the inroads and depredations of the
Welch, '["he borders here, as thofe between England-
and Scotland, were called marches, and there were cer--
tain noblemen ini'itlcd dnrones marc hia, march'tones cle mar'
chia IVallia, " lords of the marches, or marquiffes of the
marches of Wales," who were vetted with a fort of pa'
latine jurifdi^lion^ held courts of juftice to determine
controverfies, and enjoyed many privileges and immuni-
ties, the better to enable and encourage them to proteft.
the county againft the incurfions of the Welch, and to-
maintain order amongft the borderers ; but they often^
abufed their power,, and were the greateft of tyrants.
As to the ecclefiaftical government of the countyj.
the far greater part, namely, all that belongs to the bi-
flioprics of Hereford, and of Litchfield and Coventry,^
is-:
S H R [4
Wirove 18 under the jurifdiftion and vifitation of the archdeacon
0 of Shrewfbury or Salop, and is divided into feveral
deanries.
The Oxford circuit includes in it this county, which
fends 12 members to parliament, viz. two for the fhire,
and two for eacii oF the following towns, Shrewfbury,
Ludlow, Wenlock, and Bifhop's Caftle.
SHROVE-TuESDAY, is the Tuefday after Quln-
quagefima Sunday, or the day immediately preceding
the firft of Lent ; being fo called from the Saxon word
Jhrive, which fignifies " to confefs." Hence Shrove-
Tuefday fignifies Confeflion- Tuefday ; on which day
all the people in every parifh throughout England
(during the Romifh times) were obliged to confefs their
•fins, one by one, to their own parifh-priefts, in their own
parifh churches ; and, that this might be done the more
regularly, the great bell in every parifh was rung at ten
o'clock (or perhaps feoner), that it might be heard by
all, and that they might attend, according to the cuf-
tora then in ufe. And though the Romifh religion has
now given way to the Proteftant religion, the cuftom
of ringing the great bell in our ancient pariih-churches,
at leaft in fome of them, ftill remains, and obtains in
and about London the name of Pancake bell ; perhaps,
becaufe after the confeflion it was cuilomary for the fe-
veral pcrfons to dine on pancakes or fritters- Moft
churches, indeed, have rejedled that cuftom of ringing
the bell on Shrove-Tuefday ; but the ufage of dining
on pancakes or fritters, and fuch like provifion, ftill
-continues.
SHROUDS (fcrud Sax.), a range of large ropes
extending from the maft-heads to the right and left fide
of the fhip, to fupport the mafts, and enable them to
carry fail, &c.
The fhrouds as well as the fails are denominated from
the mafts to which they belong. Thus they are the
main, fore, ~ and mizen ftirouds ; the main-top-maft,
fdre-top-maft, or mizen -top-maft fhrouds ; and the
main-top-gallant, fore-top-gallant, or mizen- top-gallant
fhrouds. The dumber of fhroads by which a mafl; is
fuftained, as well as the fize of rope of which they are
formed, is always in proportion to the fize of the maft
and the weight of the fail it is intended to carry.
Bowfprit fhrouds are thofe which fupport the bow-
fprit. Bumkin fhrouds are thofe which fupport the
bumkins. Futtock fhrouds are fhrouds which conneft
the efforts of the topmaft fhrouds to the lower fhrouds.
Bentinck-fhrouds are additional flirouds to fupport the
mafts in heavy gales. Preventer fhrouds are fimilar to
bentinck-fhrouds, and are ufcd in bad weather to eafe
the lower rigging. See Mast and Sail.
SHRUB, frutex^ a little, low, dwarf tree, or a
woody vegetable, of a fize lefs than a tree ; and which,
inftead of one fingle ftem, frequently from the fame
root puts forth feveral fets or ftems. See Plant and
Tree. Such are privet, phillyrea, holly, box, honcy-
fuckle, &c. Shrubs and trees put forth in autumn a
kind of buttons, or gems, in the axis of the leaves ;
thefe buttons are as fo many little ova, which, coming
to expand by the warmth of the following fpring, open
into leaves and flowers. By this, together with the
height, fome diftinguifh fhrubs from fuffrutices^ or under
fhrubs, which are low bufhes, that do not put forth
gmy of thefe buttons, as fage, thyme, &c.
.8 ] SHU
The two hardiefl fhrubs we are pofTefTed of are the
ivy and box ; thefe ftand the feverity of our fharpefl
winters unhurt, while other fhrubs perifh, and trees
have their folid bodies fplit and torn to pieces. In the
hard winter of the year 1683, thefe two fhrubs fuffered
no injury any where; though the yews and hollies,
which are generally fuppofed very hardy, were that
winter in fome places killed, and in others ftripped of
their leaves, and damaged in their bark. Furze-bufhcs
were found to be fomewhat hardier than thefe, but they
fometimes perifhed, at leaft down to the root. The
broom feemed to occupy the next ftep of hardinefs be-
yond thefe. Thi^ lived where the others died, and
where even this died, the juniper fhrubs were fometimes
found unhurt. This laft is the only fhrub that approach-
es to the hardinefs of the box and ivy, but even it
does not quite come up to them ; for while they fuffer
nothing in whatever manner they are expojed, the ju-
niper, though it bears cold well under the fheher of
other trees, yet cannot bear the viciffitudes of heat and
cold ; infomuch that fome juniper fhrubs were found
half dead and half vigorous ; that fide which faced the
mid-day fun having perifhed by the fiicceflive thawings
and freezings of its fap ; while that which was not ex,
pofed to the viciffitudes of heat had born the cold per-
feftly well. Such fhrubs as are not hardy enough to
defy the winter, but appear half dead in the fpring,
may often be recovered by Mr Evelyn's method of beat-
ing their branches with a flender hazel-wand, to ftrike
off the withered leaves and buds, and give a free paf-
fage to the air to the internal parts. Where this fails,
the method is to cut them down to the quick, and if
no part of the trunk appears in a growing condition,
they muft be taken off down to the kvel of the ground.
Philofophical Tranfaftions, nO 165.
SHUCKFORD (Samuel), curate ef Shelthon in
Norfolk, prebendary of Canterbury, and chaplain in
ordinary to the king, was a learned Englifhman. His
manners were thofe of a philofopher, uncorrupted by
the manners of the world. He wrote a hiftory of the
world, facred and profane, to ferve as an introdudion
to Prideaux, in 3 vols 8vo. It is heavily written, but
difpla,ys a great deal of erudition. His death, which
happened in 1756, prevented him from carrying it
down to the year 747 before Chrift, where Prideaux
begins. He wrote alfo a treatife on the Creation and
Fall of Man, to ferve as a fupplement to the preface to
his hiftory.
SHUTTLE, in the manufaftures, an inftrument
ufed by the weavers, which guides the thread it contains,
either of woollen, filk, flax, or other matter, fo as to make
it form the woofs of ftuffs, cloths, linens, ribbands, &c.
by throwing the fhuttle alternately from left to right,
and from right to left, acrofs between the threads of the
wai-p, which are ftretched out lengthwife'on the loom.
In the middle of the fhuttle is a kind of cavity, call-
ed the eye or chamber of the fhuttle ; wherein is inclofed
the fpoul, which is a part of the thread deftined for the
woof ; and this is wound on a little tube of paper, ruth,
or other matter.
The ribband-weaver's fhuttle is very different from
that of moft other weavers, though it ferves for the
fame purpofe : it is of box, fix or feven inches long,
one broad, and as much deep ; fliod with iron at both
I ends.
S I A
[ 449 ]
S I A
JlflPS
ends, which terminate in points, and are a little crook-
ed, the one towards the right, and the other towards
the left, reprefenting the figure of an Co horiizontally
placed. See Weaving.
SIALOGOGUES, medicines which promote the
falivary difcharge.
SIAM Proper, by fomc called Upper, (to diftiniruifli
it from the Loiuer Siam, under which are often inclu-
ded Laos, Canibodia, and Malacca), is bounded on the
north by the kingdoms of Pegu and Laos ; on-the eaft
by Cambodia and Cochin-China ; on the fouth by Ma-
lacca and the bay of Siam ; and on the weft by the
ocean. But as the opinions of geographers are ex-
tremely various concerning the fituation and extent of
moft of the inland countries of Afiaand Africa, neither
the extent nor boundaries of Siam are yet accurately
known. By fome it is fuppofed to extend 550 miles
in length, and 250 miles in breadth ; in ibme places it
is not above miles broad.
The winds blow here from the fouth upon the coaft
of Siam, in March, April, and May ; in April the rains
begin, in May and June they fall almoft witheut cea-
fmg. In July, Auguft, and September, the winds blow
from the weft, and the rains continuing, the rivers over-
flow their banks nine or ten miles on each fide, and for
more than 150 miles up the ftream. At this time,
and more particularly in July, the tides are fo ftrong
as to come up vhe river Menan as far as the city of
Siam, which is fituated 60 miles fi-om its mouth ; and
fometimes as far as Louvo, which is 50 miles higher.
The winds blow from the weft and north in Oftober,
when the rain ceafes. In November and December the
winds blow dry from the north, and the waters being
in a few days reduced to their ancient channels, the
tides become fo infenfible, that the water is frefti at the
mouth of the river. At Siam there is never more than
one flood and one ebb in the fpace of 24 hours. In
Januaiy the wind blows from the eaft, and in February
from the eaft and fouth. When the wind is at eaft,
the current fets to the weft j and, on the contrary,
when the wind is at weft, the currents run to the eaft-
ward.
As this country is fituated near the tropic, it muft
neceflarily be very hot ; but yet, as in other places
oearly of the fame latitude, when the fun is vertical and
Ihines with a moft intenfe heat, the inhabitants are fo
ikreened by the clouds, and the air is fo refrefhcd by
a deluge of rain that overflows the plains which the
people chiefly inhabit, that the heat is very fupportable.
The cooleft wind blows in December and January.
The vegetable produce of this country is chiefly rice
and wheat, befides tropical and a few European fruits.
The Siamefe prepare the land for tillage as foon as
the eartii is fufficiently moiftened by the floods. They
plant their rice before the waters rife to any confider-
able height, and, as they rife flowly, the rice keeps
pace with them, and the ear is always above the water.
I'hey reap their corn when the water retires, and fome-
times go in boats to cut it while the waters are upon
the ground. They alfo fow rice in feveral parts of the
kingdom that are not overflowed, and this is thought
better tafted, and will keep longer, than the other ; but
they are forced to fupply thefe fields conftantly with
water, while the rice is growing, from bafins and ponds
that he about them.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
6
Drefs.
They have no European fruits except oranges, le- [Si^n^-
mons, citrons, and pomegranates. They have bananas, ^"""^ ' '
Indian figs, jaques, durions, mangoes, mangoftans, ta-
marinds, ananas, and cocoa-nuts ; they have alfo abun-
dance of pepper and fugar canes. 'I'he mountains arc
covered with trees which make good mafts. The ve-
getable of greateft ufe in the country is the bamboo,
which grows chiefly in marfliy foils, and is often found
ot a prodigious fi/e. Cotton trees are found in great
numbers ; and others that yield capocy a very fine cot-
ton wool, but fo fliort as to be unfit for fpinning^
thouoh it anfwers very well for fluffing mattrefles and
pillows. ^
There is no coimtry where elephants abound more Animals,
than in Siam, or where they are held in greater venera-
tion. They have a few horfes, flieep, and goats, be-
fides oxen and buffaloes ; but they have no good ani-
mal food except the flefh of hog s, their beef and mutton
being of a very indifferent quality. ^
The Siamefe are of fmall ftature, but well propor- Defcription
tioned ; their complexions are fwarthy : the faces of inha-
both the men and women are broad, and their fore-^'*^""'
heads, fuddenly contrading, terminate in a point, as
well as their chins. They have fmall black eyes, hoi-
low jaws, large mouths, and thick pale lips. Their
teeth are dyed black, their nofes are fliort and round at
the end, and they have large ears, which they think
very beautiful. Their hair is thick and lank, and both
fexes cut it fo fliort that it reaches no lower than their
ears ; the women make it ftand up on their foreheads \
and the men lhave their beards.
People of diftinftion wear a piece of calico tied
about their loins, that reaches down to their knees. —
The men bring ■ up this cloth between their legs, and
tuck it into their girdles, which gives it the appearance
of a pair of breeches. They have alfo a muflin flrirt
without a collar, with wide fleeves, no wriftbands, and
the bofom open. In winter they wear a piece of ftufF
or painted linen over their flioulders, like a mantle, and
wind it about their arms.
The king of Siam is diftinguiflied by wearing a veft
of brocaded fatin, with ftraight fleeves that reach down
to the wrift, under fueh a fhitt as we have juft defcri-
bed, and it is unlawful for any fubjeft to wear this
drefs unlefs he receives it from the king. They wear
flippers with piked toes turned up, but no ftockings.
The king fometimes prefents a military veft to the ge-
nerals ; this is buttoned before, and reaches to the
knees ; but the fleeves are wide, and come no lower
than the elbows. All the retinue of the king, either
in war or in hunting, are clothed in red. The king
wears a cap in the form of a fugar-loaf, encompaflTed
by a coronet or circle of precious ftones, and thofe of
his officers have a circle of gold, filver, or of vermilioa
gilt, to diftinguifli their quality ; and thefe caps are fa-
fiened with a ftay under the chin ; they are only worn
when they are in the king's prefence, or when they pre-
fide in courts of jufticc, and on other extraordinary oc-
cafions. They- have alfo hats for traveUing ; but, in
general, few people cover their heads notwithftanding
the fcorching heat of the fun.
The women alfo wrap a <:loth about their middle-,
which hangs down to the calf of their legs. They co-
ver their breafts with another cloth, the ends of which
hang ov^r their- ffioulders. But they have no garment
3 L cor-
3 I A
[ 450 1
S I A
Siam. corrdTpondinTj to a fl.ift, nor any covering for ihcir
^ y "■■ ' heads but their hair. The con:mon people are al-
nioll naked, and wear neither fhoes nor flippers. The
women wtar as many rings on the three laft fingers of
each hand as they c^in Jieep on, and bracelets upon their
wrills and ancles, with pendants in their ears fhaped hke
>j a pear.
Manners For an inffTior to fland be'ore a fuperior is deemed
K id cu- infolent ; and therefoi-e flave_s and people of inferior
"•^'^ ** rank fit upon their heels, with their heads a little in-
clined, and their joined hands lifted up to their fore-
heads. In pafiingby a luperior they bend their bodies,
joinin}:r their hands, and lifting them toward their heads
in proportion to the relpeft they would (how. When
«n inferior pays a viilt, be enters the room ftooping,
pToft«ates himftlf, and then remains upon his knees,
ilttiug upon his heels without fpeaking a word till he
is addreffed by the perfon whom he vifits ; for he that
is of the higheft quahty mult always fpeak firlL U a
perfon of rank A^ifits an inferior, he walks upright, and
the mailer of the houfe receives him at the door, and
waits on him fo far when he goes away, but never far-
ther.
The higheft part of the lionfe is efteenicd the moll
honourable, and no perfon cares to lodge under ano-
ther's feet. I'he Siamefe indeed have but one ftory,
but the rooms rife gradually, and the innermoll, which
arc the higheft, are always the moft Iionourable. When
the Siamefe ambaffador came to the French court,
iome of his retinue were lodged in a floor over the ara-
baffador's head ; but they no fooncr knew it, than they
were llruck with the greateft confternation, and ran
iiown tearing their hair at the thoughts of being guil-
ry of v/hat they confidered as fo unpardonable a
crime.
The Siamefe never permit fuch familiaTties as are
praftifed by gentlemen in Europe. Eafmefs of accefs,
and affability to inferiors, is in that part of the world
thought a fign of weakncfs, and yet they take no no-
tice of fome things which would be looked upon as ill
breeding among us ; fuch as belching in company,
■which TM) man endeavours to prevent, or fo much as
holds his hand before his mouth. They have an extra-
ordinary rcfpeft for the head, and it is the greateft af-
front to ftroke or touch that of another perfon ; nay,
their cap muft not be u fed with too much familiarity ;
for when a fervant carries it, it is put on a ftick and held
above his head ; and when the mafter ftands ftill the
ftick Is fet down, it having a foot to ftand upon. 'I hey
alfo fhow their rtipeft by hfting their hands to the
head ; and therefore, when they receive a letter from
any one for whom they have a great refpeft, they im-
mediately hold it up to -their heads, and fometimes lay
g it upon their keads.
©enms and ^ ^^^Y '^^^ efteemed an ingenious people, and though
4irpi.fitio: » rather indolent than a£tive in difpolition, they are not
addifted to the voluptuous vices which often accompa-
ny a ftate of eafe, beisg remarkably chafte and tempe-
rate, and even holding drunkennefs in abhorrence. —
They are, however, accounted infolent towards their
inferiors, and equally obfequious to thofe above them ;
the latter o£ which qualities appears to be particularly
inculcated from their earlieft youth. In general, their
behaviour is extremely modeft, andrthey are averfe to
loquacity. Like the ClUacky thej avoid fpieakilig in
the firft perfon ; -ind when they ^(^drefs it Uiy, It k al-
ways with fome refpe£lftil epithet, Infmiiiating -perfoual
accompli fhments.
No man in this country learns any particular trade,
but lias a general knowledj^e of all that are commonly
praftifed, and every one works fix months for the king
by rotation ; at which time, if he fhould be found per-
fectly lofnorant of the bulinefs he is fet about, he i^
doomed to fuft'er the bailinado. Ihe gonfequence of
this buvdentome fervice is, that no man endeavours
to excel in his bulinefs, left he fiioiild be obliged to
praJcife it as long as he lives for the benefit of the
crown.
The government of this country is extrenaely op- Govo
prefTivCj the king being not only fovcreign but proprie- mentt
tor of all the lands, and chief merchant likevvife ; by
which meatis he monopolizes almoft the whole trafSc,
to the great prejudice of his fubjeils. 'i'he crown is
faid to be hereditary, but it is often transferred by re-
volutions, on account of the exotbitant abule of power
in thofe who exercife the royal office. In his palace,
the king is attended by vi^omen, who not only prepare
his food, and wait on him at table, but even perform
the part of valets, and put on all his clothes, except hi*
cap, which is confidered as too facred to be touched
by any hand but his own. He Ihows himfelf to the
people only twice a-year, when he dlftrlbutes his alma
to the talapoins or priefts ; and on thofe occafions he
alu:ays appears in an elevated fituation, or mounted on
the back of an elephant. When he takes the diverfioa
of hunting, he is as ufual attended by his women oa
foot, preceded by a guard of 200 men, who drive all
the people from the roads tlirough which they are to
pafs ; and when the king flops, all his attendants, fall
upon their faces on the ground.
All their proceedings in law are committed to wrl-^f'tn^
ting, and none is fuffered to exhibit a charge againfl P'"'^'^'^^
another, without givin-g fecurity to profecute it, and
anfwer the damages if he does not prove the taft againft
the perfon accufed. When a perfon Intends to profe-
cute another, he draws up a petition, in which he fets
forth his complaint, and prefents it to the mi, or head
of the band to which he belongs, who tranfmits It to
the governor ; and If the complalHt appears frivolous,
the profecutor, according to the laws of the country,
flroul'd be puniihed ; but the magiftrates generally erf»
courage profecutions on account of the perqulfites they
bring to their office.
Every thiag being prepared for hearing, the parties
are feveral days called into court, and perfuaded to
agree ; but this appears to be only a matter of form.
At length the governor appoints a day for all parties
to attend ; and being come into court, the clerk reads
the procefs and opiu'on of his aflbciatcs, and then the
governor .examines upon what reafons their opinions
are founded ; which being explained to him, he pro-
ceeds to pafs judgment.
When fufFieient proofs are wanting, they have re- YvIH
courfe to an ordeal trial, like that of our Saxon ance- deal,
ftors :. both the plaintiff and the defendant walk upon
burning coals, and he that efcapes unhurt is adjudged
to be in the right fometimes the proof is made by put-
ting their hands in boiling oil ; and In both thefe trials,
by fome peculiar management, one or the other is faid
to remain, unhuit. Ttey have aUb a proof by water,
in.
15 r
|w, m which he who remains longeO. under I't Is elleemed
innocent. They have another proof, by fwallowin;^
pills, wliich their priefts adminlfter with fevere impreca-
tions ; and the party who keeps them in his ftomach
without vomiting is thought to he innocent.
All thefe trials are made in the prefence of the ma-
giftrates and people ; and the kin^' himfclf frequently
direfts them to be performed, when crimes come before
him by way of appeal. Sometimes he orders both tine
informer and prifoner to be thrown to the tipreis : and
the perlon that efcapes by his not being feized upon by
* thofe beafts, is fufficiently juftified.
ions They maintain the doclrlne of tranfmigration, belie-
\ing in a pre-exiflent ftate, and that they fliall pafs into
..other bodies till they are fufficiently purified to be re-
ceived into paradife. They believe Hkewife that the
foul is material, but not fubjeft to the touch ; that it
retains the human figure alter quitting a body of that
fpccies ; and that when it appears to perfons with who^n
it was acquainted, which they fuppofe it to do, the
wounds of one that has been murdered will then be vi-
fible. They are of opinion that no man will be eter-
nally punilhed ; that the good, after feveral tranfmiora-
tions, will enjoy perpetual happinefs ; but that thofe
who are not reformed will be doomed to tranfmigjra-
tion to all eternity. They beheve in the exiftence of a
Supreme Being ; but the objetfts of their adoration are
departed faints, whom they eonfider as mediators or in-
terceffors for them ; and to the honour of this nume-
j roufi tribe both temples and images are ertfted.
ages. The men of this country are allowed a plurality of
women ; but excepting one, who Is a wilt^ by contraxft,
the others are only concubines, and their children deem-
ed incapable of any legal inheritance. Previous to eve-
ry nuptial contrad, an ailrologer mull be confuked,
who calculates the nativity of the parties, and deter-
mines whether their union is likely to prove fortunate
or otherwife. When his prognoftication is favourable,
the lover is permitted to ispfit his miftrefs three times,
at the laft of which mterviews the relations being pre-
fent, the marriage portion is paid, when, without any
religiou» ceremony performed, the nuptials are reckon-
ed complete, and foon after confummated. A few days
after the talapoin vifits the married couple, fprinkles
them with water, and repeats a prayer for their pro-
fperity.
js. The praftice in Siam refpefting funerals, is both to
burs and bury the dead. The corpfe being laid upon
the pile, it is fuffered to burn till a confiderable part is
confumed, when the remainder is interred in a burying-
place contiguous to fome temple. The reafon which
they gi'^e for not burning it entirely to afhes is, that
th,ey fuppofe the deceafed to be happy when part of
his remains efcapes the fire. Inllead of a tombftonc,
they treSt a pyramid over the grave. It formerly was
the Guftom, to bury trcafure with the corpfe ; but long-
er experience evincing, that the facrilegious light in
which robbing the graves was confidered did not pre-
vent the crime, they now dilcontinue the ancient prac-
tice, and inftead of treafure bury only painted papers
and other trifles.
The two principal rivers are the Menan and the Me-
con, which rife in the mountains of Tartary, and run
to the fouth ; the former paffing by the city of Siam,
fctlls ia/io the bay of the fame name, in the 1 3th de-
[ 4J> 1
S I B
gree of north latitude ; and the latter runrring through
Laos and Cambodia, difchai-ges itfelf intO' the Indian gij^l'^j^
ocean in the 9th degree of north latitude.
The capital of the country i's Siam, called by the na- 16
lives Siyof/joya, fituated in the 101 it degree of eafl longi- r>efcrip.
tude, and in the 14th degree of north latitude, being al-
moil encompaffcd by the branches of the river Menan. Itr*^*^' * "
is about 10 miles in circumference within the walls, but
not a fixth part of the ground is occupied by buildings.
In the vacant fpaces there are neav 300 pagodas <3r
temples, round which are fcattered the convents of the
prieiis and their burying-places. 'L'he llreets oF the
city are fpacious, and fome have canals running tlirough
them, over which is a great number of bridges. The
houfes Hand on pillars of the bamboo cane, and are
built ol the fame materials ; the communication betweeii
different families, during the winter feafon, being carri.
ed on as in other tropical countries by means of boatff.
The groimds belongrng to the feveral tenements arc fe-
parated by a paUifado, within which the cattle are hou-
fed in barns, ereded likewife upon pillars, to preferve
them from the annual inundation.
SIBBALDIA, in botany : A genus ©f plants be-
longing to the clafs of pentandria, and to the order of
pentagy«ia ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the 35th order, Senticofje. The calyx is divided into
ten fegments. The petals are fxve, and are inferted
into the calyx. The Ityles are attached to the fide of
the germens. The feeds are five. There ai-e three fpe-
cies belonging to this genus, the procumbms , ereSa^ and
altaka. The procumbens, or reclining fibbaldia, ie a
native of North Britain, having never been dilcovered in
the fouthern parts of the ifland. It grows on Ben-Lo-
mond and Ben-Mor, within a mile of the fumm.it. It
is diftinguifhed by a procumbent or trailing ftem ; by
three leaves growing on the top of a fmall footltalk,
which are trihd at the extremity, and fomewhat hairy.
The flowers are yellow, and bloffom in July or Au-
guft.
SIBENICO, or Sebenico, the name of a city and
province of Dalmatia. 'i'he province of Sibenico r\ms
along the fea for more than 30 miles ; reaches in fome
places above 20 miles within land, and comprehendfe
above 70 iflands. The city of Sibenico is fituated near
the mouth of the river Cherca, in the Gulf of Venice',
3 5 miles north of Spalatto, and 25 fouth-eaft of Zara.
E. Long. 16'^ 46', N. Lat. 440 17'. It belongs t»
the Venetians. It is defended ©n one fide by a caMe,
which held out againft repeated attacks of the Turks,
and towards the fea by a fort. ^
SIBERIA, a large country, comprehending the Boundaries
moft northerly parts of the Ruffian empire in Afia. It^"<l estenu
is bounded on the eaft by the eaftem ocean ; on the
fouth by Great Tartary ; on the weft by Ruffia ; and
on the north by the Frozen Ocean. It is about 2000
miles in length from eall to weft, an'd 750 miles 'in
breadth from north to fbuth. ^
At- what time this country was firft inhabited, orCorquerci
by whom it was peopled, we are entirely ignerant '^^
but wiS^ings have been found in it when it was difeovcr-
cd, which ihows that it muft have been early known to
a civilized peoplef . The Ruffians, from whom we have ^
received our knowledge, knew nothisg of it before the
middle of the 1 6th centrury. In the reign of John Bafilo-
witz I, indeed, an- incurfion had been made into Sibei-ia,
3 L 2 and
S I B
[ 452 ]
S I B
Siberia, and fome Tartar tribes fubdued: but tbefe conquefts were
""■^r'^ not permanent ; and we hear of no further communica-
tion between Ruffia and Siberia till the time of John
Bafilowitz II. It was opened again at that time by
means of one Anika StrogonofF, a Ruflian merchant
who had eftablifhed fome falt-works at a town in the
government of Archangel. This man carried on a
trade with the inhabitants of the north-well parts of
Siberia, who brought every year to the town above-
mentioned large quantities of the liineft furs. Thus
he acquired a very confiderable fortune in a (hort time ;
when at laft the czar, perceiving the advantages which
would accrue to his fubjeAs from having a regular in-
tercourfe with Siberia, determined to enlarge the com-
munication which was already opened. With this view
he fent into Siberia a body of troops, which crofled
the Yugorian mountains, that form part of the north-
eaftern boundary of Europe. They feem, however,
not to have pafTed the Irtifla, or to have penetrated far-
ther than the weftern branch of the river Oby. Some
Tartar tribes were laid under coHtribution, and a chief
named Tediger confented to pay an annual tribute of
1000 fables. But this produced no lading advantage
to Ruflla ; for, foon after, Yediger was defeated and
taken prifoner by Kutchum Khan, a defcendant of the
great Jenghiz Khan : and thus the allegiance of this
country to Ruffia was diflblved.
For fome time we hear of no further attempts made
by the Ruffians on Siberia; but in 1577 the founda-
tion of a permanent conqueft was laid by one Yermac
TemofeefF, a CofTack of the Don. This man was at
firft the head of a party of banditti who infefted the
Ruffians in the province of Cafan ; but being defeated
by the troops of the czar, he retired with 6000 of his
followers into the interior parts of that province.
Continuing his courfe ftill eaflward, he came to Orel,
the moft eafterly of all the Ruffian fettlements.' Here
he took up his winter-quarters ! but his reftlefs genius
did not fuffer him to continue for any length of tirhe in
a ftate of inaftivity ; and from the intelligence h^ pro-
cured concerning the fituation of the neighbouring
Tartars of Siberia, he turned his arms towards that
quarter.
Siberia was at that time partly divided among a
number of feparate princes, and partly inhabited by
the various tribes of independent Tartars. Of the
fian con"^" ^^'""^^'^ Kutchum Khan was the moft powerful fove-
^ueft. " reiga. His dominions confifted of that traft of coun-
3
State of
Siberia at
the time
try which now forms the fouth-weftern part of the pro-
vince of Tebolflc ; and ftretched from the banks of*"
the Irtifh and Oby to thofe of the I'obol and Tura.
His principal refidencc was at Sibir, a fmall fortrefs
upon the river Irtifh, not far from the prefent town of
Tobolflc, and of which fome ruins are ftill to be feen.
After a courfe of uni-emitted fatigue, and a feries of
viftories which almoft exceed belief, but of which we
have not room to give the detail, our intrepid adventu-
rer difponeffed this prince of his dominions, and feated
himfelf on the throne of Sibir. The number of his fol-
lowers, however, being greatly reduced, and perceiving
he could not depend on the affedtion of h'S new (ub-
jefts, he had recourfe to the czar of Mufcovy, and made
a tender of his new acquifitions to that monarch, upon
condition of receiving immediate and effeftiial fupport.
This propofal was received with the greateft fatisfac-
tion by the czar ; who granted him a pardon for
all former offences, and fent him the required fuc-
cours. Yermac, however, being foon after drowned Ii»
an unfuccefsful excurfion, the Ruffians began to lofe
their footing in the country. But frefh reinforcements
being feafonably fent, they not only recovered their
ground, but puftied their conquefts far and wide ;
wherever they appeared, the Tartars were either redu-
ced or exterminated. New towns were built, and co-
lonies were planted on all fides. Before a century had
well elapfed, all that vaft traft of country now called
Siberia, which itretches from the confines of Europe to
the Eaftern Ocean, and from the Frozen Sea to the
prefent frontiers of China, was annexed to the Ruffian
dominions.
The air of Siberia is, In general, extremely piercing, ci
the cold there Jaeipg more fevere than in any other part
of the Ruffian dominions. The Siberian rivers are
frozen very early, and it is late in the fpring before the
ice is thawed (a). If the corn does not ripen in Auguif,
there is little hope of a harveft in this country ; and in
the province of Jenifelflc it is fometlmes covered with
fnow before the peafants can reap It. To defend the
inhabitants againft this extreme feverity of the climate,
Providence feems more hberally to have dealt out to
them wood for fuel and furs for clothing. As the winr
ter's day in the north parts of Siberia laft but a few
hours, and the ftorma and flakes of fnow darken the
air fo much, that the inhabitants, even at noon, cannot
fee to do any thing without artificial lights, they fleep
away the greateft part of that fcafon.
Thefe
( a) M. Gmelin, M'. Muller, and two other phllofophers, fet out in the year 1733 to explore the dreary regions
of Siberia, by defire of the emprefs Anne of Ruffia. After fpending nine years. and a half in obferving every
thing that was remarkable, they returned to Peterfburgh. ; and an account of this journey was publifhed by M.
Gmelin. In order to examftie how far the froft had penetrated into the ground) M. Gmelin, on the 1 8th of
June, at a place called Jacutia, ordered the earth to be du^ in high ground ; they found mould to the depth of
II inches, under which they met with loofe fand to two feet and a half further, after which it grew harder, and
at half a foot deeper fo hard as fcarce to give way to the tools ; fo that the ground ftill remained unthawed at
not lefs than the depth of four feet. He made the fame experiment in a lower fituation ; the foil was 10 inches
deep, after that a loofe fand for two feet and ten inches, below which all was frozen and hard. At Jacutia the
inhabitants preferve in cellars feveral forts of berries, which they reckon among their dainties, perfcftly good and
frefti the whole year, though thefe cellars- are fcarce a fathom deep. At the fortrefs of Argun, in little more
than 50 degrees of latitude, the inhabitants relate that, the earth in many places is never thawed above a yard and
half, and that the internal cold of the earth will fcarce permit a well to be dug, of which they bring an inftance
that happened not long before the author's arrival at. that place. They defigned to fink a well near a houfe at
fome
SIB [
Thefe fevevc winters are rapidly fiicceeded by fum-
mers, in which the heat is fo intenie that the i'ungu-
fians, who live in the province of Jakutfk, go almoft
naked. Here is fcarcely any night during that feafon ;
and towards the Frozen Ocean the fun appears continu-
ally above the horizon. The vegetables and Fruits of
the earth are here extremely quick in their growth.
The whole track of land beyond the 6oth degree of
north latitude is a barren vvafte ; for the north part of
Siberia yields neither corn nor fruits ; though barley is
known frequently to come to perfeftion in Jak utile, —
For this reafon, the inhabitants of the northern parts
are obliged to live on fifii and flefli, but the Ruffians are
fupplied with corn from the fouthern parts of Siberia,
where the foil is furprifingly fertile. The countries be-'
yond the lake of Baikal, efpecially towards the eaft, as
far as the river Argun, are remarkably fruitful and plea-
fant ; but fuch is the indolence of the inhabitants, that
feveral fine trafts of land, which would make ample
returns to the peafant for cultivating them, lie negleft-
ed. The paftures are excellent in this country, which
abounds in fine horned cattle, horfes, goats, &c. on
which the Tartars chiefly depend for fubfiilence. How-
^53 1 SIB
ever, there are feveral fteppes, or barren waftes, and un- 'SiberU,
improvable trails in thefe parts ; and not a fingle fruit ' —
tree is to be feen. There is great variety of vegetables,
and in feveral places^ particularly near Krafnaia Slobo-
da, the ground is in a manner overrun with afparagus
of an extraordinary height and delicious flavour. The
bulbs of the Turkifh bundes, and other forts of lilies,
are miich ufed by the Tartars inftead of bread. This
want of fruit and corn is richly compenfated by the
great quantities of wild and tame beafls, and fowls, and'
the infinite variety of fine fiflx which the country af-
fords (b.)
In that part of Siberfa which lies near the Ice Sea,
as well as in feveral other places, are woods of pine,
larch, and other trees ; befides which, a confiderable
quantity of \vood is thrown afhore by the waves of
the Ice Sea; but whence it comes is not yet afcer-
tained. ... ^
Befides the wild fowl with which, Siberia abounds,.WiIil
there is a prodigious number of quadrupeds,, fome of beafta*
which ai-e eatable, and others valuable for their fkins
or furs.
The animals mofl valued for their flcins are the black
fox^
fome diftance from the river Argun, for which Qurpofc they thawed the earth by degrees, and dug fome fathoms
till they had penetrated a fathom snd half below the level of the river, but found no fpring. _ Hence perhaps
we may venture to aflert, that befides the great elevation of the earth in thefe countries, there is another caufe,
perhaps latent in the earth itfelf, of this extraordinary cold, naturally fuggeflied to us by confidering the cavity
of an old filver mine at Argun, which being exhautted of its ore, now ferves the inhabitants in fummcr time for
a cellar to keep their provifions: this place is fo extremely cold as to preferve fleftx meats from putrefaftion in the
hotteft fummers, and to fink the mercury in de Lifle's thermometer to 146 and 147. The author travelling
from Nerfchoi towards Argun, t© vifit the works of the filver mines in that place, Auguft 1735, came to the
river Orkija. near Solonifchaia, on July the ift, from whence he arrived a little before dark at the village of Se-
ventua, diftant from the river 27 leagues. In this journey he and his fellow travellers for more than four leagues
felt it vafljy cold ; foon after they came into a warm air, which continued fome leagues after which the cold re-
turned ; and thus are travellers fubjeded to perpetual viciffitudes of warmth and cold. But it is obferved, in ge-
neral, that the eaftern parts are colder than the wellern, though fituated in the fame latitude ; for. as in thofe
eaftern regions fome trafts of land are much colder than the left, their efiefts muft be felt by the neighbouring
parts. And this conjefture is favoured by the thermometrical obfervations made with M. de L'lfle's infl:rument
in all parts of Siberia, in which the mercury was deprefled to the 22 6th. degree, even in thofe parts that lie
very much towards the fouth, as in the territory of Selinga, which faid degree anfwers in Fahrenheit's thermos
meter to about 5 5.5.below o, but the fame thermometer fometimes indicated a much greater cold. At the fort:
of Kiringa, on Feb. lO- 1738, at 8 in the morning, the mercury fl:ood at 240, which anfwers nearly to 72 be-
low o in Fahrenheit's. On the 23d ot the fame month it was a degree lower. At the fanie place, December
II. at three in the afternoon, it ftood at 254 in De Lifle's thermometer, and very near 90 in Fahrenheit's ; oa
December 29. at four in the afternoon^ at 263 ; on November 27. at noon, at 270 ; January 9. at 275, which
feveral depreflions anfwer in Fahrenheit's to 99.44, 107.73, and 113.65; on January 5. at 5 in the morning,^
at 262, an hour after at 281, but at eight o'clock it returned to 250, and there remained till 6 in the afternoon, ,
and then rofc by degrees till an hour before midnight, when it fl:ood at 202. So that the greatefl: depreflioa
of the mercury anfwers in Fahrenheit's thermometer to 120.76 degrees below o,^ which is indeed very furprifing,.
and what no body ever imagined before. While this cold laflied at Jenifea, the fparrows and magpies fell to the
ground, ftruck dead, as it were, with the froft, but revived if they were foon brought into a warm room. The
author was told alfo that numbers of wild beafts were found in the woods dead and fl:ifF with the froft, and fe--
veral travellers had their blood and juices quite frozen in their veflels. The air itfelf at that time was fo difmal,..
that you would think it changed to ice, as it was a thick fog, which was not difiipable by any exhalations, as.
in the fpring and autumn, and the author could fcarce ftand three minutes in the porch of his houfe for the cold^
(b) The oak, though frequent. in lluffia, it is faid, is not to be found through this vaft region nearer thao.
the banks of the Argun and Amur, in the dominions of China. The white poplar, the aipen, the black poplar,
the common fallow, and feveral fpccies of the willow, are very common. The Norway and filver fir form-,
great forefl:s ; but the former does not grow beyond tbe 60th degree of north latitude, and the latter not beyond.
5.8 degrees. To this dreary region of Siberia, Europe is indebted for that excellent fpecies of oats called -
j^vena' Sibirica, and our gardena are enlivened with the gay ^and brilliant flowers brought from the fams*:
TOuntry.
8 lici i
7
jMIncrals
Marien-
SIB r 45
fox, t!ie fable, the hyaena, the ermine, the fquirrel,
the beaver, and the lynx. The flcin of a real black fox
is more eftcemed than even that of a fable. In the
country near the Frozen Ocean are alfo blue and white
foxes. The fineft fables come from Nertfhinflc and J^a-
kutfk, the inhabitants of which places catch them in
the mountains of Stannowoi Krebet. The tributary
nations were formerly obliged to pay their taxes in the
Scins of foxes and fables only. But now the ftins of
fquirrels, bears, rein- deer, &c. and fometimes money,
arc received by v/ay of tribute ; and this not only from
thofe who live near the Lena, but alfo in the govern-
ments of Uir.lk, Irkutzk, Selenginflc, and Nertfiiinflv.
When the Tartars firft became tributary to Ruflia,
they brought their furs indifcriminately as they caught
them, and among them were often fables of extraordi-
nary value ; and formerly, if any tiader brought with
him an iron kettle, they gave him in exchange for it as
many fables as it would hold. But they are now bet-
ter acquainted ^vith their value. *] hey fell their fables
to fmugglcrs at a very high price, and pay only a ruble
inftead of a flcin to the revenue ofiicers, who now re-
ceive more ready money than fables, by way of tribute.
The fubjetts plead the fcarcity of turs, and indeed not
without fome appearance of truth.
Siberia has ftill other and more valuable treafures than
thofe we have yet mentioned. 7 he filver mines of Ar-
gun are extremely rich j the filver they produce yield
fome gold, and both of thefe are found among the cop-
per ore of Koliwan, This country is alfo particularly
rich in copper and iron ore. The form-er hes even up-
on the fnrface of the earth ; and confiderable mines of
it are found in the mountains of Piftow, Kohwan, Plo-
feau, Woflferefen{]<, Kufwi, Al'epaik, and feveral others,
and in the government of Krafnoiarf!< (c). Iron is It ill
■more plentiful in all thefe places, and very good j but
that of Kamenflfl is reckoned the beft. Sevei-a-l hun-
dred thoufand puds of thefe metals are annually export-
ed from the fmefeing houfes, which belong partly to
the crown, and partly to private perfons. Moft of
them lie in the government of Catharinenburg. The
Tartars alfo extraft a great quantity of iron from th«
ore.
The topazes of Sibcriahave a fine luitre, and in open
fandy places, near the river Argun, as well as on the
banks of other rivers and lakes, are found lingle fmall
pieces of agace. Here are alfo cornelians and green jaf-
per with red veins. The latter is chi&fly met with in
the deferts of Gobiflcoi.
The famous marienglas, or lapis fpecularis, great
quantities of which are dug up in Siberia, is by iome
called Mufcovy or Ruffian glafs ; and by others, though
with lefs propriety, ifinglafs. It is a particular ipecies
of tranfparent ftone, lying in ftrata hke fo many fheet-«
of paper. The matrix, or ftone in which it is found,
Mt-partly a light yellow quartz, or mareaffia, and partly
a brown indurated fluid ; and this ftonre contains in it
all the fpecies of the marieng^las. To render the ma-
rienglas fit for ufc, it is fplk with a thin two-edged
4 1
S I B
knife ; but care is taken that the lamina be xteA. too
thin. It is ufed for windows and lanterns all over Si-
beria, and indeed in every part of the Ruffian empire,
and looks very beautifxil ; its luftre and clearnefs fur-
pafilng that of the fiueft glafs, to which it is particu-
larly preferable for windows and lanterns of {hip«, as it
will ftand the exploiion of cannon. It is found in the
greateft plenty near tire river Witim.
Siberia affords magnets of an extraordinary fize, and Mag
even whole mountains of loadftone. Pit-ooal is alfo
dug up in the northern parts of this country. The
kamennoe maflo, a yellowifh kind of alum, unftuoua
and fmooth to the touch, like tophus, is found in the
mountains of ELxafnoiarfic, Ural, Altailh, Jenifea, Bai-
kal, Bargufik, Lena, and feveral others in Siberia.
In this country are not only a great number of frefh^*^*
water lakes, but likewife feveral whofe waters are fait v^"*^
and thefe reciprocally change their nature, the fait fome-
times becoming freih, and the frefh changing into faline.
Some lakes a^lo dry up, and others appear where none
were ever feen before. The fait lake of Yamufha, in
the province of fobolfk, is the moll remarkable of all,
for it contains a fait as white as fnow, confiftiag entire-
ly ot cubic cryttals. One finds alfo in Siberia faline
fprings, fait water brooks, and a hill of fait.
Siberia affords many other things which deferve no-^"'^*
tke. That ufeful root called rhubarb grows in vail
quantities near the city of Seleginfli. The curious ma-
muth's bones and horns, as they are called, which are
found along the banks of the Oby, Jeaefei, Lena, and
Irtifli, are unqueHionably the teeth and bones of ele-
phants. But whether thefe elephants teeth and bones
were conveyed to thefe northern regions by the gene-
ral deluge, or by any other inundation, and were by
degrees covered with earth, is a point which might lead
us into loivg and very fruitlefs difquifitions ; we *hall
therefore only obferve, that fuch bones have likewife
been found in Ruffia, and even in feveral parts of Ger-
many. A kind of bones of a Hill larger fize than thefe
have alio been dug up in tiiberia, and feem to have be^
longed to an animal of the ox kind. The horn of the
whale called narfwhal has been found in the earth near
the rivers Indigirka aJid Anadir ;, and the teeth of ano-
ther fpecies of whales, called Wolrofs, about Anadirflcoi.
The latter are larger than the common fort, which arc
brought from Greenland, Archangel, and Kola.
The chain of Siberian mountains reaches from that
of Werchciturie toyvards the foiith as far as the neigh-
bourhood of the city of Orienburg, in a continued
ridge, under the name of the Uralian mountains \ but
from thence it alters its' diredlion well ward. Thefe
moiKitains are a kind of boundary between Ruflia Proper
and Siberia. Another chain of hills divides Siberia
from the country of the Cahrfucks and Mongahans. —
Thefe mountains, between the rivers Irtifh and Oby, are
called the Attaic ar Golden Mountains, which, name
they afterwards lofe, particularly between the river Jci.
nefei and the Baikal lake, where tliey are called the
Sayanian mountains.
Thi
(c) The copper mines of Koliwan, from which gold and filver are extradtlcd, employ ^©ve 40,000 people.
The filver mines of Nertfhinflc, beyond lake Baikal, employ above 14,000. The wh«lc reveaue ftiifin^ from
Ibefe mines, according to Mr Coxe, is not lefs than L. 679,182, 13 s.
S I B
a, _ "Ffte Inhabitants of Silxjria confift of the Aborigines
or Ancient inhabitants, ilie Tartars, and Ruffians/
Some of thefe nations have no other religion but
r^that oi nature; others are Pagans or Mahornetans,
and fome of them have been converted to Chriiliani-
ty, or ratlxer only baptifed by the Ruffian miHiauH-
ries.
SIB THORPI A, m botany : A genua of plants be-
longing to the clafs of didynainia, at>d to the order uf
angiofpermia ; and in the natural fyftem clafTed with
thofe the order of which is doubtful. The calyx is
fpreading, and divided into five parts, alrnoft to the bafe.
The corolla is divided into five parts in the fame man-
ner, which are rounded, equal, fpreading, and of the
length of the calyx. The iiamina grow in pairs at a
diftance frera e?.cii other. The c.aofule is comprefied,
orbicidar, bilocular, the partition being tranfverfe.—
There are two fpecies, the mroptea and evo/vu/acea. The
t'aopaa, or baftard money-wort, is a native of South
Britain The ftems of it are flender, and creeping. The
leaves are fmall, round, and notched. The flowers grow
uuder the wings of the leaves, are fmall and of a pale
red colour. It bloffoms from July to September, and
is found in Cornwall oa the banks of rivulets.
SIBYLS, in pagan antiquity, certain women fald
to have been endowed with a prophetic fpirit, and to
lave delivered oracles, fliowiug the fates and revolu-
tioKS of kingdoms. Their number is tmknown. Plato
. fpeaks of one, others of two, Piiny of three, yElian of
four, and Varro of ten ; an opinion which is univerfally
adopted by the learned. 'I'hefe ten Sibyls generally re-
fided ill the following places, Perfia, Libya, Delphi,
Cum',E in Italy, Erythraea, Samos, Cumac in ^Eolia,
Marpefia on the Hcllefpont, Aucyra in Phrygia, and
Tiburtis. I'he mofi celebrated of the Sibyls is that d<i
Cumas in Italy, whom fome have called by the different
rames of Amalthasa, Demiphile, Herophile, Daphne,
Manto. Phemonoe, and Deiphobe. It is faid, ttiat
Apollo became enamoured c^f her, and that to make her
fenfible of his p-'fTion he offered to give her whatever
fte (hould aflc. The Sibyl demanded to live as many
years as Hie had grains of fand in her hand- but unfor-
tunately forgot to aflc for the enjoyment of the hcahh,
vigour, and bloom, of which fhe was then in polTeffion.
The cod granted her requcll, hut fhe refuted to gral
tify the paflion of her lover,- though he offered her per^
petual youth and beauty- Some iime after fhe became
old and decrepit, her form decayed, melantrholy paienefs
and haggard looks fucceeded to bloom and cheerfulnefs.
She had already hved about 700 years when iEneas
cam? to Italy, and, as fome have imagined, flie had thre-e
centuries more to live before her years were as numerous
as the gra!ns ()f fand which flic had in her liand. She
gave iEneas initruaions ho v to find his father in t^ie
internal regions, and even conduftcd him to the en-
trance of hell. It was ufwal for the Sibyl to write her
pi ophecies on leaves, which fhe placed at the entrance of
her cave ; and it required particular care in fuch as con-
luked her to take up theie leaves beiore they weie dif-
perfcd by the wind, as their meanin? then became in-
coinpreberfible. According to the mofl authentic hlf-
tonans of the Roman republic, one of the Sibyls came
to the palace of Tarquin the Second, with nine volumes
which fhe offered to fell for a very high price. The mo'
tiarch difregarded her, and fhe immediately difappeared,
I 455 1
S I C
and fcon aftc? returned, when fhe ha4 burned three of
the \'oIames. She afkt-vl the fame price for the remain*
ing fix books ; and when Tarquin refufed to buy them,
flie burned three more, and flill perfiftcd in demanding
the fame fum of money for the tliree that were kft.— r
This extraordinary behaviour aftonifhed Tarquin; h«
bouL'.ht the books, and the Sibyl inllantly vanilhed, and
never aiter appeared to the ^rodii, Thefe books wer«
prefttved with great care by the monarch, and called
the Sibylline verfes. A college of prieits was appointed
to have the care of them ; and fuch reverence did the
Romans entertain for theie prophetic books, that they
were confiJtcd with the grcateft folemniiy, and only
when the flate feeined to be in danger. When the ca-
pitol was burnt in the troubles of Sylla, the Sibylline-
verfes which were depofited there nerifhed in the con-
flagration ; and to repair the lofs which the republic
feemed to ha^e fultained, comm,iflioners were immediate-
ly fent to different parts of Greece to coUcCl; whatever
verfes could be found of the infpired writings of the Si-
byls. 'I'he fate of thefe Sibylline verlts which were
coUeded after the conflagration of the capitol is un-
known, l^ere are now many Sibylline verfes extant^
but they are reckoned univerfally fpurious; and it is evi-
dent that they were cempoftd in the lecond century
by fome of the followers of Chrifh'anity, who wifhed ty.
convince the heathens of their error, by afhlting the
caufe of truth with the arms q\ pious artirice.
Si CERA, a name given to any inebriating Uqnorby
the Hdkniftic Jews. Chryfoftora, Theodoret, and
Thecphilus of Antioch, who were Syrians, and who
therefore yupjit to know the fignificatiea and nature of
" licera/' aflure us, that it properly fignthes palm-wine„
Pliny acknowledges,, that tlie wine of the paUn tree was-
very well known .through all the eaft, and that it was
made by taking a bufnel of the di-tes of the paluvtree,
and throwing them into three gallons of water ; then
fqueezing out the juice, it would intoxicate like wine.
The wine of the palm tree is white : when it is drunk
aew, it has the tafte of the cocoa, aixl is fwect as ho-
ney. When it is kept longer, it grows tfrong, and in-
toxicatCF. After long keeping, it becomes vinegar,
SICILIAN, in mntic, denotes a kind of gay fprightly
air, or dance, probably invented in Sicily, foroewhat. oT
ihe nature of an Englifh jig ; ufually marked with the
6 12
characters ^, or . It confifls of two flrains ;, the firft,
of four, and the feeond of eight, bars or meafures.
SICILY, -is a large ifiand in the Mediterranean Sea, BwndanH
adjoining to the fouthern extremity of Italy, and ex- and extent,
tends from latitud? 56*^ 25^' to latitude 38' 2 s'', and
from lone^tude 12" 50' to longitude 16° 5' eaft from
London. Its rrcatelt length no miles, breadth 133,
circumference 6 c ; its form triangular, the three an-
gles being the promontories of Peloruui, Pachynum, and
Lilybseum, or as they are now called the Faro, Capo
PafTaro, and Capo Boco. It is divided from Italy by
the flraits of Meffina, reaching from the Tower of Fa-
ro, which is the moil northerly part of the ifiand, to
the Capo dell'Armi, or the Cape of Arms, the moll fou-
thern part of Calabria. Thefe flraits, by the Latins
called Fi etum Siculum^ by the Italians // Fare di Mef-
fina, and by us the Fare of Mejfma^ are between 12
and 15 miles over in the broadefl places, and in the nar-
roweft about a mile and an half j iulbrauch that when
4 JyfclJifta
Sicily.
i^iftory dr-
rinj; the fa-
bulous
SIC L 45^ ] SIC
Mcflina was taken by the Carthaginians, many of the clidaj, laid the foundations of Syracufe. Seven years
' inhabitants are fald to have faved themfelves by fwim- after, a new colony of Chalcidians founded Leontini
ming to the oppofite coafts of Italy. Hence has arifen and Catana, after having driven out the Siculi, who in-
an opinion that the ifland of Sicily was oi'iginally join- habited that trad. About the fame time Lamis, with
ed to the continent, but afterwards feparated by an a colony from Megara, a city of Achaia, fettled on the
earthquake or feme other natural caufe. This fepara- n'ver Pautacius, at a place called Trotllum, where his
tion, however, is reckoned by the moll judicious among adventurers lived fome time in common with the ChaU
the ancients to' be fabulous ; and they content them- cidians of Leontini ; but, being driven from thence by
felves with fpeaking of ir. as a thing faid to have hap- the Leontines, he built the city of Thapfiis, where he
,pened. f^ied. Upon his death, the colony left Thapfus ; and
Anciently this ifland was called Slcan'ta^ S'lcilia, and under the conduft of Hyblon king of the Siculi, ^ound-
Trinacria or Triquetra; the two former it had frqm the ed Megara Hyblsea, where they refided 245 years, till
Sicani and Siculi, who peopled a confiderable part of they were driven out by Gelon tyrant of Syracufe. Du-
the country ; the two latter from its triangular figure, ring their abode at Megara, they fent one Pamilus, vvho
Its firft inhabitants, according to the moft refpedlable was come from Megara in Achaia, their original city,
ancient authors, were the Cyclopes artd Laeftrigones, to build Selinus. This city was founded about i o»
-who are faid to have fettled in the countries adjoining years after the foundation of Megara. Antiphemua
to Mount Etna ; but of their origin we know nothintr, and Entimus, the former a Rhodian, the other a Cre-
cxcept what is reMted by the poets. After them came tan, led each a colony of their countrymen, and jointly
the Sicani, who called themfelves the original inhabi- built the city of Gela on a river of the fame name, cfta-
tants of the country ; but fevcral ancient hiftorians in- bhlhing in their new fettlement the Doric cuftoms,
form us that they came from a country in Spain wa- about 45 years after the founding of Syracufe. The
tered by the river Siconus. Diodorus, however, is of inhabitants of Gela founded Agrigentum 108 years af-
■opinion, that the Sicani were the moft ancient inhabi- ter their arrival in Sicily, and introduced the fame cuf-
tants of this ifland. He tells us that they were in pof- toms there. A few years after, Zancle was built by
feflion of the whole, and applied themfelves to cultivate the pirates of Cumae in Italy ; but chiefly peopled by
and improve the ground in the neighbourhood of Etna, the Chalcidians, Samians, and lonians, who chofe rather
which was the rnoft fruitful part of the ifland : they to feek new fettlements than live under the Perfian
built feveral fmall towns and villages on the hills to fe- yoke. Some time after, Anaxales, tyrant of Rhegiuni,
cure themfelves againft thieves and robbers ; and were drove out the ancient proprietors ; and, dividing his
o-overned, not by one prince, but each city and dlftrift lands amongft his followers, called the city A/^ma or
by its own king. Thus they lived till Etna began to Mejfeney which was the name of his native city in Pelo-
throw out flames, an^ forced them to retire to the weft- ponnefus. 'i he city of Himera_was founded by the
ern parts of the ifland, which they continued to inhabit '7„„„u„„
in the time of Thucydides. Some Trojans, after the
<leftruaion of their city, landed in the ifland, fettled
among the Sicani, and built the cities of Eryx and E-
gefta,' uniting themfelves with them, and taking the ge-
mral name of Elymi or Elymaei. They were after
Zancleans under the direftion of Eucleides, Simus, and
Sacon ; but peopled by ths Chalcidians and fome Syra-
cufan exiles, who had been driven out by the contrary
faftion.
The Syracufians built Acrae, Chafmenae, and Cama«
rina ; the firft 70 years, the fecond 90, and the third
wards joined by fome Phocenfes, who fettled here on 131;, after the foundation of their own city. This is
their return from the fiege of Troy. the account which Thucydides, a moft judicious and
After the Sicani had for many ages enjoyed an un- exad writer, gives us of the various nations, whether
difturbed pofllflion of the whole of Sicily, or fuch parts Greeks or Barbarians, who fettled in Sicily. Strabo
of it as they chofe to inhabit, they were vifited by the counts among the ancient inhabitants of Sicily the Mor-
Siculi, who were the ancient inhabitants of Aufonia getes, who being driven out of Italy by the Oenotrians,
properly fo called ; but being driven out from thence fettled in that part of the ifland where the ancient city
by the Opici, they took refuge in the ifland of Sicily, of Morgantium flood. The Campani, who aflumed the
Not being contented with the narrow bounds allowed name of Mamertini, that is,- invincible, nvarriors, and the
them by the Sicani, they began to- encroach upon their Carthaginians, who fettled very early in Sicily, ought
iiei'rhbours ; upon which a war enfuing, the Sicani were llkewife to be counted among the ancient uihabitants of
utterly defeated, and confined to a corner of the ifland, the ifland. ....
the name of which was now changed from bicania into Before this period the hiftory of Sicily is blended
that of Slcilia. with fables like the early hlftorr of almoft every other
About 300 years after the arrival of the Siculi, the country. After the fettlement of the Greeks in the
ifland firft bee an to be known to the Greeks, who efta- ifland, its various revolutions have been traced f
begs
bHflied various colonies, and built many cities in diffe-
rent parts of the ifland ; and it is only from the time
of th^ir arrival that we have any hiftory of the ifland.
The firft of the Greeks that came into Sicily were the
Chalcidians of Eubcea, under the conduft of Thucles,
who built Naxus, and a famous altar of Apollo, which, _ . r r j 1
as Thucydides tells us, was ftill ftanding in his time who long ftruggled m vain for freedom ; and at the
without the city. The year after, which was, accord- fame time aff"ord them a fpecnnen of the entertainment
ing to Dionyfius Hallcarnaff'enfis, the third of the 17th they may receive from the very elegant work of the
Olympiad, Archias the Corinthian, one of the Hera- author,
their feveral fources by many writers ; but by none with
greater accuracy than Mr Swinburne. From his ac-
count of his Travels in the Two Sicilies, we have there-
fore taken the following concife hiftory of this king-
dom, which will at once gratify fuch of our readers as
intereft themfelves in the fate of a generous people
S I c
rpe.
SI
tl ii
Anftocracy prevailed at firft in the Greek fettle
ments, but foon made v ay for tyranny ; which in Its
turn was expelled hy democracy. One of the earlieft
deftroyers of com'mon liberty was Phalaris of Agi lcren-
tum, who reigned 600 years before Chrift : his example
was contagious ; a legion of tyrants fprang up, and not
a common wcahh in the ifland efcaped the lafn of an
ufurper. Syracufe was moH opprefTed and torn to
pieces by diffenfion ; as its wealth and preponderance
' in the general fcale held out a greater temptation than
' other cities to the ambition of wicked men. It requires
■ the combined teftimony of hiftorians to enforce our be-
L"ef of its wonderful profperity, and the no lefs extraor-
dinary tyranny of fome of its fovereigns. Thcfe Gre-
cian colonies attained to fuch excellence in arts and
fciences as emboldened them frequently to vie with the
learned and ingenious in the mother country ; nay, often
enabled them to bear away the palm of vidory : there
needs no ftronger proof of their literary merits than a
bare recital of the names of Archimedes, Theocritus,
Gorgias, and Charondas.
" Fmt the Sicilian Greeks were not deftined to en-
■ joy the fweets of their fituation without moleftation.
t Very foon after their arrival, the inhabitants of the
neighbouring coaft of Africa began to afpire to a (hare
of Sicily. Carthage fent large bodies of forces at dif-
ferent times to eftabhfh their power in the ifland, and
about 500 years before the Chriftan era had made
themfclves mafters of aV the weftern parts of it. The
SicuII retained pofTeflion of the midland country, and
the fouthern and eaftern coafts were inhabited by the
Greeks.
" About that time Gelo was chofen prince of Syra-
cufe on account of his virtues, which grew ftill more
confpicuous after his exaltation : had the example he
fet been follov/ed by his fucceflbrs, the advantages of
freedom would never have been known or wifhed for by
^the Syracufans. The Carthaginians found in him a vi-
gorous opponent to their projeft of enflaving Sicily, a
projeft invariably purfued but never accomplifhed.
1 " Hiero fucceeded his brother Gelo, and, contrary
to the ufual progreflion, began his reign by a difplay
of bad qualities. Senfible of his error, and improved
by experionce, he afterwards adopted more equitable
meafuies. At his death the Syracufans threw off the
yoke, and for fixty years revelled In all the joys of
freedom. Their peace was, however, diflurbed by the
Athenians and the Carthaginians. The latter plunder-
ed Agrigcntum, and threatened ruin to the reft of the
Grecian ftates ; but a treaty of peace averted that ftorm.
The Athenians, under pretence of fupporting their al-
lies the people of Segefta, but In reality from a thirft
of dominion, inverted Syracufe with a formidable land
and naval armament under the command of Nicias ; In
confequence of a rafh indlgeiled plan. 111 conduced at-
tacks, and inadequate fupplles, their whole holl was cut
to pieces or led away into captivity.
" Syracufe had fcarce time to breathe after her vic-
tory ere Inteftlne wars broke out, and raifed Dlonyfms
to fupreme command. Avarice, dcfpotlfm, and cruel-
ty, marked every day of his reign ; but his military en-
terprifes were crowned with conftant fuccefs. He died
in peace, and bequeathed a powerful fovereignty to a
fon of his name tainted with the fame and worfe vices,
but not endowed with equal capacity and martial abill-
Voi. XVIL Part II.
[ 457 1
S I G
ty 5 in fuch hands the rod of tyranny ceafed to be for- Sicily,
midable, and the tyrant was driven out of Sicily by the •\'-—
patriotic party ; but matters were not fufficienlly fet-
tled for popular government, and Dionyfiu^: refumed
the fceptrc For a while, till 1 'imoleon forced him into
perpetual exile." ^
Liberty feemed now to be eftablidied on a permanent Agathocles
bafis ; but In Syracufe fuch profpcfts always proved II- the tyrant,
lufory.^ Agathocles, a tyrant more inhuman than any
preceding ufurper, felzed the throne, and deluged the
country with blood. He was involved in a perilous
conteft with the Carthaginians, who obtained many ad-
vantages over him, drove his troops from port to port,
and at laft blocked up his capital. In this defperate
fituation, when all foreign helps were precluded, and
hardly a refource remained at home, the genius of A-
gathocles compalTed his dehverance by a plan that was
imitated among the ancients by Hannibal, and among
the moderns by the famous Cortes. He embarked with
the flower of his army ; forced his way through Innu-
merable obftacles ; landed In Africa ; and, having burnt
his fleet,' routed the Carthaginians in a pitched battle,
and laid their territory wafte. Carthage feemed to be
on the brink of ruin, and that hour might have mark-
ed her down fal had the Siclhan hoft been compofed of
patriotic foldiers, and not of ungovernable aflTaffins ; dif.
cord pervaded the vlftorlous camp, murder and riot en*
fued ; and the tyrant, after beholding his children and
friends butchered before his face, efcaped to Sicily, to
meet a death as tragical as his crimes deferved. -
Anarchy now raged throughout the ifland, and cve-Pynhirs
ry fadion was reduced to the neceffity of calling in the of
affiftance of foreign powers; among whom Pyrrhus king ^P'*""' ^
of Epirus took the lead, and reduced all parties to fome sSns.
degree of order and obedience. But ambition foon
prompted him to Invade thofe rights which he came to
defend ; he caft off the maflc, and made Sicily feel un-
der his fway as heavy a hand as that of its former op.
preflbrs ; but the Sicilians foon affumed courage and
ilrength enough to drive him out of the Ifland. ,0
About this period the Mamertini, whom Mr Swin-TheMa-
burne indignantly fl:yle3 a crew of mifcreants, fni-prlfed ^"J'-
Meffiria, and, after a general maflkcre of the citizens, j^^^''^
eftablUhed a republican form of government. Their com- Sfte'd by
mon wealth became fo troublefome a neighbour to the the Ro-
Greeks, that Hiero II. who had been raifed to the'*^^"^ !
chief command at Syracufe In confideration of his fupe-
rior wifdom and warlike talents, found himfelf necefiita-
ted to form a league with Carthage, in order to defl:roy
this neft of villains. In their diftrefs the Mamertini
implored the affiftance of Home, though the fenate had
recently puniflied with exemplary feverity one of
their own legions for a fimllar outrage committed at
Rheo lum. 'I he virtue of^the Romans gave way to the
temptation, and the defire of extending their empire be-
yond the limits of Italy, caft a veil over every odious
circumftance attending this alHance. A Roman army
crofled the Faro, relieved Meffina, defeated the Car-
thaglnlahe, and humbled Hiero into an ally of the re-
public.
Thus began the firft Punic war, which was can-led Which
on for many ygars In Sicily with various fuccefs. Theg'ves rife to
genius of Hamilcar Barcas fupported the African caufe'^^ f""^
under numberlefs difappointments, and the repeated '^""'^ ^^'*'
overthrows of his coUeagT'.es ; at laft, finding his exer-
3M tiona
S I c
[ 458 1
S I c
S'icUy. tions ineffeAual, he adviied the Carthaginian rulers to
purchafc peace at the price of Sicily. Such a treaty
The^fecond^'^s not likely to be obferved lon.^^er than want of
Punic war ftrength (hould curb the animolky o'' the vanquifhed
raiCed by party : when their vlLi;our was recruited, Hannibal fon
JUiiinibai. J-Janjilcar eafily perfuaded them to refume the con-
teft, and for t6 years wa ^ed war in the heart ot the
Roman territories. Meanwhile Hiero condufted him-
felf with fo much prudence, that he retained the friend-
fhip of both parties, and preferved his portiofi of Sicily
in perfeft tranquillity. He died in extreme old age,
beloved and relpefted both at home and abroad.
His granlfon Hieronymus, forfakincr this happy line
of poUtics, and contrafting an alliance with Carthage, fell
an early victim to the troubles which his own folly had
excited. Once more, an.d for the laft time, the Syracu-
fans found themfclves in polTeffion of their indepen-
dence : but the times were no longer fuited to fuch a fyf-
tem ; diffenfions gained head, and diftra6led the public
councils. Carthage could not fupport them, or pre-
\ent Marcellus from undei taking the fiege of Syracufe,
iiTimortalized by the mechanical efforts of Archimedes,
and the immenfity of the plunder. See Syracuse.
c- •i'^^^^ The Sicilians after this rehnquiflied all martial ideas,
quered by and dunng a long feries 01 generations turned their at-
He was facceeded by his fon Simon, whofe reign was
(hort, and made way for a fecond fon called Roger. In
1127 this prince joined to his Sicihan poffeffions the Un,i
whole inheritance of Robert Guifcard (fee Naples, lom
n° 23.), and aifumed the resjal ftyle. The great eft » I d"
part of his reign was taken up in quelling revolts in Ita- ^-^'^^
ly, but Sicily enjoyed profound peace. In 1154 his
fon William afcended the throne, and paffed his life in
war and con'ufion. WiUiam II. fucceeded his father,
and died without iffue. Tancred, though bafely born,
was elefhed his fucceSbr, and after him his fon Wil-
liam III. who was vanqulihed by Henry of Swabia.
During the troubles that agitated the reign of his fon
the emperor Frederic, peace appears to have been the
lot of Sicily. A fhort lived fedltion, and a revolt of
the Saracens, are the only commotions of which we
read. For greater fecurlty, the Saracens were -removed
to Puglla 400 years after th^ conqueft of Sicily by their
anceftors. Under Conrad and Manfred Sicily remained
quiet ; and from that time the hiftory of Sicily is rela-
ted under the article Naples, n°'26. Sec.
At the death of Charles II. of Spain, his fpoils be- is a
came an objeCl of furious contention ; and at thepeacecori
of Utrecht, Sicily was ceded to Vlftor duke of Savoy, *
who, not many years after, was forced by the emperor
the Sara-
cens, and
afterwards
by the Nor-
mans.
tention folely to the arts of peace and the labours of Charles VI. to relinquifh that fine ifland, and take Sar-
agriculture. Their pofition in the centre of the Ro
man empire preferved them both from civil and foreign
foes, except in two inftances of a fervile war. The ra-
paclty of their governors was a more conftant and in-
fupportable evil. In this ftate of apathy and opulence
Sicily remained down to the 7th century of our era,
when the Saracens began to difturb its tranquillity.
The barbarous nations of the north had before invaded
and ravaged its coafts, but had not long kept poffef-
fion. The Saracens were more fortunate. In 827
they availed themfclves of quarrels among the Sicilians
to fubdue the country. Palermo was chofen for their
capital, and the fkandard of Mahomet triumphed about
200 years. In 1038 George Manlaces was fent by the
Greek emperor with a great army to attack Sicily.
He made good his landing, and pufned his conquelts
with vigour : his fuccefs arofe from the valour of feme
Norman troops, which were at that time unemployed
and ready to fell their fervices to the beft bidder. Ma-
nlaces repaid them with ingratitude ; and by his abfurd
conduft gave the Muffulmen time to breathe, and the
dinia as an equivalent. But as the Spaniards had no
concern In thefe bargains, they made a fudden attempt
to recover Sicily, In which they failed through the vi-
gilance of the Engllfh admiral Byng. He deftroyed
their fleet in 17 18, and compelled tliem to drop their
fcheme for a time. In 17 34 the SpaniOi court refumed
their defign with Tuccefs. The Infant Don Carlos drove
the Germans out, and was crowned king of the two Si-
cihes at Palermo. When he pafled into Spain to take
poffeffion of that crown, he transferred the Sicilian dia-
dem to his fon Ferdinand HI. of Sicily and IV. of Na-
ples, and it has ever fince remained in the poffefliou of
the fame family.
Sicily is feparated, as wc have already obferved, from Ad
Italy by a narrow Itrait called the Faro of Mejjina. This'''^
ftrait Is ftill remarkable for the rapidity of Its currents °
and the Irregular ebbing and flowing of the fea, which
fometimes rufhes in with fuch violence as to endanger
fhlps riding at anchor. Anciently it was much more
remarkable for Scylla and Charybdis, the one a rock,
and the other a whirlpool, betvveen which it was vety
Normans a pretext and opportunity of invading the dangerous to fteer, and concerning which fo many fables
Imperial dominions in ItalyC Robert and Roger of have been related by the ancients. Scylla is a rock on
Hauteville afterwards conquered Sicily on their own ac- the Italian fide, oppofite to Cape Pylores, which runs
count, not as mercenaries ; for having fubftantlally fet- out Into the fea on the Sicilian fide. Mr Brydone in-
tled their power on the continent, they turned their ferrps us, that the navigation of the ftraits is not even
arms agalnft this ifland in obedience to the didates of yet performed without danger. He informs us, that
zeal and ambition. After ten years ftrug^rk, the Sa- the noife of the current which fets through the ftrait&
racens yielded up the rich prize, and Robert ceded it may be heard for feveral miles, like the roaring of fome
to his brother Roger, who afTumed the title of Great large impetuous river confined between narrow banks.
Earl of Sicily, ruled the ftate with wifdom, and ranks In many places the water rofe Into whirlpools and ed-
defervedly among the greateft charafters In hiftory. He dies, which are dangerous to fliipping. The current fet
raifed himfelf from the humble ftation of a poor young- exadly for the rock of Scylla, and would certainly have
er fon of a private gentleman, to the exalted dignity of carried any thing thrown into it agalnft that point,
a powerful monarch, by the fole force of his own ge- Our author, however, Is by no means of opinion that
nius and courage; he governed a nation of ftrangers the ftrait is fo dangerous as the ancients have reprefent-
with vigour and juftice, and traitfmitted his poffeffions ed It ; though he thinks that the ftrait is now probably
iindifputed to his pofterity. Such an aflemblage of much wider than formerly, which may have diminiftied
great qualities is wellintitled to our admiration, the danger. See Scylla. There are many fmall rocks.
SIC
[ 459 ]
S I C
which fhow their heads near the hafe of the large ones,
Thefe are probably the dogs defcribed by the nncient
poets as howling round Scylla. 'F'he rock is near
200 feet high, and has a kind of caftle or fort built on
its fummit with a town called Scylla or Scigiio, contain-
ing 300 or 4C0 inhabitants on its fouth fide, which
gives the title of prince to a Calabrefe family.
Charybdis is now fo much diminiflied, that it feems
almoft reduced to nothing in comparifon of what it was,
though even yet it is not to be pafled without danger.
See Charybdis.
In the ftraits, Mr Brydone informs us, a moft furpri-
fing phenomenon is to be obferved. In the heat of fum-
mer, after the fea and air have been much agitated,
there appears in the heavens over the ftraits a great va-
riety of lingular forms, fome at reft and others moving
with great velocity. Thefe forms, in proportion as the
light increafes, feem to become more aerial, till at laft,
fome time before fun-rife, they totally difappear. The
Sicilians reprefent this as the moft beautiful fight in
nature. Leonti, one of their beft and lateft writers,
fays, that the heavens appear crowded with a variety of
objefts, fuch as palaces, woods, gardens, &c. befides
the figures of meji and other animals that appear in mo-
tion among- them. Some treatifes have been written
concerning this phenomenon ; but nothing fatisfatfory
has been delivered concerning its caufe.
eai'd Though Sicily lies in a warm climate, the air is
e. healthful, being refreftied with fea-breezes on every lide.
It has at all times been remarkably fertile ; but the era
of its greateft profperity was from the fiege of Syracufe
V by the Athenians to the Carthaginian conquefts. Then
s and long after it fupplied with grain in years of fear-
city all the countries upon the Mediterranean except
Ytah -^SyP' '^"•^ ^-^^ coafts of Afia, and Rome and Carthage
continually. Even now, under all the impediments of
fuperftltion and bad government, its produftions are,
in quantity and quality, the beft in Europe. Of the
vegetable are grain, wines, oil, fruits, tobacco, mulber-
ry trees for the filkworm, cotton, medicinal roots, and
fugar canes. The laft of thefe flourifh near Avola and
Merllli. They are of an inferior quality to thofe of
the Weft Indies, but their lugar is fweeter than any
other. The animal production is fimilar to that of
Italy, but the horned cattle are a fmaller breed. The
coafts abound with fifti, particularly with tunney and
anchovies ; the export of which forms a very lucrative
branch of commerce. 'I'here are mines of filver, copper,
and lead, but none are worked. Near Palma are beds
of the beft fulphur : at the mouth of the river Giaretta
is found a yellow amber, preferable to that of the Bal-
tic ; and in every part of the ifland quarries of marbles,
that have furniflied materials for all the noble edifices of
Sicily. The moft beautiful are in the neighbourhood of
Palermo^ particularly the yellow, and thole that refemble
the verde antique, porphyry, and lapis lazuli. The popu-
lation of the ifland amounts to 1,300,000 fouls ; not as
much again as the fingle city of Syracufe formerly con-
tained.
and Here are feveral rivers and good fprings ; but few of
us. j-j^g rivers are navigable, having but a fliort courfe, and
delcending precipitately from the mountains. The chief
are the Cantera, the Jarretta, and the Salfo ; of which,
the two former run from weft to eaft, and the third
from north to fouth.
Of the mountains in this ifland the moft noted h Siciljr.
Mount Etna, now called Monte Gibello, or Mongibello, a v— — i
volcano whofe eruptions have often proved fatal to the
neighbouring country. See Etna.
Were the Sicilians a cultivated people, among whom Cnnftitu-
thofe arts were encouraged which not only promote tion and go«
the wealth and comfort of a nation, but alio exerclfe the '
nobler faculties and extend the views of mankind, the Munters
circumftances of their government are fuch, that it ^^-f'"»'" re-
might gradually be improved into a free conftitution : '^f .
but to this, the ignorance, iuperftition, and poverty, or sidl;/.
the people feem to be invincible obftacles. The mo-
narchical power in Sicily is far from being abfolute ;
and the parliament claims a fliare of p\iblic authority "
independently of the will of the king, deduced from a
compafh made between Roger and the Norman barons
after the expulfion of the Saracens, This claim is de-
nied by the king, v,/ho wifhes the nobles to confider
their privileges as derived folely from his favour. Hence
the government is in a fituation which greatly refembles
that of our own and the other kingdoms of Europe in
the feudal times ; thei-e are continual jealoufies and op-
pofitions between the king and the barons, of which an
enlightened people might eafily take advantage, and ob-
tain that fliare in the conftitution which might fecure
them from future oppreflion. In thefe difputes, the
king has the advantage at leaft of power if not of right;
and feveral woi-ks, in which the claims of the Sicilian
barons have been afferted, were pubHcly burned a few
years ago..
As the fovereign holds his court at Naples, Sicily is '
governed by a viceroy, who is appointed only for three
years, though at the end of that term his commiflion is
fometimes renewed. He lives in great ftate, and, as
the reprefentative of the king, his power is very confi-
derable. He prefides in all the courts and departments
of government, and is commander in chief of all the
forces : he calls or difTolves the parliament when he
pleafes ; and by him all orders, laws, and fentences, muft
be figned : but his office is far from being defirable, as
it generally renders him the object either of the jealoufy
of the court of Naples, or of the hatred of the Sici-
lians.
The parliament confifts of the nobles, the biftiops,
and abbots, and the teprefentatives of 43 cities, which
are immediately fubjeft to the crown. Thofe cities
which are fubjeft to any of the nobles fend no members
to the parliament ; in thele the king has not much au-
thority, and derives little advantage from them. Ac-
cording to the laws, the parliament ought to be aflcm-
bled at the end of every three years : but the govern-
ment pays httle attention to this rule. The common
people are in 'general very much attached to the nobles,
and are inchned to take their part in all their differen-
ces with the court : but the magiflrates and principal in-
habitants of the cities which belong to thefe feudal
lordsj wifh to get rid of their authority, and imagine
that they fliould be lefs opprefTed, if immediately fub-
jett to the king : thefe incHnations are not difagreeable
to the court, and are encouraged by moft of the law-
yers, who are of great fervice to government in conteft-
ing the privileges of the nobks. Many of thefe privi-
leges are now abridged ; and the power of the barons,
with refpedl to the adminiftration of juftice in their do-
mains, was very properly limited by the viceroy Ca-
3 M 2 raccioli,
SIC
[ 460 I
s r D
SIdlf.
10
Intjuificicn
4l
Abolilhed
hy Carac-
cioJi,
raccioli, iii the year 1785. The government of this
nobleman was very beneficial to Sicily, as he, in a great
meafure, cleared the ifland of the banditti that ufed to
irrfell it, and made leveral excellent re?fulations for the
eftablifhment of fecial order and perfonal fecurlty. He
deferves the thanks of every well-wiflier to mankind for
leaving abolifhed the court of inquifition, which h?.d
been eftablifhed in this country by Ferdinand the Ca-
tholic, and made dependent on the authority of the
grand inquifitor of Spain. Its laft auio da fe was held
in the year 1724, when two perfons were burned. At
length Charles III. rendered it independent of the Spa-
nifli inquifitor, and abridged its power, by forbidding ic
to make uf^ of the torture, and to inflift public punifh-
ments. The Marchefe Squillace, and his fucceffor the
Marchefe Tanucci, were both enemies to the hierarchy;
and, during their viceroyalties, took care to appoint fen-
fible and hberal men to the office of inquifitor : the laft'
of^vhom was Ventimiglia, a man of a moft humane and
amiable charafter, who heartily wifhed for the abolition
of this diabolical court, and readily contributed toward
it. While he held the office of inquifitor, he always
endeavoured to procure the acquittal of the accufed; and
when he could fuceed no other way, would pretend fome
informality in the trial. The total annihilation of this
inftrument of the worll of tyranny was referved for Ca-
raccioli. A prieft being accufed to the inquifition, was
dragged out of his houfe and thrown into the dungeon.
He was condemned ; but, on account of inferrrrality, and
a violation of juftice in the trial, he appealed to the
viceroy, who appointed a committee of jurifts to exa-
mine the procefs. The inquifitor refufed to acknow-
ledge the, authority of this commiffion ; pretending that
to expofe the fecrets of the holy office, and to fubmit
its decifions to the examination of lay judges, would be
fo inconfiftent with his duty, that he would fee the in-
quifition abolifhed rather than confent to it. Caraccioli
took him ^t his word, and procured a royal mandate
by which the holy office was at once annihilated. He
aflembled all the nobility, judges, and bifhops, on the
27th of March 1782, in the palace of ihe inquifition,
and commanded the king's order to be read ; after
which he took pofTeffion of the archives, and caufed all
the prifons to be fet open : in thefe were at that time
only two prifoners, who had been condemned to per-
petual confinement for witchcraft. The papers rela-
ting to the finances were preferved ; but all the reft were
publicly burned. Thepoffeffions of the holy office were
affigned to the ufe of churches and charitable inftitu-
tions : but the officers then belonging to it retained
their falaries during their lives. The palace itfelf is
converted into a cuttomhoufe, and the place where he-
retics were formerly roafted alive for the honour of the
Catholic faith, is noTV changed into a public garden.
The cognizance of offences againft orthodoxy is com-
mitted to the bifliops : but they cannot cite any one to
appear before them without permiffion from the vice-
roy ; neither can they confine any perfon to a folitary
prifon, nor deny him the privilege of writing to his
friends, and convcrfing freely with his advocate. The
nobility are fo numerous in this ifland, th^t Labat fays
it is paved with noblemen. The general aflembly of
parliament is compofed of 66 archbiftiops, bifhops, ab-
bots, and priors, which form tke Bracchio ecclefiaftico.
Fifty-eight princes, 27 dukes, 37 marquifles, 27 counts, S
I vifcount, and 79 barons, form the militaire ; and the
demaniale confifls of 43 reprefentatives of free towns.
Out of each bracchio four deputies are chofen to con-
duft public bufinefs. But the viceroy, the prince of
Butera, and the praetor of Palermo, are always the three
firft. A^. B. There are many titled perfons that have
no feat in the aflembly, viz. 62 princes, 55 dukes, 87
marqulfles, i count, and 282 other feudatories. There
are three ai chbiflioprics and feven biflioprics ; and the
ifland, ever fince it was conquered by the Saracens, has
been divided into three parts or valleys ; namely, the
V al di Demone, Val di Noto, and Fal di Ma%%ara.
^ SICINNIUS (Dentatus), a tribune of the people,
lived a little after the expulfion of the kings from Rome.
He was in 1 20 battles andflcirmiflies, befides fingle com-
bats, in all of which he came off conqueror. He ferved
under nine generals, all of whom triumphed by his
means. In thefe battles he received 45 wounds in the
fore-part of his body, and not one in his back. The
fenate made him great prefents, and he was honoured
with the name of the Roman Achilles.
SICYOS, in botany : A genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of monoecia, and to the order t)f fyngenefia ;
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 34th or-
der, Cucurbitacea. The male flowers have their calyx
quinquedentated, their corolla q-jinquepartite, and there
are three filaments. The female flowers have their calyx
and corolla fimilar ; but their ftyle is trifid, and their
drupa monofpermous. There are three fpecies, the angu-
iata, lacintata, and garcini, which are all foreign plants.
SIDA, Telioiv or Indian Malloiv., in botany : A
genus of plants belonging to the clafs of monadelphia,
and to the order of polyandria ; and in the natural fyf-
tem ranging under the 37th order, Columnifera. The
calyx is fimple and angulated ; the ftyle is divided into
many parts ; there are feveral capfules, each containing
one feed. T here are 27 fpecies. i. The Spinofa ;
2. Anguftifolia ; 3. Alba; 4. Rhombifolia ; 5. Alni-
folia ; 6. Ciliaris ; 7. Rctufa ; 8. Triquetra ; 9. Jamai-
cenfis ; 10. Carpinifolia ; ii.Vifcofa; 1 2. Cordifoha;
13. Umbellat£E ; 14. Paiiiculata ; 15. Atrofanguinea ;
1 6. PeriplociFolia ; i7.Urens; 18. Arborea; 19. Oc-
cidentalis ; 20. Americana; 21. Abutilon ; 22. Mau-
ritiana ; 23. Afiatica ; 24. Indica; 25. Crifpa ; 26.
Criftata; 27. Ternata. The firft 18 fpecies have 15
capfules ; the reft are multicapfular. They are all na-
tives of warm climates ; and moft of them are found nx
the Eaft or Weft Indies.
The Chinefe make cords of the fida abutilon. Thi*
plant loves water, and may be advantageoufly planted
in marfhes and ditches, where nothing elfe will grow»
From experiments made by the Abbe Cavanilles, a Spa-
niard, which are inferted in the Mem. de Acad. Royale,
it appears that the plants fucceed beft when fown in
May, and they arrive at perfeftion in three months and
a half. The maceration of the fmaller ftalks is finifhed
in about 15 days; of the larger in a month. The
ftrength and goodnefs of the thread appeared to be in
propottion to the perfeftion of the vegetation, and to
the diftance the plant was kept at from other plants.
The fibres lie in ftrata, of which there are fometlmes-
fix : they are not quite ftraight, but preferve an undula-
ting diredion, fo as to form a network in their natu-
ral
S I D
[ 461 ]
s r D
i«al pofitions. Thei'r fmell refembles- that of hemp ; the
fibres are whiter, but more dry and harfh than thofe of
hemp. The harfhnefs is owintr to a greenifii ghiteii
which conneds the fibres ; and the white colour muft
always be obtained at the expence of having this kind
of thread lefs fupple ; when of its natural hue, it is very
foft and flexible. This defcription belongs chiefly to
the fida ; but it will alfo apply to the malva crifpa, Pe-
ruviana, and Mauritiana. '1 he malva crifpa gave,_how-
ever, the greateft quantity of fibres, and its gluten was
tnofl: cooious. The fibres of the fida abutilon, and the
malva crifpa, are the lon.reft and the flirongeft ; thofe of
the Peruviana and Mauritiana are the {horteft and weak-
eft. The fibres of thofe plants which had ' lofl: their
leaves are lefs ftronir, though of equal length with thofe
which had preferved them.
SIDDEE, or Sedee : an Arabic title, by which
the AbylTuiians or Habafliysare always diftinguiflied in
the courts of Hindofl:an ; where, being in great repute
for firmnefs and fidelity, they are generally employed as ■
commanders of farts or in pofl:s of great truft.
SIDEREAL YEAR. See JsTRONOMr-Index.
SIBERIA, in natural hiftory, the name of a genus
of cryftals, ufed to exprefs thofe altered in their figure
by particles of iron. Thefe are of a rhomboidal figure,
and compofed only of fix planes. Of this genus there
are four known fpecies. i . A coloutlefs, pellucid, and
thin one ; found in confiderable qiiantities among the
iron ores of the foreft of Dean in Gloucefterfhire, and
in feveral other places. 2. A dull, thick, and brown
one; not uncommon in the fame places with the for-
mer. And, 3. A black and very glofly kind, a foffil of
rreat beauty ; found in the fame place with the others,
as alfo in Leiceflierfliire and Suflex.
SIDE RITE, a fubftance difcovered by Mr Meyer,
and by him fuppofed to be a new metal ; but Meflrs
Beroman and Kirwan have difcovered that it is nothing
elfe than a natural combination of the phofphoric acid
with iron. Mr Klaproth of Berlin alfo came to the ■
fame conclufion, without any communication with Mr
Meyer. It is extremely difficult to feparate this acid
from the metal ; however, he found the artificial com-
pound of phofphoric acid and iron to agree in its pro-
perties with the calx fiderl alba obtained "by Bergman
and Meyer from the cold-fliort iron extracted from the
fwampy or marfliy ores. The difcovery of this fub-
ftance, however, may be accounted an important affair
in chemifl:ry, as we are thus furniflied with an ir » enfe
quantity of phofphoric acid, which might be apphedto
ufeful purpofes if it could be feparated from the me-
tal.
SIDERITIS, Ironwort, in botany: A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of didynamia,: and to the
order of symnofpermia ; and in the natural fyfl;em ran-
ging under the 42d order, Ferticil/ato', The fl.amina are
within the tube of the corolla. There are two lllgmas,
one of which is cylindrical and concave ; the other, which
is lower, is membranous, fliorter, and flieathing the other.
The fpecies are 13. i. The Canarienfis, or Canary
ironwort, which is a native of Madeira and the Canary
iflands ; 2. The Candicans, which is alfo a native of
Madeira: 7. The Syriaca, a native of the Levant; 4.
'J 'he Perfollata, a native of the Levant ; 5. The Mon-
tana, a native of Italy and Auftria ; 6. The Elegans ;
J. The Romana, a native of Italy ; 8. The Incana, a
Sidney,
native of Spain ; 9. The HyfTopIfolia, a native of Italy Sideroxj^
and the Pyrenees ; lo. The Scordioides, a native of the
fouth of France ; 11. The HIrfiita, which is indige-
nous in the fouth of Europe; 12. The Clhata ; 13.
The I^anata.
SIDEROXYLON, Iron-wood, in botany : A ge-
nus of plants belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and
to the order of monogynia ; and in the natural fyfteni
ranging Tmder the 43d order, Dumofa. The corolla is
cut into I o parts, the lacinise or fegments being Incur-
vated alternately ; the fllgma is fimple ; the berry con-
tains five feeds. There are ten fpecies: i. Mite ;
2. Inerme, fmooth iron-wood ; 3. Melanophleum, lauitl-
leaved iron-wood ; 4. Foetldilfimum ; 5, Cymofum — •
both natives of the Cape of Good Hope ; 6. Sericeumj
filky iron-wood, a native of New South Wales ; 7. Te-
nax, filvery-leaved iron-wood, a native of CaroHna ; 8,
I>ycioides, willow-leaved iron-wood, a native of North
America ; 9, Spinofum, thorny iron-vrood or argan,
a native of Morocco ; 10. Decandrum.
The wood of . thefe trees being very clofe and folld,
has given occafion for this name to be applied to them,
k being fo heavy as to fink in water. As they are na-
tives of warm countries, they cannot be preferved in this
country unlefs they are placed, the two former in a
warm Itove, the others in a green-houfe. They are
propagated by feeds, when thefe can be procured from
abroad.
SIDNEY (Sir Philip), was born, as is fuppofed, at
Penfhurft in Kent in the year 1554 : His father was
Sir Henry Sidney, an Irlfh gentleman, and his mother
Mary the eldeft daughter of John Dudley duke of Nor-
thumberland. He was fent when very young toChriiU
church college at Oxford, but left the univerfity at 17
to fet out on his travels. After vifiting France, Ger-
many, Hungary, and Italy, he returned to England in
1575, and was next year fent by Queen Ehzabeth as
her ambaffador to Randolph emperor of Germany. On
his return he vifited Don John of Auftria, governor of
the Netherlands, by whom he was received with great
refpcft. In 1579, when Queen Elizabeth feemed on
the point of concluding her long projefted marriage
with the duke of Anjou, Sir Phihp wrote her a letter,
in which he diiluaded her from the match with unufual
elegance of expreflion, as well as force of reafoning.
About this time a quarrel with the earl of Oxford oc-
cafioned his withdrawing from oourt ; during which re-
tirement he is fuppofed to have written his celebrated
romance called Arcadia.
In 1585, after the queen's treaty with the United
States, he v/as made governor of Fluflring and mafter of
the horfe. Here he diftingulftied hlmfelf fo much both
by his courage and conduft, that his reputation rofe to
the higheft; pitch. He was named, it is pretended, by
the republic of Poland as one of the competitors for that
crown, and might even have been elected had it not
been for the interference of the queen. But his illu-
itrious career was foon terminated ; for in 1386 he was
wounded at the battle of Zutphen, and carried to Arn-
heim, where he foon after died. His body was brought
to London, and buried in St Paul's cathedral. He is
defcribed by the writers of that age as the moft perfect
model of an accomphflred gentleman that could be form»
ed even by the wanton imagination of poetry or fic-
tion. Virtuous conduftj polite converfation, heroic va-
lour.
S I D
r 46
Sultiev. ]o\\r, and elegant erudition, all concurred to render him
the ornament and deli;.?;ht of the Englilh court: and as
the credit which he enjoyed with the queen and the
earl of Leicefter was wholly employed in the encourage-
ment of genius and literature, his praifcs have been tranf-
initted with advantage to pofterity. No perfon was fo
low as not to become an objeft of his humanity. Af-
ter the battle of Zutphen, while he was lying on the
field mangled with wounds, a bottle of water was
brought him to relieve his thirtt ; but obferving a fol-
dier near him in a like miferable condition, he faid,
This man's neceffity is Jiili greater than ?nine ; and re-
figned to him the bottle of water. Befides his Arcadia^
he wrote feveral fmaller pieces both in profe and verfe, .
which have'been publifhed.
Sidney (Algernon), was the fecond fon of Robert
earl of Leicefter, and of Dorothy eldetl dau:;hter of the
earl of Northumberland. He was born about the year
J 617, During the civil wars he took part againft the
king, and diftinguifhed himfelf as a colonel in the army
of the parliament. He was aftet wards appointed one
of king Charles's judges, but declined appearing in that
court. During the ufurpatlon of Cromwcl, Sidney,
who was a violent republican, retired to the country,
and fpent his time in writing thofe difcourfes on go-
vernment which have been fo defervedly celebrated.
After the death of; the Proteftor, he again took part
in the public tranfafhions of his country, and was abroad
on an embaffy to Denmark Avhen king Charles was re-
ftored. Upon this he retired to Hamburgh, and after-
wards to Francfort, where he refidedtlll 1677, when he
returned to England and obtained from the king a par-
don. It has been affirmed, but the ftory deferves no
credit, that during his refidence abroad king Charles
hired ruffians to affallinate him. After his return he
made repeated attempts to procure a feat in parliament,
but all of them proved unfuccefsful. After the inten-
tion of the commons to feclude the duke of York from
the throne had been defeated by the fudden dllTohition
of parliament, Sidney joined with eagernefs the coun-
cils of RufTel, Eflex, and Monmouth, who had refolved
to oppofe the duke's fucceffion by force of arms. Fre-
quent-meetings were held at London; while, at the
fame time, a fet of fubordinate confpirators, who were
not, however, admitted into their confidence, met and
embraced the moft defperate refolutions. Keihnj^, one
of thefe men, difcovered the whole confpiracy ; and Al-
gernon Sidney, together with his noble alTociates, was
immecl^ately thrown into prifon, and no art was left
unattempted in order to involve them in the guilt of
the meaner confpirator?.
Howard, an abandoned nobleman, without a fingle
fpark of virtue or honour, was the only witnefs againft
Sidney ; but as the law required two, his difcourfes on
government, found unpubllfhed In his clofet, were con-
Itrued into treafon, and declared equivalent to another
witnefs. It was in vain for Sidney to plead that pa-
pers were no legal evidence ; that it could not be pro-
ved they were written by him ; and that if they were,
they contained nothing treafonable. The defence was
over-ruled ; he was declared guilty, condemned, and ex-
ecuted ! His attainder was reverfed in the firft year of
king William.
He was a man of extraordinary courage ; fteady even
to obiUnacy ; of a fincere but rough and boiiterous
2 1 SID
temper. Though he profefied his belief' \\\ tlie Chrj»
ftian religion, he was an enemy to an ettablilhed church,
and even, according to Burnet, to every kind of public
wor'hip. In his principles he w^as a zealous republican :
government was always his favourite ftudy ; and his ef-
fays on that fubjeft are a proof of the progrefs whioh
he made.
SIDON (anc. geog.), a city of Phoenicia in Afia,
famous in Scripture for its riches, arifing from the ex-
tenfive commerce carried on by its inhabitants. Heavy
judgments were denounced againft the Sidonians on ac-
count of their wickednefs, which were accompli fhed in
the time of Ochus king of Perfia : for that monarch ha-
ving come againil them with an army on account of
their rebellion, the city was betrayed by its king ; up-
on which the wretched inhabitants were feized with
defpair ; they fet fire to their houfes, and 40,000,
with their wives and children, perifhed in the flames.
This city is now called Sdide.) and, according to Mr
Bruce's account, not only its harboiu- is filled up with
fand, but the pavement of the ancient city ftood ~i\ feet
lower than the ground on which the prefent city ftands.
Volney defcribes it as an iil-bullt dirty city. Its
length along the fea-fhore is about 600 paces, and its
breadth i 50. At the north- weft fide of the town is
the caftle, which rs built in the fea itfelf, 80 paces from
the main land, to which it is joined by arches. To the
weft of this caftle is a ftioal 1 5 feet high above the fea,
and about 2co paces long. The fpacc between this
fhoal and the caftle forms the road, but veflels are not
fafe there in bad weather. The ftioal, which extends
along the town, has a bafon inclofed by a decayed pier.
'1 his was the ancient port ; but it is fo choaked up by
fand, that boats alone can enter its mouth near the
caftle. Fakr-el-din, emir of the Drufes, deftroyed all
thefe little ports from Bairout to Acre, by finking boats
and ftones to prevent the Turkifli ftiips from entering^
them. The bafon of Saide, if it were emptied, might
contain 20 or 25 fmall velfels. On the fide of the fea,
the town is abfolutely without any wall; and that which
enclofes it on the land fide is no better than a prifon-
wall. The whole artillery does not exceed fix cannons,
and thefe are without carriages and gunners. The gar-
rifon fcarcely amounts to 100 men. The water comes
from the river Aoula, through open canals, from which
it is fetched by the women. Thefe canals ferve alfo to
water the orchards of mulberry and lemon trees.
S; ''le is a confiderable trading town, and is the chief
emporium of Damafcus and the interior country. The
French, who are the only Europeans to be found there,
have a conful, and five or fix commercial houfes. Their
exports confift in lilks, and particularly in raw and fpun
cottons. The manufafture of this cotton is the princi-
pal art of the inhabitants, the number of whom may be
eftiraated at about 5000. It is 45 miles well from Da-
mafcus. E. Long. 36. 5. N. Lat. 37.
SIDUS Georgium, in aftronomy, a new primary
planet, difcovered by Dr Herfchell in the year 1781.
By moft foreign, and even by fbme Britifh philofophers,
it is known by the name o{ Herfehell, an honour which is
due to the difcoverer. As the other planets are di-
Iflngulfhed by marks or charaft ers, the planet Herichell
is diftinguifhed by an H, the initial letter of the difco-
verer's name, and a crofs to fhow that it is a Chriftian
planet. From many calculations of our bell aftrono-
6 mers
II'
S 1 E
mers and. matben-'.aticians, fays a u a
colkaed the Mowing particulars, as molt to be de-
pended upon.
Place of the node
Inclination of the orbit
Place of the perihelion - 1 7 ^'
Time of the perihelion palTage Sep
Eccentricity of the orbit ,82034
Half the greater axis 19>07904
Revoluticm - 83,3364 fidenal years
From my own obfervatlons on this planet 3 apparent
diameter, which I have found cannot well be lefs than
a", nor indeed much greater, we infer, that its real dia-
Jaeter is to that of the earth as 4,454 to i ; and hence
it appears to be of very confiderable bulk, and, except
Saturn and Jupiter, by far the largeft of the remaining
planets. Its light is of a bluifh-white colour, and in
brilliancy between that of the Moon and of Venus.
With a telefcope which magnifies about 300 times,_it
appears to have a very well defined vifible diflc ! but with
iiittruments of a fmall power, it can hardly be diftin-
' cuifhed from a fixed ftar of between the fixth and ie-
venth magnitude. In a very fine clear night, when
the moon is abfent, it may alio be feen by the naked
SIEGE in the art of war, is to furroiind a fortified
place with an army, and approach' it by pafTages made
in the ground, fo as to be covered againll the fire of the
^^^SIEGEN, a town of Germany in Wetteravia, with
a caftle and the title of a principality, which it gives
to a branch of the houfe o\ Naffau. It is feated on a
> river of the fame name, in E. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat.
■^°'SIENNA, a large, ancient, and celebrated city of
Tulcany in Italy ; capital of the Siennefe, with an
archbifhop's fee, a famous univerfity, and a citadel, it
is about four miles in circumference, and furrounded
with an old wall. The metropolitan church is much
efteeraed by travellers ; and though it is a Gothic itruc-
tu-e, the architeaure is admirable. It is built vvith
black and white marble, and the pavement is of Molaic
woik The town is adorned with a great number ot
palaces, fountains, and fuperb churches, as alfo a mag-
nificent hofpital. The great area is round, and the houles
about it are of the fame hei.^rht, fupported by piazzas,
under which people may walk in hot or rainy weather ;
in the middle is abafon, which can be filled with water
at any time, to reprefent a fea-fight with fmall veffels.
The Italian language is taught here with fuch purity,
that a great many foreigners frequent it on that ac-
count.' It is feated on three eminences, in a fertile ioil,
in E. Long. II. ii.N.Lat._43. 10.
SIENNESE, a duchy m Italy ; bounded on the
north by the Florentino, on the fouth by the Mediter-
ranean fea and the duchy of Caftro, on the eaft by the
Perugino and Orvietano, and on the weft by the i-io-
rentino and the Tufcan fea ; being about_55 miles in
length, and as much in breadth. The foil is pretty fer-
tile, efpecially in mulberry trees, which feed a great
number of filk-worms and there are feveral mineral
fprings. Sienna is the capital town.
SIERRA LEON A, a large country on the wett coalt
of Africa, which fome extend from the Gram Coalt
Dr Herlchell, I have on the fouth eaft to Cape Verga or Vega on the north-
ur nenc , ^^^^ \,^twttn 7^ and io« N. Lat. Others, how.
ever, confine the country between Cape Verga and Cape
Tagrin. There runs through it a great river of the
fame name, oF which the fource is unknown, but the
mouth is in lonaltude 12. 30. weft, lat. 8. 5. north, and
is nine miles wide. 'I'he climate and foil of this trad oi
country appear to be, on both fides of the river, among
the beft in Africa, or at leaft the moft favourable to
European conftitutions. The heat is much the fame as
that of the Weft Indies ; but on the higher grounds
there is a cool fea breeze, and in the mountainous parta
the air is very temperate. According to Lieutenant
Matthew, Sierra Leona, if properly cleared and cul-
Sierra.
49' 3^"
43' 35''
13' 17"
7. 1799
tivatcd, would be equal in falubrity and fupenor in pro-
duce to any of the iflands in the Weft Indies and
others have affirmed, that " the air is better for a man's
health than in many places of Europe.". Thefe advan-
tages of climate induced the Englifti to eftabhfti a fadlo-
ry at Sierra Leona ; but they chofe not the moft health-
ful fituation. For the benefit of a fpring of good wa-
ter they fixed their refidence in alow valley, which is
often overfprcad with mifts and noifomc vappurs,_ while
the air is clear and ferene on the fummits ot the hills, to
which water from the well might be eafily carried.
The animal produftions of this country are lions,
from which it has its name ; leopards, hya?nas, muflc
cats, and many kinds of weafels ; the japanzee or chim-
panzee, a fpecies oj fimia, which has a ftiU more fin-
king refemblance to the human figure than even the
ouran outang ; porcupines, wild hogs, Irfuirrels, a.^d
antelopes. Befides thefe, which are natives of the
country, oxen thrive in it, and even grow fat ; aile^
too are employed in labour, and do not fuffer by the
climate ; but ftieep fuff'er much from the heat, change
their wool into hair, grow lean and increafe very httle ;
while the hardy goat is here as prohfic and large as%n
any other country. OF the birds which frequent tne
woods of Sierra Leona we can give no perfed account,
A fpecies of crane is mentioned as eafily tamed ; com-
mon poultry multiply faft ; ducks thrive well, but geefe
and turkeys feem not to agree with the climate, i ur-
tles of all kinds are very common, and fometimes of a
large fize. Crocodiles or alligators of a non-defcript
fpecies have been found ten or twelve feet in length, and
lizards of fix different fpecies. Snakes, which _ are al-
moft innumerable, haunt the houfes in the night m
fearch "of poultry ; and one was obferved which mea-
fured ] 8 feet, but was happily found not to be venom-
ous. Fifhes are in great variety both in the fea and m
the rivers. Befides the whale, the fiiark, ftinging ray,
and porpoife, there are eels, horfe-mackarel, tarpoons,
cavIUos, mullets, fnappers, yellow-tails, old-maids, ten-
pounders, and fome other fifties ; ail of which, except
the eels and ten-pounders, are efteemed fine eating. Oy-
fters are found in great abundance, and another ftiell-
fifti, which the natives eat. Among the zoophites,,
none is more worthy of notice than the common fponge,
which covers all the fandy beaches of the river, parti-
cularly on the BuUom ftiore, and would fetch a high
price in Great Britain. _
Of the numerous vegetable produftions of Sierra
Leona, our limits will permit us only to mention the
following. Rice, which is the plant chiefly cultivated,
as the natives fubfiil alraott entirely upon it, grows both
m
f ?erra,
S I E
in the high and low grounds. It profpers indeed beft
in fwamps, though the grain Js better in a drier foil.
ISext to nee the caffada conftitutes the chief food of the
inhabitants, and is cukivated with great care. The
country hkewife produces yams, various kinds of po-
tatoes, eddoes, or the arum ejculentum. Oil-pahn, plan-
tains, and bananas ; papaw, guava, oranges and hmes;
pornpions, melons, and cucumbers ; pine-apples, pigeon-
pea5 which dreffed like Englifh peas are a good pulfe •
.-naize or Indian corn ; millet, cocoa-nut trees ; ockra •
the tallow-tree ; a great variety of tamarinds ; different
kinds of fig-trees and plums ; a kind of fruic refemblin?
grapes, but more acid and acrid ; cherries refemblin^ a
fine neftanne in tafte ; afpecies of the bread fruit-tree;
the cream fruit, fo called becaufe when wounded it
yields a fine white juice refembling fugar or the befl
milk, of which the natives are very fond ; the mala-
(TliPtta -nprwM^y r^v _f it ^ . .
[ 4^4 M
S I E
terms, and a Aim deemed fufficient was fpeedily raifed.
An aa of parliament was paffed in favour of the fub!
icnbers, by which they were incorporated by the deno
mination ot ih. Sierra Leona Company; and in purfu
ance of that ad they held their fir/mee ing at London
on the 19th of Oaober 179:, when tlfe fol o W
gentlemen wore chofen direftors for that year
Henry Thornton, Efq; M. P. chairman -Philip
banfom, Efq; deputy chairman-Sir Charles Middle
ton Kart.--Sir George Young, Knt.-Wilham Wil-
ber orce Efq; f P-Rev. Thomas Clarkfon. A. M.
-Jofeph Hardcaftle, Efq;--John Kingfton, Efq;-*
SanTf H T/'' ^/^.'r^'"^""'"^ ^h^'-P' Efq;- Will am
Sandford, Efqj-Vickens Taylor, Efq;-GeorgeWol^
The direaors having flated the natural advantao-cs
Itll ^CTlri"^^'^ -Iferable condition,
guetta pepper, or grains of paradife new Seeks of obferveT that 'a P"^"^'
nutmeg but whether fo goo^ as the' commoKt hL ^eSad buTthS ^i^t't '^f'^- '
J! r.,.^"" 5^?^^'-^^ '^J fP-- of the Peruvian tivation, and ? fafe u^l '"".T^t!!^!''^^^
js^^v* «o Hit »,t»iuuioii lore nas
not yet been afcertained ; a new fpecies of the Peruvian
bark, which It IS hoped will prove as ufeful as the other ;
and cola, a fruit highly efleemcd by the natives for the
fanie virtues with that bark; the ricinus, caffia, dye-
Itufts, and gums, of great value ; cotton, tobacco, and
luoar-canes, which, it is thought, would thrive exceed-
ingly well undeV proper cultivation.
Confidering the ardour of the maritime nations of Eu-
rope for fettling colonies in diftant regions of the globe,
n IS fonrievvhat furprifing that a climate fo temperate
and a foil fo produdive as that of Sierra Leona did not
ong ago attraa their notice. But it was left to be co-
lonized for a better purpofe than that which firft drew
the natives of Europe to the Weft Indies and the Ame-
ncan continent. Being thinly inhabited. Sierra Leona
appeared to fome benevolent gentlemen in En^^Iand a
place where, without incommoding the natives,''a fuffi-
aent quantity of ground might be bought on which to
ettlea great number of free negroes, who in 1786
1 warmed in London in idlenefs and want. About
400 of thefe wretches, together with 60 whites, moft-
iy women of bad charader and in ill health, were ac-
cordingly fent out, at the charge of government, to
Sierra Leona. NecefTity, it was hoped, would make
them induftrious and orderly ; and Captain Thomfon
of the navy, who conduaed .hem ob ained for Zr „H , ff 7P'°)'™»'» f-ted to their pvefent abilities.
y 7 •— - H.v.u, uuiaiiiea, lor tneir
ule, a grant of land to his majefty from king Tom, the
neighbouring chief, and afterwards from Naimbanna,
the king of the country. The colony, however, foon
went to ruin ; but the land which they occupied being-
about 2 o miles fquare, his majeffy was enabled to grant
by aa of parliament to another colony founded on bet-
ter principles and for aflill nobler purpofe.
The moft intelligent members of that fociety, which
has laboured fo ftrenuoufly to procure hn abolition of
tfie fiave-trade, juftly concluding that the natives of
Guinea would reap very little benefit from the attain-
ment of their objea, unleft they fhould be taudit the
principles of religion and tne arts of civil life, which
... i ■ ' J wiaui^c civilization, CUl-
tivation, and a fafe trade, the company muft provide
for the fecunty of the perfons and property of the co-
f r ^'[f ''^^'•^^"'•^ that three or
four veffels fhould lail at once, with fuch a number of
people as would be able to protea and affift each other $
with goods both for trade and for the fupply of the co-
lony Accordingly feveral veft-els failed, having oh
board a council for the government of the colony and
the management of the company's affairs ; a number of
artificers and other fervants of the company ; fome fol-
diers, and a very few Englifh fettlers. The direaors
were laudably cautious in the choice of colonifts. Thev
admitted mto the fociety no white man of bad charac-
ter, or who was Hot a declared enemy to the flave-trade;
and as the chief objed of their enterprife was the civili!
zation of the natives, it was with great propriety that
they chofe more than three-fourths of their fettlers from
the free negroes in Nova Scotia, who had borne arms
for the Bntifh government during the American war.
ihe fupenntendant and council were particularly in-
ftrufted to fec.ire to all blacks and people of colour, at
bierra Leona, equal rights and equal treatment, in all
refpeas, with whites. They were to be tried by jury,
as well as others ; andfthe council was defired to allot to
the blacks employments fuited to their prefent abilities,
and to attnrrl tlifm •. <- , . . _ *
alone can render them really free conceived the „ ,„ T ' . ' , ="l'"M!on were fent out, befidts
of a colony at Sierra Leona fo be ' ittl -"P-^'^ — « >
ot a colony at Sierra Leona to be fettled for the truly
generous purpofe of civilizing the Africans by main-
-tain.ngwith them a friendly intercourfe, and a- commerce
in every thuig but men. This plan could not be ear-
ned into cffta but at a very great expence. Subfcrip-
^tions were therefore opcuednipon rational and equitable
talents. All praaicable means of maintaining fubordi-
nation were direaed to be ufed ; and the council was
efpec.ally .nftrudlcd to promote religion and morals, by
fupporting public wo.flrip and the due obfervance oi
the Sabbath, and by the inftruaion of the people, and
the education of children. But no perfon was to be
prevented from performing or attending reIi;rious wor-
ihip in whatever place, time, or manner, he might think
fit, or from peaceably inculcating his own religious opi-
n.ions. Orders were given in choofing the \{u of a
town, to confider health as the firft objea ; and the
hrft town was direaed to be called Free-To-wn. Arti-
cies for building and cultivation were fent out, befides
flip fiirnv-i<oo r X- .1 .
and fchools for reading, writing, and accounts, were
ordered to be fet up for the purpofe of inftn.aing the
children of fuch natives as fliould be willing to put them
under the company's care.
The leading objea of the company was to fubftitute.
for that difgracefui traffic which has too lung fubfifled'
S I E
r 4% 1
S I E
a fair commerce with Africa, and all the Weffings which
might be expe£led to attend it. Confiderable advan-
tages appeared hereby likely to refuk to Great Britain,
not only from our obtaining feveral commodities cheap-
er, but alfo from opening a market for Britifh manu-
fa6lures, to the increafing demands of which it is diffi-
cult to affign a limit. From this connexion, Africa
was likely to derive the flill more important benefits of
religion, morality, and civilization. To accomplifh
tbefe purpofes, it was ncceffary for the company to
pofiefs a traft of land, as a repofitory for their goods,
and which the Africans* might cultivate in peace, fccure
from the ravages of the flave-trade. It had been afcer-
tained, beyond a doubt, that the climate and foil of
Africa were admirably fuited to the growth of fugar,
fpices, coffee, cotton, indigo, rice, and every other fpe-
cies of tropical produce. The company propofed to
inftruS: the natives to raife thele articles, and to fet them
the example, by a fpirited cultivation, on its own ac-
count. Directions were given to the company's commer-
cial agent to pulh forward a trade, in a mode prefcribed,
in the prefent produce of Africa. Meafures were taken
for cultivating, on the company's account, the moft
profitable tropical produce ; and in particular, a perfon
of long experience in the Weft Indies was ordered to
begin a fu;^ar plantation. A mincralogift and botanifl
were likewife engaged to go out and explore the coun-
try for new articles of commerce.
Every thing being thus fettled upon the moft equita-
ble and benevolent principles, the (hips failed with the
Britilh colonifts, to whom, in March 1792, were added
1 1 3 1 blacks from Nova Scotia. The native chiefs be-
ing reconciled to the plan, and made to underftand its
beneficent tendency towards their people, the colony
proceeded to build Free-Toivtiy on a dry and rather ele-
vated fpot on the fouth fide of the river. It occupied
between 70 and 80 acres, its length being about one-
third of a mile, and its breadth nearly the fame ; and it
contained near 4c© houfes, each having one-twelfth of
a!i acre annexed, on which a few vegetables were raifed.
There were nine ftreets running from north-weft to fouth-
eaft, and three crols ftreets, all 80 feet wide, except one
of 1 60 feet, in the middle of which were all the public
buildings. Thefe conlifted of a governor's houfe and
offices ; a large ftore-houfe ; a large hofpital ; fix or
eight other houfes, offices, and (hops, occupied by the
company's fervants ; and a church capable of contain-
ing 80c people. The colonifts at firft fuffered much
from the rainy ftafon, tgriinft which it was not in their
power to provide fufficient proteftion ; but at the end
*if it they recovered in a great meafurc their health and
fpirits, an:", proceeded with alacrity to execute the va-
rious purpofes of their fettlement. To excite emulation
in culture, the government gave premiums to thole co-
lonifts who raifed the grealeft quantities of rice, yams,
eddocs, cabbages, Indian cor:n, and cotton, refpeftively.
'f'o limit the exceftes of the flave-trade, and gain the
favour of the neighbouring chiefs, the direftors inftrui*^-
ed the governor and council to redeem any native from
the reighbonuhood, who fhould be unjuftly fold either
to or by a Britilh fubjeft. The fervants of the compa-
ny conduced thcmfelves with the utmoft propriety, be-
ing fober, moral, and exemplary ; and from the labours
of the clergymen were derived fervices highly important
. in every point of view. Befjre the end of two years
V^L.XVII. Part IL
from the inftitutlon of the colony, order and indudry SJe-ra.
had begun to fhow their efFefts in an increafing profpe- v—
rity. The woods had been cut down to the diftanceof
about three Englifti miles all round the town. By thefe
means the climate had become healthier, and ficknels
had diminiftied. The fame of the colony had fpread not
only along the whole weftcrn coaft of Africa, but alfo to
parts far diftant from the coaft ; embafTies had been re-
ceived of the moft friendly nature from kings and prin-
ces feveral hundred miles diftant ; and the native chiefs
had begun to fend their children to the colony, with
full confidence, to be taught reading, writing, and ac-
counts, and to be brought up in the Chriftian religion..
In a word, it was not v/ithout grounds that the direc-
tors looked forward to that joyful period when, by the
influence of the company's meafures, the continent of
Africa fhould be refcued from her prefent ftate of daik-
nefs and mifery, and exhibit a delightful fcene of hght
and knowledge, of civilization and order, of peaceful
induftry and domeftic comfort. On their beneficent
exertions they hoped with confidence for the bleflTing of
Providence ; they were countenanced and fupported by
the Britifli government ; and upon the breaking out of
the prefent war, the French Convention authorifed one
of their agents to write to the direftors, requefting a
full account of the defign of the inftitution, and the
names of the fhips employed in their fervice, and afTu-
ring them of the good wiflies of the French government
to fo noble an undertaking. How completely that
government fulfilled its promife is very generally known.
Having vindicated the rights of man in Eui-ope by the
violation of every principle of truth and juftice, they de-
termined by the fame means to give Hght and liberty ta
the Africans ; and that they have fully carried their de-
termination into effcd will be feen by the following ex-
traft of a letter from Mr Afzelius, the company's bota-
nift, dated Sierra Leona, 15th November 1794. «' The WaJ/lrerit
French have been her-e and have ruined us. They ar- Part 1 1,
rived on the 28th of September laft, early in the mom-P'
ing, with a fleet confifting of one large fhip, two fri-
gates, two armed brigs, and one cutter, together with
two large armed merchant fliips, taken by them at the
Ifles de Lofs, an Englifh flave fadlory to the north of
our colony, and which they have alfo deftroyed and
burnt. So well had they concealed their nation, that
we took them at firft for Englifh. They had Englifh-
built vefTels, which, were rigged in the Englifh way.
They fliowed the Englifh flag, and had their failors, at
leaft thofewe faw on deck, dreffed like Englifli. In fliort,
we did not perceive our miifake till we obferved them,
pointing their guns. We had not ftrength fufficient to
refift, and therefore our governor gave orders, that as
foon as they fhould begin to fire, the Britilh flag fliould
be ftruck, and a flag of truce hoifted. Accordingly
this was done, but flill they continued firing, and did
much damage, both within and without the town.
'J 'hey killed two people and wounded three or four. But,
as we did not underftand the meaning of this proceed-
ing, we aflved them for an explanation ; and they an-
fv/ered us, that we fliould difplay the flag of liberty, as a
proof of our fubmiflion. We affured them that it
fhould already have been done, if we had had any,
which terminated the hottilities from the fhips. In the
mean time, mofl of the inhabitants had fled from the
the town, having taken with them as much of their
3 N property
Slerfi.
S I 11 [
property as t|iey conveniently could in fuch a hurry
was with the governor, together with a number of 0-
thers ; but as foon as I was certain tliey were enemies,
I went towards ftiy own houfe with a view to fave as
much as poffible of my property and natural collections;
but was received in inch manner, that I could not ven-
tu'-e to proceed. My lionfe was iituated near the fhore,
and unfortunately jutt oppofite the trigale which fired.
I fow the balls paffins-' through the houfc, and heard
them whiz'/.ing about my ears- I faw tJiat I (hould
lofe all my property ; but life was dearer to me, and I
haftened to the woods.
"In the afternoon the enemy landed, findm^ the town
slmoil deflitute of people, but rich in provifions, cloth-
ing, and other ftores. They began immediately to break
open the houfes and to plunder. What they did not
want, they deilroyed, burnt, or threw into the river.
They killed all the cattle and animals they found in the
fields or ilrects, yards, or elfewhere, not fparing even
afi'es, doiis, and cats. Thefe proceedings they conti-
■med the whole fucceeding week, till they had entirely
ruined our beaiuiful and profperinii; colony ; and when
they found nothing more worth plundering, they fet
fire to the public buildings and all the houfes belong-
ing to the Europeans ; and burnt, as they faid, by mif-
take nine or ten houfes of the colonills. In the mean
time, they were not lefs aftive on the water. They
fent three of their veffels to Bance ifland, an EngHOi
flave faftory higher up the river, which they plundered
and burnt, together with fome flave fhips lying there.
They took befides about 10 or 12 prizes, including
the company's veiTels. Mofb of thefe they unloaded
and burnt. They took along with them alfo two of
our armed vefTels, one of which was a large fhip, laden
with provilions, and which had been long expefted ;
but fte unfortunately arrived a few days too foon, and
was taken with her whole cargo. We expedled at leaft
to receive our private letters, but even this was refufed,
and they were thrown overboard. At laft, after in-
fiifting on us every hardlhip we could fuffer, only fpa-
ring our lives and the honfes of the colonifts, they failed
on the 13th of Oftober latt, at noon, proceedmg down-
wards to the Gold Coail, and left us in the molt dread-
ful fituatiun, without provifions, medicines, clothes,
houfes, or furniture, 6cc. &c. and I fear much, that moft
of us Ihould have perifhcd, had not our friends in the
neighbourhood, both natives and Europeans, who were
10 happy as to efcape the enemy, been fo kind as to
fend us what they could fpare. In the mean time, moft
of us have either been, or ft ill are, very fick, and many
have died for want of proper food and medicine. The
worft, however, Is now paft. At leaft we are not in
any want of provifion, although of the coarfeft kind,
j)ut are detlitute of the m.oft neceifary articles and uten-
fils for -the houfe, the table, and the kitchen."
It was thus that the Convention executed their pur-
pofe oF fpreadin^ light and liberty through the ivorld. The
iSierra Leona colony was eftablllhed for no other end
than to abollfh the flave-trade, to enlighten the Afri-
cans, and to render them virtuous, rational, free, and
happy ; and thofe powerful patrons of the rights of
man deftroyed that colony with many circumftances of
the moft wanton cruelty. Though Mr Afzelius is a
Swede, and ought therefore to have been protefted by
the laws of neutrality, they burnt his Ixoufe with the
466 ] S I F
I reft ; deprived him of his trunks, his clothes, and his
bed ; deftroyed the natural curiofitles which he had col-
ledled at the hazard of his life ; and carried away the
inftruments by means of which only he could colleft
more. It is with pleafure, however, that we learn from
the proceedings of the general court held an the 25th
or February 1795, that the direftors do not yet defoalr
of the colony ; and that they have adopted ihe moil
prudent meafures to avert all fach calamities in future.
That their benevolent labours may be finally crowned
with fuccefs is our earneft prayer, in which we fhali^
doubtlefs, be joined by every good Chrillian.
SIERRA MORr.NA, mountains of Andalufia in
Spain.
SIEUR, a title of refpecf among the French, like
that oi majler among us. It is much ufed by lawyers,
as alfo by fuperiors in their letters to inferiors.
SIFANTO, or SiPHANTO, an ifland of the Archi-
pelago, to the weft of Paros, to the north-enft of
MIlo, and to the fouth-weil: of Serphanto. The air its
fo good here, that many of the inhabitants live to the
age of 120; and their water, fruits, wild fowl, and
poultry, are excellent, but more cfpeclally the grapes.
It abounds with marble and granire, and Is one of the
moft fertile and heft cultivated of thefe iflands. Tne
inhabitants employ themfelves in cultivating olive-trees
and capers ; and they have very good filk. They trade
in figs, onions, wax, honey, and ftraw-hats ; and may
be about 8000 in all. E. Long. 25. 15. N. Lat«
37- 9-
SI- FANS, or tou-fans, a people Inhabiting the^^ /
country on the weft of China. Their country is only Q^ne
a continued ridge of mountains, inclofed by the rivers 'J^/ii
Hoang-ho on the north, Ya long on the weft, and "f
Yang-tfe kiang on the eaft, between the 30th and 35th
degrees of north latitude. ^'
The Si- fans are divided Into two kinds of people ;
the one are called by the Chlnefe Black Si-fans, the
other Telloiv ; names which are given them from the
different colours of their tents. The black are the moft
clownifh and wretched ; they live in fmall bodies, and
arc governed by petty chiefs, who all depend upon a
greater.
The yellow Si-fans are fubjefl to families, the oldeft
of which becomes a lama, and affumes the yellow drefs,
Thefe lama princes, who command In their refpeftive
dillncls, have the power of trying caufes, and punifh-
ing criminals ; but their government is by no means
burdenfome ; provided certain honours are paid them,
and they receive p>m6lually the dues of the god Fo,
which amount to very little, they moleft none of their
fubjefts. The greater part of the Si-fans live In tents;
but fome of them have houfes built of earth, and even
brick. Their habitations are not contiguous ; they
form at moft but fome fmall hamlets, confifting of five
or fix famlHes. They feed a great number of flocks,
and are In no v/ant of any of the neceffarles of life. The
principal article of their trade is rhubarb, which their
country produces in great abundance, 'I'heir horfes
are fmall ; but they are well ftiaped, lively, and robuft.
Thefe people are of a proud and independent fpiritj
and acknowledge with reluctance the fuperiority of the
Chlnefe government, to which they have been fubjeft-
ed : when they are fummoned by the mandarins, they
rarely appear j but the government, for political reafons,
winku
SI©
r 467 1
S I G
winks at th's contempt, and endeavours to keep thefe
mtraftable fiibjedts under by mildnefs and moderation :
it would, befides, be difficult to employ rigorous means
in order to reduce them to perfect obedience ; their
wild and fri-htful mountains (the tops of which are al-
ways covered with fnow, even in the month of July)
would afford them places of fheker, from which they
could never be driven by force.
The culloms of thcfe mountaineers are totally diffe-
rent from thofe of, the Chinefe. It is, for example, an
aft of creat politenefs among them to prefent a white
handkerchief of taffety or linen, when ttiey accoft any
perfon whom they are defuous of honouring. All their
religion confifta in their adoration of the god Fo, to
whom they have a finjjular attachment : their fupeifti-
tious veneration extends even to his minifters, on whom
they have confidered it as their duty to confer fupreme
power and the government of the nation.
SIGAULTIAN operation, a method of delivery
in cafes of difficult labour, firft praftifed by M. Sigault.
It confifls in enlarging the dimenfions of the pelvis, in
order to procure a fafe paffage to the child without in-
turinof the mother. See Midwifery, chaip. vii.
SIGESBECKIA, in botany : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of fyngenefia, and to the order of
polygamia fuperflua ; and in the natural fyftem ranging
lander the 4.9th order, CompqJiU. The receptacle is pa-
leaceous ; the pappus is wanting ; the exterior calyx is
pentaphyllous, proper, and fpreading ; the radius is hal-
ved. There are three fpecies : i . The orienia/is, which
is a native, of India and China. 2. The occldentaiis,
-which is a native of Virginia. 3. The Jlofculofa, a na-
tive'of Peru.
S-IGETH, a town of Lower Flungary, and capital
of a county of the fame name. It is feated in a morafs,
and has a triple wall, with ditches full of water ; and
is defended by a citadel, being one of the ftrongeft pla-
ces in Hungary, It now beion(>s to the houfe of An-
ftria, and was retaken from the Turks in 1669, after it
had been blocked up two years. In fome maps it is
called Zigat. E. Long. 18. 58. N. Lat. 46. 17.
SIGHING, an effort of nature,, by which the lungs
are put into greater motion, and more dilated, fo that
the blood paffes more freely, and in greater quantity,
to the left auricle, and thence to the ventricle. Hence
%ve learn, fays Dr Hales, how fighlng increafes the
force of the blood, and confequently proportionably
cheers and relieves nature, when oppreffed by its too
flow motion, which is the cafe of thofe who are dtjeded
and fad.
SIGHT, or Vision. See Anatomy, n" 142. and
Index fubjoined to Optics.
ImperfcBion of Sight luith regard to Colours^ Under
the article Colours, is given an inftance of a ftrange
deficiency of fia'ht in fome people who could not diftin-
^uifti between the different colours. In the Phil. Tranf.
Vol. LXVIII. p. 6 1 1 . we have an account of a gentle-
man who couIq not diftinguifh a claret colour from
-ilack. Thefe imperfedions are totally unaccountable
from any thing we yet know concerning the nature of
this feiife.
Second Sight. See Secor^B Sight.
SIGN, in peneral, the mark or charafter of fome-
thing ablent or invifible. See Character.
Among phyficians, the term Jign deiiotes fome ap-
pearance in the Jiuman body which ferves to indicate or
point out the condition of the patient with regard to
health or dileafe.
Sign, in algebra. See A lgebra, Part I.
Sign, in aftronomy, a conftellation containing a 12th
part of the zodiac. See AsTRONoryiY, n° 318.
Naval SIGNALS. When we read at »iir fire-
fide the account of an engagement, or other interefling
operation of an army, our attention is «-enerally fo much
engaged by the refults, that we give but little to the
movements which led to them, and produced them, and
we feldom form to ourfelves any diftin6t notion of the
conduft of the day. But a profeffional man, or one ac-
cuftomed to refleftion, and who is not fatisned with the
mere indulgence of eager curiofity, follows every regi-
ment in its movements, endeavours to lee their connec'!'
tion and the influence which they have had on the fate of
the day, and even to form to himfelf a general notion
of the whole fcene of adtion at its different intereftin^^
periods. He looks with the eye of the general, and
fees his orders fucceed or fail.
But few trouble themfelves farther about the narra-
tion. The movement is ordered ; it is performed ; and
the fortune of the day is determined. Few think how
all this is brought about ; and when they are told that
during the whole of the battle of CuHrin, Frederic the
Great was in the upper room of a country inn, from
whence he could view the whole field, while his aida
de camp, on horfeback, waited his orders in the yard
below, they are ilruck with wonder, and can hardly
conceive how it can be done : but, on refleftion, they
fee the poffibility of the thing. Their imagination ac-
companies the meffenger from the inn yard to the fcent
of aftion ; they hear the General's orders dehveredy
and they expeft its execution.
But when we think for a moment on the fituatioh
of the commander of a fleet, confined on board one
fhip, and this fhip as much, or more clofely, engaged,
than any other of the fleet ; and when we refleft that
here are no meffengers ready to carry his orders to
fhips of the fquadron at the diitance of miles from him,
and to deliver them with precifion and dillin£tneis, and
that even if this were poffible by fending {mall fhips or
boats, the viciffitudes ot wind and weather may render
the communication fo tedious that the favourable mo-
ment may be irretrievably loft before the order can be
conveyed. — -V/hen we think of all thefe circumftances,
our thoughts are bewildered, and we are ready to ima-
gine that a fea-battle is nothing but the unconnefted
ilruggle of individual fliips ; and that when the admiral
has once '* cried havoc, and let flip the dogs of war,"
he has done all that his htuation empowers him to do,
and he mull leave the fate of the day to the bravery and
fidU of his captains and failors. j.
Yet it is in this fltuation, apparently the mofl: unfa- signals a
vourable, that the orders of tlie commander can bela izuage
conveyed, with a.difpatch that is not attainable in the ^° '^^^ ^*)'^''
operations of a land army. The fcene of action is un-
incumbered, fo that the eye of the General can behold
the whole without inten-uotion, '.L'he movements which
it is poffibk to execute are few, and they are precife.
A few words are fufficient to order them, and then
the mere fighting the flaips mufl: always be left to their
refpeclivexoinmanders. This fimplicity in the duty to
be performed has enabled us to frame a language fully
adequate to the bufinefs in hand, by which a correfpon-
dence can be kept up as far as the eye can fee. This is
3 N 3 the
S I G
Ufed in
ancient
times.
3
As well
as in mo-
dern ;
the language of signals, a language by writing, addrei-
fed to the eye, and which he that runneth may read. As
in common writing certain arbitrary marks are agreed
on to exprefs certain founds ufed in fpeech, or rather,
as in hieroglyphics certain arbitrary marks are agreed
on to exprefs certain thoughts, or the fubjefts of thefe
thoughts ; fo here certain exhibitions are made, which
are agreed on to exprefs certain movements to be exe-
cuted by the commander to whom they are addreffed,
and all are enjoined to keep their eyes fixed on the fhip
ef the condudor of the fleet, that they may learn his
will.
It is fcarcely poffible for any number of fliips to aft
in concert, without fome fuch mode of communication
between the general and the commaHders of private
fiiips. We have no diredil information of this cir-
cumftance in the naval taftics ot the ancient nations,
the Greeks and Romans ; yet the neceffity of the thing
is fo apparent, that we cannot fuppofe it to have been
omitted by the moft ingenious and the moft cultivated
people who have appeared on the fi;reat theatre of the
world; and we are pcrfuaded that Themiftocles, Conon,
and other renowned fea commanders of Athens, had
lignals by which they ditefted the movements of their
fleets. We read, that when ^geus fent his fon Thefeus
to Crete, it was agreed on, that if the fhip (hould bring
the young prince back in fafety, a white flag fhould be
difplayed. But thofe on board, in their joy for revifit-
ing their country after their perilous voyage, forgot to
hoift the concerted fignal. The anxious father was every
day expefting the fhip which fhould bring back his
darling fon, and had gone to the fliore to look out for
her. He faw her,* but without the hgnal agreed on.
On which the old man threw himfelf into the fea. We
find, too. In the hiftory of the Punic wars by Poly-
bius, frequent allulions to fuch a mode of communica-
tion ; and Ammianus Marcellinus fpeaks of the fpecu-
latores and vextllarii^ who were on board the fhips in
the Adriatic. The coins both of Greece and Rome
exhibit both flags and ftreamers. In fhort, we cannot
doubt of the ancients having praftifed this hieroglyphi-
cal language. It is fomewhat furprifing that Lord Dud-
ley, in his Arcano del Mare, in which he makes an of-
tentatious difplay of his knowledge ©f every thing con-
necfied with the fea fervice, makes no exprefs mention
of this very eflential piece of knowledge, although he
muft, by his long refidence in Italy, have known the
marine difcipline of the Venetians and Genoefe, the
greateil maritime powers then in Europe.
In the naval occurrences of modern Europe, men-
tion is frequently made of fignals. Indeed, as we have
already obferved, it feems impoffible for a number of
ftiips to aft in any kind of concert, without fome me-
thod of communication. Numberlefs fituations mull
occur, when it would be impoflible to convey orders or
information by meffengers from one fhip to another,
and coaft and alarm flgnals had long been praftifed by
every nation. The idea was, therefore, familiar. We
find, in particular, that Queen Elizabeth, on occafion
of the expedition to Cadiz, ordered her fecretaries to
draw up inftruftions, which were to be communicated
to the admiral, the general, and the five counfellors of
war, and by them to be copied and tranfmitted to the
feveral fhips of the navy, not to be opened till they
fhould arrive in a certain latitude. It was on this oc-
cafion, (fays our hiilorian Guthrie), " that we meet
t 468 1
S I G
w/V/j thefirjl regular felt of fignah and orders to the cim. Nnva!
manders of the En^l{/h fleet. But, till the movements '^'g'
of a fleet have attained fome fort of uniformity, regu-
lated and conncfted by fome principles of propriety,
and agreed on by perfons in the habit of diredting a
number of fhips, we may with confidence affirm that
fignals would be nothing but a parcel of arbitrary
marks, appropriated to particular pieces of naval fer-
vice, fuch as attacking the enemy, landing the foldiers,
&c. ; and that they would be confidered merely as re-
ferring to the final refult, but by no means pointing out
the mode of exetwtion, or direfting the movements
which were neceffary for performing it.
It was James II. when duke of York, who firft But firft
confidered this pradice as capable of being reduced in- formed i
to a fyftem, and who faw the importance of fuch a'^^A'^'
compofition. He, as well as the king his brother, had^^^^^"^^*
always fhowed a great predileftion for the fea fervice ;'^f yorki!
and, whtn appointed admiral of England, he turned
his whole attention to its improvement. He had fl;u.
died the art of war under Turenne, not as a palHme,
but as a fcience, and was a favourite pupil of that
mofl: accompliihed general, Turenne one day pointed
him out, faying, " Behold one who will be one of the
firfl: princes and greatelt geneials of Euiope." When
admiral of England, he endeavoured to introduce into
the maritime fervice all thofe principles of concert and
arrangement which made a number of individual regi-
ments and fquadrons compofe a great army. When he
commanded in the Dutch war, he found a fleet to be
little better than a colledion of lliips, on board of each
of which the commander and his fliip's company did
their heft to annoy the enemy, but with very little de-
pendence on each other, or on the orders of the Gene-
ral ; and in the different adtions which the Englifh fleet
had with the Dutch, every thing was confufion as foon
as the battle began. It is remarkable that the famous
penfionary De Witt, who from a llaiefirian became a na-
vigator and a great fea commander in a few weeks, made
the fame reprefentation to the States GenenJ on his re-
turn from his firft campaign.
In the memoirs of James II, written by himfelf, we
have the following pafTage : 1665, On the 15th of
March the duke of York went to Gunfleet, the gene-
ral rendezvous of the fleet, and hafl:ened their equip-
ment. He ordered all the flag officers on board with
him every morning, to agree on the order of battle and
rank. In former battles, ,uo order was kept, and this
under the duke of York was the firft in which fighting
in a line and regular form of battle was obferved,"
This mull be confidered as full authority for givlnf^
the duke of York the honour of the invention. For
whatevei.faults may be laid to the charge of this unfor.
tunate prince, his word and honour flands unimpeached<
And we are anxious to vindicate his claim to it, becaufe
our neighbours the French, as ufual, wouid take the me-
rit of this invention, and of the whole of naval tadics,
to themfelves. True it is, that Colbert, the great and
jufl;ly celebrated minifter of Louis XIV. created a navy
for his ambitious and vain-glorious matter, an<i gave it
a conftitution which may ha a model for other nations;
to copy. By his encouragement, men of the greateft
fcientific eminence were engaged to contribute to it*
improvement : and they gave us the firft treatifes of
naval evolutions. But it mufl ever be ren^embered, that
our accompliihed, though mifguided fovereign, was then
refidiug
S I G
Haval
Pepys
vas fccre-
^ry to the
luke of
^ondcful
Umpl city
fc)f his fyf-
refiding at the court of Louis 5 that he had formerly
aded in concert with t% French as a commander and
jflag officer, and was at this very time aiding them with
his knowledge of fea affairs. In the memorable day at
La Hague, the gallant PaiHel, oblerving one of Tour-
ville's movements, exclaimed, There j they have got
Pepysf among them." This anecdote we give on the
airthority of a friend, who heard an old and refpeftable
officer (Admiral Clinton) fay, that he had it from a
gentleman who was in the aftion, and heard the words
fpoken ; and we truft that our readers will not be dif-
pleafed at having this matter of general opinion efta-
blifhed on fome good grounds.
It was on this occafion, then, that the duke of York
made the movements and evolutions of a fleet the ob-
jeA of his particular ftudy, reduced them to a fyftem,
and compofed that " Syftem of SaiHng and Fighting
Tnftruftions," which has ever fmce been confidered as
the code of difcipline for the Britifh navy, and which
r 459 1
S I G
new principle into the art ; and by this means have re-
duced it to the moil fimple form of reference to the
code of failing and fighting inftruclions, by making the
lignals immediately expreflive, not of orders, but of
fiinple numbers. Thefe numbers being prefixed to the
various articles of the code of inftrudtions, the officer
who fees aiignal thrown out by the admiral reads the
number, and reports it to his captain, perhaps without
knowing to what it relates. Thus fimplicity and fe-
crecy, with an unlimited power of variation, are com-
bined. We believe that M, de la Bourdonnais, a brave
and intelligent officer, during the war 1758, was the
author of this ingenious thought.
We do not propofe to give a fyftem of Britifh fig-
nals. This would evidently be improper. But we fhall
fhow our readers the prafticability of this curious lan-
guage, the extent to which it may be carried, and the
Naval
Signal--,
methods which may be praftifed in accomphfliing this
purpofe. This may make it an objedl of attention to
has been adopted by our rivals and neighbours as the fcientifrc men, who can improve it ; ajid the young offi-
foundation of their naval taftics. It does great honour cer will not only be able to read the orders of the com-
to its author, although its merit will not appear very
eminent to a.carelefs furveyor, on account of that very
llmphcity which conRltutes its chief excellence. It is
unqucftionably the refult of much fagaclous refleftiou
and painful combination of innumerable circumftances,
all of which have their influence ; and it Is remarkable,
that although fucceeding commanders have Improved
the fubjeft by feveral fubordinate additions, no change
has to this day been made in its general principles or ma-
xims of evolution.
Till fome fuch code be eftabllfhed. It Is evident that
liv.nals can be nothing but arbitrary and nneonnedled
hieroglyphics, to be learned by rote, and retained hy me-
mory, without any exei-cife of the judgment ; and the
acquifition of tfiis branch of nautical fkill mull be a
more Irkfome tafic than that of learning the Chinefe
writing. But fuch a code being once fettled, the cha-
racler in which it may be exprcfled becomes a matter of
rational difcuflion.
mander in chief, but will not be at a lofs, fhould cir-
cumftances place him in a fituatlon where he muft IfTue
orders to others.
Signals may be divided Into,
I. Day Signals.
II. Night Signals; and,
III. Signals in a Fog.
They muft alfo be diftinguifhed into, t. Signals of
Evolution, addreffed to the whole Fleet, or to
Squadrons of the fleet, or to Divisions of thefe
fquadrons. 2. Signals of Movements to be made by
particular fliips ; and, 3. Signals of Service, which
may be either general or particular, y
The great extent of a large fleet, the fmoke In time During^ ats
of battle, and the fituation of the commandcj- in chief, engags-
who is commonly in the midft of the gr^ateft confufioa™^j^"^^'^f
and hotteft fire, frequently makes it very difficult forfheAdmi*
the officers of diftant fhips to perceive his fignals with ral are re-
diftinftnefs, Frigates, therefore, are ftationtd out of 1 "»ed by
Accordingly, the failing and fighting Inftruftions of the line, to windward or to leeward, whofe fole office it [ [on' d 01! t^"
the duke of York vvere accompanied by a let of fignals is to obferve the admiral's fignals, and Inftantly to repeat of [he hi
for diredllng the chief or moft frequent movements of them. The eyes of all the fignal officers fn the private
6
fet as an
rt has
ince his
jme recei-
'ed coiifi-
Icrablc
tnprove-
Dcnts.
the fleet. Thefe alfo were contrived with fo much
judgment, and fuch attention to dlftinftnefs, fimplicity,
and propriety, that there has hardly been any change
found neceffary ; and they are ftill retained in the Brl-
tifh navy as the ufual fignals in all cafes when we are
not anxious to conceal our movements from an enemy.
Notwithftanding this acknowledged merit of the duke
of York's fignals, it muft be admitted that great Im-
provements have been made on this fubjeft, confidered
as an art. The art military has, in the courfe of a
century paft, become almofl an appropriate calling,
and has therefore been made the peculiar ftudy of its
profeffors. Our rivals the French were fooner, and
more formally, placed in this fituation, and the minifters
of Louis XIV. took infinite and moft judicious pains
to make their military men fuperior to all others by
their academical education. A more fcientlfic turn was
given to their education, and the affiftance of fcientific
men was liberally given them ; and all the nations of of that evolution, another fignal is made, which marks tifeiiient,
Europe muft acknowledge fome obligations to them for the clofe of the complex fignal, and divides It from others ^"'^ accom-
kformation on every thing conneded. with the art of which may immediately follow it : and as the orders of P^".'^'^,^*^^'
war. They have attended very much to this fubjeft, the commander in chief may relate either to the move- fignj^;^
i^ve gtcatly improved it, ajad have even introduced a ments. of the whole fleet, thofe of a fingle divifion, or
fhips of war are dire£led to the repeating frigates, as well
as to the admiral j and the officers of the repeating fri-
gate, having no other duty, obferve the admiral Incef-
fantly, and, being unembarrafTed by the adtion, can dif-
play the fignal with deliberation, fo that It may be very
diftinftly feen. Being minutely acquainted with the
fubftitutions which muft be made on board the admiral
when his mafts and rigging are indiforder, hi& (perhaps
imperfect) fignal is exhibited' by the repeating frigate
in its proper form, fo as to be eafi'y underftood. And
to facilitate this communication, the commanders of the
different fquadrons repeat the fignals of the commander
in chief, and the commanders of divifion repeat the fig-
nals ot the commanders of their fquadron. g
Every evolution fignal is preceded by a fignal of ad- ETolution-
vertisement and preparation, which is general, and^'gn^'s are
fi-equently by a gun,, to call attention ; and when ail the [^'^^"fl^n^l
fignals have been made which dlreft the different parts ofj^yf".
S I G
E MO ]
S I G
Naval tliofe of certain private fbips, tKe Executive Sig-
Siguah. j,^L, which diftates the particular movement, is accom-
panied by a Directive Signal, by which thefe lliips
are pointed out, to which the order is addreffed.
The commander of the fhip to which any fignal is
9
Anfwered
by the com- is generally required to fignlfy by a fi^nal
(which is general) that he has nbfeived it. nd if
are addref. he does not thoroughly underibnd its meaning, he in-
fubdivifions of a fleet, fo that we may underhand how
the fame lignal may be addreffed to a fquadrou, divl-
fion, or fmgle fhip or (hios. We fuppole it known that
a fleet of flrips of war is diflributed into three grand di-
vifions (which we fnall term quad'ons^, callfd the wn,
centre, and reor. 1 hefe denominations have not always
a relation to the one being more advanced than the
Annulling
Signal.
timates this by another general fignal. And here it is
to be obferved, that as foon as the fi9;nal is anfwered
by the fhips to which it is addreffed, it is ufual to haul
it down, to avoid the confufion which might arife from
others being hoifted in the fame place. The order re-
tnains till executed, notwithftanding that the fignal is
hauled down-.
It may happen that the commander who throws out
the fi > nal for any piece of fervice, fees reafons tor al-
tering his plan. He intimates this by a general An-
nulling fignal, accompahying the fignal already p,i-
ven. This will frequently be more fimple than to make
the fignals for the movements which would be required
for re-efl;ablifhing the fhips in their former fituation.
All thefe things are of very eafy comprehenfion, and
require little thought for their contrivance. But when
we come to the particular evolutions and movements,
and to combine thefe with the circumftances of fitua-
jtion in which the fleet may be at the time, it is evi-
'dent, that much reficftion is neceffaiy for framing a
'body of fignals which may be eafily exhibited, diftinft-
ly perceived, and well underftood, with little rifle of be-
ing miflaken one for another. We fliall take notice of
the circumftances which chiefly contribute to give
them thefe qi^lities as we proceed in defcribing their
different claffes.
I. Of Day Signals.
These are made by means of the fliip's fails, or by
colours of various kinds.
Thofe made with fails are but few in number, and
are almoll neceffarily limited to the Situation of a fleet
at anchor. Thus,
The following Signals
Main top-gallant fliayfail
hoifted
ufuallyftgnify.
Fore top-fail loofe
Main top fail loofe
Main top-fail fheets haul-
ed home
Main top-fail fheets clew-
ed up, and the yard
hoifted
Top-gallant fails loofe, and
the fiieets flying
Main top-gallant fail loofe
and hoifted. Topfail-
yard down
Mizen top- f ail hoifted, and
the fheets clewed up
Officers and men belong-
ing to the fhip to come
i on board.
To prepare for failing.
To unmoor.
To weigh.
Annul the former fignal,
and the fhip to come to
an anchor. . j
Difcovering flrange fails.
Recal fhips in chafe.
Moor.
Nav
ether, either towards
their courfe.
Before we proceed to the defcription of the fignals
by means of colours, fuch as flags, banners (or trian-
gular flags), pendants or vanes, we muft take notice
«f the oftenfible diftindions of the various divifions and
the enemy, or in the direction of
In a land army, the pofition of every part is concei- Meanir
ved from its reference to the enemy ; and the reader, of the t
conceiving himfelf as facing the enemy, eafily under- van, ce
ftands the terms van, centre, and rear, the rt-^ht and ieft^''^f}^
" • tnC '1116
wing, See. But the movements of a fea army having ^^-tle a
a necefiary dependence on the wind, they cannot befea,
comprehended unlefs expreffed in a lan^juage whick
keeps this circumftance continually in view. I 'he fim-
pleft and moft eafily conceived difpofition of a fleet, is
that in which it is almoft indifpenfably obliged to form
in order to engage an enemy, 'i'his is a ftraight line,
each fhip diieftly a-head of its neighbour, and clofe
hauled This is therefore called the /ine of battle. In
this pofition, the two extremities of the fleet correfpond
to the right and left Vv'ings of an army. Suppofe this
line to be in the direftion eaft andwefi, the wind blow-
ing from the north-north-weft, and therefore the fleet
on the ftarboard tack ; the fliips heads are to the weft,
and the v/eftermoft divifion is undoubtedly the van of
the fleet, and the eafterrnoft divifion is the rear. And
it is in conformity to this arrangement and fituation
that the list of the fleet is drawn up. But the fhips
may be on the fame eaft and weft line, clofe hauled, with ,
their heads to the weft, but the wind blowing from the
fouth-fouth-weft. They muft therefore be on the lar-
board tack. The fame fhips, and the fame divifion, are
ftill, in faft, the van or the fleet. But fuppofe the ftiips.
heads to be to the eaftward, and that they are cloie
hauled, having the wind from the fouth-fouth-eaft or
the north-north-eaft, the fhips which were the real
van on both tacks in the former fituation are now, in
faft,. the rear on both tacks ; yet they retain the deno-
mination of the van fquaclron of this fleet, and are under
the immediate direction of the ofitcer of the fecond rank,
while the other extremity is under the direftion o^ the
third officer. This fubordination therefore is rather aa
arrangement of rank and precedence than of evolution.
It is, however, confidered as the natural order to
which the general fignals muft be accommodated. For
this reafon, the divifion which is denorhinated v/n m the
lift of this fleet, is gemru/ly made to lead the fleet when
in the line of battle on the ftarboard tack, and to form
the quiathertnoj} column in the order of failing in co-
lumns ; and, in p,eneral, it occupies that fl;ation from
which it can moft eaf:ly pais into the place of the lead-
ing divifion on the ftarboard line of battle ahead. Al-
though this is a technical nicety of language, and may
frequently puzzle a landfman in reading an account of
naval operations, the r?fle£i:ing and intelligent reader
will fee the propriety of retaining this mode of concei-
ving the fubordtnate aiTangcment of a fleet, and will
comprehend the employment of the fignals which^ are
neceffary tor re-eftablifhing this arrangement, or direc-
ting the movements while another arrangement is re-
tained.
This being underltood, it is eafy to contrive various
methods
ad
to
vi-
il
3
lis
Inc
S I G [47
metKoda of dlfltnguifiring every (Kfp hy the place which
fhe occupies ii; the fleet, both with refpedl to the whole
line, with refpeft to the particular fqaadron, the parti-
cular divifion of that fquadrou, and the particular place
in that divifion. This may be done by a combination
of the pofition and colour oi the pendants and vanes of
each fliip. Thus the colour of the pendants may indi-
cate the fquadron, their pofition or mad on which they
are hoifled may mark the divifion of that fquadron,
and a dillingnirninsr vane may mark the place of the pri-
vate fliip in her own divifion. The advantag-es attend-
ing tliis method are many. In a large fleet it would
■hardly be pofTible for the comn:^.ander in chief to find a
fufficlent variety of fmgle fignals to mark die fhip to which
an order is addrcffed, by hoi'.iing it along with the fig-
nal appropriated to the intended movement. But by this
contrivance one-tkird part oi thefe {lo nals of addrefs is
fufiicient. It alfo enables the commander in chief to or-
der a general change oi pofition by a fingle fignal, which
otherwife would require feveral. Thus, fuppofe that
the fore, main, and m-izen mafts, are appropriated (with
the proper modifications) tor exhibiting the fignals ad-
dreffed to the van, the centre, and the rear fquadrons
of the fleet, and that a red, a white, and a blue fia;j,
are chofen for the diftinguifliing flags of the officers
commanding thefe fquadrons ; then, if the commander
in chief fliall hoift a red flag at his mizen top-gallant
maft head, it mufl direft the van fquadron to take the
pofition then occupied by the rear fquadron, the evolu-
tion neccffary for accomplifhing this end being fuppo-
fed known by the commander of the fquadron, who
will immediately make the neceffary fignals to the fqua-
dron under his particular direilion. In the fame man-
ner, the diflinguifhing fignal for the leading fliip of a
fquadron being hoifled glong with the fignal of addrefs
to the whole fleet, and the fignal for any particular fer-
vice, will caufe the three or the nine leading fhips to ex-
ecute that order, &c. &c.
All that has been laid hitherto may be confidered as
fo many preparations for the real ifliiing of orders by
the commander in chief. The moft difficult part of
the language remains, viz. to invent a number of fig-
nals which fliall correfpond to that almofl infinite va-
riety of movements and fervices which muft be per-
formed.
Diilinftnefs, fimplicity, and propriety, arc the three
effential qualities of all fignals. A fignal mull be fome
^ objeCl eafily feen, ftrongly marked, fo that it may be
readily underflood, with little rifle of its being miftaken
for another. When made by flags, banners, or pen-
dants, they muft be of the fultefl colours, and flrongeft
contratts. The 'fliips are frequently at a very great di-
flance, fo that the intervening air occalions a great de.
gradation of colour. They are feen between the eye
and a very variable fi<y ; and in this fituation, efpecially
in the morning or evening, or a dark day, it is not eafy
to diftinguifh one full colour from another, all of them
approaching to the appearance of a black. At the di-
llance of a very few miles hardly any full colours can
be diftiiiguifhed but a fcarlet and a blue. Red, blue,
yellow, and white, are the colours which can be diftin-
guifhed at greater dillances than any othere, and are
therefore the only colours admitted as fignals. Even
thefe are fometimes dillinguifhed with difficulty. A
yellow is ©ften coafounded with a dirty white, and a
I ] s I a
blue with a red. AH other dark colours are found to. Navut
tally unfit. But as thefe afford but a fmall variety, we , «.
mufl combine them in one flag, by making it llriped,
fpotted, or chequered, taking care that the oppofition
of colour may be as great as poffible, and that the pieces
of which the flags are made up may not be too minutcv
Red mud never be flriped nor fpotted with blue, and
the flripes, fpots, or chequens, fhould never be lefs thaa
one-third of the breadth of the flag. Plate CCCCLXVL
is a feleftion by an officer of experience as a let very
eafily recognifed, and little liable to be coniounded.
Their colours are repreiented by hatching, in the fame
manner as in heraldry (Sec Heraldry).
Difference of fhape, as flags, banners, or pendants,
is another dillinflion by which the expreffion may be
varied. And in doing this, we mull recoUeCl, that in
light winds it may be difficult to difb'nguifh a flag from
a banner, as neither are fully difplayed for want ot wind
to detach the fly from the flaff.
And, laflily, fignals may be varied by their pofition, simpUcitf^
which may be on any lofty and well detached part of
the mails, yards, or rigging.
Simplicity is an eminent property in all fignals. They '
are addrefled to perfons not much accullomed to com-
binatioBS, and who are probably much occupied by
other preffing duties. It were to be wiflied that every
piece of fervice could be indicated by a iiiigle Bag.
This is peculiarly defirable with refpedt to the fignals
ufed ni time of battle. The rapid fucceffion of events
on this occahon call for a multitude ot orders from the
commander in chief, and his fhip is frequently clad over
with flags and pendants, fo that it is exceedingly dif-
ficult for the fignal officer of a private fhip to diflin-
guifii the different groups, each of which make a parti-
cular fignal. y^,
Thefe confiderations are the foundation of a certain And pro*
propriety in fignab, which diredls us to a choice among ^''^ety.
marks which appear altogether arbitraiy. Signals
which run any riflv of being confounded, on account of
fome refemblance, or becaufe their pofition hinders us
from immediately perceiving their difference, fhould be
appropriated to pieces of fervice which are hardly pof-
fible to be executed, or can hardly be wanted, in the
fame fituation. No bad confequence could eafily refult
though the fignal for coming to clofer aBion fhould re-
femble that for unmooring^ becaufe the prefcnt fituation
of the (hips makes the lafl operation impoffible or ab-
furd. Such confiderations direft us to feletl for battle
fignals, thofe which are of eafiefl exhibition, are the moll
fimple, and have the leaft dependence on the circum-
flance of pofition ; fo that their fignification may not
be affefted by the damages fuilained in the mafls or
rigging of the flag fhip. Such fignals as are lefs eafily
feen at a diftance, fhould be appropriated to orders
which can occur only in the middle of the fleet, &c.
&c. Signals which are made to the admiral by pri-
vate fliips may be the fame with fignals of command
from the flag fhip, which will confiderably diininitli the
number of fignals perfedlly different from each other. 16
With all thefe attentions and precautions a fyftem of^y whae-
fignals is at lafl;-made up, fitted to the code of failing '"^^1^"^^^^^*
and fighting inflruAions. It is accompanied by ano-ciiftiD(5Hy
ther fmall fet for the duty of convoys. It mufl be en-«oaveyed,
grofied In , two books ; one for the officer of the flag
fhip, who is to make the fjgnals, and the other is
8 deli*
Signals.
«7
And un-
fJerltood.
The art of
fignals
much im-
proved
lince the
publicaiion
of the Tac-
tique Na-
male.
S I G [ 47
delivered to every private fliip. In the flrft, the evo-
lutions, movements, and other operations of fervice, are
fet down in one column, and their correfponding fig-
n:'As in another. The firft coluraH is arranged, either
alphabetically, by the diftinguifliing phrafe, or fy{lema»
tically, accordinj^ to the arrangement o!- the failing and
fighting inftruftions. The officer whofe duty it is to
make the fignals, tarns to this column for the order
which he is to communicate, and iu the other column
he finds the appropriated fignal.
In the other book, which is confulted for the inter-
pretation ©f the fignals, they are arranged in the lead-
ing column, either by the flags, or by the places of
their exhibition. The firft ivS the belt method, becaufe
the derangement of the flag fiiip's mafts and rigsring in
time of action may occafion a change in the place of
the fignal.
The TaBique Navale of the Chevalier de Morogues
contains a very full and elaborate treatlfe on fignals.
We recommend this work to every fea-officer, as full of
inftru(ilion. The art of fignals has been greatly fim-
plified fince the publication of this work, but wc can-
not but afcribe much of the improvements to it. We
believe that the author is the inventor of that fyftema-
tic manner of addreffing the order or eJi-Sl'ive fignal to
the different fquadrons and divifions of the fleet, by
which the art of fignals is made more concife, the exe-
cution of orders is rendered more fyilematic, and the
commanders of private fhips are accuflomed to confider
themfelves as parts of an army, with a mutual depend-
ence and conneftion. We are ready enough to ac-
knowledge the fuperiority of the French in manceuv-
ring, but we affeft to confider this as an imputation on
their courage. Nothing can be more unjult ; and dear-
bought experience fliould long ere now have tauffht us
the value of this fuperiority. What avails that cou-
rage which we would willingly ari-ogate to ourfelves, if
we cannot come to action with our enemy, or mufk do
it in a fituatlon In which it is almoft impoflible to fuc-
ceed, and which needlefsly throws away the lives of our
gallant crews ? Yet this mufl; happen, if our admirals
do not make evolutions their careful ftudy, and our
captains do not habituate themfelves, from their firll
holding a pendant, to confider their own ihip as con-
nedted with the molt remote (hip in the line. We can-
jiot think that this view of their fitualion would in the
lead leffen the charatter which they have fo juftly ac-
quired, of fighting their fliip with a courage and firm-
nefs unequalled by thofe of any other naftion. And
we may add, that it is only by fuch a rational iludy of
their profeflion, that the gentleman can be diltinguifhed
from the mercenary commander of a privateer.
II. Night Signals.
It is evident, that the communication of orders bv
night mull be more difficult and more impeifeft than
by day. We muft, in general, content ourfelves with
fuch orders as are neceflary for ' . replug the fleet toge-
ther, by direftlng the more general movemeiits and
evolutions which any change of circiunftances may ren-
der neceflary. And here the divifion and fubordinate
arrangement of the fleet Is of indifpenfable neceflity,
it being hardly poflible to particularife every fhip by a
iignal of addrefs, or to fee her fituation. The orders
, are therefore addreffed to the commanders of the diffe-
2 1 S I G
rent divifiona, each of whom is diftinguiftied by his poop
and top-lights, and is in the midft of, and not very re- .n?
mote from, the fliips under his more particular charge.
Yet even in this unfavourable fituation, it is frequently
neceffary to order the movements of particular flilps.
AAions during the night are not uncommon, Purfuits
and rallylngs are ftill oftener carried on at this time.
The common dangers; of the fea are as frequent and
more difaflirous. The fyftem of fignals therefore is
very incomplete till this part be accompHfhed.
Night fignals mufl; be made by guns, or by lights,
or by both combined. ^9
Gun-Jignals are fufceptible of variety both in num-Hnwgu;
ber and in difpofition. The only difliinft variation which ''K'-a'** "
can be made in this difpofition, is by means of the
time elapfed between the difcharges. This will cafily
admit of three varieties, flow, moderate, and quick. —
Half-minute guns are as flow as can eafily be liftened
to as appertaining to one fignal. Quarter-minute guns
are much better, and admit of two very difl.in£l fub-
divilions. When the gunners, therefore, are well train-
ed to this fervice (efpecially fince the employment of
firelocks for- cannon), intervals of 15 or 12 feconds
may be taken for flow firing, 8 or 10 feconds for mo-
derate, and 4 or 5 feconds for quick firing. If thefe
could be reduced one half, and made with certainty and
prccifion, the expreffion would be incomparably more
diltlnft. A very fmall number of firings varied in this
way will give a confiderable number of fignals. Thus
five guns, with the variety of only quick and moderate,
will give 20 very dlitingulfhable fignals. The fame
principle mufl; be attended to here as in the flag fignals.
The mofl: fimple muft be appropriated to the moll im-
portant orders, fuch as occur in the worft weather, or
fuch as are mofl; liable to be miftaken. Quick fi-
ring fliould not make part of a fignal to a very diftant
fliip, becaufe the noife of a gun at a great diftance is
a lengthened found, and two or them, with a very fliort
interval, are apt to coalefce into one long continued
found. This mode of varying gun-fignals by the tltiie
muft; therefore be employed with great caution, and
we muft be very certain of the fteady performance of
the gunners.
Note, that a preparatory fignal or advertifement
that an effedlive fignal is to be made, is a very necefla-
ry circum(lance. It is ufual (at leaft in hard weather)
to make this by a double difcharge, with an interval of
half a fecond, or at moft a fecond.
Gun-fignals are leldom made alone, except in or-
dinary fituations and moderate weather ; becaufe ac-
cident may derange them, and inattention may caufe
them to efcape notice, and, once made, they are over,
and their repetition would change their meaning. They
are alfo improper on an enemy's coaft, or where an ene-
my's cruifers or fleets may be expetted. -
Signals by lights are either made with lights finiply sicrn'al;
fo called, i. e. lanthorns ihown in different parts of thehghtf,
fhip, or by rockets. Lights may differ by number, and
by pofition, and alfo by figure. For the flag Ihip al-
ways carrying poop or top-lights, or both, prefents an
objeft in the darkeft night, fo that we can tell whether
the additional lights are exhibited about the malnmaft,
the foreraaft, the mizenmaft, &c. And if the lights
fhown from any of thefe fituations are arranged in cer-
tain diftinguifli.able fituations in refpcct to each other, the
7 number
5 of
s may
2
ral eb-
;ions
fig-
S I G
tiumbef of fif>nals may be greatly mcreafed.
three' lights may be in a vertical line, or m a horizon-
tal line, or in a triangle, and the point of tliia triano le
may be up, or down, or forward, or aft, and thus may
have many fignifications.
Lights are alfo exhibited by falfe fires or rockets :
Thefe can be varied by number, and by fuch differen-
ces of appearance as to make them very dillinguifh-
able. Rockets may be with liars, with rain fire, or
fimple fquibs.
By varying and combining thefe, a very great num-
ber of fignals may be produced, fully fufficitnt to dired
every general movement or evolution, or any ordinary
and important fervice. The Chevalier de Morogues
has given a fpecimen of fuch a fyftem of night fignals,
into which he has even introduced fignals of addrefs or
direftion to every (l-iip of a large fleet ; and has alfo gi-
ven fignals of number, by which depths of foundings,
points of the compafs, and other things of this kind,
may be exprefled both eafily and diftinftly. He has
made the fignals by rockets perfeftly fimllar in point of
number to thofe by lantjiorns, fo that the commander
can take either ; a choice which may have its ufe, be-
caufe the fignals by rockets may caufe the prefence of a
fleet to be more extenfively known than may be conve-
nient.
The commander in chief will inform the fleet by fig-
nal, that guns, or perhaps rockets, are not to be ufed
that, night. This fignal, at the fame time, direfts
the fleet to clofe the line or columns, that the light fig-
nals may be better obferved.
It is indeed a general rule to fliow as few lights as
poflible ; and the commander frequently puts out his
own' poop and top-lights, only fliowing them from time
to time, that his fhips may keep around him.
The fignal lanthorns on board the flag flilp, and
a lanthorn kept in readinefs on board of every pri-
vate fliip, to anfwer or acknowledge fignals from the
commander in chief, are all kept in bags, to conceal
their lights till the moment they are fixed in their
places, and the preparatory or advertiiing fignal has been
made.
The commander in chief fometimee orders by fignal
every fliip to ftiow a light for a minute or two, that he
may judge of the pofition of the fleet ; and the admiral's
fignal muft always be acknowledged by thofe to whom
k is addreffed.
It is of particular importance that the fleet be kept
to:^ether. 1'herefore the leading fhips of the fleet, on ei-
ther tack, are enjoined to acknowledge the fignals -of
the commander in chief by a fignal peculiar to their
flation. Thus the commander in chief learns the pofi-
tion of the extremities of his fleet.
In framing a fet of night fignals, great attention
muft be given to their pofition, that they be not obfcu-
•red by the fails. The nature of the order to be given
will frequently determine this. . Thus, an order for the
rear fliips to make more fail, will naturally dircft us to
exhibit the fignal at the mizen peek ; and fo of other
pieces of fervice. Lanthorns expofed in groups, fuch
as triangles, lozenges, &c. are commonly fufpended at
the corners of large frames of laths, at the dlilance of a
fathom at leall from each other. Attempts have beea
made to fliow lights of different colours; but the rifk ef
srniftake or failure in the corapofitibn at the laboratory,
Vol. XVn. Part 11.
r 473 ] . S I G
Thus makes this rather hazardous. Coloured lanthorns are ^^"^^1 Si.!».
more certain ; bat when the glafTes are made of a colour , ,
fufficiently intenfe, the vivacity of the light (which at
no time is very great) is too much diminiflied. Bc-
fides, the very difbance changes the colour exceedingly
and unaccountably.
III. (y Signals a Fog.
These can be made only by noifes, fiich as the fi-
ring of cannon and mufl<ets, the beating of drums a^.d
ringing of bells, &c. Fog fignals are the moft diffi-
cult to contrive of any, and are fufceptible of the leait
variety. The commander in chief is principally con-
cerned to keep his fleet together ; and unlefs fomething
very urgent requires it, he will make no change in his
courfe or rate of failing. But a fliitt of wind or other
caufes may make this neceffary. The changes which
he will order, it will he pru^dent to regulate by forae
fixed rule, which is in general convenient. Thus, whea
a fleet is in the order of faiKng upon a wind, and a
fog comes on, the fleet will hold on the fame courfe.
If the wind fliould come a little more on the beam, the
fleet will fliill keep clofe to the wind. Certain general By oMer-
rules of this kind being agreed on, no fionals are ne-ving cer-
ceffary for keeping the fleet together; and the fliips can*"^""' gene-
feparate or run foul of each other only by difference in f,^'^^",'^* '
their rate of failing, or by inaccurate fl:eerage. To rJng a fop;
prevent this, the commander in chief fires a gun from are in many
time to time, and the ftiips of the fleet judge of his fi-C'-fes unne-
tuation and difl;ance by the found. The commanders
of divifions fire guns, with fome dIfl;inftion from thofe
of the commander in chief. This botli informs the
commander in chief of the pofition of his fquadrons,
and enables the private fiiips of each divifion to keep in
the neighbourhood of their own flag fliip. On board
of every private fhip the drum is beaten, or the bell is
chimed, every quarter of an hour, according as the
fhip is on the ftarboard or larboard tack. By fuch
contrivances, it is never difficult to keep a fleet in very
good order when failing on a wind. The wind is al-
moft, always moderate, and the fhips keep under a very
eafy fail. It is much more difficult when going large,
and feparation can be prevented only by the moft uh-
wearied attentioH. The greateft rifle is the falling in
with ftrange fhips fl;eerlng another courfe..
But evolutions and other movements are frequently
indifpenfable. The courfe muft be changed by tack-
ing or wearing, and other fer-vices muft be performed.
None, however, are admitted but the moft probable,
the moft fimple, and the moft neceffary.
The commander in chief firft informs the fleet by How they
the preparatory fog fignal, that he is about to order an>i''e given
evolution,, and that he is to dire<9: it fog fignals,
This precaution is indifpenfable to prevent miftakes. " ^
Along with this advertifing fignal he makes the fignal
©f the movement intended. This not only calls the
attention of the fleet, but makes the fhips prepare for
the precife execution of that movement. The com-
manders of divifions repeat the advertifing fignal, which
informs their fhips of their fituation, and the private
fhips beat their drums or chime their bells. Thus the
whole fiiips of the fleet clofe a little, and become a little
better acquainted with their mutual pofition. It is
now underftood that a movement is to be made precife-
ly a quarter of an hour after the ad^ertifement. At
3 O 'the
iary.
S I G-
[ 474 ]
S I G
*^^n^a!s'^" ^^^^ expiration ©f this time, tlie effeftive fignal for this
«! , movement is made by the commander in chief, and muft
be Inftantly repeated by the commanders of dlvifions,
and then the movement muft be made by each fhip, ac-
cording to the failing and fighting inftrudions. 'fhis
jnuft be done with the utmoft attention and precifion,
becaufe it produces a prodigious change in the relative
pofition of the {liips ; and even although the good fenfe
of the commander in chief will feledt fuch movements
for accomplifning his purpofc as produce the fmallell
alterations, and the lead rilk of feparation or running
foul o\ each other ; it is ftlU extremely difficult to avoid
thefe misfortunes, 'i'o prevent this as much as pol-
fible, each fliip which has executed the movement, or
which has come on a courfe thwarting that of the fleet,
intimates this by a fignal properly adapted, o^ten add-
ing the fignal of the tack on which it is now (landing,
and even its particular fignal of recognizance. This is
particularly incumbent on the flag (hips and the leading
ihips of each divifion.
After a reafonable interval, the commander in chief
will make proper fignals for bringing the fleet to a
■25 knowledge of their reunion in this new pofition.
Tmpr^per^ muil ferve for a general account of the circum-
a^plnicular ^^^^es which muft be attended to in framing a code of
account of fignals. The arbitrary charafters in which the lan-
fi^i.aU. guage is written muft be left to the fagacity of the
gentlemen of the profeffion. It muft be obferved, that
the ftrataiTcms of war make fecrecy very neceffary. It
may be ot immenfe hazard if the enemy fliould under-
fland our fignals. In time of battle ic might frequent-
ly fruftrate our attempts to deftroy them, and at all
times would enable them to efcape, or to throw us into
diforder. Every commander of a fquadron, therefore,
ifTues private fignals, fuited to his particular deftina-
tion ; and there -ore it is neceffary that our code of fig-
nals be fufceptible of endlefs variations, 'i'his is ex-
ceedingly eafy without any increafe of their number.
The coir.mander needs only intimate that fuch and
luch a fignal is fo and fo changed in its meaning du-
45 ring his command.
S'jrnaismay We cannot Ifave this article without returning to an
he ma ie obfervtition which we made almoft in the beginning,
It^^te'el"^' fyftem of fignals, or, to fpeak more pro-
j.refiions of P^rly, the manner of franiing this fyftem, has received
jiumbers. much improvement from the gentlemen of the French
navy, and particularly from the moft ingenious thought
of M. de la Bourdonna>, of making the fignals the
immediate expreflions of ttumhers only, which numbers
may be afterwards ufed to indicate any order whatever.
We fhall prefent our readers with a fcheme or two of
the manner in which this may be done for all fignals,
both day, night, and fog. This alone may be confider-
ed as a fyftem of fignals, and is equally applicable to
every kind of information at a diftance. Without de-
traftisg in the fmalleft degree from the praife due to
M. de la Bovirdonnais, we muft obfei-ve, that this prin-
ciple of notation is of much older date. Bifhop Wil-
kins, in his Secret and Swift Meffenger, exprefsly re-
commends it, and gives fjjecimeus of the manner of ex-
ecution ; fo does Dr Hooke in fome of his propofals to
the Royal Society. Gafpar Schottus alfo mentions it
in his Technica Cur'wfa ; and Kircher, among othevs of
Jiis Curious Projedts.
M. de la BourdonnaJs's method is as follows : Nav
He choofes pendants for his cffeAive fignals, becaufe , "^"-^
they are the moft eafily difplayed in the proper order.
Several pendants, making part of one fignal, may be M. de
hoifted by one hallyard, being ftopped on it at the di- L»oiini,
ftance of four or fix feet from each other. If it he"^!^"^"^^!
found proper to throw out another fignal at the fame^^^i,, /
time and place, they are feparated by a red pendant °
without a point. His colours are chofen with judge-
ment, being very diftinftly recognifed, and not liable \
to be confounded with the addreffing fignals appro-
priated to the different fhips of th« fleet. They are, ,
For N° I.
2.
3
4-
5-
Red. For 6
White. 7,
Blue. 8
Yellow. 9
Red, with o
white tail.
Red, with blue tail.
White, with blue tail.
White, with red tail.
Blue, with yellow tail.
Yellow, with blue tail.
Three fets of fuch pendants will exprefs evei-y num-
ber under a thoufand, by hoifting one above the other,
and reckoning the uppermoft hundreds, the next below
it tens, and the loweft units. Thus the number 643
will be expreffed by a pendant red with blue tail, a
yellow pendant below it, and a blue one below the laft.
This method has great advantages. The fignals may
be hoifted in any place where beft feen, and therefore
the fignification is not aflfefted by the derangement of
the flag fhip's mails and rigging. And by appropri-
ating the fmaller numbers to the battle fignals, they are
more fimple, requiring fewer pendants.
As this method requires a particular fet of colours, Micrh
it has its inconveniences. An admiral is often obliged rende
to fhift his flag, even in time of adlion. He cannot """^^
eafily take the colours along with him. It is therefore ^l*^"^ ^
better to make ufe of fuch colours as every private ftiipcolou
is provided with. One fet of 1 1 will do, with the ad-
dition of three, at moft of four pendants, of Angular
make, to mark too, 200, 300, 400. Two of thefe
flags, one above the other, will exprefs any number un-
der 100, by ufing the i ith as a fubftitute for any flag
that ftrould be repeated. Thus the iith flag, along
with the flag for eight or for fix, will exprefs the num-
ber 88 or 66, &c. Thu$ we are able to exprefs every
number below 500, and this is fufficient for a very large
code of fignals.
And in order to dimiiiifti as much as polTible the
number- of thefe compound fignals, it will be proper
that a number of fingle flag fignals be preferved, and
even varied by circumftances of pofition, for orders
which are of very frequent occurrence, and which can
hardly occur in fituations where any obftruftions are
occafioned by lofs of mafts, &c. And farther, to
avoid all chance of miftake, a particular fignal can be
added, intimating that the fignals now exhibited are
numerary fignals ; or, which is ftill better, all fii^nals
may be confidered as numerary fignals; and thofe which
wehavejuft now called jlag ft^nals maybe fet
down oppofite to, or as exprefllng, the largeft numbers
of the code.
This method requires the fignal of advertifement,
the annulling fignal, the fignal of addrefs to the parti-
cular fliip or divifion, the fignal of acknowledgmeiit,
the fignal of indlftindnefs, of diftrexsj of danger, and
S I G [475
Sig- one or two more which, in every method, mufl be
employed.
Another method of expreffinc^ numbers with fewer
colours is as follows : Let the flags be A, B, Q, D, E,
F, and arrange them as follows :
ler
dof
ring
srs by
co-
The number expreffed by any pair of flags is found in
the interfeftion of the horizontal and perpendicular eo-
Inmr.s. Thus the flag D, hoifted along with and above
the flag F, exprelTes the number 40, &c. In order to
exprcfs a greater number (but not exceeding 84) fup-
C
pofe 75, hoift the flags which exprelTes 3% or 75,
wanting 42, and above them a flag or fignal G, which
alone expreffes 42.
This method may be Hill farther improved by ar-
A
B
C
D
E
F
I
2
3
4
>
6
A
7
8
9
10
1 1
12
B
H
15
16
17
18
C
19
20
2 (
22
23
24
D
25
26
27
28
29
30
E
32
33
34
35
36
F
37
38
39
40
4^
42
30
lforitJ^^"Si"g the flags thus:
A
B
C
D
E
F
I
2
3
4
5
6
A
7
8
9
10
1 1
12
B
14
15
16
17
C
18
>9
20
21
D
22
23
24
E
25
26
F
27
SI
lod.
In this lafl; method the fignification of the fignal Is to-
tally independent of the pofition of the flags. In
whatever parts of the (hip the flagrs D and E arc feen,
they exprefs the number 23. This would fult battle
fignals.
Another method flill may be taken. Flags hoifted
anywhere on the foremaft may be accounted units, thofe
on the mainmalt tens, and thofe on the mizenmaft. hun-
dreds. Thus numeral fignals may be made by a ihip
difmafted, or having only poles, in their place.
Many other ways may be contrived for expreffing
numbers by colours, and there is great room tor ex-
ercifmg the judgment of the contriver. For it muft
always be remembered, that thefe fignals muft be ac-
companied with a fignal by which it is addrefled to
fome particular fliip or divllion of the fleet, and it may-
be difficult to connect the one with the other, which is
perhaps fhown in another place, and along with other
executive fignals.
vantages One great advantage of thefe numeral fignals is, that
lumeriil they may be changed in their fignlfication at pleafure.
aU. Thus, in the firft method, it can be fettled, that on
Sundays the colours A, B, C, D, &cT exprefs the cy-
phers I, 2, 3, 4, &c. but that on Mondays they .ex-
prefs the cyphers o, i, 2, 3, &c. and on 'iuefdays the
cyphers 9, o, i, 2, &c. ; and fo on through all the days
of the week. 'J his mean or fecrecy is mentioned by
Dr Hooke for the coaft and alarm fignals, where, by
the by, he ihews a method for conveying intelligence
over land very fimilar to what is now pra6llled by the
French with their telegraph.
2
J SIG
It is equally eafy to exprefe numbers by night fignals. Naval Si^,
Thus M. de la Bourdonnais propofes, th?.t one dif- , ^
charge of a great gun fhall exprefs 7, and that i, 2, 3, ^3
4, 5, 6 ihall be exprefTed by Hghts Therefore, to ex- Number?
prefs 24, we mull fire three guns, and (how three '"ay be alf:^
lights. This is the moft perteft of all forms oi "'ght^^"''^?*^^
and fog fignals. For both the manner of firing guns
and of exhibiting lights may be varied to a fufficient ex-
tent with very few guns or lights, and with great di-
ftinftnefs.
Thus, for guns. Let F mark the firing of a fmgle
^n at moderate Intervals, and //a double gun, that is»
two difcharged at the interval of a fecond. We may
exprefs numbers thus :
1 F.
2 F, F.
3 V, F.
4 F, F, F.
5 F,//.
6 F, F,//.
7 F,//,F.
8 F,//, F, F.
9 F,//. F,//.
100, &c. //,//, or///.
It might be done with fewer guns if the / f were ad-
mitted as the firit firing. But it feems better to be-
gin always with the fingle gun, and thus the double
gun beginning a fignal diilingulfhe* the tens, Sec.
In like manner, a fmall number of lights will admit
of a great variety of very diftlnft pofitions, which may
ferve for all fignals to fhips not very remote from the
commander in chief. For orders to be undertlood at
a very great diftance, it will be proper to appropriate
the numbers which are indicated by finals made with ^
rockets. Thefe can be varied in number and kind to a
fufficient extent, fo as to be very eafily diftlngulfhed
and under ftood. It is fufficient to have (hown how the
whole, or neaily the whole, notation of fignals may be
limited to the expreffion of numbers. ^4
We have taken little notice of the fignals made by Concluding
private flilps to the commander in chief. This is a cmaiks.
very eafy bufinefs, becaufe there is little rifle of con-
founding them with other fignals. Nor have we fpo-
ken of fignals from the flag fiiips whofe ultimate inter-
pretation is number, as when fhips are direfted to
change their courfe fo many points. Thofe alfo are
eafily contrived in any ot the methods already defcri-
bed : alfo when a private fhip wifhes to inform the com-
mander in chief that foundings are found at fo many
fathoms. In like manner, by numbering the points
of the compafs, the admiral can direct to ch?.ce to any
one of them, or may be informed of fl;range fhips being
feen in any quarter, and what Is their number.
Signals by the Drum,, made ufe of, in the exerclfc
of the army, inftead of the word of command, viz.
Signals.
j4 Jhort roll,
A flamy
To arms J
The march.
The quick marchy
The point of ivat y
Operations.
To caution.
To perform any dlilinft thing.
To form the line or battalion.
To advance, except when in-
tended for a falute.
To advance quick.
To march and charge.
3
O
Thi
S I G
The retreat,
Drum ceaftng<,
Two Jhort rolls.
The dragoon march.
The grenadier march,
The troop,
The long roll,
To retre?.t.
To halt.
To perform the flank firing.
To open the battaHon.
To form the coUimn.
To double divifions.
To form the fquare.
rri J- L f ro reduce the fquare to the
J he grenadier march, < , ^
(_ column.
The preparative, - To make ready and fire.
The gemral, - To ceafe firing.
Two long rolls, - To bring or lodge the colours.
SIGNA TURE, a fign or mark imprefled upon any
thin;T, whether by nature or art. Such is the general
fignitication of the word ; but in the plural number it
has been ufed, in a particular fenfe, to denote thofe ex-
ternal marks by which phyfiognomifts and other dabblers
in the occult fciences pretend to difcover the nature and
interna] qualities of every thing on which they are
found. According to Lavater, every corporeal objeft
is chara&erized by fignatures peculiar to ilfelf.
The doftrine of fignatures, hke alchemy and aftrolo-
gy, was very prevalent during the iijth and 1 6th cen-
turies ; and was confidered as CHie of the occult fciences
which conferred no fmall degree of honour on their re-
fpeftive profelTors. Some of thefe philofophers, as they
thought fit to ftyle themfelves, maintained that plants,
minerals, and animals, but particularly plants, had fig-
natures impreffed on them by the hand of nature, indi-
cating to the adept the therapeutic ufes to which they
might be applied. Othej-s,, fuch as the myftic theofo-
phifts and chemifts of that day, proceeded much farther
in abfurdity,. maintaining that every fubftance in nature
had either external fignatures immediately difcernible,
or internal fignatures, which, when brought into view
by fire or menftrua, denoted its eonneftioa with fome
liderial or celeftial archetype. Of the doftrine of fig-
natures, as it relates merely to the therapeutic ufes of
plants and minerals, traces are to be found in the works
of fome of the greatelt authors of antiquity; but the
celeftial fignatures, we believe, were difcovered only by
^JTrfi: Nat. t\i& moonlight of the monkifh ages. Pliny informs us*,
that the marble called aphltes, from its being ipotted
like a ferpent, was difcovered by thofe fpots to be a
fovereign remedy for the bite of that animal ; and that
the co\om o'l the h£matites or blood-ftone intimated that
it was fit to be employed to flop an hemonhagy ; but
we do not recolleft his attributing the virtues of thele
minerals to a'fiderial or celeftial influence.
Signature, a figning of a perfon's name at the bot-
tom of an aft or deed written by his own hand.
Signature, in printing, is a letter put at. the bot-
tom of the firft page at leaft, in each fheet, as a direc-
tion to the binder in foldiRg, gathering, and. collating,
them. The fignatures confift of the capital. letters of
the alphabet,, which change in every fiieet : if there be
more .fceets than .letters in the alphabet,, to. the capital
letter is added a fmall one of the fame fort, as A a, B b ;
which are- repeated' as often as necefiPary. In large vo-
lumes it is eafy to diftinguifh the number of alphabets,
after the firft thiee or four, by placing a figure before
the fiu nature, as 5 B, 6 B, &"c.
SIGNET, one of the king's fealsy made ufe of in
fe;;lino h.^s priyate letters, and ■ all grants that pafs by
[ 476 ] S I L
bill fi<^ned under his majefty's hand : it is always in the
cuftody of the fecretaries of ftate.
Signet, in Scots law. See Law, Part HI. § 17.
SILENE, Catchfly, or Vlfcous Campion, in bo-
tany : A genus of plants belonging to the clafs of de-
candrta, and order of trlgynia ;' and in the natural fyf
tem arranged under the azd order, caryophylle^e. The ca-
lyx is ventricofe; the petals are five in number, bifid and
unguiculated, and crowned by a neftarium ^ the capfule'
is cylindrical, covered, and trilocular. There are 26
fpecies, of which 7 are natives of Britain and Ireland.
I. Angllca, the fmall corn campion or catchfly. The
ftem is weak, hairy, and above a foo- ^ high ; the leaves
are oblong, and grow in pairs at the joints ; the flowers
are fmall, white, ani entire; they ftand on, footftalks
which iiTue from the alas of the leaves ; they are ereft,
alternate, fingle, and lateral. It grows in corn-fields,
and flowers in June and July. 2. Nutans, Nottingham
catchfly. The ftcm is about two feet high, and firm ;
the radical leaves are broad, obtufc, and grow in a tuft j
thofe on the ftem are narrow and acute : the flowers
are white, and grow in lateral panicles ; the petals are
bifid and curled ; the calyx is long, bellying a littlpj.
with ten longitudinal ftrlae. It grows in paftures, and
flowers in June and July. 3. Amoena, fea-campion. The
ftem is two or three feet long, flender, procumbent, and
branched alternately : the leaves are long and narrow :
the flowers are white, and grow on oppofite footftalks,
three on each, in unilateral bunches : the calyx is
hairy and purplifli, and has ten angles. It grows on
the fouth coail, and flowers in June and Ji^y. 4. Co-
noidea, greater corn catchfly, or campion. The leaves
are narrow and foft ; the calyx is conical, with 30 ftrisej
the flowers proceed from the divarications of the ftem ;
the petals are entire. It -rows in corn fields, aad
flowers in June. ^. Noai flora, night-flowering catch-
fly. 'I'he ftem is about two feet high,, and forked ; the
calyx has ten angles, is fomewhat clammy, and oval,
with longer teeth than the other fpecies ; the petals are
of a reddift. white. 6. Armeria, broad-leaved catchfly.
The ftem is about 18 inches high, and ereft, with fear
branches ; the leaves are fmooth, feflile, and broad at
the bafe ; the flowers terminal, in faftigiate bundles,
fmall, aad red. It may be feen on the banks of rivers,
a!;d is in flower in July and Auguft.. 7. Acaulls, mofs
campion. The radical leaves are fpread on the ground
hke a tuft of mofs ; the ftalks are about an inch long,
and naked, bearing each a fingle purple flower. This
laft fpecies grows on moimtains, and has been found, ia
Wales and Scotland, within half a mile from their top.
, It is in flower in July,
SILESIA, a duchy of Germany, bounded on the
cafl: by Poland ; on the weft, by Bohemia and Lower
Lufatia ; ch the fouth, by a chain of mountains,
and a thicket of confiderable extent which feparates it
from Humrary; and to the., north, by the marquifate
of Brandenburg and Poland. From north-weft toiouth-
eaft it is about, 274 miles, and about 100 where broad-
eft': but. it is much contrafted at both ends. Upon the
frontiers of this country, to the weft and fouth, are ve-
ry high mountains, and fome likewife in other parts of
it. One of the ridges upon the frontiers is ftyled the
Rlphaan Mountains, another the Moravian, another the
Bohemian, and another the Hungcirian, Crapack, or Car-
pathian-^
S I L
[ 477 1
S 1 L
paffiian. A branch of the Bohemian js called the Giant
' Mountains. 'I'he winter on thefe hilly tracks is more
levere, fets In fooner, and lafts longer, than in the low
lands. The inhabitants ufe a kind of fliates when the
fnow is deep, as they do in Carniola. Little or no
grain is raifed in the mountains and fome fandy tracks;
but the reft of the country is abundantly fruitful, not
only in grain, but fruits, roots, pafture, flax, hops, mad-
der, tobacco, and hemp, yielding alfo fome wine, with
confiderable quantities of hlk and honey. In many
places are great woods of pines, lir, beech, larch, and
other trees, affording tar, pitch, rofin, turpentine, lamp-
black,, and timber for all ufes. In this country alfo is
found marble of feveral forts, fome precious ftones, lime-
Hone, millftone, pitcoal, turf, vitriol, fome filver ore,
copper, lead, iron, and mineral fprrngs. Great nam-
bers of black cattle and horfes are brought hither from
Poland and Hungary for fale, thofe bred in the coun-
try not being fufficient ; but of (heep, goats, game, and
venifouj they have great plenty. As for wild beafts,
here are lynxes, foxes, weafels, otters, and beavers. The
rivers, lakes, and ponds, yield fifh of feveral forts, parti-
cularly fturgeons feveral ells in length, and falmon. Be-
fides a number of fmaller ftreams to water this country,
there is the Oder, which traverfes it almoft from one
end to the other ; and the Viftula, which after a pretty
long courfe through it enters Poland. The number of
the cities and market-towns is faid to be about 200, the
county of Glatz included, and that of the villages ^000.
The inhabitants, who are computed to be about a mil-
lion and an half, are a mixture of Germans, Poles, and
Moravians. The language generally fpoken is Ger-
man ; but in fome places the vulgar tongue is a dialeft
of the Sclavonic. The ftates confift of the princes and
dukes, and [thofe called Jlate- lords ^ with the nobili-
ty, who are immediately fubjeft to the fovereign, and
tne reprefentatives of the chief cities ; but fince the
country fell under the dominion of the king of Pruf-
lia, no diets have been held. The king, however,
when he took pofTeffien of the country, confirmed all
the other privileges of the inhabitants. With refpeft
to religion, not only Proteftants, but Papifts, Jews, and
Greeks, enjoy full liberty of confcicnce. The greateft
part of Silefia lies in the diocefe of Breflaw, but fome
part of it in the Polifh diocefes of Pofen and Cracow.
The bifhop of Breflaw ftands immediately under the pope
with regard to fpirituals ; but all ecclefiaftical benefices,
not excepting the fee of Breflaw, is in the king's gift.
Befides Latin fchools, colleges, and feminaries, at Breflaw
is an univerfity, and at Lignitz an academy for martial
exercifes. The principal manufaftures here are wool-
lens, linens, and cottons of feveral forts, with hats, glafs-
ware, gunpowder, and iron manufa£i:ures. Of thefe
there is a confiderable exportation. Accounts are ge-
nerally kept in rix-doUars, filver grofchens, and du-
cats. With rcfpeA to its revolutions and prefent go-
vernm.ent, it was long.a part of the kingdom of Poland;
afterwards it had feveral dukes and petty princes for its
fovereigns, who by degrees became fubjeft to the kings
of Bohemia, until at laft king Charles IV. incorporated
the whole duchy with Bohemia ; and thus it continued
in the pofleflion of the houfe of Auftria, until the king
of Pruflia in 1742, taking advantage of the troubles that
enfued upon the death of the emperor Charles VI. and
pretending a kind of claim, wreiled a great part of it,
Silicer-
niuni.
together with the county of Glatz, from his daughter SildU
and heirefs Maria Therefa, the late emprefs- dowager ;
fo that now only a fmall part of it is poffefled by the
houfe of Auftria, and connefted with the empire, the
reft being governed by the king of PrufCa, without ac-
knowledging any fore of dependence on the crown oh
Bohemia or the empire. For the adminiftration of
juftice in all civil, criminal, and feudal cafes, and
fuch as relate to the revenue, the king of Pruflia has
eftabliflied three fupreme judicatories, to which an ap-
peal lies from all the inferior ones, and from which,
when the fum exceeds 500 rix- dollars, caufes may be
riKJved to Berlin. The Lutheran churches and fcjiools
are under the Infpeflion of the upper confiftories, and
thofe of the Papifts under that of the bifliop's court at
Breflaw ; but from both an appeal lies to the tribunal
at Berlin, As to the revenue, the excife here is levied
only in the walled towHs, being on the fame footing as
in the marquifate of Brandenburg ; but In the reft of the
country the contributions are fixed, and the fame both
In peace and war. The feveral branches of the revenue
are under the management of the war and domain of-
fices of Breflaw and Glogau. The whole revenue ari-
fing to. the king of Pruffia from Silefia and the county
of Glatz amounts to about four millions of rlx-doUara
per annum.
Silefia Is divided into Upper and Lower, and each of
thefe again into principalities and lordihips ; of fome of
which both the property and jurlfdlAion belong Imme-
diately to the fovereign, but of others to his fubjefts and
vafTals. In regard to the character of the people, the
boors are accounted very dull and ftupid ; but of thofe
of a higher rank, many have diftinguimed themfelves by
their wit and learning, as well as by their military and
political talents. However, In general, like their neigh-
bours the Germans and Bohemians, they have more of
Mars than Mercury in their compofition, and their parts
are more folid than fhining.
SILESIAN EARTH, in the matenia medica, a fine
aftringent bole. It Is very heavy, of a firm compact
texture, and in colour of a brswnifli yellow. It breaks
eafily between the fingers, arid does not ftain the hands ;
is natiirally of a fmooth furface, is readily diffufible in
water, and melts freely Into a butter-like fubftance in
the mouth. It leaves no grittlnefs between the teeth,
and does -not ferment with acid menftr ua. It is found
In the perpendicular fiffures of rocks near the gold,
mines at Strlgonium In Hungary, and is fuppofed to
be impregnated with the fulphur of that metal. It Is
a good aftringent, and better than ntoft of the boles iii
ufe.
SILlCERNttJM, among the Romans, was a feaft
of a private nature, provided for the dead fome time af-
ter the funeral. It confiftcd of beans, lettuces, breadj
eggs, &c. Thefe were laid upon the tomb, and they
fooliflily believed that the dead would come out for the
repaft. What was left was generally burnt on the
ftone. The word ./fAfrn?aw is derived from j^/^x and
ccena., I. e. *"a fupper upon a ftone." Eating what had
thus been provided for the dead, was efteemed a mark of
the moft' miferable poverty. A fimilar entei-tainment
was made by the Greeks at the tombs of the deccafed •
but It was ufual among them to treat the ghofts with
the fragments from the feaft of the living. See Fu".
NERAL and InferivS;,
J ' SiLEX.
S I L
t 478 ]
S I L
SV.rx
II
SILEX. See Flint.
SILICEOUS EARTHS. See Mineralogy, Part IT.
, Order 4.
SILIUS (Italicus Cams), an ancient Roman poet,
and author of an epic poem in 1 7 books, which con-
tains an hiftorj' of the fecond Punic war, fo famous for
having decided the empire of the world in favour of the
Romans. He was born in the reign of Tiberius, and
is fuppofed to have derived the name of Italkus from
the place of his birth ; but whether he was born at Ita-
lica in Spain, or at Corfinium in Italy, which, accord-
ing to Strabo, had the name of Italica given ft during
the £ocial war, is a point which cannot be known :
though, if his birth had happened at either of thefe
places, the grammarians would tell us, that he fhould have
been called Italicenfs, and not It aliens. When he came
to Rome, he applied himfelf to the bar ; and, by a clofe
imitation of Cicero, fucceeded fo well, that he became
a celebrated advocate and moll accompli(hed orator.
His merit and charafter recommended him to the high-
eft offices in the republic, evea to the confuKhip, of
which he was pofieffcd when Nero died. He is faid to
have been aiding and affifting , in accufing peifons ot
high rank and fortune, whom that wicked emperor had
devoted to deftru£lion : but he retrieved his character
afterwards by a long and uniform courfe of virtuous be-
haviour. Vefpafiau , fent him as proconful into Afia,
where he behaved with clean hands and unblemifhed re-
putation. After having thus fpent the bell part of his
life in the fervice of his country, he bade adieu to public
affairs, refolving to-confecrate the remainder to polite
retirement and the mufes. He had feveral fine villas in
the country : one at Tufciilum, celebrated for having
been Cicero's ; and a farm near Naples faid to have
been Virgil's, at which was his tomb, which hilius
-often vlfited. Thus Martial compliments him on both
■thefe accounts :
SlUus hac mfigni celehrat monumenta Maronis^
jfugera facundi qui Ciceronis habet,
Hxredem Dominutnque fui tumulique larifque
Non alium mallst nec Maro nee Cicero.
Epigr. 49. lib. xi.
Of Tully's feat my Silius is pofTefs'd,
And his the tomb where Virgil's afhes reft.
Could thofe great ftiades return tochoofe their heir.
The prefent owner they would both prefer.
In thefe retirements he applied himfelf to poetry : led
,!iot fo much by any great force of genius, which would
certainly not have fuffered him to ftay till life was in
the wane and his imagination growing cold, as by his
exceeding great love of Virgil, to whofe memory he
paid the hi'gheft vencation. He has imitated him in
his poem ; and though he falls infinitely ihort of him,
yet he has difcovered a great and univetfal genius,
which would have enabled him to fucceed in fome de-
gree in whatever he undertook.
Having been for fome time afflifted with an yn-
pofthume, which was deemed incurable, he grew weary
of life, to which, in the language of Pliny, he put an
end with determined cuurat!,e.
There have been many editions of Silius Italicus. A
jieat and correft one was publiftied atLeipfic in 1696, in
Svo, with fhort and ufeful notes by Cellarius : but the
beft is that cum notis tnt^^ris varhrum ef ArmlJi DrtX'
kenborrh. Trajeft. ad Rhen. I 7 1 7, in 4to.
SILK, a very foft, fine, bright thread, the work of
an infeft called bomhyx, or the filk worm.
As the filk worm is a native of China, the culture of
filk in ancient times was entirely confined to that coun-
try. We are told that the ennprefles, furrounded by
their women, fpent their leifure hours in hatching and
rearing filk worms, and in weaving tiffues and filk veils.
That this example was foon imitated by perfons of aJ.l
ranks, we have reafon to conclude ; for we are informed
that the Chinefe, who v/ere formerly clothed in flcins,
in a ftiort time after were dreffed in veftments of filk.
Till the reign of Juftinian, the filk worm was unknown
beyond the territories of China, but filk was introduced
into Perfia long before that period. After the conquelt
of the Perfian empire by Alexander the Great, this va-
luable commodity was brought into Greece, and thence
conveyed to Rome. The firft of the Roman writers ^-f i^"^
extant by whom filk is mentioned, are Virgil and Ho-^,,,!^
race; but it is probable that neither of them knewih
from what comitry it was obtained, nor how it was oi fil
produced. By fome of the ancients it was fuppofed to
be ^ fine down adhering to the leaves of certain trees or
flowers. Others imagined it to be a delicate fpecies of
wool or cotton ; and even thofe who had learned that
it was the work of an infe£t, fliow by their defcriptions
that they had no diftinA idea of the manner in which it
was formed. Among the Romans, filk was deemed a
drefs too expenfive and too delicate for men, and was
appropriated wholly to women of eminent rank and opu-
lence. Elagabulus is faid to have been the firft man
among the Romans who wore a garment of fine filk:
Aurelian complained that a pound of filk was fold at
Rome for 1 2 ounces of gold ; and it is faid he refufed
to give his wife permiflion to wear it on account of
its exorbitant price.
For feveral centuries the Pcrfians fupplied the Ro- Broi
man empire with the filks of China. Caravans tra-j''""!
verfed the whole latitude of A fia, in 243 days, from^^^J^^
the Chinefe ocean to the fea-coaft of Syria, carrying rimj
thi^ commodity. Sometimes it was conveyed to the ftini
ports of Guzerat and Malabar, and thence tranfported
by fea to the Perfian Gulph. The Perfians, with thz ^ ^
ufual rapacity of monopolifts, raifed the price of filk to ^^.^'^
fuch an exorbitant height, that Juftinian, eager not only ^0,,.^*
to obtain a full and certain fupply of a commodity which InJk
was become of indifpenfable ufe, but felicitous to deliver
the commerce of his fubje(£ls from the exaftions ot his
enemies, endeavoured, by means of his ally, the Chrii
tian monarch of Abyffinia, to wreil fome portion ot
the filk trade from the Perfians. In this attempt he
failed ; but when he leaft expedted it, he, by an unfore-
feen event, attained, in fome meafure, the objedl which
he had in view. Two Perfian monks having been em- i
ployed as miffionaries in fome of the ChriiHan churches, ?|^^J
whii;h were eftabliftied (as we are informed by Cofmas) j!;,^,
in different parts of India, had penetrated into the coun- by i
try of the Seres,, or China. There they obferved the niou
labours of the li'k werm, and became acquainted with
all the arts of man In working up its ptoduAions into
fuch a variety of elegant fabrics. The profpeft pf gain,
or perhaps an indignant zeal, excited by feeing this lu-
crative branch of commerce engroHed by ui.believing
/lations.
S I L
[ 479 1
S I L
nations, prompted them to repair to Conflantinople.
There they explained to the emperor the origin of fdk,
as well as the various modes of preparing and manufac-
turing it, myfteries hitherto unknown, or very imper-
fe£tly underftood in Europe ; and encouraged by his
grey, They then put two (heets together, and rolKni
them clofe tie the ends.
The third day, towards night, the (heets are unroll-
ed and ftretched on a fine mat, when the eg.7s appear
blackifn. They then roll three ftieets together, and
liberal promifes, they undertook to bring to the capital carry them into a pretty warm place, (heltered from the
a fufiicient number of thofe wonderful infefts, to whofe
labours man is fo much indebted. This they accom-
plifhed, by conveyinc; the ergs of the filk worm in a
hollow cane. They were hatched by the heat of a
dunghill, fed with the leaves of a wild mulberry tree,
and they multiplied and worked in the fame manner as
in thofe climates where they firft became objefts of hu-
man attention and care. Vail nunibers of thcfe infeds
were foon reared in different parts of Greece, paiticu-
larly in the Pcloponnefus. Sicily afterwards undertook
to breed filk worms with equal fucceis, and was imitated,
from time to time, in feveral t(j\vns of Italy. In all
thefe places extenfive manufadtures were eftablifhed and
carried on with filk of dome flic production. The de-
mand for filk from the eaft diminiihed of courfe, the
fouth wind. The next day the people taking out the
rolls, and opening them, find them full of worms like
fmall black ants.
The apartment chofen for filk worms is on a dry
ground, in a pure air, and free from noife. The rooms
are fquare, and very clofe, for the fake of warmth ; the.
door faces the fouth, and is covered with a double
mat, to keep out the cold ; yet there fhould be a win-
dow on every fide, that when it is thought neceffary the
air may have a fiee paffage. In opening a windo'v to
let in a refrelhing breeze, care muft be taken to keep
out the gnats and flies. I he room muft be furniflied
with nine or ten rows of frames, about nine inches one
above the other. On thefe they place rufh hurdles, up-
on which the worms are fed till they are ready to fpin ;
fubjefts of the Greek emperors were no longer obliged and, to prefcrve a regular heat, ftove hres are placed at
to have recourfe to the Ferfians for a fupply of it, and
7L confiderable change took place in the nature of the
commercial intercourfe between Juuope and tndia.
As filk is the produclion of a worm, it will be firft
necelTary to give a defcription of its nature and mode of
manufafturlng. But before we give any accouiit of the
moft approved methods of managing filk worms in Eu-
rope, it will be proper to prefent a fhort defcription oi
the corners of the room, or elfe a warming pan is car-
ried up and down it ; but it mufl not have the leait
flame or (moke. Cow-dung dried in the fun is efteemed
the moft proper fuel.
The worms eat equally day and night. The Chi-
nefe give them on the firft day forty-eight meals/ that
is, one every half hour ; the next thirty ; the third day
they have ftill lefs. As cloudy and rainy weather takes
f'^^ the methods pradifed in China, the original country of away their ftomach, juil before^ their repaft a wifp of
the filk worm. Thefe are two : they either permit
them to remain at liberty on mulberry trees, or keep
them in roorirts. As the lineft filk is produced by worms
confined in rooms, and as the firft method is very fim-
ple, it will fuifice to defcribe the fecond.
[p.^ To begin with the eggs, which are laid on large fheets
\)g filk of paper, to which they firmly adhere. The fheets are
is i" hung up on a beam of the room, with the eggs inward,
and the windows are opened in the front to admit the
wind ; but no hemoen ropes muft ever come near the
worms or their eggs. After fome days the fheets are
taken down, rolled up loofely with the eggs inward,
and then hung up again, during the fummer and autumn.
At the end of December, or the beginning of January,
the eggs are put into cold water, with a httle fait diffol-
ved in it. Two days after they take them out, hanrj
them up again, and when dry roll them a little tighter,
and cnclofe each fcparately, ftanding on one end in an
earthen vefl*el. Some put them into a lye made of mul
very dry ftraw, the flame of which muft lie' all alike, ia
held over the worn^s to free them from the cold and
moifture that ben»imbs them, or elfe the blinds are ta-
ken from the windows to let in the full day-light.
Eating fo often haftens their growth, on which the
chief profit of the filk worm depends. If they come to
maturity in 23 or 25 days, a large fheet of paper cover-
ed with worms, which at their firft doming from the
eggs weigh little more than a drachnf, will produce 25^
ounces of filk ; but if not till 28 days, they then yieli
only 20 ounces ; and if they are a month or 40 days in
growing, they then produce but ten.
i'hey are kept extremely clean, and are often removed;
and when they are pretty well grown, the worms belong-
ing to one hurdle are divided into three, afterwards they
are placed on fix, and fo on to the number of 20 or more ;
for being full of humours, they mnft be kept at a due
diftance from each other, 'i'he critical moment for re-
moving them is when they are of a bright yellow and
berry tree afhes, and then lay them fome moments in ready to fpin ; they muft be furrounded with mats at a
fnow-water, or elfe hang them up three nights on a fmall diftance, which muft cover the top of the place to
mulbeny tree to receive the fnow or rain, if not too keep off the outward air ; and becaufe they love to work
violent. The time of hatching them is when the leaves in the dark. However, after the third day's labour,
of the mulberry trees begin to open, for they are hal- the mats are taken away from one o'clock till three, but
tened or impeded accerding to the different degrees of the rays of the fun muft not fliine upon them. They
heat or cold to which they are expofed.
When they
are ready to come forth, the eggs fwell, and become a
little pointed.
The third day before they are hatched, the rolls of
paper are taken out of the veffel, ftretched out, and hung
■up with their backs toward the fun, till they receive
a kindly warmth ; and then being rolled up clofe, they
are fet upright in a veffel in a warm place. This is re-
peated the iicxt day, and the eggs change to aii afti-
are at this time covere.d with the ftieets of paper that
were ufed on the hurdles.
The cocoons are completed in feven days, after which
the worm is metamorphofed into a chryfalis ; the co-
coons are tlien gathered, and laid in heaps, having firft
Het apart thofe defigiied for propagation upon a hurdle^
in a cool airy place. I'he next care is to kill the moths
in, thofe cones which are not to be bored. The belt
way of doing this is to Ijll large eartheii vefiels with
cone^
Silk.
S I L
[ 4S0 ]
S I L
Silk.
■The Be
, cones in layers of ten pounds eacli, throwing in four
v~~"'-' ounces of fait with every layer, and covering it with
large dry leaves like thoTe of the water-lily, and clofely
flopping the mouth of the vefTels. But in laying the
cones into the veffels, they feparate the long, white, and
glittering; ones, which yield a very fine filk, from thofe
that are thick, dark, and of the colour of the ficin of an
5 onion, which produce a coarfer filk.
.Defcription Xhe filk worm is a fpecies of caterpillar, which, like
of'the fin'^ all others of the fame clafs, undergoes a variety of
worm, changes, that, to perfons who are not acquainted with
dbjefts of this kind, will appear to be not a> little fw-
prifmg.
It is produced from a yellowifh coloured egg, about
the fize of a fmall pin head, which has been laid by a
kind of grcyldi coloured moth, which the vulgar con-
found with the butterfly,
Thefe eggs, in the temperature of this climate, if
,kept beyond the reach of the fire and fun fhine, may be
preferved during the whole of the winter and fpring
months without danger of hatching : and even in fum-
mer they may eafily be prevented from hatching if they
be "kept in a cool place ; but in warmer climates it is
fcarcely poffible to preferve them from hatching, even
for a few days, or from drying fo much as to deftroy
them. Hence it is eafy for a native of Britain to keep
the eggs till the food on which the worm is to feed be
ready for that purpofe. When this food is in perfec-
tion, the eggs need only be expofed to the fun for a day
or two, when they will be hatched, with great facility.
When the animal is firft protruded from the egg, it
is a fmall black worm, which is adlive, and naturally af-
cends to the top of the heap in fearch of food. At this
fiage of his growth the filk worm requires to be fed
with the young^ft and moft tender leaves. On thefe
leaves, if good, he will feed very freely for about eight
days, during which period he increafes in fize to about
a quarter of an inch in length. He is then attacked
with his firft, ficknefs, which confifls in a kind of le-
thargic fieep for about three days continuance ; during
which time he refufes to eat, and changes his fl^in, pre-
ferving the fame bulk. This fleep being over, he begins
to eat again, during five days, at which term he is
grown to the fize of full half an inch in length ; after
which follows a fecond ficknefs in every r^fpedt like
the former.
He then feeds for other five days ; during which time
he will have increafed to about three quarters of an inch
in length, when he is attacked with his third ficknefs.
This being over, he begins to eat again, and continues
to do fo for five days more, when he is attacked by his
fourth ficknefs, at which time he is arrived at his full
growth. When he recovers this ficknefs, he feeds once
more during five days with a mofl voracious appetite ;
after which he difdains his food, becomes tranfparent,
a little on the yellowifh caft, and leaves his filky traces
on the leaves where he paffes. Thefe figns denote that
he is ready to begin his cocoon, and will eat no more.
Thus it appears that the whole duration of the life
of the worm, in this fliate of its exiftence, in our climate,
13 ufually about 46 days ; 28 of which days he takes
food, and remains in his fick or torpid ftate 18 ; but it
is to be obferved, that during warm weather the periods
of ficknefs are (hortened, and in cold weather len^hen-
ft^y above the terms here fpecificd. In very hot cli-
mates it may be faid to live fafter, and fooner to attain
maturity, than in thofe that are colder. Dr Anderfon ^
informe us, that at Madras the worm undergoes its
whole evolutions in the fpace of 22 days. It appears,
however, that it feeds fully as many days in India as in
Europe, the difference being entirely occafioned by
fliortening the period of ficknefs. The longeft ficknefs
he had feen them experience there did not exceed two
days ; and during fummer it only lafts a few hours.
When the worm has attained its full growth, it
fearches about for a convenient place for forming its co-
coon, and mounts upon any branches or twigs that are
put in its way for that purpofe. After about two days
fpent in this manner, it fettles in its place, and forms
the cocoon, by winding the filk which it draws from
its bowels round itfeJf into an oblong roundilh ball.
During this operation it gradually lofes the appear-
ance of a worm ; its length is much contracted, and its
thicknefs augmented. By the time the web is finifhed,
it is found to be transformed into an oblong roundifh
ball, covered with a fmooth fiielly flcin, and appears to
be perfedlly dead. In this ftate of exiftence it is called
an aurelia. Many animals in this ftate may be often
feen (licking on the walls of out-houfes, fomewhat re-
fembling a fmall bean.
In this ftate it remains for feveral days entirely mo-
tionlefs in the heart of the cocoon, after which it burfta
like an egg hatching, and fr©m that comes forth a
heavy dull looking moth with wings ; but thefe wings
it never ufes for flying ; it only crawls flowly about in
the place it has been hatched. This creature forces its
way through the filk covering which the worm had
wwen, goes immediately in queft of its mate, after
which the female lays her eggs; and both male and fe-
male, without tafting food in this ftage of their exift-
ence, die in a very fhort time.
The filk worm, when at its full fize, is from an
inch and a quarter to an inch and a half in length, and
about half an inch in circumference. He is either of a
milk or pearl colour, or blackilh ; thefe laft are efteem-
ed the belt. His body is divided into fevcn rings, to
rach of which are joined two very fhort feet. He has
a fmall point like a thorn exaClly above the anus. The
fubftance which forms the filk is in his iiomach, which
is very long, wound up, as it were, upon two fpindles,
as fome fay, and furrounded with a gum, commonly yel-
lowifh, fometimes white, but feldom greenifh. When
the worm fpins his cocoon, he winds off a thread from
each of his fpindles, and joins them afterwards by
means of two hooks which are placed in his mouth, fo
that the cocoon is formed of a double thread. Having
opened a filk worm, you may take out the fpindles,
which are folded up in three plaits, and, on ftretching
them out, and drawing each extremity, you may extend
them to near two ells in length. If you then fcrape the
thread fo ftretched out with your nail, you fcrape oJF
the gum, which is very like fc?ees wax, and performs
the fame office to the filk it covers as gold leaf does to
the ingot of filver it furrounds, when drawn out by the
wire drawer. This thread, which is extremely ftrong
and even, is about the thicknefs of a middling pin.
Of filk werms, as of moft other animals, there is a Particu
confiderable variety of breeds, fome of which are much attmtio
more hardy, and poffefs quahties confiderably different ""K^' *
from others. This is a particular of much importance breed^o
to filk woi
S I L
to he adverted to at the time of beginning t© breed
thefe creatures in any place ; for it will make a great
difference in the profit on the whole to the undertaker
if he rears a good or a bad fOrt( A ). 'I'his is a department
in refpcCt to the economy of animals that has been in
every cafe much lefs adverted to than it dcferves ; and in
particular with regard to the fdk woi-m it has been al-
moft entirely overlooked. A few eggs of the filk worm
can be eafily tranfported by port in a letter from any
part of Europe to another, efpecially during the winter
feafon. It would therefore be an eafy matter for any
patriotic fociety, fuch as the Society of Arts in Lon-
t!on, to obtain a fpccimen of the epgs from every coun-
try in which fdk is now reared, to put thefe under the
caie of a perfon who could be depended upon, and who
underftood the management of them, with orders to
keep each kind diftinft from another, and advert to every
particular that occurred in their management, fo as to
make a fair eftimate of their refpeiftive merits. By thefe
means the beft might be fdcded, and thofe of inferior
value rejefted. Forty or fifty of each fort might be
enough for the experiment ; but it ought to be repeat-
ed feveral times before conclufions could be drawn from
it that might be altogether relied upon ; for it is well
known that a variation of circumftances will make a
change in the refult ; and it is by no means certain that
the fame particular would afFed thofe of one breed ex-
a£tly in the fame manner as it would do thofe of a dif-
ferent breed. One may be more hardy with regard to
cold, another more delicate in refped to food, and fo
on. It is experience alone that can afcertain the cix-
cumftances here inquired for.
From the above-mentioned particulars, it is evi-
dent, that the management of filk worms muft be very
different in hot climates from what is required in thofe
that are colder. At Madras, it appears from Dr An-
derfon's experiments that it is very difficult to prevent
the eggs from hatching for a very few days, fo that
many generations of them muft be propagated in one
year. '* In this hottefl feafon," fays he, in a letter to
Sir Jofeph Banks, dated July 6. 1791, " the fhorteft
time I have been able to remark for the whole evolu-
tions of the filk worm is 40 days ; that is to fay, fix
days an egg, 22 a worm, 11 a grub in the cocoon,
and one a moth or butterfly." Fortunately, where the
climate forces forward their produdion fo rapidly, na-
ture hath been equally provident of food for their fub-
fiflence ; for in thefe regions the mulberry continues to
grow and pufh out leaves throughout the whole year.
; ^ Though the filk worm be a native of China, there
is no doubt but it might eafily be propagated per-
haps in moft parts of the temperate zones, 'i'he eggs
Vol. XVII. Part II.
[ 1
S 1 L
Silt,
of this jnfe^V, indeed, require a confideraUe degree of
warmth to hatch them, bat they can alfo endure a fc- '
vere froft. No lefs than 5400 lbs of filk was raifed in
1789 in the cold, fandy territories of Pruffia, In the
province of Pekin, in China, where great quantities of
filk arc fabricated, the winter is much colder than even
m Scotland. From the information of lome Ruffiana
who were fent thither to learn the Chinefe langitage, we
find that Reaumur's thermometer was obferved from 1 o
to 15, and even 20 degrees below the freezing point.
Nor is it difficult to rear the food of the filk worm in N»
a temperate clime. The mulberry -tree is a hardy veo;e-
table, which bears, without injury, the winters of Sweden,
and even of Siberia. Of the fev'en fp^cies of the mulber*
ry (fee Morus) enumerated by Linnieus, four of thefe
(viz, the white, red, black, and Tartarian), there is e-
very reafon to believe could be reared both in Britain
and Ireland. The 'wL/te grows in Sweden ; the red ig
abundant round Quebec ; the Had delights in bleak fi-
tuations, expofed to wind on the fea fiiore ; and the
Tartarian mulberry is reprefented as growing iu the
chilly regions of Sibeha.
As to the fuperior qualities of the dlfTerent fpecies. Whether
probably there is very little to be pointed out amongft ^''V ^Tf cles
the four juft mentioned with regard to nourifhment, ex-"^"'"'^^'*
cept what may be drawn from the following faft : that f J pernor to
if the firft three are laid down together, the filk worm others,
will firft eat the white, then the red, and next the black,
in the order of the tendernefs of the leaves. The Tar-
tarian feems to hold as \i\gh. a place in its edeem as ei-
ther the red or black ; but all muft yield to the white,
which feems to be its natural food.
In Calabria the red mulberry is ufed ; in Valencia
the white; and in Granada, where excellent filk is pro-
duced, the mulberries are all black. The white feems
to profper very well in a moiil ftifffoil : the black agrees
well with a dry, fandy, or gravelly foil ; and the while
is moft luxuriant in a moift rich loam.
It may juftly be afferted, that Britain poffefTes fome Britain poft
advantages m the raifing of raw filk which are not eh- '>ffes fomc
joyed by warmer countries. Even in the fouth of ^'^^^"'^K^'
France, Mr Arthur Young informs us, the mulberry
leaves are often nipped by froft in the bud ; but this is for raifing
fcarcely ever the cafe with us. It is well known that filk.
thunder and lightning are hurtful to the filk worm.
Now our climate can boaft that it is almoft wholly ex-
empted from thofe dreadf ul ftorms of thunder and light-
nu)g wliich prevail fo much in hot chmates. Nature
has then furniihed us with every thing requifite for the
filk manufadure ; it remains only for us to improve the
advantages which we poffefs. Let mulberry trees be
planted by proprietors «f lands, and let a few perfons
3 of
(a) As the fuccefs of the filk manufafturc muft depend on the breed of worms, it is of gi-eat confequence to
knng them from thofe countries where they are reckoned beft. n
Mr Andrew Wright, an ingenious filk manufadurer of Paifley, has given the following direftions for con ve vino,
the eggs of the filk worm frona diftant countries by fea : As foon as the moth has laid her eggs, dry them im-
mediately, and put them into glafs vials ; feal them fo clofe that dam? air or water will not penetrate into them
Put thefe phials that contain the egg? into earthen pots filled with cold water ; and as often as the water become^
warm renew it. Place the earthen vefTels in the coldeft lijace of the fliip, and let them remain until the end of
the voyage. It muft be .bferved, that the Ihip chofen for this put^ofe ou^ht to be one that would arrive in Bri.
|aia in the months of June or July. v u «ii
S r L [ 482 ] S I L
Silk. of 11:111 and attention devote their time to the raifing of cafes they produced very good cocoons, even when fed
— V filk worms. This is an employment that will not in- entirely on lettuce. She therefore with reafon iufpeft-
terfere with any manufafture already eftabliihed ; on the ed that the death of the animal muft be occafioned by
contrary, it would afford a refpeftable, a lucrative, and fome extraneous circumftance, and not^ from the poi-
agreeable employment to ladies, or to females in gene- fonous quality of the food itfelf ; the circumllance Ihe
ral, who have at prefent too few profeffions to which fufpefted, from fome incidental obfervations, _ was the
of Goromun
ski.
they can apply. The fociety inftituted at London for
the encouragement of arts, manufaftures, and com-
merce, much to their honour, have offered premiums
to thofe who (hall plant a certain number of mulberry
J I trees.
Method of The following method of ralfing mulberry trees from
ri'lini^ feed is praftifed in the fouth of France, ar^ has been
""''^^•■■y-^ repeated with fuccefs in the Eaft Indies by Dr Ander-
r"h^of ' fo» '^f M-idras. " Talce the ripe berries of the mulber-
Franre. 17 when it is full of juice and of feeds. Next take a
Letters on rough horfc hait line or rope, fuch as we dry linen on,
the Cuhare and with a good handful of ripe m\ilberries run your
of K'I'-^' SiIIy^^^^ .^l^^g. the line bruinng the berries and mafhing
Tfl-Ltl'fl. them as much as poflible as your hand runs along, fo
that the pulp and feeds of the berries may adhere in
great abundance to the rope or hair line. Next dig a
trench in the ground where you wifh to plant them,
much like what is praftifed in kitchen gardens in Eng-
land for crops of various kinds. Next cut the rope or
hair line into lengths according to the length of the
trench you think fit to make, and plunge the hne full
of mafhed berries into the trench, and then cover it over
well with earth, always remembering afterwards to wa-
ter it well, which is elTential to the fuccefs. The feeds
of the berries thus fown will grow, and foon {hoot out
young fuckers, which will bear young leaves, which are
the belt Food for the filk worm,
" The facility and rapidity with which young leaves
may by this means be produced is evident, for as many
-rows of trenches may thus be filled as can be wi(hed ;
and it can never be neceflary to have mulberry trees
higher than our rafpberries, currants, or goofebcrry bufh-
cs. Whenever they get beyond that, they lofe their
value ; and if thefe trenches fucceed, you may have a
fupply coming frefh up day after day, or any quantity
you pleafcj" Thus abundance of thefe trees might be
reared. But as mulberry trees are not yet found in abun-
dance in this country, it were to be wifhed that fome
other food could be fubllituted in their place : attempts
have accordingly been made by thofe who have reared
lilk worms, and it has been found poffible to fupport
the filk worm upon lettuce (b).
Mifs Henrietta Rhodes, a lady who has made fome
fuccefsful experiments on raifing filk Worms in England,
had found that the filk worm could with fafety be kept
lettuce for fome time. This is pretty generally
70.
IT,
Mifs
Rhodes fed
filk worms on
on le'tuce
for lume
time.
coldnefs of that food ; and therefore (he thought it was
not impolTible, but if they were kept in a very warm
place, while fed on lettuce, .they might attain, in all
cafes, a due perfedlion.
General Mordaunt having been Informed oFthis coa-Gei;ti
jedure, refolved to try the experiment. lie got fome Moa 1
lilk worms eggs, had them hatched in his hot-houle,
caufed them to be all fed upon lettuce and nothing clfe.
'L'hey profpered as well as any worms could do, tcw or
none of them died; and they afforded as iine cocciotis
as if they had been fed upon mulberry leaves. As tar
as one experiment can go, this affords a very exhilara-
ting profpeA in many points of view. If one kind of
food has been noxious, merely on account of an impro-
per temperature, others may be found which have been
hurtful only from a fimilar caufe ; fo that it is not im-
pofTible but we may at lalt find that this delicate ciea-
ture may be fupported by a variety ot kinds of food.
Few, however^ could be more eaiily obtained than let-
tuce ; and this plant, when cabbaged (the cois, or ice
lettuce efpecially), would poffefs one quality that the
mulberry leaf never can poflefs, from the want of which
many millions of worms die in thofe countries where
filk is now reared ; for it is obfcrved, that when the
leaves are gathered wet, it is fcarcely poffible to pre-
ferve the worms alive for any length of time ; fo that
during a continuance of rainy weather many of them
are unavoidably cut off ; but a lettuce, when cabbaged,
refifts moifture. If gathered, even during rain, the
heart of it is dry ; fo that if the outer leaves be thrown
aiide at that time, the worms would be continued in
perfeft health. The expence, too, of cultivating and
gathering lettuce, would be fo much lefs than that of
gathering mulberry leaves, as to occaiion a faving that
would be much more than fufficient to counterbalance
the expence of heating the confervatory, as a little re-
fleclloii will (how.
But the great point to be now ^certained is, whe-
ther it is a fatl that worms fed onlcttuce, if kept in a
due temperature, will continue in good health, in gene-
ral, till they (hall have perfeit^td their cocoon ? One
experiment is too httlc to eflablifh thia fad with perfect
certainty. It would therefore be necelTary that more
experiments fhould be made on this fubjedl. ,
It is faid that Dr Lodovico Bellardi, a learned and -lilk a
ingenious botanift of Turin, has, after a number of ex- faif* t
difcovered a new method of feeding filk*'""
known by ladies who have turned their attention to this peuments, « wv.„ .^....w^ ^. ^ . —
fubjed ; but fhe found that in general they could not worms, when they are hatched before the mulberry j^.
with fafety be kept upon that food above three weeks,
If longer fed upon that plant, the worms for the moft
part die without fpinning a web at all. She found,
however, that they did ilot always die, but that in fome
trees have produced leaves, or when it happens that
the frofl: deftroys the tender branches. This new me-
thod confifls in giving the worms dried leaves of the
mulberry-tree. One would? think that this dry iiourifli-
2 ment
(b) It is not improbable, fays Dr Anderfon, to whofe valuable work entitled the Bee, we have been much
indebted in the drawing up of this article, that other kinds of food may be found which will anfwer the fame
purpofe. The cUicorium intybus and conunou endive might be tried, as they have the fame ladefcent quality
with the lettuce.
S I L
[ 483 ]
S I L
!lk.
5
»er cjc
rents
t to be
e on
3US ve-
bles.
ment would not be much relifhed by thefe infefts ; but
repeated experiments made- by our author, prove that
they prefer it to any otlier, and eat it with the greateft
avidity. I'he mulberry leaves muft be gathered about
the end of autumn, before the frofts commence, in dry
weather, and at times when the heat is greatell. They
mull be dried afterwards in the fun, by fpreading them
upon large cloths, and laid up in a dry place after they
have been reduced to powder. When it is neceffary to
give this powder to the worms, it Ihould be crently moi-
■ftened with a little water, and a thin coat of it muft be
placed around the young worms, which will immediate-
ly begin to feed upon it.
We have mentioned all the different kinds of food,
which, as far as wc have heard, have been tried with
any fuccefs to nourifh the filk worm ; not, however,
with great confidence, but as experiments which it might
be worth while carefully to confider and perform. We
muft not omit co mention that one perfon, who has had.
much experience in the managing of filk worms, affures
us, that thf filk produced from any other food than
mulberry leaves is of an inferior quality, and that the
worms are fickly. W^e think, however, that there is
leafon to fufpeft that the experiment has not beenflcil-
fully performed ; and therefore, before every other food
except mulberry leaves is difcarded, the experiment
ought to be performed with more attention and care.
We know that many animals in a domeftic ftate can hve
upon food very different from that which fupported
them when running wild in the fields. Certain it is,
however, that every animal,^ in its ftate of nature, par-
takes of a food peculiar to itfelf, which is rejefted by
other animals as if it were of a poifooons quality ; and
it may be mentioned as a curious faft, as well as an ad-
mirable iiiltance of the care of that Being who feeds
tl'.e fowls of heaven, that notwithftanding the number-
lefs infefts that ptey upon animals and vegetables, the
mulberry tree is left untouched by them all, as the ex-
clufive property of the iilk worm, the chief of the infcft
tiibe, which toils and fpins for the ufe ot man.
Having now confidered the tood prdper for the filk
we (hall next confider what fituation is moft fa-
vourable to them. In the opinion of fome perfons
in this csuntry who have been in the praAice of rearing
filk worms, they ought always to be kept in a dry place,
well fliehered, and poffeffmg a confideiable degree of
warmth, and which isnotexpofed to fuddcn tranfitions
from heat to cold. If the weather be too cold, a fmalj
fire muft be made : this is ot moft importance when the
worms are ready for fpinning. A fouthenl expofure
is therefore preferable. Some think light is of great
utility to filk worms, others think that they thrive bet-
ter in the dark. As to what apartments are beft ac-
commodated for promoting the health of filk worms,
and moft convenient for thoi'e who have the care of them,
they may be various according to the extent of the ma-
nufafture or the wealth of the proprietors. Silk worms
may be kept in boxes or in ftielves. When fiielves are to
be ufedjthey maybe conftruded in the following manner:
'I'he fhelves may be of wicker, ranged at the diftance
of a foot and a half, and fixed in the middle of the
room : their breadth ought to be fuch, that any perfon
v-Hii eafily reach to the middle from either fide. This
is perhaps the fimpleft and cheapeft apparatus for rear-
iag filk worms ; but there is another apparatus which
16
It fli U
i ar-d
tmeiits worm,
)> r
hcfe
may be recommended to thofe who are anxious to unite Silk,
fome degree of elegance with convenience. This appa- >r~*^
ratus is the invention of the Rev. George Swayne of
Puckle-church, a gentleman who, greatly to his honour,
has fttidied this fubjeft much, in order to find out the
way for promoting the culture of: filk among the pooi*.
This apparatus, with the defcription of it, we have
borrowed from that valuable and patriotic work, the
Tranfaftions of the Society for encouraging Arts, Ma- ly
niifafturcs, and Commerce, Vol. VII. p. 148. i he ap-
paratus confifts of a wooden frame four feet two inches ^
high, each fide 1 6 inches and a half wide, divided into jej^ri^'ed!
eight partitions by fmall pieces of wood which form
grooves, into which the Aides run,andare thus eafily thruft
into or drawn out of the frame. J he upper Aide (a) in Plate
the model fent to the foclety by Mr Swayne is of p^.^Ci-CLXVl,
per only, and defigned to receive the worms as foon as
hatched ; the two next (i, b) are of catgut, the threads
about one-tenth of an inch diftant from each other :
thefe are for the infefts when a little advanced in fize :
the five lower ones, marked c, c, Cy c, c, are of wicker
work; but, as Mr Swayne afterwards found, netting may
be fubftituted with advantage inftead of wicker bot-
toms. Under each of thefe, as well as under thofe of
catgut, are Aiders made of paper, to prevent the dung
of the worms from falling on thofe feeding below them. ig
The management of filk worms is next to be at- Proper
tended to. The proper time for hatching them j^'^^j^^""*
when the leaves of the mulberry are full grown, or j-J^'^^g^jj
nearly fo ; that as foon as thefe infecls are capable of
receiving food they may obtain it in abundance. To
attempt to hatch thcra fooner would hii hurtful, as the
weather would not be fufliciently warm. Befides, as
leaves are necefl'ary to the life of a vegetable, if the
young leaves of the mulberry-tree are cropped as foon
as they are unfolded, the tree will be fo much weaken-
ed as to be incapable of producing fo many leaves as it
would otherwife have done ; and if this practice be fre-
quently repeated, will inevitably be deftroyed.
When the proper feafon is arrived, the eggs may be ^'^'^ ^^^Y
hatched either by the heat of the fun, when it happens ^"^^.^5,^ '
to be ftrong enough, or by placing them in a fmallj^d fed.
room moderately heated by a Itove or fire ; and after be-
ing expofed for fix or feven days to a gentle heat, the
filk worm iffues from the egg in the form of a fmall
black hairy caterpillar. When Mr Swayne's apparatus
is uied, the worms are to be kept on the drawers with
paper bottoms till they are grown fo large as not rea-
dily to creep through the gauze-bottomed drawers :
they are then to be placed on thofe drawers, where they
are to remain till their excrements are fo large as not
readily to fall through ; when this is the cafe, they muft
be removed to the drawers with the wicker or net-
ting bottoms, and fed thereon till they fliow fymptoms
of being about to fpin. It is fcarcely neceffary to men-
tion, that the paper Aides beneath the gauze and wick-
er drav/ers are intended to rxceive the dung, whicli
fnould be emptied as often as the worms ai-e fed, at
leaft once a-day ; or to direft, that when the worms are
fed, the Aides arc to be firil drawn out a conliderable
way, and the drawers to reft upon them.
It has been already mentioned, that wet or damp Wet or
food is exceedingly prejudicial to thefe infeds. It pro-'''^"'? ^^'^^
duces contaijious and fatal difeafes. To prevent the^'"""'^-^'*
«-r '--i r, • ContagJOUS
necellity 01 givmg them wet or damp tood, attention difcaies,
ought
S I L [ 484
ought to be paid to the weather, fo that when there
is an immediate prol'peft of rain, a fiifficient quantity
of leaves may be gathered to fei ve the worms two or
three days. In this country, the leaves of the black or
red mulberry tree may be preferved good for food, al-
though kepi four or five days, by the following method:
When new gathered, lay them loofely in glazed earth-
91
f)u?ht to
be kept 33
clean as
iSee, NO 95
How they
may be
cleaticil
without
bruifing
tH veiTcls, place thefc in a cold place, well aired, not
expofed to drought.
The irtmoft attention muft be paid to preferve the
place where hlk worms are kept as clean as poffible: the
houfe or room muft be well ventilated, that no noxious
vapours be accumulated. By feme exptriments of M.
Faujas de St Fond, which are recorded in his hiftory
of Languedoc, it appears that the filk worm is much in-
jured by foul air. AH decayed leaves mult be removed
from them, as it is now well known that they emit bad
«wr in great abundance.
One of the moll difficult branclres of the management
of filk worms has hitherto been the cleaning without brni-
Img them. To avoid this inconvenience, the peafants
in France and Italy frequently allow the whole litter to
. remain without ever cleaning them, which is the caufe
of that unwholefome ftench that has been fo often rcr
marked by thofe who vific the places for rearing
filk worms in thefe countries. Ihis difficulty may
be effeilually removed by providing a net, or, what
would be ilill Ijetter, a wire-bottomed frame, wrought
into large melhes like a riddle. Have that made of a
iizc exadly fufficient to cover the wooden box in which
the worms are kept. When you mean to (hift them,
fpread frefh leaves into the wire baflcet ; and let it down
gently over the worms till it comes within their reach.
They no fooner perceive the frefh food than, they aban-
don the rubbifh below, and creep through the meftes,
fo as to fix themfelves upon the leaves ; then by gently
raifing the frefh ball<et, and drawing out the board be-
low (which ought to be made to flip out like the flip
bottom of a bird's cage), you get off all the excrements
and decayed leaves, without incommdding the worms in
the Imalleft degree ; and along with the litter you will
di-aw off an inch or two in depth of the foulefl mephitic
vapours. To get entirely rid of thefe, the board, when
thus taken out, fhould be carped without doors, and
there cleaned ; and the flip board immediately replaced
to receive all the excrements and oflFals. After it is re-
placed, the wire frame that had been elevated a little,
may be allowed to defcend to a convenient diftance a-
bove the board without touching it. Thus will there
3 8 r L
be left 3 vacant fpace for the mephitic air to fall below
the worms, fo as to allow them to inhabit a wholefome
region of the atmofphere.
When a frefli fupply of food is to be given before
cleaning, the wire frame ought to be let down as clofe
to the board as can be lafely done, and another wire-
bottomed frame put over it, with frefh leaves, as before
33
defcribed. When the worms have abandoned that in
their turn, let the flip-board, together with the luwer
wire frame, be drawn out and removed, and fo on as
often as neceflary. To admit of this alternate change,
every table, confifting of one flip-board, ought to have
two fets of wire-bottomed frames of the fame iize ; the
flip board to be always put into its place immediately
after it is cleaned, and the wire frames referved to be
afterwards placed over the other. By this mode oF ma-
nagement, it is probable that the worms would be faved
, from the difeafes engendered by the mephitic air, awd
the numerous deaths that are the coniequence of it
avoided.
l)r AnderfoH, to whom we have already acknowled- QiikkJ
ged our obligations, and to whom this country has been^'-'ould
much indebted for valuable works on agriculture, the l^'^""^* ^.'^
fifheries, &c. advifes thofe who have the management ^hicM
ef filk worms to ftrew a thin ftratum of frefh flaked rounds
quicklime upon the flip-board each time it is cleaned, im-'f»e™'
mediately before it is put into its place. This would
abforb the mephitic gas, for as foon as it is generated it
would defcend upon the furface of the quicklime. Thus
would the worms be kept continually in an atmofphepe
of pure air (c). Were the walls of the apartments t»
be frequently waflaed with quicklime and water, it would
tend much to promote cleaulinefs at a fmall expence,
and augment the healthincfs of the worms as well as
that of the perfons who attend them
When the filk worm refufes its food, and leaves filky Mr
traces on the leaves over which it paffes, it is a proof -wayne
that it is ready to begin its cocoon. It is now neceffa ^ ^'^^pt^fl
ry to form a new receptacle, which is commonly done woi-l'^a
by pinning together papers in the ftiape of inverted cones when gj
with broad bafea. '* This method (fays Mr Swayne), i"g to fj
where there are many worms, is exceedingly tedious, Vr.^nfua
waftes much paper, and ufes a large number of pins ; </ /-S^^ 5o<
befides, as the filk worm always weaves an outer cover- O;/""
ing or defenfive web before it begins the cocoon or^""^"^"^
oval ball, I apprehended that it cauled a needlei's watte //,",°vol
of filk in forming the broad web at the top. The me- vh. p.
thod I make ufe of is, to roll a fmall piece of paper (an
uncut odavo leaf, fuch as that of an old magazine, is
fufficient
(c) To put this queftion beyond a doubt, Mr Blancard' madfc the follovvring' comparative experiments, which
^^•erc feveral times repeated. " I procured (fays he) four glafs jars nine inches high and five in diameter, clofing
the mouth with cork ftoppers. After which I placed in each of them, in their fecond life (fo mue may be tranflated
which means the ftage between the different fickneffes), twelve filk worms, which were fed four times a-day; and.
•which I confined in this kind of prifon all their life, without taking away either their dead companions or their
ordure or litter. I fprinkled with chalk the worms of only two of thefe jars, and kept the two others to com-
pare with them.
"In thofe without lime, I never obtaJhed neither more nor lefs than three fmall and imperfe£t cocMm {cbiquet
ou houffard)y and in, the two that were fprinkled with lime, I had very often twelve, and never lefs than nine fine
full- fixed firm cocoons."
This experiment affords the moft fatlsfaftory proof of the utility of this procefs. From a niimber of trials he.
.fcund, that even when the worms were covered with a very large proportion of lime, they never were in any wa]f,
incommoded by it»
S I I
I 485 1
S I L
fufiicJent for three), round my fore-finger, and to give
it a twHt at the bottona ; which is done with the utmoft
expedition, and gives no occafion for the ufe oi pins.
Thefe rolled paper-cafes being likewife of a form more
nearly refemblin;^ that of a cocoon, with a much narrow-
er opening on the top than the others, takes away the
»eceffity of wafting much filk in the outer web, and
confequently leaves more to be employed in forming the
ball. The filk is readily -taken out of thefe caies by
untwifting the bottom ; and if this be done with mode-
rate care, and the papers are preferved, they will ferve
feveral times for the like purpofe."
;i sre- Others advife, that when the filk worms are prepa-
meiid ring to fpin, little buflies of heath, broom, or twi,t>s,
^* fhould be ftuck upriarht near the (heir or box in which
they are inclofed : the worms mount thefe, and attach
16 their web to them,
ir filk When the worms are ready to mount, in order to
"vived^ fpin, if the weather be hot, attended with thunder, you
11 af- will fee them in a languifhing condition ; your care muft
d by then be to revive them, which is effcfted thus : Take a
ider. eggg and onions, and fry them in a pan with fome
i/:/(!7/o«jftale hog's lard, the ranker the better, and make pan-
^ime- (,2ke ; which done, carry it fmoaking hot into the room
cal So"- where they are kept, and go round the chamber with
vol. ii. it' You will be furprifed to fee how the fmell revives
them, excites thofe to eat who have not done feeding,
and makes the others that are ready to fpin ciimb up
1^7 the twigs,
re t In about ten or twelve days, according to the ae-
* of counts which we have received from Mr Andrew Wright
of Paifhy, it maybe lafcly concluded, that if the worms
have finilhed their work, the cocoons may be coUedled.
We (hall now diftinjjuifh the cocoons from one another
according to their value or their ufe, and confider the
method of managing each. They may be diftinguifhed
into the good and bad. The good cocoons maybe known
by thefe marks : they are little, ftrong, and firm ; have
a fine grain, both ends are round, and they are free
from fpots. Among the good cocoons alfo may be ar-
ranged thofe which are called tWaVi^^/ cocoons, in which
the worm, in coniequence of hcknefs, is pctrif.ed or re-
duced to a fine powder. Thefe cocoons produce more
filk than others, and are fold in Piedmont at hall as much
again. They may be diflinguifhed by the noife which,
tfie worm makes when the cocoon is fhaken. Of the bad
cocoons there are fix fptcics : i . The pointed cocoons^
one extremity of which ends in a point ; the filk which
covers the point is weak, and foon breaks or tears. 2.
The coca/ons, whieh are bigger, but the contexture is
weak. 3. The .iupioriiy or double cocoons, which have
been formed by the joint labour of two and fometimcs
of three worms. 4. 'I'hajuvffloni, which have a loefe cour
texture, fometimes fo loofe that they are traniparent.
5. The perforated cocoom, which have a hole at one end.
6. The bad choquettey. which is compofcd of defe£fiv,e
cocoons, fpotted or rotten. Befides thefe there is the
good choquetiey which does not properly belong to ei-
ther of thefe two clafTes : it is formed of thofe cocoons
in which the worm dies before the filk is brought to
|)erfe£tion. The worms adhere to one lide of the co-
coon, and therefore when the cocoon is lhaken will not
rattle : the filk is as fine, but is not of fo bright a co-
lour, nor is fo ftrong and nervous, as that which is ob-
tained from ^'od cocoons.
The cocoons which are kept for breeding arc called Siile.
royal cocoons. For feledling and preferving thefe, we
have been favoured with fome valuable inftruftions by j^j,
Mr Wright of Paifley, which we lhall ptefent to ourwrij/ht's
readers. — The largefl and beft cocoons ought to beinftrudionj
kept for breed, about an equal number of males and'?"" ^^^'^c-
females ; the cocoons that contain the former are fharp- '"'5 ''"•'^
.er pointbd at the ends trian tliofe that contain, the lat-the royal
ter. Although it fhould happen t'lat tliere are morecocoon.s
females than males, little inconvenience or ill confe-
quencescan arile from it, as one male will ferve two or
three females, ir the time of their coining out of the
cocoons anfwer. About 12 or 1 3' days after they be-
gin to fpin, the cocoons For breed ma;, be laid on fheets-
of white paper ; about this time the moth opens for it»
felf a paffage through the end of its cocoon, and '
iffues^ out. When the female has laid her eggs, which,
on an average may amount to 250, they are fpiead:
upon fheets of paper and hung up to dry in fome
place where they may not be expofed to the heat of
the fun ; after being dried they muft be kept in a cooL
well-aired place, where neither vapours nor moifture
can reach them. That they may be preferved from ex-
ternal accidents, as iniefts of different kinds will deftroy
them, and mice is their enemy in all the ftages of their
exiftence, they fhould be kept in ftime pots or glafs.
bottles with their mouths ftopped, and there remain un-
til brought out next feafon to be fiatched.
The cocoons- from which the l;lk is to be immediately How to
wound muft be expofed to. the heat of an oven, in order priiFai e thft-
to kill the chry falls or aureha, which would other wife eat
its way through the cocoon, and render it ufelefs. The^J^^'^fj
following direftions are given for managing this procefs.
by one of the firft filk manufacturers in Italy.
Put your cocoons in long lhallow bafliets, and ^'^tranf.ia'wnt'
them up within an inch of the top. You then cover ^^^^^
them with paper, and put a wrapper over that. ^ hefebaf-!^^']^^^^''^**
kets are to be difpofc-d in an ovtn, whofe heat is aa.neari.jf/j,j voL.U*
as can be that of an oven from which the. bread is juft
drawn after being baked. V/hen your cocoons have re-
mained therein near an hour, you muft draw them out;
and to fee whether all tlie worms are dead, draw out a
dupion from the middle of your baflcet and open it ; if
the worm be dead, you may conclude all the reft are foj
becaufe the contexture of the d^ipion being ftronger
than that of the other cocoons, it is confequently lefa
eafy to be penetrated by the heat. You muft obferve
to take it from the middle of the bafltet, becaufe in.
that part the heat i* leaft perceptible. After you have
drawn your baflcctsfrom the oven, you muft tirft cover
each of them with a woollen, blanket or rug, leaving
the w-rapper beiides, and then ypu pile tj;iem above one
another. If your baking has fuccecded, youjr woollen,
cover will be all over wet with a kind.of dew, the thick-
nefs of your little finger If there be lefs, it is a lign-
youi cocoons have been too much or too little bakc-d..
If too much baked, the worm, being over-d- ieri,. cannot
tranipire a humour he no longer coi. tains, and your co--
coon is then burnt. It not enough baked, the worm,
has not been fuSicIently penetrated by the heat to di-
fljl the liquor lie contains, and in that cafe is not dead.
You muft let your baflcets ftand thuy covered five or
fix hours if pofiible, in order to keep in the heat, i3 this,
makts an end of ftifling thofe worms which might have
avoided the firft impreffion of fhe fire.. Ygu are hke?
4 wifa
S I L
[ 48^ ]
S I L
'Ik.
30
How the
fi!k is to be
wound
from the
cacsons.
Wife to take great care to let your cocoons ftand in the
oven the time that is neceflary; For if they do not ftand
fou'T enough, your worms are only ftunned for a time and
will aftei-wards be revived. If, on the other hand, you
leave them too long in the oven, you burn them : many
inftances of thefe two cafes are frequently to be met
with. It is a good fign when you fee feme of the
butterflies fpring out from the cocoons which have
been baked, becaufe you may be certain they are
not burnt. For if you would kill them all to the laft
worm, you would burn many cocopns which might be
more expofed to the heat than that particular worm.
The next operation is the winding of the filk. Be-
fore you begin to wind, you muft prepare your cocoons
as follows :
1. In ftripping them of that wafte filk that furrounds
them, and which ferved to faften them to the twigs.
This burr is proper to ftuff quilts, or other fuch ufes ;
you may likewife fpin it to make ftockings, but they
■will be coarfe and ordinary.
2. You muft fort your cocoons, feparating them into
-different claffes in order to wind them apart. Thefe
claffes are, the good white cocoons ; the good co-
coons of all the other colours ; the dupions ; the
cocalons, among which are included the weak cocoons ;
the good choquette ; and, laftly, the bad choquettc.
In forting the cocoons, you will always find fome per-
forated cocoons amongft them, whofe worm is already
born ; thofe you muft fet apart for fleuret. You will
likewife find fome foufflons, but very few ; for which
reafon you may put them among the bad choquette,
and they run up into wafte.
The good cocoons, as well white as yellow, are the
cafieft to wind ; thofe which require the greateft care
and pains are the cocalons ; you muft wind them in
cooler water than the others, and if you take care to
give them to a good windfter, you will have as good
lilk from them as the refl. You muft likewife have
careful windfters for the dupions and choquettes. Thefe
two fpecies require hotter water than the common co-
coons.
The good cocoons are to be wound in the following
manner : Firft, choofe an open convenient place for your
filature, the longer the better, if you intend to have
many furnaces and coppers. The building (bould be
high and open on one fide, and walled on the other, as
well to fcreen you from the cold winds and receive the
fun, as to give a free palTage to the fteam of your ba-
fons or coppers.
Thefe coppers or bafons are to be difpofed (when the
building will admit of it) in a row on each fide ot the
filature, as being the moft convenient method of pla-
cing them, for by that means in walking up and down
you fee what every one is about. And thefe bafons
fhould be two and two together, with a chimney , be-
tween every couple.
Having prepared your reels (which are turned by
hands, and require a quick eye), and your fire being a
light one under every bafon, your windfter muft ftay
till the w^ater is as hot as it can be without boiling.
When eveiy thing is ready, you throw into your
bafons two or three handfuls of cocoons, which you
gently brufti over with a wiflc about fix inches long,
cut ftumpy like a broom worn out : by thefe means the
threads of the cocoons ftick to the wiflc. You muft
difengage thefe threads from the wi&, and purge them
by drawing thefe ends with your fingers till they
come off" entirely clean. This operation is called la
Mattue.
When the threads are quite clear, you muft pafs four
of them (if you will wind fine filk) through each of the
holes in a thin iron bar that is placed horizontally at
the edge of your bafon ; afterwards you twift the two
ends (which confift of four cocoons each) twenty or
twenty-five times, that the four ends in each thread
may the better join together in croffing each other, and
that your filk may be plump, which otherwife would
be flat.
Your windfter muft always have a bowl of cold wa-
ter by her, to dip her fingers in, and to fprinkle very
often the faid bar, that the heat may not burn the
thread.
Your threads, whea thus twifted, go upon two Iron
hooks called ramping, vy-hich are placed higher, and
from thence they go upon the reel. At one end
of the axis of the reel is a cog-wheel, which catching in
the teeth of the poft-rampin, moves it from the right to
the left, and csnfequently the thread thai: is upon it ;
fo that your filk is wound on the reel crofsways,
and your threads form two hanks of about four fingers
broad.
As often as the cocoons you wind are done, or break
or diminifh only, you muft join frefh ones to keep up
the number requifite, or the proportion ; becaufe, as
the cocoons wind off, the thread being finer, you muft
join two cocoons half wound to replace a new one :
Thus you may wind three new ones and two half
wound, and your filk is from four to five cocoons.
When you would join a frtfn thread, you muft lay
one end on your finger, which you throw lightly on
the other threads that are winding, and it joins them
immediately, and continues to go up with the reft.
You muft not wind off your cocoons too bare or to
the laft, becaufe when they are near at an end, the
ba'trre, that is, the huflc, joins in with the other threads,
and makes the filk foul and gouty.
When you have finiflied your firft parcel, you muft
clean your bafons, taking out all the ftriped worms, as
well as the cocoons, on which there is a little filk,
which you firft open and take out the worm., and then
throw them into a baflcet by you, into which you like-
wife caft the loofe filk that comes oft' in making the
battue.
You then proceed as before with other two or three
handfuls of cocoons ; you make a new battue ; you
purge them, and continue to wind the fame number of
cocoons or their equivalent, and fo to the end.
As was already mentioned, the windfter muft always
have a howl of cold water by her, to fprinkle the bar,
to cool her fingers every time flie dips them in the hot
water, and to pour into her bafon when neceffary, that
is, when hei water begins to boil. You muft be very
careful to twift your threads a fufficient number of
times, about 25, otherwife your filk remains flat, in-
ftead of being round and full ; befides, whcs the filk ia
not well croffed, it never can be clean, becaufe a gout
or nub that comes from a cocoon will pafs through a
fmall number of thefe twifts, though a greater will
flop it. Your thread then breaks, and you pafs what
feukefs there may be in the middle of your reel be-
tween
S I L
[ 487 1
S I L
ilk.
tween the two hanks, which ferves for a head-band to
tie them.
You muft obfervethat your water be juft in a proper de-
gree of heat. When it is too hot, the thread is dead, and
has no body ; when it is too cold, the ends which form
the thread do not join well, and form a harih ill-qualifi-
ed filk.
You muft change the water in your bafon four times
a-day for your dupions and choquette, and twice only
for good cocoons when you wind fine filk ; but if you
wind coarfe filk, it is neceffary to change it three or
four times. For if you were not to change the water, the
filk would not be fo briQ;lit and glofly, becaufe the worm
contained in the cocoons foul it very confiderably. You
muft endeavour as much as poflible to wind with clear
water, for if there are too many worms in it, your filk
is covered with a kind of duft which attrafts the moth,
and deftroys your filk.
You may wind your lilk of what fize you pleafe,
from one cocoon to 1000 ; but it is difficult to wind
more than in a thread. The nicety, and that m
v/hich confitts the greatelt difficulty, is to wind even ;
becaufe as the cocoon winds off, the end is finer, and
you muft then join other cocoons to keep up the fame
fize. This difficulty of keeping the filk always even is
fo great, that (excepting a thread of two cocoons,
which we call inch) we do not fay a filk of three, of
four, or of fix cocoons ; but a filk of three to four, of
four to five, of fix to /even cocoons. If you proceed
to a coarfer, filk, you cannot calculate fo nicely as to
one cocoon more or lefs. We fay, for example, from
12 to 15, from 15 to 20, and fo on.
What number of worms are neceffary to produce a
certain quantity of filk has not been afcertained. And
"as different perfons who wiflied to determine this point
have had different refuhs, the truth feems to be, that
from various circumftances the fame number of worms
may produce more filk at one time than at another. It
is related in the fecond volume of the Tranfaftions of
the Society for encouraging Arts, &c. that Mrs Wil-
liams obtained nearly an ounce and a half of filk from
244 cocoons. Mr Swayne from 50 cocoons procured
100 grains. Mifs Rhodes obtained from 250 of the
largeft cocoons, three quarters of an ounce and a dram.
From a paper in the fecond volume of the Ameri-
can Tranfaftions, which we have before referred to in
the courfe of this article, we are informed that 150
ounces of good cocoons yield about 1 1 ©unces of, filk
from five to fix cocoons : if you wind coarfer, fomething
more. But what appears aftoniftiing, Mr Salvatore
Bertezen, an Italian, to whom the Society for encou-
raging Arts, &c. adjudged their gold medal, raifed five
pounds of excellent filk from 12,000 worms.
The cocoons produce a thread of very unequal
thrcadf.j^^^^j^ ; you may meet with fome that yield 1 200 ells,
whilft others will fcarcely afford 200 ells. In general,
you may calculate the production of a eocoon fromjoo
to 600 ells in length.
As there is every reafon to hope that the filk manu-
fafture will foon be carried on with ardour in this
ved filk eountry, wid to a great extent, we are happy to learn
11. that the filk-loom has been much improved lately by Mr
ShoU of Bethnal-Green. It appears from the evidence
of feveral gentlemen converfant in that ^branch of filk
weaving to which this loom is particularly adapted, that
31
at num
of
m? pi'
e a cer
quan-
of filk
igtli of
33
vanta-
of Mr
ill's ini.
the advantages of this conftruAion are, the gaining SHk
liffht, a power of fhortening the porry occafionally, fo JI
as to fuit any kmd of work, bemg more portable, and .
having the gibbet firmly fixed, together with the T;,anfaaiont^
diminution of price ; which, compared with the oldo/ the So-
loom, is as five pounds, the price of a loom on the oH<^ety/oren-
conftvuAion, to three pounds ten fhillings, the price of"^"^'''^-'^'^
one of thofe contrived by Mr Sholl ; and that, as the y■^^l
proportion of light work is to ftrong work as nine to
one, this fort of loom promifes to be of very confiderable
advantage, particularly in making modes, or other black
work. 34
As a plate of this loom, with proper references, will Defcriptioa
render its advantages mofl intelligible, we fhall fubjoin"^''"
thefe : Plate CCCCLXVI. A, A, The fills; B, B, The
breaft-roU pofts : C, The cut tree ; D, D, The up-
rights ; E, The burdown ; F, I'he batton ; G, The
reeds ; H, The harnefs ; L The breaft-roll ; K, The
cheele; L, The gibbet: M, The treddles ; N, The
tumblers ; O, Short counter-mefhes ; P, Long counter-
mefhes ; Q^The porry ; R, R, Cane roll pofts ; S, The
cane-roll P, The weight bar and weight ; U, U,.
Counter-weights ; W, Ttie breaking rod ; X, X, Crofs
rods.
SuK-JVorm. See Silk:.
SILPHA, Carrion-eeetle, in natural hiftory ; a'
genus of animals belonging to the clafs of tnfeSa, and to
the order of cokoplera. The antennae are clavated ; the cla-
va -are perfoliated ; the elytra marginated ; the head i*.
prominent ; and the thorax marginated. There are 94fpe-
cies, of which feven only are natives of Britain and Ire-
land. I. The vefpiUo. The margin of the thorax
broad. The fhells abbreviated, black, with two yel-
low belts. The thighs of the hind legs large, with a
fpine near their origin. Length near one inch. It in-
fefts dead bodies. 2. The blphujlulata, is black ; the
antennas are long and fmall, and there are two red fpots-
on the middle of each fhell. The length is one-third
of an inch. 3. The pujlulata, is black and oblong r
there are four brown fpots on the fhells : the length is
one-fifth of an inch. It lives on trees. 4. The qua-
drtpunaata. The head, antennas, and legs black- Mar- Beyienhoutp
gin of the thorax and fhells are of a pale yellow, with 'vol- i«
four black fpots. The length half an inch. It is found
in Cain.-wood, near Hampflead. 5. The falmlofa, is
black ; the antennae are fhort and globular ; there are
five ftriae on each fhell. The fhells and wings are fhort.
There are five joints on the two firft feet, four on the
reft. It lives in fand. 6. The aquat'ica, is brown, witlt
a green bronze tinge. There are four ribs on the tho-
rax. On each fhell there are 10 ftriae. The length is.
one-fifth of an inch. 7. The pulicar'ta, is black and ob-
long the fhells are abbreviated ; the abdomen is round-
ed at the extremity ; the thorax and fhells are fcarca
marginated ; the length is one line. It is found fre-
quently running on flowers^
SILPHIUM, in botany : Agenus of plants belong-
ing to the clafs of fyngenefia, and to the order of poly^-
gamia neceffaria ; and in the natural fyftem arranged un*
der the 49th order, compojitne. The receptacle is pa-
leaceous ; the pappus has a two-horned, margin, and the
calyx is fquarrofe. There are eight fpecles ; the laci*-
niatum, terebinthinum, perfoliatura, connatum, afterif-
cum, trifoliatum, foldaginoides, and trilobatum. The
firil. fiXr of thefe are natives of North America.
S I L
Silver,
[ 488 ]
s r L
Crortfedt\
JM-inerahgy
voi. it.
SILVER, one of the perfucl metals, and the whi-
teft and moft brilh'ant among them all, is of the fpecific
gravity, according to Bergman, of 10.552 ; but accord-
ing CO Kirwan, of i \ .o^^. Its dudlility is not greatly
inferior to that of gold, as a grain of filver leaf meafures
fomewha^ more than 5 1 fquare inches ; and the filver
wire ufed for agronomical purpofes meafures only the
750th part of an inch in diameter; which"is no more
than half the tliicknefs of the hair of the human head.
It is harder and more elaftic than lead, tin, or gold ; but
'lefs fo than copper, platina, or iron : like other metals it
grows hard by hammering, but is eafily reduced to its
former ftate by annealing. It is more deftrutlible than
gold, and is particularly afted upon by fulphureous va-
pours ; hence its furface tarnifhes in the air, and affumes
a dark btown colour.
"It has been long thought (faysMr Fourcroy ) that fil-
"Ter is indeftruftible by the combined aftion of heat and
air. It is certain, that this metal kept in fufion, with-
out contaft of air, does not appear to be fenfibly alter-
ed ; yet Junker had affirmed, that by treating it a long
time in the reverberatory turnace, in the manner of 1-
feac Holland us, iilver was changed into a vitreous calx.
This experiment has been confirmed by Macquer. That
learned chemift expofed filver 20 times fucceffively in a
porcelain crucible to the fire of the furnace at Scves;
and at the 20th fulion he obtained a vitrifotm matter
of an olive green, which appeared to be a true glafs of
filver. This metal, when heated in the focus of a burn-
ing glafs, has always exhibited a white pulverulent mat-
ter on its furface, and a greeniih vitreous covering on
the fupport it retted upon. Thefe two tatts remove all
doubt refpefting the alteration of filver : though it is
much more difficult to calcine than other metallic mat-
ters, ytt it is capable of being converted after a long
time into a white calx, which, treated in a violent lire,
affords an olive -coloured glafs. It may be pofiible per-
haps to obtain a calx of filver by heating this metal
vhen reduced into very fine laminae, or into leaves, for a
very long time in a matrals, as is done with mercury."
Magellan informs us, that by melting in a due pro-
jjortion with gold or Reel, filver becomes greenifh or
bluifh ; fo that it is capable of producing the white,
yellow, red, green, blue, and olive colours, more or lefs
•confpicuoufly according to th« various circumllances of
heat and proportions of the mixture. Though he
makes mention of the vitrifications by Macquxjt alrea-
dy taken notice of, he denies that it can be calcined by
heat alone. " Silver (fays he) Is fo fixed by itfelf in
the fire, that, after being kept a whole month in fu-
fion. It had only loft one 60th part of its weight, wkich
might be on account of fon>e alloy. It is therefore. in-
capable of being calcined by mere heat ; and the calx
of filver, which can only be made by means of its folu-
tion in acids, is reducible to its metallic foi-m without
the addition of any oxigenous fubilance. But when
iilver is opofed to the violent heat ef the folar rays
coUeftcd fiy a powerful lens, a kind of fmoke is feen
furroundlng it, which proves at laft to be the minute
particles of the metal railed and difperfed by heat, as is
evident if a thin plate of gold be expofed to it ; for
then the particles of filver are fecn upon the gold in the
fame manner as thofe of gold are feen upon filver in a
Jimilar experiment."
By flow cooling after it has been melted, filver ciy-
flallizes Into quadrangular p^amida, M. Baiime ob- flilvl
ferves, that, in cooling, it aflumes a fymmetrical form,
obfervable on the furface by fmall fibres refembling the
feathers of a pen. M, Fourcroy obferves, that the fine
button obtained by cupelUtion, often prefents on its
furface five or fix fides arranged amongft each other like
a pave-inent ; but the cryllaUization in tetrahedral pyra-
mids has not been obferved particularly excepting by
MefTrs Tillet and Mongez. It has been iuppofed'^ that
filver melts with a fmaller degree orf heat than copper ;
but the late improved thermometer of Mr Wedgewopd
fhows chat this is a miftake ; filver requiring 130" of
Fahrenheit more than copper to bring it into fufion. It
is found in the earth,
I. NatiDCy generally of the finenefs of 16 carats ;
and of this there are feveral varieties, i . Thin plated
or leaved. 2. Capillary filver, of fine or coarfe fibres
or arborefcent, from Potofi in America and Kunf-
berg in Norway. 3. A kind is alfo met with refem-
bling coarfe linen in the furface, which in Haxony is call-
ed knit cobalt. Abundance of tin's kind is to be met
with in Potofi, but more rarely in Saxony and Norway.
4. Sometimes native filver is met with in a cryftalline or
regularly figured ftace with fhining furfaces. This is
found at Kunfberg, but is very fcarce. There appears
likewife a kind of cryftallization on the thin places of
native filver, their furfaces being full of minute pyra-
midal cryftals. Mofl of the American filver is of the
native kind ; fo is that at Kunfberg in Norway. It
is not, however, met with native fo commgnly in other
European mines. A very fmall quantity of it is found
in the mines of Salberg in Weftmanland, and of Lo-
tafen in Dalarne, and federal other places in Sweden.
It has been found in pretty large lumps in clay mixed
with nickel, partly decayed or withered ; in which fitu-
ation it formed the compound called the Jiercus anferU
num, or goofe dung ore. 5. A piece of native filver in
coal is ftiown in the mineralogical academy at Frey-
berg; and Lahman, quoted by Le Camus, fpeaks alfo
of a fimilar filver ore found in a mine of pit-coal f , f- Cronji
'I'he capillary filver, according to the obfervations of ^'"""i
Henckel and Rome de Lifle, feems to have been pro-^* ^'^^^
duced by a decompofition of red filver ore ; and Walle-
rius affirms, that if fulphur is mixed in a gentle heat
with filver, the latter cakes a capillary form. 6. Native
filver is likewife fometimes found in the form of fpider's
webs, and for that reafon called by the Spaniards arane.
7. It is met with in branches formed by odlaedrons
inferted into one another. Some of thefc fhow the
mark of a leaf of fern or of a tree ; others are cubes
or fingle oftaedrons, whofe angles are truncated, tho*
thefe lail are but rare. 8. It is often fouhd difperfed
through fand and ochre, as well as in grey liniettene in
Lower Auftria, and in a greenifh clay near Schemnitz,
or mixed with ochre, clay, and calciform nickel. It is
generally alloyed with copper, fometimes with gold,
iron, or regulus of antimony ; and fometimes it can-
tains even ftve per cent, of arfenic. That found near
Kunfberg contains fo much gold, that the colour of
it is yellow.
Wallerius diftinguifhes feven fpecies of native filver j
viz. I . In irregular malTes and lumps, at Kunfterg irj
Norway and other places, in a bed of clay. 2. In a
granular and jagged form in America and Norway. 3.
Arborefcxnt, ia the places already mentioited. 4. la
thin
S I L I 489 1 , , .^J
tWn l«v«, betwK,. the fiffures of SoneB. in Non^Y to the re^alu, ofarfemc and ,ron
capillary form, in the places al
• 544
fan's
With
as to
With
and Germany. In a capillary form, m the places
ready mentioned, including the cobweb filver of the
Spaniards already mentioned. 6. Cryftalli/.ed. _ 7-
perficial. Mr Daubenton enumerates eight varieties ot
native white filver, of different forms, moft of which
have been already enwTverated. The materials m which
this metal is moll commonly fmmd in its native ftate
are, baro-felenite,limeftone, felenite, quartz, chert, flmt,
ferpentine, ^neifs, agate, mica, calcareous fpar, pyrites,
fchiftus, clay, &c. Sometimes it is met with in large
mafles, of the weight of 60 pounds or more, m or near
the veins of moft metallic ores, particularly in Peru and
in various parts of Europe, of a white, brown, or yel-
lowiih colour. In Norway and at Alface it is found m
the form of foHtary cubes and odahedral lumps, of 50
and 60 pounds weight.
2. Native fther alloyed ivitb other metals. I.
gold, as in Norway, where it contains fo much
apoear of a yellow colour. 2. With copper. 3.
ffold and copper. 4. Amalgamated whh mercury, as
in the mines of Salbenr. M. Rome de Lifle men-
tions a native amalgam of hlver and mercury found at
Mufchel Land(herg in the duchy of Deux Fonts, in a
ferruginous matrix", mixed with cinnabar, and cryftalh-
zed in a hexagonal form, and of a large fize. _ It was
before the French revolution preferved in the king's ca-
binet at Paris. J. With iron. According to Bergman,
this ore contains two per cent, of iron; butMongez in-
forms us, that it often does not exceed one per cent.
6. With lead. " Silver (fays Mr Magellan) is always
contained in lead, though the quantity is generally in-
fufficient to defray the expence of feparatmg it. In
the reign of Edward I. of England, however, near 1600
pounds weight of filver were obtained, in the courfe of
three years, from a lead mine in Devonfhire, which had
been difcovered about the year 900. Tht lead mines
in Cardiganfhire have at different periods afforded great
quantities of filver ; fo that Sir Hugh Middleton is faid
to have cleared from them L. 2000 m a month. The fame
mines in the year 1 745 yielded 80 ounces of filver out of
every ton of lead. The lead in only one of the fmelt-
ing houfes at Holywell In Fllntfliire produced no lefs
than 37521 ounces, or 3126! pounds offilver from the,
year 1754 to 1756, and from 1774 to 1776. There
are fome lead ores in England, which, though very poor
in that metal, contain between 300 and 400 ounces of
filver in a ton of lead ; and It is commonly obferved,
that the poorefl. lead ores arc the richeft in lilver ; fo
that a large quantity of filver is probably thrown
away in England by not having the pooreft lort of
lead ores properly effayed." 7. Mr Monnet found fil-
ver united with arfenic among the ores which came
from Guadanal canal in Spain, and an ore of the fame
kind is furniftied by the Samfon mine near Andreaberg
in the Hartz : but Mr Mongez very properly remarks,
that thefe ores muft be diilinguiflied from fuch as have
the arfenIc In the form of an acid ; for in this cale they
are properly mineralized by it, whiltt there can only be
a mixture of native fiWer, or fome of its calces with ar-
fenic In Its reguhne form. 8. Bergman mentions lilver
in a ftate of union with antimony. The ore yidds fome
fmoke when roafted, but has not the garlic fmell obfer-
vable in the arfenlcal ores. 9. The white filver ore,
found in the mines near Freyberg, has the metal united
Voi..X»yiI. Part II.
the three metallic in-
ered^nts" being nearly in equal proportions. All the
extraneous matters with which the filver. is united are
lometime-s in exceedingly fmall proportion, but not to
be negleded where they exceed the hundredth part of
the whole mafs. 10. A particular kind of ftony filver
ores is mentioned by Wallerius under the title of lapis
de^y and which contain the following varieties, viz.
the calcareous filver ore at Annaberg In Auftria, when
the metal is mixed with an alkaline limeftone ; the fpa-
thofc ore, either white, variegated, or yellowifii, found
at Schemnitz in Hungary ; the quattzofe white ore in
a powdery form, mixed with ferrugmous fcoria, found
at Potofi in America; the dark and variegated quartz-
ofe filver ores, with many other fubdivifions diftinguifh-
ed from one another by httle elfe than their colour.
Silver is found mineralized by various fubftances; as,
1. With fulphur in the glaffy or vitreous filver ore i
though this name feems rather to belong to the minera
argenti cornea or horn filver ore, to be afterwards taken
notice of more particularly. It is duftile, and of the
fame colour with lead, but quickly becomes very black
by cxpofure to the air ; though fometimes it is grey or
black even when firft broken. It is found either ia
large lumps, orinheiing in quartz, gypfum, gneifs, py-
rites, &c. Its fpecific gravity, according to Kirwan, is
7,20"o. An hundred parts of it contain from 72 to 77 of
filver, and it is rarely contaminated with any other metal.
Profeffor Brunnich feys that it contains 1 80 merks
of filver in the hundred weight. The medium between
the glafs ore and the red gilder ore is called rofch-gewwths
in Hungary, and brittle glafs ore in Saxony. It is blacky
and affords a powder of the fame colour when pounded*
In the mines of Himmelfurft near Freyberg, it is faid
to have held 140 merks, but thefe pieces are very fcarcc
at prefent ; and indeed the Hungarian glafs ores in ge-
neral are now very fcarce, as Profeffor Brunnich informs
us, though they are now and then found In the wind-
(hafts, which are frequently covered with a thin mem-
brane or rather cruft, of the colour of pyrites. Mr Ma-
gellan fays that this ore is nothing elfe but native filver
penetrated by fulphur ; for, on being expofed to a flow*-
heat, the latter flies off, and the filver {hoots into fila-
ments. There are nine varieties of it. I . Like black lead.
or plumba^go, the moft common kind of any. 2.Bruckmari
mentions a kind broivn on the outfide and greenifh
within. 3. yellow ore has its colour from fome ar-
fenic contained in it, which forms an orpiment with the
fulphur. 4. It is alfo found of z greeni/hy and 5. blut/h co-
lour ; the latter is friable, like the fcoria of metals, and is
called at Freyberg Schla'rekenerz^ or the ore of fcoria.
6- It is found alfo in the drborefcent. 7. Lamellated. S.Cry
Jlaliized into oftaedral or hexaedral prifms, and into ten
pyramids with ten fides. 9. Laftly, it is found fuperjcialf
©r covering the ftones or maffes of other ores.
2. The pyrites argenteus of Henckel contains filver Cronftedtt
and iron mineralized with arfenic. There are three va.r»3'50'
rietles of It. i. Hard, white, and flilning ore, ©fa
coinpad, lamellar, or fibrous texture. The btighteft
kind has leail filver, only giving 6 or 8 ounces per quin-
tal, and the richeft about ten per cent. It is found In
Germany and Spain. It contains no fulphur. 2. Of
a yellowlfh white colour, and ftriated texture refembling
bifmuth, but much harder. It is found In Spain, and
yields about 6© per cent, of filver. 3, In another kind
^ 3 0. the
S I L
silver.
the quantity of arfenic Is fo great, that it would fcarcs
" ly deferve the name of filver ore if the arfenic were not
very eaTily diffipatcd. It is foft and eafily cut ; has a
brilliant metallic appearance, and confifts of c6'nchoidaI
laminas. A quintal contains only from four to fix
ounces of filver, but it is eafily reduced by evaporating
the arfenic, after which the filver is left behind flightly
contaminated with iron.
3. The red or ruby filver ore, the roth-^ulcien of the
Germans, has the metal combined with fulphur and ar-
fenic It is a heavy fhining fubftance, fometimes tranf-
parent, and fometimes opaque ; the colour oenerally
crimlon, though fometimes grey or blackifh. It is
found in Ihapelefs mafles, or cryftallized in pyramids or
polygons, fometimes dendritical or plated, or with ra-
diated incrullations. It is found in quartz, flint, fpar,
pyrites, fparry iron ore, lead ore, cobalt ore, jafper, ba-
ro-felenite, gneifs, &c. When radiated or ftriated, it is
called rothgulden hluth. It cracks in the fire, and deto-
nates with nitre. Its fpecific gravity is from 9,4.00 to
5,684. Ber-oman informs us, that this kind contains,
in the hundred, 60, fometimes 70, pounds of filver, 27
of arfenic, and 1 3 of fulphur. The darkeft coloured
ores are the richeft, the yellow kinds much poorer ; but
the moft yellow do not belon g to this fpecies, being in
fa£l an orpiment with 6 or 7 per cent, of filver. ' I'his
laft kind is brought chiefly from Potofi in Ameiica,
and is called rojucler by the Spaniards.
4. The fchuart-z gulden, or filber muiin, contains the
metal mineralized by fulphur and a fmall quantity of ar-
fenic and iron. It is of a black footy colour, and was
fuppofed by Cronftedt to contain a good quantity ©f
copper, to which its colour was owing ; but later expe
riments have evinced, that there is no copper at all in it.
Kfivan's It is either of a folid or brittle confiftence, and of a
Mtnerulogy. glaffy appearance when broken, or of a loofer textvn-e,
and footy or deep black colour ; or It is found like
mofs, or thin leaves, lying on the furface of other filver
ores, or thofe of lead and cobalt, or in clays, ponderous
fpar, gneifs, &c. It contains from 25 to 60 per cent,
of filver.
5. The m'lnera argenti alba, the We'ijfgulden ore of the
Germans, is a heavy, foft, opaque fubftance, fine grained
or fcaly, bright and fhining in its fraflures, of a whitifh,
fteely, or lead colour ; fometimes cryftallized in pyra-
midical or cylindrical forms, but often in amorphous
grains, or refembling mofs, or in the form of thin la-
minse incruftating other bodies, found in quartz, fpar,
ftelftein, pyrites, blend, lead-ore, cobalt- ore, fparry iron
ore, fluors, &c. It is very fufible. Its fpecific gravity
is from 5 to 5,300. Its proportion of filver from 10
to 30 per cent. It is found, though not commonly, in
Saxony, Hungary, the Hartz, and St Marie aux
Mines.
6. The nvetfertx, or white filver ore, is an arfenical
pyrites, containing filver. It is met with in the Saxon
mines fo exaffly refembling the common arfenical py-
rites, that it cannot be diftlngulfhed from It by infpec-
tlon. Cronftedt fuppofes that the filver it contains may
exift in a capillary form ; but Profeffor Brunnich thinks
this is not altogether the cafe. It is very fearce, but
met with near Freyberg. There is likewlfe a brown
mulm having the appearance of rags, met with in the
crevices and upon the lumps of cubic lead ore in a mine
[ ]
S I L
near Claufthal and other places, which contains a great
quantity of filver. It is of a whltifh fhining colour ;
hard, granulated, and folid, fometimes ftriking fire with
fleel. It difcovers a mixture of arfenic, by emitting a
garlic fmell when heated.
7. The lebercrt% of the Germans has the metal com-
bined with 1 nlphurated antimony. It is of a dark grey
and fomewhat brownifh colour. A variety of a blackifh
blue colour is found in the form of capillary cryftals,
and called federertz or plumofe filver ore. It is met with
in Saxony, and contains fometimes a mark or half a
pound, fometimes only two, three, or four ounces, and
fometimes only a mere trifle of filver, per cent. There
is another filver ore, alfo called leberertz by the Ger-
mans, which contains arfenic and regulus of antimony.
This ore is fometimes alfo found of a dark grey colour;
for the moft part amorphous, but fometimes cryftalli-
zed into pyramids It appears red when fcraped, and
contains from one to five per cent, of filver. The great-
eft part of this ore is copper, and the next arfenic. Ac-
cording to Bergman, the copper amounts to 24 per
cent. It is found in Tranfylvania ; and a kind was
lately difcovered in Spain, of a hard fohd conliftencc,
and of a greylfli blue colour.
8. The goofe dung ores contain filver mineralized with
fulphur in combination with iron, arfealc, and cobalt-
It looks like the ■■weifsgulden, excepting tliat the cobalt,
by its decompofitlon, gives It a rofy appearance. There
are two varieties; one of a dull tarnlflied furface and fer-
ruginous look ; the other has a fhining appearance like
the leberertz. It contains from 10 to 40 or 50 per
cent, of filver. The arfenic is in an acid ftate, and
united to the cobalt.
9. The dal fah!ert% contains filver minerahzed with
fulphurated copper and antimony, and refembles the
dark- coloured nvajjgulden, giving a red powder when
rubbed. It is found either folid or cryftallized, and is
met with In the province of Dal, where it is melted by
a very difficult procefs, calculated to preferve the diffe-
rent metals it contains. There Is another kind which
has arfenic united to the reft of the ingredients. It is
only the grey copper ore impregnated with filver, of
which It contains from one to twelve per cent, the
quantity of copper being from 12 to 24 per cent, and
the remainder confifting either of fulphur or arfenic,
with a little Iron. It is the moft common of all filver
ores ; and M. Monnet remarks, that where copper is
united to arfenic, filver is always to be found. A va-
riety has been found at Schcmnltz, containing a portion
of gold alfo.
10. I'he pecheblende is an ore of zinc containing fil-
ver, and is met with In the Saxon and Hun garian mines
among the rich gold and filver ores. It is either of
a metallic changeable colour or black. Of thefe there
were formerly two varieties, viz. either in the form of
fine fcales or in balls, but the latter is now entirely un-
known. A black blend is found in Bohemia, which is
very heavy, with the furface fomewhat elevated like
fame kinds of haematites, but no filver has yet been cx-
trafted from it
11. The ^^/i?>'^/flnz, potters ore, or galena, contains fil-
ver mineralized with fulphurated lead. It is alfo called
pyritous Jther, and is of a brown colour, yielding but a
very fmall portion of metal. It is met with at Kunf-
6 berg
S I L [ ^
Wer. bef!^ in Norway. When the filver is combined wit
fulphurated lead and antimony, the ore Is called Jiri-
perz. ,
12. The marcafite coatainlng filver has the metal uni-
ted with fulphurated iron. There are great varieties of
this ore holding different proportions of the metal ;
fome produce only half an ounce of filver per cent. A
liver-coloured marcafite Is found at Kunfberg In Nor-
v/ay, containing from three to three ounces and a half
of filver per cent.
i ^. Silver is found mineralised with fulphurated and
arfenical cobalt ; the ftone fometimes containing den-
dr'tles. Thefe kinds keep well in water, but generally
decay in the air, and lofe the filver they contain. It is
found at Morgenltern near Freyberg and Annaberg.
14. I'he butter milk ore contains filver mineralized by
fulphur, with regulus of antimony and barytes. It is
found in the form of thin particles or granular fpar.
Wallerius fays that it is foft like mud, and feels like
butter. He fufpefts it to be produced from other filver
ores wafhed away by running waters. Bomare adds,
that the miners look wpon it as a certain fipn of other
ores in the neighbourhood, tbouii;h fome are perfuaded
that it is only an unripened filver ore, which would foon
become perfei£l.
15. The comhujl'ihk filver ore is a black brittle fub-
ftance, leaving about fix per cent, of filver in its afhes.
Jt Is in faft a perfeft coal in which filver is found.
16. The hornertz, or horn filver ore, in which the fil-
ver is united with the muriatic acid, is the fcarceft of
all the filver ores. It is fometimes found in fnowy cu-
bical cryfi:als, but is met with of many different colours.
Its principal charadleriftic is to change to a violaceous
brownifh colour when expofed to the funbeams, as hap-
pens alfo to the artificial luna cornea. It is frequently
cryftallized in a cubic form, though not always of a
white colour. Sometimes it refembles an earth eafily
fufible without fmoke. There is a black kind, friable,
and eafily reducible to powder ; the othef is in fome
degree malleable, may be cut with a knife, and takes a
fort of polilTi when rubbed. The vitreous filver ore,
which is fometimes mixed with the horn filver. Is fo-
luble in nitrous acid ; and this affords a method of fe-
parating them, the horn filver ore being inloluble In that
nienftruum. When the horn filver is free from iron, it
penerally contains 70 per cent, of filver at leall ; but
tliefe ores moftly contain fome portion of iron, a fmall
part of which is even united to the marine acid. 1'his
.kind of ore was firft analyfed by Mr Woulfe, who dif-
'/. Trrtn/ covered the prefence of the vitriolic acid in it.
^n^' 17. Another kind of horn filver ore is mentioned by
Mr Bergman, in which the metal is mineralized by the
■vitriolic and marine acids, along with fome fulphur. He
doubts, however, whether the mineralization be perfedl
in this cafe, as the fait and fulphur do not admit of any
other than a mechanical union. But fince iron is often
found in thefc ores, a marcafite may thus be fometimes
formed.
18. The Jiher goofe dung ore is of a greenlfh colour,
v.'ith a mixture of yellow and red. Some think it is a
mixture of red filver ore and calx of nickel.
19. The folwceous filver ore. The colour of this ore
is mortdore. Some imagine it to be a native filver ore ;
others that it is a mixture of galena, ochre, and filver.
it is fometimes found in the nwuntain cork, and is fo
C)T 1 STL
light that it will fwim upon water. It contains but Silver,
one ounce of filver per quintal, ' »
Thefe are all the varieties hitherto obferved in which
filver is met with in the earth, though It may perhaps
occur in various other forms. It would be worth while
to examinewhether, in thefe countries where gold and fil-
ver are found In larj»e quantities, the precious metals may
not be contained in fome proportion in the moft com
mon ores, more efpecially when the particles of gold and
filver have not been able to extricate themfelves in fuch
a manner as to lie feparate in fiffures, veins, or hollow
places of the mine, A mineralization of filver with al-
kali Is fald to have been lately met with at Annaberg
in Auftria ; but the account of It as yet can fcarcely be
depended upon. ProFeffor Brunnlch fays, that the fil-
ver contained in the llmeftone at that place appears to
be native when the ftone is polifhed.
The pureft filver is that which is extrafted from lu-
na cornea, and Is the only kind that ought to be truft-
ed in the nice operations of chemiftry. The procefs,
however, is very tedious, and prefents a very unexpe£l-
ed phenomenon, as this metal, though one oF the mofl:
fixed, is neverthelefs volatilized In the operation in fuch
a manner that it exhales throuirh the pores of the cru-
cible ; and fmall globules of filver are afterwards found
in the cover, and even in the fupport of the crucible.
According to Cramer, this lofs may be prevented by
fmearing the crucible with black foap, and mixing with
the luna cornea half Its weight of oil or tallow, which
laft mult alfo be added by little and little during the
operation.
M. Magellan takes notice of a remarkable appearance Cronfe^t'
obfervable in diffolving filver in the nitrous acid. Hep. 537.
obferves, that this acid is its fpecific menttruum, at-
tacking It even when cold with confiderable effervefcence,
growing hot, and emitting a confiderable quantity of
orange-coloured fumes, which <limlnlfiit in proportion as
the faturatlon advances. The metal appears of a pale
brown colour in the conflict:, and the folution becomes
quite black. This laft appearance, however, is owln^
to a thin, black, fuliginous fubftance, like fmut, which ,
is at once Formed into a cruil on the iurface of the thin
plates of filver in the firft attack of the acid upoa
them. This is a very finoular phenomenon, and hither-
to unaccounted for, thefe black crufts being commi-
nuted Into fmaller and fmaller particles by the aftion of
the acid ; and, when the effervefcence is over, they are
feen diftinftly to fall to the bottom of the vt ffel, and to
form a black fedlment, leaving the liquid folution quite
tranfparent, but of a blue colour inclinin'T!^ to green. — •
This colour might be attributed to fome fmall mixture
of copper, though the filver ufed in the experiment was
of the purer kind. The chemifts of Dijon fay, that tlie
nitrous folution of filver looks of a fine blue colour, if
the acid be pure and well concentrated ; but If it has
any mixture -of vitriolic c r marine, a precipitation of
vitriolated filver or luna cornea takes place. A fterwards
the folution becomes as colourlels as water, but gives a
lafting black tln^e to animal fubftances. This folution is
of great ufe in chemiftry, ferving to form the lunar cau-
ftic, to purify the common aquafortis from a mixture
of the vitriolic and marine acids, and is a very nice tefl;
of the exiftence of thefe acids in mineral waters.
Silver does not combine with earths, even by the moft
violent heat, though Mr Fourcroy fuppofes that its calx
3 (>_2 might
S I L
r
$^'W?r, rt\'glit giVf an olive green to glafs. Mi" Magellan In-
forms us, that its calx, prccipitateci by volatile alkali,
gives a yelRnv colour to glafd, and that he has feen it
ttained in this manner fo high as altnoft to appear of a
T-ed colour. It unites with moft metals, even with iron.
The nature of this alloy has been but little inquired in-
to, though Fourcroy is of opinion that it may probably
be of the greateft utility in the arts. It combines in
all proportions with copper, by which it is not depi'ived
of its duftiUty, but renders it harder and more fonorous;
by which means it is often ufed in bells. It is other-
wife highly ufeful, on account of its indeftruftibility by
jfire and air, and its extreme duAility. Its fine colour
renders it extremely proper for ornamental purpofes,
and it is applied like gold on the fnrface of different
bodies, and even on copper. It likewlfe enters the tex-
ture of rich filks ; but its moft confiderable ufe is that
of being employed as money of an inferior value to
gold. In this cafe, it is alloyed with one-twelfth part
of copper. It is likewife often employed in making
houfehold uteufils of all kinds, though its great price
renders it lefs common than it would otherwlfe be for
this purpofe. For plate, it is ufually alloyed with one
twenty- fourth ©f copper, which gives it a greater degree
of hardnefs and coherence, without rendering it in the
leaft noxious.
Silver has alfo been ufed in medicine ; but its extreme
caufticity, when diflblved in the nitrous acid, and its
inaftivity otherwife, have brought it into diiufe. The
cryftals of filver have been recommended in very fmall
quantity in dropfical cafes; but^hey are by no means
fuperior, or even equal in efficacy, to much fafer medi •
eines. The folution of filver, under the name of Greei
water f has been ufed for the pnrpofe of dying hair of a
dark colour ; and the fame folution evaporated to a con-
fiftence, and fufed, forms the lunar cauftic of the fhops.
Shell Silver, is prepared of the fhreds of filver leaf,
or of the leaves themfelves, for the ufe of painters, after
the fame manner as fhell gold. See Shell-GoiD.
SILVERING, the covering of any thing with fil-
ver. It is ufual to filver metals, wood, paper, &c.
which is performed either with fire, oil, or fize. Metal-
gilders filver by the fire ; painter-gilders all the other
ways. See Gilding.
To filver copper or brafs. i. Cleanfe the metal with
aquafortis, by wafhing it lightly, and immediately
throwing it into pure water ; or by heating it red-hot,
and fcouring it with fait and tartar and pure water
with a fmall wire brufii. 2. Difiblve fome filver in
aquafortis, in a broad-bottomed glafs veffel, or of gla-
zed earth ; then evaporate away the aquafortis over a
chaffing difh of coals. 3. Put five or fix times its quan-
tity of water, or as much as will be neceflary to dilfolve
it perfeftly, on the remaining dry calx ; evaporate this
water with the like heat ; then put more frefii water,
and evaporate again ; and, if need be, the third time,
making the fire towards the latter end fo ftrong as to
leave the calx perfcftly dry, which, if your filver is
good, will be of a pure white. 4. Take of this
calx, common fait, cryftal of tartar, of each a like
quantity or bulk, and mixing well the whole compofi-
tion, put the metal into pure water, and take of the faid
powder with your wet fingers, and rub it well on, till
you find every little cavity of the metal fufficiently fil-
vered over. 5. If you would have it richly done, you
^2 ] SIM
muft rub on more of the powder } and in the hift place Silve
wadi the filtered metal in pure water, and rub it hard
with a dry cloth. Si
Su.FEs.isG of Glajfes, See Foliating of Looking-
glajfes.
SILURIS, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to th^
order of pifces abdorainales. The head is naked ; th
mouth let round with hairy filaments; the bronchias have
from 4 to T4 rays ; the ray of the pedloral fins, or the
firft dorfal one, is prickly, and dentated backwards- —
There are 21 fp^cies, moft of them natives of the In-
dian and Amei^kan ftas. Mr Haffelquift mentions one
caUffld clarias by Linnaeus,, and fcheilan by the Ara-
bians. If it pricks one with the bone of the breaft-fin,
it is dangerous ; and our author faw the cook of a Swe-
difh merchant (hip die of the poifon communicated by
the prick of one of thefe fifli. See Electricitv,
n'^261.
SIMEON </Z)i/R HAM, the cotemporary of William
of Malmfbury, took great pains in collediing the mo-
numents of our hiftory, efpecially in the north of Eng.
land, after they had been fcattered by the Danes. From
thefe he compofcd a hiftory of the kings of England,
from A. D. 616 to 1 130; with fome finaller hiftori-
cal pieces. Simeon both ftudied and taught the fciences,.
and particularly the mathematics at Oxford ; and be-
came precei^tor of the church at Durham, where he
died, probably foon after the conclufion of his hiftory,
which was continued by John, prior of Hexham, to
A. D. 1 156.
SIMIA, the MoN KEY, a genus of quadriipeds be-
longing to the clafs of mammalia, and order of primates,
in the Linnasan fyftem, but by Mr Pennant arranged
under the digitated quadrupeds. According to the
Linnasan fyftem, the charafteriftics of this genus are
thefe : There are four clofe fet fore-teeth on each jaw ;
fingle tulles on each fide in both jaws, which are longer
thair the reft, and fomewhat remote from thera. I'he
grindei-s are obtufe, and the feet are formed like hands. *
Mr Pennant gives the following generic defcription of
the fimia. 'i'here are four cutting teeth in each jaw,
and two canine. Each of the feet are formed like
hands, generally with flat nails, and, except in one in*-
liance, have four fingers and a thumb. There are eye-
brows both above and below.
They are a numerous race ; but almoft all cenfincd
to the torrid zone. They fill the woods of Africa
fi-om Senegal to the Cape, and from thence to jEthio-
pia. They are found in all parts of India, and its
ifiands ; in Cochin-China, in the fouth of China, and
in Japan ; (and one is^'met with in Arabia) ; and they
fwar-m in the forefts of South America, from the ifth-
mus of Dai'ien as far as Paraguay. They are lively,
agile, full of frolic, chatter, and grimace. From the
ftrufture ot their members, they have many ailions in
common with the human kind. Moft of them are fierce
and untameable ; fome are of a milder nature, and will
fliow a degree of attachment ; but in general they are
endowed with mifchievous intelleCls ; and are filthy, ob-
fcene, lafcivious, and thieving. They inhabit the wooded,
and live on trees ; feeding on fruits, leaves, and infefts.
In general, they are gregarious, going in vaft compa-
nies ; but the different fpecies never mix with each
other, always keeping japart and in diffei-ent quarters.
They leap with vaft adivity from tree to tree, even
wh«n
S I M
[ 493 ]
S I M
m of
XVII
I.
wlien loaded with their young, which cling to them.
They are the prey of leopards and others of the feline
race ; and of ferpents, which purfue them to the fum-
inits of the trees, and fwallow them entire. I'hey are
not carnivorous, but for mifchief's fake will rob the neils
of birds of the eggs and young. In t!ie countries where
they moft abound, the fagacity of the feathered tribe
ia more marveloufly fhown in their contrivances to fix
the neft. beyond the reach ot thele invaders.
The funis bein_:{ more numerous in their fpecies than
any other animals, and differing greatly in their ap-
pearances, it feemed neceiTary to methodize and fubdi-
▼ide the genus. Accordingly Mr Ray lirll diftributed
them into three claffes.
Sirniie, Apes, fuch as wanted tails.
Cercopitheci, Monkeys, fuch as had tails.
Papimes, Baboons, thofe with fhort tails ; to diftin-
jTuife them from the common monkeys, which have very
long ones.
The principal marks by which the fpecies of this ge-
nus are dirlinguifhable from each other, are derived,
I ft, from the tail, which is either long, fhort, or alto-
gether wanting, or is ftraight, or prchenfile ; 2dly,
fi-om the buttocks, which are naked, and fnrnilhed with
callofities, or are covered with hair ; 3dly, from the
nails, which are flat and rounded like thoie of man.} or
lharp pointed hke the claws of beafts in general ;
4thly, from the prefence or abfence of a beard on the
chin ; and, jthly, from the cheeks being provided with,
or wanting, pouches in their under parts. For greater
convenience, the fpecies of this genus, which are very
numerous, are arranged under five fubordinate divifions,
conlidered as diftinft genera by fome authors, and not
without reafon. Three of thefe fubdivlfions were adopt-
ed by Linnseus ; but Dr Grnehn, following BufFon, has
added other two taken from the third divifion of his
great precurfor. Thefe fubdivilions are the Jlm'ia, pa-
piones, cercopithectt fapajly and fagoin'i.
I. The Si Ml a;, or Apes. They have no tails. The
vifage is flat ; the teeth, hands, fingers, feet, toes, and
nails, refemble thofe of man, and they walk naturally
ereft. This divifion includes the fimiae, or apes prx)-
perly fo called, which are not found in America.
1. The chimpanzee, the fimia troglodytes of Tin-
njEus, common in the mountains of Sierra Leona, re-
fembles man more than the orang-outang. This animal
was firfl: brought to Europe in 1738, when it was ex-
hibited as a fnow in I>ondon. T^re following defcrip-
tion of one that was kept fome months at the colony
of Sierra Leona is given by Wadftrom, in his Eflay
on Colonization f . He was nearly two feet high ; btit
the full ftature is nearly five feet. He was covered
wath black hair, long and thick on the back, but fhort
and thin on the bi-eait and belly. His face was bare ;
his hands and his head refembled thole of an old black
man, except that the hair on his head was ftralght. He
ate, drank, ilept, and fat at table, hke a human being.
At firft he crept on all fours, on the outfide of his
hands ; but, when grown larger, he endeavoured to go
ei-eft, fupporting himftlf by a ftick. He was melan-
choly, but always good naturcd.
2. The fatyrus, orang-outang, or great ape, has a
• flat face, and a deformed refemblance of the human ;
ears hke thofe of a man ; the hair on the head
longer than on the body. The body and limbs are
covered with reddifii and fhaggy hair ; longed on the Sim'a. -
back, thinned on the fore -parts. The face and paws — — v— ^
are fwarlhy ; the buttocks covered with hair. "^Chey
Inhabit the interior parts of Africa, the ifles of Suma-
tra, Borneo, and Java. Are folitary, and live in the
moll defert places. They grow to the height of fix
feet ; have prodigious llrength, and will overpower the
ftrongeft man. The old ones are fhot with arrows,
the young alone can be taken alive. They live entirely
on fruits and nuts. They will attack and kill the ne-
groes who wander in the woods ; will drive away the
elcpliants, and beat them with their fills or pieces of
wood ; and will throw ftones at people that oftend
them. They fieep in trees ; and make a fort of flielter
from the inclemency of the weather. They are of a -
g'rave appearance and melaiicholy difpofition, and even
when young not inclined to frolic. They go ere£l, and
are vaftly fvvift and agile. Thefe accounts are chiefly
taken from Andrew Battel, an Enghlh failor, who was
taken prifoner 1589, and hved many years in the inner
parts of Congo ; his narrative is plain, and feems very
authentic. It is preferved in Purchas's colleftion.
Froger * informs us, " that thofe along the banks of§ Defcnpt,
the river Ganges are larger and more mifchievous than Hifiorique
in any part of Africa: the negroes dread them, zxi^'^" ^'^y""^^
cannot travel alone in the country without running the'''* Macacatj
hazard of being attacked by thefe animals, who often
prcfent them with a ilick, and force them to fight. I
have heard the Portuguefe fay, that tliey have often
feen them hoift up young girls, about feven or eight
years old, into trees, and that they could not be wreft-
ed from them without a great deal of difficulty. The
moft part of the negroes imagine them to be a foreign
nation come to inhabit their country, and that they do
not fpeak for fear of being compelled to work." When
taken young, they are capable of being tamed, and
taught to perform many menial offices. Francis Pyrard f f Voyages d
relates, " that in the province of Sierra Leona, there is •^'"^'"^
a fpecies fo ftrong limbed, and fo induftrious, that, ^^-'j^'^'^j'^'
when properly trained and fed, they work hke fervants;p^
that they generally walk on the two hind feet ; that they
pound aay fubftances in a mortar ; that they jjo to
bring water from the river in (mall pitchers, which they
carry full on their heads. But when they arrive at the
door, if the pitchers are not foon taken off, they allow
them to fall ; and when they perceive the pitchers over-
turned and broken, they weep and lament." Father
Jarric «[, quoted by Nieremberg, fays the fame thing, ^ g^^.
nearly in the lame terms. With regard to the educa- A'z>rfw(5frg--
tlon of thefe animals, the teftimony of Shoutten f ac- HiJL Nat.
cords with that of Pytard. " They are taken (he rf^/''^S'''"' t
marks) with fnares, taught to walk on their hind feet,
and to ufe their fore feet as hands in pertorming diffe- § Foyagis
rent operations, as rinfing glaffes, carrying drink round ~de Guat.
the company, turning a fpit, &c." " I faw at Java
(fays Guat J) a very extraordinary ape. It was a fe- '^""^^^"^^
male. She was very tall, and often w?.lked ere£l on her ^ i'oy„ne ds
hind feet. On thefe occafions, fhe concealed with herZ-V. U Guat,
hands the parts which diilinguifh the fex. Except the^om. \u
eye-brows, there was no hair on her face, which pretty^
much refembled the grotefque female faces I faw among
the Hottentots at the Cape. She made her bed very
neatly every day, lay upon her fide, and covered herlelt
with the bed cloaths. When her head ached, ihe bounil
it up with a handkerchief ; and it was amulhig to fe.';
5 ■
Svmia.
SIM [
her thug hooded in bed. I could relate many other lic-
tle articles which appeared to me extremely lingular.
But I admired them not fo much as the multitude ; be-
caufe, as I knew the defign of brinssing her to Europe
to be exhibited as a fhow, I was inclined to think that
fhe had been taught many of thefe monkey tricks, which
the people confidered as being na.ti>ral to the animal. —
She died in our {hip, about the latitude of the Cape of
Good Hope. The figure of this ape had a very great
refemblance to that of man. Sec." Gmelli Carreri tells
us, that he faw one of thefe apes, which cried like an
JS'at. Hid
lay Sme£lie,
"Vol. viii.
|). 86.
infant, walked upon its hind'feet, and carried a matt
under its arm to lie down and fleep upon.
An orang-outanti which BufFon faw, is defcribed by
him as mild, affeftionate, and good-natured. His air
was melancholy, his gait grave, his movements meafured,
his difpofitlons gentle, and very different from thofe of
other apes. He had neither the impatience of the Bar-
bary ape, the malicioufnefs of the baboon, nor the ex-
travagance of the monkeys. " It may be alleged,
(fays our author), that he had the benefit of Infhruc-
tion ; biit the other apes which I fliall compare with
him, were educated in the fame manner. Signs
and words were alone fufiicient to make our orang-ou-
tang aft ; but the baboon required a cudgel, and
the other apes a whip ; for none of them would obey
without blows. I have feen this animal prefent his
hand to conduft the people who came to vifit him, and
walk as jjravely along with them as if he had form-
ed a part of the company. I have feen him fit down
at table, unfold his towel, wipe his lips, ufe a fpoon or
a fork to carry the viftuals to his mouth, pour his li-
quor into a glafs, and make it touch that of the perfon
who drank along with him. When invited to take tea,
he brought a cup and a faucer, placed them on the
table, put in fugar, poured out the tea, and allowed it
to cool before he drank it. All thefe aftions he per-
formed without any other inlligation than the figns or
verbal orders of- his mafter, and often of his own ac-
cord. He did no injury to any perfon : he evtn ap-
proached company with circ>imfpe£lion, and prefented
himfelf as if he wanted to be careffed. He was very
fond of dainties, which every body gave him : And as
liis breafl was difeafed, and he was afflifted with a tea-
zing cough, this quantity of fweetmeats undoubtedly
contributed to fhorten his life. He lived one fummer
in Paris, and died in London the following winter. He
cat almoft every thing ; but preferred ripe and dried
fruits to all other kinds of food. He drank a little
wine ; but fpontaneoufly left it for milk, tea, or other
mild liquors." This was only two feet four inches
high, and was a young one. There is great poffibihty
that thefe animals may vary in fize and in colour, fome
being covered with black, others with reddifh hairs. —
They are not the fat^ns of the ancients ; which had
tails (a), and were a Ipecies of monkey. Linnaeus's
] SIM
homo noSurnuf, an animal of this kind, Is unnecefiarily
feparated from his Jtmifj fatynis.
To enable the reader to form a judgment of this
animal, which has fo great a refemblance to man, it
m?.y not be unacceptable to quote from BufFon the dif-
ferences and conformities which make him approach or
recede from the human fpecies. " He differs irom rd.
man externally by the flatnefs of his nofe, by the fhort-
nefs of his front,^ and by his chin, which is not elevated
at the bafe. His ears are proportionally too large, his
eyes too near each other, and the diRance between
his nofe and mouth is too great. Thefe are the only
differences between the face of an orang-outang and
that of a man. With regard to the body and mem-
bers, the thighs are proportionally too fliort, the arms
too long, the fingers too fmall, the palm of the hands
too long and narrow, and the feet rather refemble hands
thgn the human foot. The male organs of generation
differ not from thofe of man, except that the prepuce
has no fraenum. The female organs are extremely limi-
lar to thofe of a woman.
" The orang-outang differs internally from the hu-
man fpecies in the number of ribs : man has only i 2,
but the orang-outang has 13. The vertebra of the
neck are alfo fhorter, the bones of the pelvis narrow,
the buttocks flatter, and the orbits of the eyes funk
deeper. He has no fpinal procefs on the firfl vertebra
of the neck. The kidneys are rounder than thofe of
man, and the ureters have a different figure, as well as
the bladder and gall bladder, which arc narrower and
longer than in the human fpecies. All the other parts
of the body, head, and members, both external and in-
ternal, fo perfeaiy refemble thofe of man, that we can-
not make the comparifon without being aftonifhed that
fuch a fimilarity in ftrufture and organization fliould
not produce the fame eA'cfts. The tongue, and all the
organs of fpeech, for example, are the fame as in man ;
and yet the orang-outang enjoys not the faculty of
fpeaking ; the brain has the fame figure and propor-
tions ; and yet he pofTefTes not the power of thinking.
Can there be a more evident proof than is exhibited in
the orang-outang, that matter alone, though per.feftly
organized, can produce neither language nor thought,
unlefs it be animated by a fuperior principle ? Man and
the orang-outang are the only animals who have but-
tocks and the calf of the legs, and who, of courfe, are
formed for walking ereft ; the only animals who have
a broad cheft, flat fhoulders, and vertebra of the fame
ftruAure ; and the only animals whofe brain, heart,
lungs,_ liver, fpleen, fliomach, and inteflines, are perftft-
ly Similar, and who have an appendix vermiformis, or
bHnd-gut. In fine, the orang-outang has a greater re-
femblance to man than even to the baboons or monkeys,
not only in all the parts we have mentioned, but in the
largenefs of the face, the figure of the cranium, of the
jaws, of the teeth, and of the other benes of the head
and
21. Pliny fays they have teeth like dogs, lib. vii. c. 2. clrcumfl;ance8
7. c. 2. fpeaks of certain iflai.ds in the Indian ocean inhabited by
(a) ^lian gives them tails, lib. xvi. c.
common to many monkeys. Ptolemy, lib.
people with tails like thofe with which fatyrs are painted, whence called the ijles ofjatyrs. Keeping, a Swede,
pretended to have difcovered thefe homines caudati ; that they would have trafficked with him, offering him live
parrots ; that afterwards they killed fome of the crew that went on fhore, and eat them, &c. &c. Amm. Acad.
yi. 71.
SIM [4
and face ; in the thicknefs of the fingers and thumb, the
figure of the nails, and the number of vertebrae ; and,
laftly, in the conformity of the articulations, the mag-
nitude and figure of the rotula, fternum, &c. Hence,
as there is a greater fimilarity between this animal and
man, than between thofe creatures which refemble him
moft, as the Barbary ape, the baboon, and monkey,
who have all been defigned by the general name of apes,
the Indians are to be excufed for affociatlng him with
the human fpecies, under the denomination of orang-
outang, or iv'ild man. In fine, if there were a fcale by
which we could defcend from human nature to that of
the brutes, and if the cfTence of this nature confifted
entirely in the ]orm of the body, and depended on its
organization, the orang-outang would approach nearer
to man than any other animal. Placed in the fecond
rank of beings, he would make the other animals feel
his fuperlority, and oblige them to obey him. If the
principle of imitation, by which he feems to mimic hu-
man aftions, were a refult of thought, this ape would
be ftill farther removed from the brutes, and have a great-
er affinity to man. But the interval which feparates
them is immenfe. Mind, reflection, and language, de-
pend not on figure or the onj;anization of the body.
Thefe are endowments peculiar to man. The orang-
outang, thou-7h, as we have feen, he has a body, mem-
bers, fenfes, a brain, and a tongue, perfectly fimilar to
thofe of- man, neither fpeaks nor thinks. Though he
counterfeits every human movem.ent, he performs no
aftion that is charafteriftic of man, no aftion that has
the fame principle or the fame defign. With regard to
imitation, which appears to be the moft fl;rikin'r cha-
rafler of the ape kind, and which the vulgar have at-
tributed to him as a peculiar talent, before we decide,
it is neceffary to inquire whether this imitation be fpon-
taneous or forced. Does the ape imitate us From incli-
nation, orbecaufe, without any exertion of the will, he
feels the capacity of doing it? I appeal to all thofe who
liave examined this animal without prejudice ; and I am
convinced that they will agree with me, that there is
nothing voluntary in this imitation. The ape, having
arms and hands, ufes them as we do, but without think-
ing of us. 'i'he fimilarity of his members and organs
neccffarily produces movements, and fometimes fuccef-
fions of movements, which refemble ours. Being en-
dowed with the human ftrudure, the ape rauft move
like man ; but the fame motions imply not that he afts
from imitation. Two bodies which receive the fame
impulfe, two fimilar pendulums or machines, will move
in the fame manner ; but thefe bodies or machines can
never be faid to imitate each other in their motions.
The ape and the human body are two machines fimilar-
iy conftrufted, and necefiarily move nearly in the fame
manner ; but paflty is not imitation. T he one depends
on matter, and the other on mind. Imitation prefup-
pofes the defign of imitating. The ape is incapable of
forming this defion, which requires a train of thinkin,g ;
confequently man, if he inclines, can imitate the ape ;
but the ape cannot even incline to imitate man."
3. Pongo, or Jocko, f re confidered as one fpecies by
Pennant and Gmelin. It inhabits the ifland of Java,
and the interior parts of Guinea. Has no pouches
within his cheeks, no tail, and no callofities on the but-
tocks ; which laft are plump and flefhy. All the teeth
are fimilar to thofe of man. The face is flat, naked,
and tawny j the ears, hands, feet, breaft, and belly, are
55 ] SIM
likewife naked ; the hair of the head defcends on both Simfai
temples in the form of trefies ; the hair on the back and » '"*
loins is in fmall quantities. It is five or fix feet high,
and walks always ereft on the two hind feet. It has not
been afcertained whether the females, of this fpecies or
variety, are fubjeil to periodical difcharges; but analogy
renders this almoft unqueftionable. This animal is, by X)r
Gmelin, con'^dered only as a variety of the orangotitang.
4. The great gibbon, long-armed aoe, or fimia lar, Fig. 3*
with a flat fwarthy face furrounded with grey hairs :
hair on the body black and rough ; buttocks bare ;
nails on the hands flat ; on the feet long ; arms of a
moft difproDortioned lenoth, reaching quite to the
ground when the animal is ereft, its natural pofture ;
of a hideous deformity. — Inhabits India, Malacca, and
the Molucca ifles ; a ;'^'-d and gentle animal ; grows to
the height of four feet. . The great black ape of Mangfi,
a province in China, feems to be of this kind.
5. The lelTer gibbon, or fimia lar minor, but is much Fig. 4* !
lefs, being only about a foot and a half his^h ; the body
and face are of a brown colour, refembks the former. The
fimia lat argentea is probably a variety of this fpecies.
6. The pigmy, or fimia filvanus, has no tail; ttieFig. 5.
buttocks are naked ; the head roundifli, and the arms
fhorter than the body. It inhabits Africa ; and is not un-
common in our exhibitions of animals ; is veiy traftable
and good-natured, and was moft probably the pigmy of
the ancients. It abounds in ^Ethiopia, one feat of that
imaginary nation ; was believed to dwell near the foun-
tains of the Nile, whence it defcended annually to make
war on the cranes, i. e. to fteal their eggs, which the
birds may be fuppofed naturally to defend ; whence the
fidlion of their combats.
7. The magot, fimia inuus, or Barbary ape, has a pig. 6'.
loEg face, not unlike that of a dog ; canine teeth, long and 7*
and ftrong ; ears like the human ; nails flat; buttocks
bare; colour of the upper part of the body a dirty greenifh
brown ; belly, of a dull pale yellow ; grows to above
the length of four feet. — They inhabit many parts of
India, Arabia, and all parts of Africa except Egypt,
where none of this genus are found. A few are found
on the hill of Gibraltar, which breed there ; probably
from a pair that had efcaoed from the town ; as they
are not found in any other part of Spain. — I'hey are
very ill-natured, mifchievous, and fierce ; agreeing with
the character of the ancient Cynocephali. They are a
very common kind in exhibitions. By force •)f difcipline
they are made to play forae tricks ; otherwifc they are
more dull and fullen than the reft of this genus. I'hey
affemblc in great troops in the open fields In India, and
will attack women going to market, and take their pro-
vifions from them, 'i'he females carry the young in.
their aims, and will lenp from tree to tree with them.
Apes were worfi^ipped in India, and had magnificent
temples erefted to them. When the Portuguefe plun-
dered one in' Ceylon, they found in a little golden caf-
ket the tooth of an ape ; a relic held by the natives in
fuch veneration, that they offered 700,000 ducats to.
redeem it, but in vain ; for it was burnt by the viceroy,
to flop the progrefs of idolatry.
II. Papiones, or Baboons. Thefe have fliort tails, a
long face ; a broad high muzzle; longifli dog-like tufks,,
or canine teeth ; and naked callofities on the buttocks.
They are only found in the old world, and are the pa-
piones and Kuvo>(??.a/a of the ancIcnts. riiter-
8. The maimon, fimia papio nemeftrina, or pig-tailed cccclxvut.-
baboon^ % ^'
S I M
[ 4r/ 1
S I M
'^jjadrupeJs
vol. i.
■ r-'mia. baboon, with a pointed face, whicK is naked, of a fvvar-
^"'•—V'^ thy rednefs ; two (harp canine teeth ; ears like the hu-
man ; hair on the limbs and body brown inclining to
afli-colour, paleil on the belly ; fingers black ; nails lontj
and flat ; thumbs on the hiiid-feet very long, connefted
to the neareft toe by abroad membrane; tail four inches
long, flendcr, exaAly like a pig's, and almoft naked ;
the bare fpaces on the rump red, and but fmall : length,
from head to tail, 22 inches. Inhabits the ifles of Su-
matra and Japan ; is very docile. In Japan it ia taught
fevieral tricks, and carried about the country by moun-
tebanks. Kempfer was informed by one of thefe peo-
ple, that the baboon he had was 1 02 years old.
^'g- 9- g. The great baboon, or fimia papio fphinx, with
hazel irides ; ears fmall and naked ; face canine, and
very thick ; middle of the face -and fore head naked ;
and of a bright vermilion colour ; tip of the nofc of
the fame, and ending truncated like that of a hog; fides
of the note broadly ribbed, and of a fine violet hue ; the
opening of the mouth very fmall ; cheeks, throat, and
goat-like beard yellow ; hair on the fore-head very long,
turns back, is black, and forms a kind of pointed creft.
Head, arms, and legs, covered with ihort hair, yellow
•and black intermixed ; the breaft with long whitilh yel-
low hairs, the fhoulders with long brown hair. Nails
flat ; feet and hands black ; tail four inches long, and
very hairy ; buttocks bare, red, and filthy ; but the
fpace about them is of a moft elegant purple colour,
which reaches to theinfide of the upper partof the thighs.
This was defcfibed by Mr Pennant from a fluffed
'fpecimen in Sir Aihton Lever's mufeum. In Auguil
1779, a live animal of this fpecics was fhown at Edin-
burgh, and in October following at Chefter, where be-
ing feen by Mr Pennant, that inquifitive naturalifl has
defcribed it in his Hiflory of Quadrupeds. " It dlflPer-
■ ed little (he obferves) in colour from the above, being
in general much darker. Eyes much funk in the head,
and fmall. On the internal fide of each ear was a white
line, pointing upwards. The hair on the fore- head
turned up a like a toupee. Feet black t in other le-
fpefts refembled the former. In this I liad an oppor-
utunity of examining the teeth. The cutting teeth were
like thofe of the reft of the genus ; but, in the upper
and lower jaw, were two canine, or rather tufks, near
three inches long, and exceedingly (harp and pointed.
This animal was five feet high, of a mofl tremendous
ftrength in all its parts ; was excefTively fierce, libidi-
nous, and ftrong."
Mr Schreber fays, that this fpecies lives on fucculent
fruits, and on nuts ; is very fond of eggs, and will put
eight at once into its pouches, and, taking them out
one by one, break them at the end, and fwallow the
yolk and white ; rejefts all flefli-meat, unlefs it be dref-
fed ; would drink quantities of wine or brandy ; was
lefs agile than other baboons ; very cleanly; for it would
immediately fling its excrements out of its hut. That
which was fhown at Chefter was particularly fond of
cheefe. Its voice was a kind of roar, not uahke that of
a lion, but low and fomewhat inward. It went upon
all fours, and never flood on its hind legs, unlefs forced
by the keeper ; but would frequently fit on its rump in
a crouching manner, and drop its arms before the belly.
Inhabits the hotter parts of Africa.
JFig. 10. 10. The httle baboon, or fimia papio apedia, has a
roundlfh head, with a proje<iling muzzle, and roundifli
naked ear« ; the hair on the body is yellow, tipt with s;
black ; the face i$ browUi and almoft naked, having on-
ly a few {battered hairs ; the nails are all comprefled and
oblong, except oh the thumbs and gf'eat toes, the naila
of fwhich refemble man ; the tail is very fhort, bem^c^
hardly an inch long ; the body is about the fize of a
cat. It is uncertain, fays Gmelin, if this animal fliould
be confidered as a diftinft fpecies, or only as a variety
of the fimia fclurea.
1 1 . I'he mantegar, or fimia papio mermon, common- F'g-
ly called the tufted ape, but it is improperly named an
ape, as it has a tall. It is defcribed in the abridgment ot
the Philofophical Tranfaftions, n9 290. It had a nofe
and head 14 inches in length ; the nofe of a deep red,
face blue, both naked ; black eye-brows ; ears like the
human ; on the top of the head a long upright tuft of
hair ; on the chin another ; two long tuflcs in the upppr
jaw ; fore feet cxadlly refembling hands, and the nails
on the fingers flat ; tlie fore-part of the body, and the
infide of the legs and arms, naked ; the outfide covered
with mottled brown and olive hair. Length, from the
nofc to the rump, three feet two i;iches. It was very
fierce and falacious ; went on all fours, but would fit
up on its rwmp, and fupport itfelf with a ftick ; in this
attitude, it would hold a cup in its hand, and drink out
of it. Its food was fruits.
I 2. The mandril, fimia papio maimon, er ribbed nofc^'?'
baboon, has a fhort tail, and a thin beard on the chin
the cheeks arc blue and ftriped, and the buttocks are
naked. This fpecics of baboon is found on the Gold
Coafl, and in the other fouthern provinces of Africa,
where he is called boggo by the negrees, and mandril
by the Europeans. Next to the orang-outang, he is
the largeft of all the apes or baboons. Smith relates,
that he had a prefent of a female mandril, which was
only fix months old, aed that it was as large as an adult
baboon. He adds, that thefe mandrils walk always on
two feet ; that they weep and groan like men ; that
they have a violent pafTion for women, which they ne-
ver fall to gratify when they find a woman at a diflance
froiM relief. We have given figures both of the male
and female, which may be eafily diflinguifhed by their
fize and appearance.
13. The wood-baboon, or fimia papio fjdvatica, with
a long dog-like face, covered with a fmall gloffy black
flcin ; hands and feet naked, and black like the face ;
hair on all parts long, elegantly mottled with black and
tawny ; nails white : about three feet high when ereft;
tail not three inches, and very hairy on the upper top.
Inhabits Guinea, where it is called by the EngUfh the
man of the wood.
14. The brown baboon, or fimia papio platypygos,
with pointed ears; face of a dirty white ; nofe large and
broad; hairs round the face fhort and ftraight; colour of
the upper part of the body brown ; of the under, afh-
colour : tail about four inches long ; t.i.per, and almoft
bare of hair ; beneath is quite naked. The animal
which Mr Pennant called the netu baboon, in the firft
edition, feems by the tapernef»of the tail, and general
form, to be of this kind.
I 5. The hoggiili baboon, or fimia papio porcaria, has
a fhort tail, and coloured buttocks ; the head is like
that of a hog, with a naked fnout ; the body is of an
olive brown colour ; the nails are fharp and compreffe*!.
Inhabits Africa, and is about three feet and a half high
wheft
SIM . t 4
a. when {landing eveft. This, in ail probability, is the
fame animal with the hog-Faced ape, adopted from
Pennant.
III. MokkeysjCfrcopitheci, have long tails,'which
are not prehenOle ; the under parts of their cheeks are
furnifhed with pouches, in which they can keep their
viftuals ; the partition between the nortrils is thin, and
the apertures are, like thofe of man, placed in the un-
der part of the nofe : the buttocks are naked, and pro-
vided with callofities. Thefe animals, which are never
found native in America, are the cercopitheci, and k.u,S9<^
of the ancients.
1 6. TheTartarin, dog faced baboon of Pennant, and
cercoptthecus hamadryas of GmeHn, with a long, thick,
and ftrong nofe, covered with a fmooth red fl-cin ; ears
pointed, and hid in the hair ; head great, and flat ; hair
on the head, and fore part of the body as far as the
waift, very lomr and {hag ry ; grey and olive-brinded ;
the fides of the head very full, the hair on the limbs and
hind part of the body very fhort ; limbs ftrong and
thick ; hands and feet duflcy ; the nails on the fore-feet
flat ; thofe on the hind hke a doo's ; buttocks very
bare, and covered with a fl<;in of a bloody colour ; tail
fcarce the length of the body, and carried generally
crcft. They inhabit the hotteft parts of Africa and
Afia ; where they keep in vaft troops, and ?.re very
fierce and dangerous. They rob gardens. 'I'hey will
run up trees when paffengers go by, fhake the boughs
at them with great fury, and chatter very loud. They
are excelTiveJy impudent, indecent, lafcivious ; moft de-
teftable animals in their manners as well as appearance.
They range the woods In hundreds ; which obliges the
owners of the coffee-plantations to be continually on
their guard aoainft their depredations. One of them
was fliown in London fome years ago : it came from
Mokha, in the province of Yeman, in Arabia Felix in
the Perfian gulph ; and was above five feet h^gh. It
was very fierce and untameable ; fo ftrong as eafily to
mailer its keeper, a ftout young man. Its inclinations
to women appeared in the moft violent manner. A
footman, who brought a girl to fee it, in order to teaze
the animal, kilTed and hugged her : the beaft, enraged
at being fo tantahzed, caught hold of a quart pewter-
pet, which he threw with fuch force and fo fure an aim,
that, had not the man's hat and wig foftened the blow,
his HcuU muft have been fraftured : but he fortunately
efcaped with a common broken head.
i6. 17. The white-bearded black wanderu, the fimia fi-
lenus ®f Linnaeus, the ouanderou of Buffon, and lion-
tailed baboon of Pennant, the cercopithecus filenus al-
bibarbatus of Gmelin, has a dog-like face, is naked, and
of a duflcy colour ; a very large and full white or hoary
beard ; large canine teeth ; body covered with black
hair ; belly of a light colour ; tail terminated with a
tuft of hair like that of a lion. Its bulk that of a mid-
dling fized dog. It inhabits the Eaft Indies and the
hotter parts of Africa.
i8. The purple-faced rilonkey, or cercopithecus file-
nus purpuratus, with a great triangular white beard,
iliort and pointed at the bottom, and on each fide of
the ears, extending a winged fafhion far beyond them ;
face and hands purple, body black. Inhabit Ceylon.
They are very harmlefs ; live in the woods, and Teed
on leaves and buds ©f trees ; and when taken foon be-
•come tame.
Vol. XVn. Part IL
17 ] SIM
19. Malbrouk, or cercopithecus faunus, has a Tong Si-nk,
tail, and is bearded ; the tail Is bufhy at the extremity. ^— — v-~"
It is a native of Bengal. This fpecles has cheek-
pouches, and callofities on the buttocks ; the tail is
nearly as long as the body and head ; and it is a mif-
take of Clufius that it terminates in a tuft ; the face is
of a cinereous grey colour, with a large muzzle, and
large eyes, which have flefti-coloured eyelids, and a
grey band crofs the forehead in the place of eye-brows;
the ears are large, thin, and flefti-coloured ; the upper
parts of the body are of a uniform yellowifh brown co-
lour, and the lower of a yellowifti grey : It walks on all
fours, and is about a foot and a half from the muzzle
to the extremity of the tail. The females menftruate.
20. Macaque, or cercopithecus cynomologus, the Fig. 17,
hare-lipped monkey of Pennant, has no beard ; the no-
ftrlls are thick and divided ; the tail is long and arched,
and the buttocks are naked. He has cheek-pouches and
callofities on the buttocks. His tail is from 1 8 to 10
inches long. His head is large, his muzzle very thick,
and his face naked, livid, and wrinkled. His ears are
covered with hair. His body is fhort and fquc«t, and
his limbs thick and fhort. The hair on the fuperlor
parts oF his body is of a p;reenifh afh-colour, and of a
yellowifh grey on the breaft and belly. He has a fmall
creft of hair on the top of the head. He walks on four
and fometlmes on two feet. The length of his body,
comprehending that of the head, is about 18 or 20
inches.
21. The dog-headed monkey, or cercopithecus cyno- ^^S-
ccphalus, has no beard, and is of a yellow colour ; the
muzzle is long ; the tail long and ftralght, and the but-
tocks naked. It is a native of Africa.
22. The fpotted monkey, or cercopithecus Diana,
with a long white beard : colour of the upper parts ©f
the body reddifh, as if tliey had been finged, marked
with white fpccks ; the belly and chin whitifli ; tail
very long ; is a fpecles of a middle fize. It inhabits Gui-
nea and Congo, according to Marcgrave ; the Congefe
call it exquima. M. de Buffon denies it to be of that
country ; but from the circumftance of the curl in its
tail, in Marcgrave's figure, and the defcription of fome
voyagers, he fuppofes it to be a native of South Ame-
rica. Linnasus defcribes his S. Diana fomewhat diffe-
rently : he fays it is or the fize of a large cat ; black,
fpotted with white ; hind part of the back ferruginous;
face black ; from the top of the nofe Is a white hne
pafTing over each eye to the ears, in an arched form j
beard pointed, black above, while beneath, placed on a
fattifh excrefcence ; breaft and throat white ; from the
rump, crofs the thighs, a white line ; tail long, ftraight,
and black ; ears and feet of the fame colour ; canine
teeth, large.
23. The green monkey, or cercopithecus faboeus, has V'g, if,
a black and flattlfh face : the fide of it bounded by long
white hairs, falling backwards, and almoft covering the
ears, which are black, and like the human : head, limbsj
and whole upper part of the body and tail covered with
foft hair, of a yellowifh green colour at their ends, ci-
nereous at their roots : under fide of the body and tail,
and inner fide of the limbs, of a filvery colour : ta'i
very long and {lender. Size of a fmall cat. Inhabit
different parts of Af rica : keep in great flocks, and live
in the woods : are fcarce difcernible when among the
leaves, except by their breaking the boughs with their
3 R gambols ?
SIM
[ 498 ]
SIM
Simla.
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21,
Ker''s Tran
Jlat'ion of
Cmelin's
Unitaus,
g;amboIs : in which they are very a;jlle and filent : even
when fhot at, do not make the leaft noife : but will
unite in company, knit their brows, and gnafh their
teeth, as if they meant to attack the enemy : are very
common in the Cape de Verd iflands.
24. The muftache, or cercopithecus cephus, has a
beard on the cheeks ; the crown of the head is yellow-
ifh : the feet are black, and the tip of the tail is of an
afh colour. Its tail is much longer than the body and
head, being 19 or 20 inches in length. The female
menflruates.
25. The manfrabey, cercopithecus sethiops, or white-
^eyed monkey, has a long, black, naked, and doa;-like
face : the upper eye-Hds of a pure white : ears black,
and like the human ; no canine teeth : hairs on the fides
of the face beneath the cheeks, longer than the reft :
tail long : colour of the whole body tawny and black :
flat nails on the thumbs and fore-fingers ; blunt claws
on the others : hands and feet black — Shown in Lon-
don fome years ago : place uncertain : that defcribed by
M. de BufFon came from Madagafcar ; was very goo^-
natured ; went on all-fours.
26. The egret, or cercopithecus aygula, has a long
face, and an upright fliarp- pointed tuft of hair on the top
of the head. The hair on the forehead is black : the
tuft, and the upper part of the body light-grey ; the
belly white : the eye-brows are large ; the beard very
fmall. Size of a fmall cat. They inhabit Java. They
fawn on men, on their own fpecies, and embrace each
other. They play with dogs, if they have none of
their own fpecies with them. If they fee a monkey
of another kind, they greet him with a thoufand gri-
maces. When a number of them fleep, they put their
heads together. They make a continual noife during
night.
27. The rillovv, cercopithecus fmicus, or Chinefe
bonnet, has a long fmooth nofe, of a whitifh colour ; hair
on the crown of the head long, lying flat, and parted
like that of a man ; colour, a pale cinereous brown,
Inhabit Ceylon. They keep in great troops ; and rob
gardens of their fruit, and fields of their corn ; to prevent
which, the natives are obliged to watch the whole day :
yet thefe animals are fo bold, that, when driven from
one end of the field, they will immediately enter at the
other, and carry off with them as much as their mouth
and arms can hold. Bofman, fpeaking of the thefts
of the monkeys of Guinea, fays, that they will take
in each paw one or two italks of millet, as many under
their arms, and two or three in their mouth ; and thus
laden, hop away on their hind-legs ; but, if purfued,
they fling away all, except what is in their mouths,
that it may not impede their flight. They are very
nice in the choice of the millet ; examine every fl-alk :
and if tbey do not like it, fling it away : fo that
this delicacy does more harm to the fields than their
thievery.
28. The tawny monkey, or cercopithecus fulvus, has
long tuflts in the lower jaw : the vifage is long and flefli
coloured, with flelh coloured ears, and a flattifh nofe.
Inhabits India. Thi« is a very ill natnred animal,
about the fize of a cat ; it was lately in the pofltfllon of
Mr Brook, an animal merchant and exhibitor in Lon-
don : The upper parts of the body are covered with a
pale tawny coloured fur, which is afli coloured at the
roots ; the hinder part of the back Is orange coloured,
the legs afli coloured, the belly white, and the tail
fliorter than the body.
29. King monkey, full- bottom monkey, or cercopi- Fig.
thecus regalis, has no thumb on the hands ; the head,
checks, throat, and fhoulders, are covered with long,
flowing, coarfe hairs. Inhabits the foreils of Sierra
Leona in Guinea, where it is called bey, or king monkey.
It is above three feet high when ereA : The head ig
fmall, with a fliort, black, naked face ; and the head^
cheeks, throat, neck, and Ihouldets, are covered with
long, coarfe, flowing hairs, of a dirty yellowifli colour,
mixed with black, and refembling a full-bottomed wig ;
the body, arms, and legs, are covered with Thort hairs
of a fine gloffy black colour ; the hands are naked, and
have no thumbs ; the feet have five very long flender
toes, which are armed vs^ith narrow pointed claws ; the
tail is very long, and is covered with fnow white hairs,
having a tuft at the end ; the bady and limbs are very
flender : Its flcin is held in high eftimation by the ne-
groes for making pouches and gun cafes.
IV. Sapajous, Sapaji, have prehenfile tails, and
no cheek-pouches. Thefe animals have long tails,
which, at the extremity, is generally deprived of hair
on the under fide, and covered with a fmooth fkin ; this
part they can fold, extend, curl up, and unfold at plea-
sure ; by which they are enabled to hang upon branches,
or to lay hold of any thing which is beyond the reach
of their hands, ufing the extremity of the tail like a fin-
ger or hand ; the partition between the noftiils is very
thick, and the apertures are fituated on the fides of
the nofe ; the buttocks are clothed with hair, and have
no callofities ; the females of this fubgenus do not men-
ftruate ; and this race of animals is only to be found in
America : This fubdivifion of the genus is made with
great propriety by Dr Gmelln, in imitation of the Count
de BufFon.
30. The guariba, fapajus Beelzebub, or the preacher Pla
monkey, has black fliinlng eyes ; fliort round ears ; and ^'r'^'^-
a round beard under the chin and throat- The hairs
on the body are of a fliinlng black, long, yet lie foclofe
on each other that the animal appears quite fmooth :
the feet and end of the tail are brown ; the tail very
long, and always twitted at the end. Size of a fox.
Inhabit the woods of Brazil and Guiana in vaft num-
bers, and make a moft dreadful howling. Sometimea
one mounts on a higher branch, the reft feat themfelves
beneath : the firft begins as If it was to harangue, and
fets up fo loud and fliarp a howl as may be heard a vaft:
way, and a perfon at a diftance would think that a hun-
dred joined in the cry : after a certain fpace, he gives
a fignal with his hand, when the whole aflembly joins
in chorus ; but on another fignal is filent, and the orator
finiflies his addrefs (b). Their clamour is the moft dif-
agreeable and tremendous that can be conceived ; ow-
ing to a hollow and hard bone placed in the throat,
which
(b) A Angular account, yet related by Marcgrave and feveral other writers. Marcgrave is a writer of th,«
firft. authority, and a moft able naturalift, long rcfident in the Brafils, and fpeaks from his own knowledge.
S I M C 4(
>vkich the Engllfh call the throttle-hone. Thefe monkeys
are very fierce, untameable, and bite dreadfully. There
is a variety of a ferruginous or reddilh bay colour,
which the Indians call the king of the monkeys : it is large,
and as nolfy as the former. The natives eat this fpe-
cies, as well as feveral other forts of monkeys, but are
particularly fond of this. Europeans will alfo eat it,
efpecially in thofe parts of America where food is
fcarce : when it is fcalded in order to get off the hair,
it looks veiy white ; and has a refemblance fliocking to
humanity, that of a child of two or three years old
when crying (c).
31. The quato, fapajus panifcus, or four-fingered
monkey, has a long flat face, of a fwarthy flefli colour:
the eyes are funk in the head ; ears like the human ;
limbs of a great length, and uncommonly {lender : the
hair is black, long, and rough. There are only four
fingers on the hands, being quite deflitute of a thumb ;
five toes on the feet. The tail is long ; and naked be-
low, near the end. The body is flender ; absut a foot
and a half long ; the tail near two feet, and fo prehen-
file as to ferve every purpofe of a hand. They inhabit
the neighbourhood of Carthagena, Guiana, Brafil, and
Peru ; alTociatc in vaft herds ; and are fcarce ever feen
on the ground. Dampier defcribes their gambols in
a lively manner: " There was (fays he) a great com-
pany dancing from tree to tree over my head, chat-
tering, and making a terrible nolfe and a great many-
grim faces and antic gefturcs ; fome broke down dry
flicks and flung them at me, others fcattered their urine
and dung about my ears : at lafl one bigger than the
i-eft came to a fmall limb juft over my head, and leap-
ing direilly at me, made me leap back ; but the mon-
key caught hold of the bough with the tip of its tail,
and there continued fwinging to and fro, making
mouths at me. The females with their young ones are
much troubled to leap aftei- the males ; for they have
commonly two, one fine carries under her arm, the other
fits on her back, and claps its two fore-paws about her
neck : are very fullen when taken ; and very hard to
be got when fhot, for they will cling with their tail
or feet to a bough as long as any life remains. When
I have fhot at one, and broke a leg or arm, I have pi-
tied the poor creature to fee it look and handle the
broken limb, and turn it from fide to fide." — They are
the mofl adtive of monkeys, and quite enliven the fo-
refts of America. In order to pais from top to top of
lofty trees, whofe branches are too diftant for a leap,
they will form a chain, by hanging down, linked to
each other by their tails, and fwingini^ in that manner
till the loweft catches hold of a bough of the next tree,
and draws up the refl ; and fometimes they pafs rivers
by the fame expedient. They are fometimes brought
to Europe ; but are very tender, and feldom hve long
in our climate.
32. The fai, fapajus, capucinus, or weeper, with a
round and flat face, of a reddiih brown colour, very de-
formed : the hair on the head and upper part of the
body black, tinged with brown ; beneath and on the
9 ] SIM .
limbs tinged with red : tail black, and much longer than Simla,
the head and body : the young exceffively deformed ; v— ^
their hair very long, and thinly difperfed. — In the Bri-
tifh Mufeum are fpecimens of old and young. M.' de
BufFon has a variety with a white throat. Inhabits Su-
rinam and Brafil : appear as if it was always weep-
ing ; of a melancholy difpofition ; but very lull of imi-
tating what it fees -dene. Thefe probably are the
monkeys Dampier faw in the Bay of All Saints, which
he fays are very ugly, and fmell ftrongly of muflc. They
keep in large companies j and make a great chatter-
ing, efpecially in ftormy weather ; re fide much on a
fpccies of tree which bears a podded fruit, which they
feed on.
33. Sapajus fatuellas, or horned fapajou, has two] Fig. 25.
tufts of hair on the head, refembling little horns : Is
beardlefs. Inhabits South America. The face, fides,
belly, and fore -parts of the thighs are brown ; the top of
the head, middle of the back, tail, legs, and poflerior
parts of the thighs, are black ; the nails ai-e long and
rather blunt ; the tail is prehenfile and twifted fpirally.
Perhaps of the fame fpecies with the fimia apella or ca-
puchin [Gm.). This, in all probability, is one of the
faftitious fpecies, purpofely deformed, by exhibitors of
wild beafts, to impofe on the public.
34. Saimiri, fapajus fciureus, or orange monkey, has
no beard ; the hinder part of the head is prominent ;
and the nails on the four toes of the hind paws are nar-
row and pointed. It inhabits South America, and is
the mofl: beautiful of all the fapajous ; its movements
are graceful ; its fize fmall ; its colour a brilliant yel-
low ; its vifage round, with large vivacious eyes, fur-
rounded by flefli-coloured rings ; it has hardly any fore-
head ; the nofe is elevated at the bafe, and flattened at
the point : the mouth is fmall, the face flat and naked,
and the ears are garniflied with hair, and a little point-
ed ; the tail is only half prehenfile : It ftands with eafe
on two feet, but commonly walks on all four.
V. Sagoins, Sagoini. Thefe have long tails, ^^^'^ t*^^,,^
which are proportionally longer than thofe of the fapa-Zaz/ow 0/
jous, flraight, flaccid, entirely covered with hair, and '^f
not prehenfile ; that is, incapable of laying hold of any ^""'<""'
objeft : the cheeks have no pouches ; and the buttocks,
which are covered with hair, have no callofitles : the
partition between the noftrils is very thick, and the
apertures are placed on the fides of the nofe. The fe-
males do not menflruate. This race of animals is (jply
found in America.
35. The faki, fagoinus pithecia, or fox-tailed monkey,
with a fwarthy face, covered with fliort white down :
forehead and fides of the face with whitifh, and pretty
long hair : body with long duflcy brown hairs ; white or
yellowifh at their tips : hair on the tail very long and
bufhy ; fometimes black, iometimes reddifli : belly and
lower part of the limbs a reddifli white : length from
nofe to tail near a foot and a half : tail longer, and like
that of a fox : hands and feet black, with claws inftead
of nails. Inhabits Guiana,
36. The fanglin, fagoinus iacchus, or fl;riated mou- Fig.
3 R 2 key,
(c) Ullua^s Voy. I. 113. Des Marchals, III, 311. fays, they are excellent eating, and that a foupe aux Jtuges
will be found as good as any other, as foon as you have conquered the averfion to the bQuilli of their heads, which
look very like thofe of little children.
SIM [ s
Simia. key, with a very round head : about the ears two very
'"""^'^"^ long full tufts of white hairs (landing out on each fide:
irides reddifh : face a fwarthy flefh colour : ears like the
human : head black. : body afh coloured, reddifh, and
dulliy ; the lail forms ftriated bars crofs the body : tail
full of hair, annulated with afh colour and black : body
feven inches long ; tail near eleven : hands and feet co-
vered with fliort hairs : fingers like thofe of a fquirrel :
nails, or rather claws, fliarp. Inhabits Brafil : feeds on
vcfretables ; will alio eat fiih: makes a weak noife : very
reftlefs : often brought over to Europe,
j-'jg. 37- Pinche, fagoinns cedipus, er red-tailed monkey,
is heardlefs ; has a flowing head of hair, which hangs
down on each f.de ; a red tail and fliarp claws. It has
neilher cheek-pouches nor callofities on the buttocks.
His tail is not prehenfile, and is more than twice the
length of the head and body. The partition of the no-
ftrils is thick, and the apertures are placed at a lide.
The face, throat, and ears are black ; on the head are
long white hairs. The muzzle is broad, and the face
round. The hair on the body is pretty long; of a yellow-
i(h brown or reddifh colour till near the tail, where it
becomes orange; on the breaft, belly, hands, and feet, it
is white, and fhorter than on the body. The tail, from
the origin to one-h?if of its length, is a vivid red, then
brownifh red, and toward the point it is black. He is
about nine Inches in length, and walks on four feet.
The females are not fubjeft to the menftrual evacua-
tion.
Fig. a8, 38. The marikina, fagoinus rofallus, or filky mon-
key, is beardlefs ; has a very hairy head : the circum-
ference of the face and the feet are red ; and the claws
are fliarp and narrow. It inhabits South America.
A brifli animal, lefs impatient of cold than the reft of
this race : the body is of a yellowifh white colour ; the
nails on the thumbs and great toes are rounded; the
ears are naked, but are hidden beneath the tur : It has
a round head, and a brown face, which is furrounded
with a kind of mane of a bright red colour ; the hair
on the body and tail is long, filky, and of a pale but
vivid yellow colour, almoft white, with a conliderable
tuft at the extremity of the tail. It walks on four feet,
and is eight or nine inches in length, from the muzzle
to the rump ; and the tail is above 13 inches long. This
fpccies has the fame manners and vivacity with the
other fagoins, but is more robuil in conflitution, as an
individual lived five or fix years in Paris, being kept in
a warm room during winter.
39. The mico, fagoinus argenteus, or fair monkey,
with a fmall round head : face and ears of the moft live-
ly vermilion colour : body covered with moft beautirul
long hairs of a bright and fdvery whitenefs, of match-
lefs ele gance : tail of a fhining dark chefnut : head
and body eight inches long; tail 12. Inhabits the
ba'iks of the Amazons ; difcovered by M. de Conda-
mine.
Fig. 2p. ^o. The tamarin, fagoinus Midas, or great-eared
monkey, with a round head, fwarthy, flefli coloured,
naked face : upper lip a little divided : ears very large,
ered, naked, and ahnoft fquare : hair on the forehead
upright and long ; on the body foft, but lhaggy : the
head, w hole body, and upper part of the limbs black,
except the lower part of the back, which is tinged
with yellow : hands and feet covered with orange-co-
loured hairs, very fine and fmooth ; nails long and
00 1 SIM
crooked : tail black, and twice the length of the body; S n
teeth very white. It is of the fize of a iquirreh It in-
habits the hotter parts of South America, and the ifle . ^'
of Gorgona, fouth of Panama, in the South Sea. 1 here
are, fays Dampier, a great many httle black monkeys ;
at low-water they come to the fea-fide to take mulcles
and perriwinkks, which they dig out of the fhells with
their claws.
Befides thefe which we have defcribed, there are a
great m.any fpccies which we have omitted. Tliofe
who wi^h to be better acquainted with the fimise, may
confult Buffon, Pennant, and Graelin's edition of the
Zoology of Linnaeus by Mr Ker.
SiMlLE, or Similitude, in rhetoric, a compa-
rifon of two things, which though different in other
refpefts, yet agree in fome one. The difference be-
tween a hmile and comparifon is faid to confift in this,
that the iimile properly belongs to whatever we call
the quality of a thing, and the comparifon to the quan-
tity. See Comparison ; and Oratory, n-> i 18.
SIMILOR, a name given to an alloy of red cop-
per and zinc, made in the beft proportions, to imitate
lilver and gold.
SIMON Maccabeus, a celebrated leader and high-
priefl of the Jews, who, after rendering the moft im-
portant fervices to his country, was at laft treacheroufly
{lain by his fon-in-law. See the H'tjlory of the JtfrSf
n« 15.
Simon Magus^ or the Sorcerer, was a native of Git-
ton, a village of Samaria. According to the uiual prac-
tice of the Aiiatics of that age, he vilited Egypt, and Enfidi
there probably became acquainted with the fublinie Hijtor
myfteries taught in the Alexandrian fchool, and learned
thofe theurgic or magical operations by means of which
it was believed that men might be delivered from the ^ "
power of evil demons Upon his return into his own
country, the author of the Clementine Recognitions
relates, that he impofed upon his countrymen by high
pretenfions to fupernatural powers. And St Luke at-
tefts, that this artful fanatic, ufmg forcery, had be-
witched the people of Samaria, giving out that he was
fome great one; and that he obtained fuch general atten-.
tion and reverence in Samaria, that the people all gave
heed to him from the leaft to the greateft, faying, " This
man is the great power of God."'
By the preaching of Philip the Deacon, he was with
other 'Samaritans converted to the Chriftian faith, and
admitted into the infant church by the ordinance of
baptifm. His converfion, however, feems not to have
been real ; for, upon feeing the miraculous efFeAs of
the laying on of the apoftle's hands, he offered them mo-
ney, faying, " Give me alio this power, that on whom-
foevcr I lay hands he may receive the Holy Ghoil."
He probably thought Peter and John magicians like
himfelf, but better flcilled in the art of deceiving the
multitude.
Being fliarply reproved for this impiety, he feems by
his anfwer to have been made fenfible of his fin ; but
his repentance, if fincere, was of fhort duration. Re-
turning to his former ptadices of impofture, he travel-
led through various provinces of the empire, oppoiing
the progrefs of the gofpel ; and arriving at Rome, he
led aftray vaft numbers of people by his pretended mi-
racles. How loi\^ he lived in that metropolis of the
world, or in what manner he died, we have 110 accounts
7 that
SIM [ 5<
on. that can be fully depended on. The Chrilllan writers
tell us, that being railed in the air by two daemons, he
was deprived of their fupport by the prayers of St Pe-
ter and St Paul, and falling, broke his lei^s. By fome
he is thought to have been the perfon mentioned by
Suetonius, who, undertaking to fly in the prefence of
Nero, fell to the ground with fuch violence, that his
blood fpurted up to the gallery where the emperor was
fitting.
The fum of this impoftor's doftrine, diverted of al-
legory, was, that from the Divine Being, as a fountain
ot light, flow various orders of aeons, or eternal na-
tures, fubfifting within the plenitude of the divine ef-
I'ence ; that beyond thefe, in the order of emanation,
are different claffes oF intelligences, among the lowed
of which are human fouls ; that matter is the moft re-
mote produdlion of the emanative power, which, on ac-
count of its infinite diftance from the Fountain of
Light, pofTefies fluggifh and malignant qualities, which
oppofe the divine operations, and are the caufe of evil ;
that it is the great defign of philofophy to deliver the
foul from its imprifonmcnt in matter, and reftoie it to
that divine light from which it was derived ; and that
for this purpofe God had fent him one of the firft aeons
among men. To his wife Helena he alfo afcribed a fi-
milar kind of divine nature, pretending that a female
«on inhabited the body of this woman, to whom he
gave the name of W^fdom ; v/hence fome Chri-
ftian fathers have faid, that he called lier the Holy Spi-
rit. He alfo taught the tranfmigration of fouls, and
denied tht refurreftion of the body.
Simon (Richard), was born at Dieppe the 15th
May 16:^8. He be ^an iiis fl:udles among the priefts
of the Oratory in that city, but quitted their fociety
in a fliort time. From Dieppe he went to Paris, where
he made great pvogrels in the fl.udy of the oriental Ian
guages. Some time afterwards he joined the fociety
of the Oratory again, and became a prieft of it in
1660. In 1670 he publifhed fome pieces of a fmaller
kind. In 1678 his Critical Hiftory of the Old Tefta-
mtnt appeared, but was immediately fuppreffed by the
intrigues of Meflieurs du Port Royal. It was reprint-
ed the year after, and its excellence foon drew the at-
tention of foreigners ; an edition of it was accordingly
publifhed at /imllerdam in Latin, and at London in
Englifh.
He died at Dieppe In 1712, at the age of 74.
He certainly poffefled a vaft deal of learning: his
criticifm is exad, but not always moderate ; and there
reigns in his writings a fpirit of novelty and Angularity
which railed him a great many adv(srf?.ries. The moft
celebrated o*^^ thelc were Le Clerc, Voffiu?, Jurieu, Du
Pin, and BofTuet. Simon wrote an anlwer to moft of
the books that were publifhed againft him, and difplays
a pride and obftinacy in his controverfial writings which
do him little honour.
He was the author of a great many books. The fol-
lowing are the principal : i . The Ceremonies of the
Jews, tranflated from the Itahan of Leo of Modena,
with a fupplement concenn'ng the fefts of the Barraites
and Samaritans 2. L'Hifioire Critique du Ficux Te-
Jfiment, " The Critical Hiftory of the Old Teftament."
'1 his is a very important work, and delerves the atten •
tion of every clergyman. He fometimes, however, de-
viates from the road of integrity, to fcrve the caufe of
.1 ] SI M
the church of Rome, particularly in his endeavours to Sinionifal,
prove the uncertainty of the Hebrew language. Thefe
pafTages have been very juftly expofed and confuted by
Dr Campbell, in his ingenious Preliminary Diffcrtatious
to his new Tranflation of the Gofpels. 3. Critical Lli-
ftory of the Text of the New Teftament. 4. Critical
Hiltory of the Verfions of the New Teftament. 5.
Critical Hiftory of the principal Commentators on the
New Teftament. 6. Inlpiration of the Sacred Books.
7. A tranflation of the New Teftament, 'I'his book
was cenfured by Cardinal Noailles and Bofi'uet. 8.
The Hiilory of the rife and progrefs pf Ecclefiaftical
Revenues, which is commended by Voltaire, as is his
Critical Hiftory of the Old Teftament. It refulted
from a quarrel with a community of Benediftines. 9.
A new feletl Library, which points out the good books
in various kinds of literature, and the ufe to be made oF
them. 10. Critical Hiftory of the Behef and Cuftoms
of the Nations on the Levant, i \ . Critical Letters,
&c.
SIMONICAL, is applied to any perfon guilty of
fimony. See Simony,
SIMONIDES, the name of feveral poets celebrated
in antiquity ; but by the Marbles it appears that the
eldeft and moft illuftrious of them was born in the 55th
Olympiad, 538 years B. C. and that he died in his 90tli
year ; which nearly agrees with the chronology of Eu-
iebius. He was a native of Ceos, one of the Cyclades,
in the neighbourhood of Attica, and the preceptor of
Pindar. Both Plato and Cicero give him the charac-
ter not only of a good poet and mufician, but fpeak
of him as a perfon of great virtue and wifdom. Such
longevity gave him an opportunity of knowing a great
number of the firft characters in antiquity with whom
he was in fome meafure connedled. It appears in Fa-
bricius, from ancient authority, that Simonides was
cottmporary and in frlendftiip with Pittacus of Mity-
lene, Hipparchus tyrant of Athens, Paufanias king of
Sparta, Hiero tyrant of Syracufe, with Themiftocles,
and with Alevades king of Theflaly. He is mentioned
by Herodotus ; and Xenophon, in his Dialogue upon
Tyranny, makes him one ©f the interlocutors with,
Hiero king of Syracufe. Cicero alleges, what has of-
ten been quoted in proof of the modefty and wifdona-
of Simonides, that when Hiero aflced him tor a defini-
tion of God, the poet required a whole day to medi-
tate on fo important a queftion i at the end of which,,
upon the prince putting the fame queftion to him a
fccond time, he allied two days refpite ; and in this
manner always doubled the delay each time he was re-
quired to anfwer it ; till at length, to avoid offending
his patron by more difappointments, he frankly con-
ftffcd that he found the queftion io difRcult, that the-
more he meditated upon it, the lefs was his hope of
beiup; able to folve it.
In his old age, perhaps from feeing the refpeft which
money procured to fuch as had loft the charnro of youth-
and the power of attaching mankind by other means,,
he became fomewhat n^ercenary and avaricious. He
was frequently employed by the vi<Slors at the games to
write panegyrics and odes in their praife, before his pu-
pil Pindar had exercifed his talents in their behalf: but
Simonides would never gratify their vanity in this par-
ticular, till he had firft tied them down 10 a ftipulated-
fum lor his trouble j and upon being upbraided lor his-
SIM [5
Simoiiides, ttieannefs, he faid, that he had two coffers, in one of
^^""y* which he had for many years put his pecuniary re-
* wards ; the other was for honours, verbal thanks, and
promifes ; that the firft was pretty well filled, but the
laft remained always empty. And he made no fcruple
to confefs, in his old age, that of all the enjoyments of
life, the love of money was the only one of which time
had not deprived him.
He was frequently reproached for this vice ; how-
ever, he always defended himfelf with good humour.
I Upon being aflced by Hiero's queen. Whether it was
moll defirable to be learned or rich ? he anfwered, that
it was far better to be rich ; for the learned were al-
ways dependent on the rich, and waiting at their
doors ; whereas, he never faw rich men at the doors of
the learned. When he was accufed of being fo fordid
as to fell part of the provifions with which his table
was furnilhed by Hiero, he faid he had done it in or-
der " to difplay to the world the magnificence of th^t
prince and his own frugality." To others he faid, thit
his reafon for accumulating wealth was, that " he would
rather leave money to his enemies after death, than be
troublefome to his friends while living." •
He obtained the prize in poetry at the public games
when he was fourfcore years of age. According to Sui-
das, he added four letters to the Greek alphabet ; and
Pliny affigns to him the eighth ftring of the lyre ; but
thefe claims are difputed by the learned.
His poetry was fo tender and plaintive, that he ac-
quired the cognomen of Melkertes " fweet as honey ;"
and the tearful eye of his mufe was proverbial. Dio-
Jiyfius places him among thofe polidied writers who ex-
cel in a fmooth volubility, and flow on like plenteous
and perennial rivers, in a courfe of even and uninterrupt-
ed harmony.
It is to Dionyfius that we are indebted for the pre-
fervation of the following fragment of this poet. Da-
uae being by her mercilefs father inclofed in a cheft,
and thrown into the fea with her child, when ni^lit
comes on, and a ftorm arifes which threatens to overfet
the cheft, fhe, weeping and embracing the young Per<
feus, cries out :
Sweet child ! what anguifh does thy mother know,
Ere cruel grief has taught thy tears to flow !
Amidft the roaring wind's tremendous found.
Which threats deftruftion as it howls around ;
In balmy fleep thou liefl:, as at the breaft,
Without one bitter thought to break thy reft.
The glimm'ring moon in pity hides her light,
And ftirinks with horror at the ghaftly fight.
Didft thou but know, fweet innocent ! our woes.
Not opiate's pow'r thy eyelids now could clofe.
Sleep on, fweet babe ! ye waves in filence roll ;
And lull, O lull, to reft my tortur'd foul !
There is a fecond great poet of the name of Sirao-
■nides recorded on the Marbles, fuppofed to have been
his grandfon, and who gained, in 478 B. C. the prize
in the games at Athens.
SIMONY, is the corrupt prefentation of any one to
an ecclefiaftical benefice for money, gift, or reward. It
is fo called from the refemblance it is faid to bear to
the fin of Simon Magus, though the purchafing of holy
orders feems to approach nearer to his offence. It was
by the canon law a very grievous crime : and is fo much
.2 ] SIM
the m© e odious, becaufe, as Sir Edward Coke obferves, Simon'
it is ever accompanied with perjury ; for the prefentee ^'"^ooi
is fworn to have committed no fimony. However, it
was not an offence punifliable in a criminal way at the
common law : it being thought fufficient to leave the
clerk to ecclefiaftical cenfures. But as thefe did not
affeft the fimoniacal patron, nor were efficacious enough
to repel the notorious praftice of the thing, divers afts
of parliament have been made to reftrain it by means of
civil forfeitures ; which the modern prevailing ufage,
with regard to fpiritual preferments, calls aloud to be
put in execution. The ftatute 31 Eliz. c. 6. enafts,
that if any patron, for money or any other corrupt con-
fideration or promife, dire&ly or indire£lly given, fhall
prefent, admit, inftitute, induft, inftall, or collate any
perfon to an ecclefiaftical benefice or dignity, both the
giver and taker fhall forfeit two years value of the be-
nefice or dignity ; one moiety to the king, and the
other to any one who will fue for the fame. If perfons
alfo corruptly refign or exchange their benefices, both
the giver and taker ftiall in like manner forfeit double
the value of the money or other corrupt confideration.
And perions who fliall corruptly ordain or licenfe any
minlfter, or procure him to be ordained or licenfed
(which is the true idea of fimony), llrall incur a like
forfeiture of forty pounds ; and the minifter himfelf of
ten pounds, befides an incapacity to hold any ecclefiaf-
tical preferment for feven years afterwards. Corrupt
elections and refignations in colleges, hofpitals, and
other eleemofynary corporations, are alfo punilhed, by
the fame ftatute, with forfeiture of the double value,
vacating the place or office, and a devolution of the
right of ekftion, for that turn, to the crown.
SIMOOM, a hot wind which blows occafionally in
the deferts of Africa, and probably in other widely ex-
tended countries parched in the fame manner by a ver-
tical fun. Its eft'efts on the human body are dreadful.
If inhaled in any quantity, it produces inftant fuffoca-
tion, or at leaft leaves the unhappy fuffierer oppreffed
with afthma and lownefs of fpirits. The approach of
this awful fcourge of God is indicated by a rednefs in
the air, well underftood by thofe who are accuftomed to
journey through the defert ; and the only refuge which
they have from it, is to fall down with their faces clofe
to the ground, and to continue as long as poffible with-
out drawing in their breath.
Mr Bruce, who, in his journey through the defert,
fuffered from the fimoom, gives of it the following gra-
phical defcription : " At eleven o'clock, while we con- j^^^^^^. ^
templated with great pleafure the rugged top of Chig- Travel.^
gre, to which we were faft approaching, and where we vol. iv,
were to folace ourfelves with plenty of good water, P' 559'
Idris our guide cried out, with a loud voice, fall upon
you faces, for here is the fimoom. I faw from the
louth-eaft a haze come, in colour like the purple part
of the rainbow, but not fo comprefied or thick. It
did not occupy twenty yards in breadth, and was about
twelve feet 'high from the ground. It was a kind of
blufti upon the air, and it moved very rapidly ; for I
fcarce could turn to fall upon the ground with my
head to the northward, when i felt the heat of its cur-
rent plainly upon my face. We all lay flat on the
ground as if dead, till Idris told us it was i^lown over.
The meteor or purple haze which I faw was indeed
paffed, but the light air that ftill blew was of heat to
threaten
I M [ 503 1 SIM
For my part, I 'found diftmftly moft other wntlngs are impaired by a literal tranHation 5
ic, threaten fuffocatlon.
''i'y- in my breaft that I had imbibed a part of it, nor was I
free of an afthmatic fenfation till I had been fome
months in Italy, at the baths of Poretta, near two years
afterwards." Though the feverity of this blaft feems
to have paflTcd over them almoft inftantaneoufly, it con-
tinned to blow fo as to exhauft them till twenty minutes
before five in the afternoon, lading through all its llages
very near fix hours, and leaving them in a ftate of the
utmoft defpondency.
SIMPLE, fomethino not mixed or compounded ; in
which fenfe it ftands Oppofed to compound.
Simple, in the materia medica, a general name for
all herbs or plants, as having each its particular virtue,
whereby it becomes a fimple remedy.
SIMPLICITY IN WRITING. If we examine the
writers whofe compofitions have flood the teft of agesj
and obtained that hii'heft honour, " the concurrent ap-
probation of diftant times and nations," we fhall find
that the charafter of fimpKcity is the unvarying clrcura-
llance which alone hath been able.>to gain this univerfal
homage from mankind. Among the Greeks, whofe
writers in general are of the fimple kind, the divineft
poet, the moft commanding orator, the fineft hiftorian,
and deepeft philofopher, are, above the reft, confpicu-
oufiy eminent In this great quality. The Roman wri-
ters rife towards perfeftion according to that meafure
of fimplicity which they mingle in their works ; Indeed
they are all inferior to the Greek models. But who
will deny that Lucretius, Horace, Virgil, Livy, Te-
rence, Tully, are at once the fimpleft and beft of Ro-
man writers ? unlefs we add the noble annalift who ap-
peared in after-times ; who, notwithftanding the politi-
cal turn of his genius, which fometimes Interferes, is ad-
mirable in this great quality, and by it far fuperior to
his contemporaries. It Is this one circumftance that
hath raifed the venerable Dante, the father of modern
poetry, above the fucceeding poets of his country, who
could never long maintain the local and temporary ho-
nours beftowed upon them ; but have fallen under that
juft negleft which time will ever decree to thofe who
defert a juft fimplicity for the florid colourings of ftyle,
contrafted phrafes, affcfted conceits, the mere trappings
of compofition and Gothic minutlas. It is this hath
given to Boileau the moft lafting wreath In France, and
to Shakefpeare and Milton in England ; efpeclally to
the former, whofe writings contain fpeclmens of per-
haps the pureft and fimpleft Enghfti that Is anywhere
to be found, except in the Bible or Book of Common
Pi-ayer. As It appears from thefe inftances, that fim-
plicity is the only univerfal charafteriftic of juft writing,
I'o the fuperior eminence of the facred Scriptures In this
quality hath been generally acknowledged. One of
the greateft critics in antiquity, himfelf confplcuous
in the fublime and fimple manner, hath borne this teftl-
mony to the writings of Mofes and St Paul ; and by
parity of reafon we muft conclude, that had he been
converfant with the other facred writers, his tafte and
eandour would have allowed them the fame encomium.
It hath been often obferved even by writers of no
mean rank, that the " Scriptures fuffer In their credit
by the difadvantage of a literal verfion, while other an-
cient writings enjoy the advantage of a free and embel-
iilhed tranflatlon." But in reality thefe gentlemens con-
cern is ill-plac€d and grouudlefs : for the truth is, " that
whereas giving only a due regard to the idiom of difte
rent languages, the facred writings, when literally tranf-
lated, are then In their full perfection."
Now this Is an internal proof, that in all other wri-
tings there Is a mixture of local, relative, exterior orna-
ment, which is often loft In the transfufion from one lan-
guage to another. But the Internal beauties, which
depend not on the particular conftruftion of tongues,
no change of tongue can deftroy. Hence the Bible
preferves its native beauty and ft.rength alike in every
language, by the fole energy of unadorned phrafe, natu-
ral images, weight of fentiment, and great fimplicity.
It is In this refpeft like a rich vein of gold, which,
under the fevereft trials of heat, cold, and moifture, re-
tains its original weight and fplendour, without either
lofs or alloy; while bafer metals are corrupted by earth,
air, water, fire, and affimilated to the various element*
through which they pafs.
This circumftance, then, may be juftly regarded as
fufficient to vindicate the compofition of the facred
Scriptures, as it Is at once their chief excellence and
greateft fecurity. It Is their excellence, as It renders
them IntellijMble and useful to all ; it is their fecurity,
as it preve nts their being difguifed by the falfe and ca-
pricious ornaments of vain or weak tranflators. We
may fafely appeal to experience and faft for the confir-
mation of thefe remarks on the fuperior fimplicity, uti-
llty, and excellence, of the IJyle of the Holy Scripture,
Is there any book in the world fo perfeftly adapted to
all capacities ? that contains fuch fublime and exalted
precepts, conveyed In fuch an artlefs and intelligible
ftrain, that can be read with fuch pleafure and advan-
tage by the lettered fage and the unlettered peafant ?
SIMPLOCE. See Oratory, n^ 72.
SIMPSON ( Thomas), profeffor of mathematics at
the royal academy at Woolwich, fellow of the Royal
Society, and member of the Royal Academy at Stock-
holm, was born at Market Bofworth in Leicefterfliire
in 1 7 1 o. His father, a ftuff-weaver, taught him only
to read Englifh, and brought him up to his own bufi-
nefs ; but meeting with a fcientifical pedlar, who like«
wile praftlfed fortune-teUing, young Simpfon by his af-
fiftance and advice left off weaving, and profeffed aftro-
logy. As he Improved in knowledge, however, he grew
difgufted with his pretended art ; and renouncing it,
was driven to fuch difficulties for the fubfiftence of hia
family, that he came up to London, where he worked
as a weaver, and taught mathematics at his fpare hours.
As his fcholars increafed, his abilities became better
known, and he pubUfhed his Treatife on Fluxions, by
fubfcriptlon. In 1737 : in 1740, he publifhed his Trea-
tife on the Nature and Laws of Chance ; and Eflays
in Speculative and Mixed Mathematics. After thefe
appeared his Doftrine of Annuities and Reverfions j
Mathematical Differtatlons ; Treatife on Algebra ; E-
lements of Geometry ; Trigonometry, Plane and Sphe*
rical ; Seleft Exercifes ; and his DoArine and i?Lppli-
catlon of Fluxions, which he profeffes to be rather a
new work, than a fecond edition of his former publica-
tion on flxixions. In 1743, he obtained the mathema-
tical profefTorfliip at Woolwich academy ; and foon af-
ter was chofen a member of the Royal Society, when
the prefident and council, in confideration of his mode-
rate circumfiances, were pleafed to cxcufe his admiffion-
SunpHcity
II
Simpfon.
SIM
r 504 1
S I M
fees, and hia giving bonds for the fettled fature pay.
J merits. At the academy he exerted all his abilities in
inftru6ling the pupils who were the .Immediate obje(Ss
of his duty, as well as others whom the fuperior ofiicers
of the ordnance permitted to be boarded and lodged in
his honfe. In his manner of teachina he had a peculiar
and happy addrefs, a certain dignity and perfpicuity,
tempered with fnch a degree mildnels, as enofaiTed
the attention, efteem, and friendfliip, of his fcholars.
He therefore acquired great applaufe from his fuperiors
in the difchar^e of his duty. His application and clofe
confinement, however, injured his health. Exeicife and
a proper regimen were prefcribed to him, but to little
purpofe : for his fpirits funk tjradually, till he became
incapable of performing his duty, or even of reading
the letters of his friends, 'fhe effects of this decay of
nature were greatly increafed by vexation of mind, ow-
ing to the haughty and infulting behaviour of his fupe-
rior the firft profefTor of mathematics. This perfon,
greatly his inferior in mathematical accomplifiiments,
did what he could to make his fituation uneafy, and
even to depreciate him in the public opinion : but it
was a vain endeavour, and only ferved to deprefs him-
feU. At length his phyficians advifed his native air for
his recovery, and he fet out in February 1 76 r ; but was
fo fatigued by his journey, that upon his arrival at Bof-
worth, he betook himfelf to his chamber, and grew con-
tinually worfe till the day of his death, which happened
on the 14th of May, in the 51ft year of his a;je.
STMSON (Dr Robert), profeffor of mathematics in
the univerfity of Glafgow, was born In the year 1687
of a refpeftable family, which had held a fmall edate in
the county of I^anerk for fome generations. He was,
we think, the fecond fon of the family. A younger
brother was profeffor of medicine in the univerfity of
St Andrew's, and is known by fome works of reputa-
tion, particularly a Differtation on the Nervous Syftem,
cccafiened by the Diffeftion of a Brain completely Of-
lified.
Dr Simfon was educated in the univerfity of Glaf-
gow imder the eye of lome of his relations who were
profeffors. Eager after knowledge, he made great pro-
grefs in all his ftudies ; and, as his mind did not, at
the very firft openings of fcience, ftrike into that path
which afterwards fo ftrongly attrafted him, and in
which he proceeded fo far almoft without a companion,
lie acquired in every walk of fcience a ftock of in-
formation, which, though it had never been much
augmented afterwards, would have done credit to a
profcffional man in any of his ftudies. He became,
at a very early period, an adept in the philofophy
and theology of the fchools, was able to lupply the
place of a fick relation in the clafs of oriental languages,
was noted for hiftorical knowledge, and one of the moll
knowing botanifts of his time.
It was during his theological ftudies, as preparatory
for his entering into orders, that mathematics took hold
of his fancy. He ufed to tell in his convivial moments
how he amufed himfelf when preparing his exercifes
for the divinity hall. When tired with vague fpecula-
tion, in which he did not meet with certainty to re-
ward his labours, he turned up a book of oriental phi-
lology, in which he found fomething which he could
difcover to be true or to be falfe, without going out of
the line of ftudy which was *o be of ultimate ufe to
him. Sometimes even this could not relieve his fatigue,
He then had recourfe to mathematics, which never fail- ^
ed to fatisfy and refrefh him. For a long while he re-
ft rifted himfelf to a very moderate ufe of the cordial,
fearing that he would foon exhauft the fmall ftock
which fo limited and abftraft a fcience could yield ;
till at laft he found, that the more he learned, . a
wider field opened to his view, and fcenes that were in-
exhauft ible. Becoming acquainted with fubjects fat be-
yond the elements of the fcience, and with numbers of
names celebrated during that period of ardent refearch
all over Europe, he found it to be a manly and impor-
tant ftudy, by which he was as likely to acquire repu-
tation as by any other. About this time, too, a pro-
fpeft began to open of making mathematics his profefliou
for life. He then gave himfelf up to it without refervc.
His original incitement to this ftudy as a treat, as
fomething to pleafe and refrefti his mind in the midft of
feverer tafl<s, gave a particular turn to his mathematical
ftudies, from which he never could afterwards deviate.
Perfpicuity and elegance are more attainable, and more
difceriiible, in pure geometry, than in any other parts of
the fcience of meafure. To this therefore he chiefly
devoted himfeh". For the fame reafon he preferred the
ancient method of ftudying pure geometry, and even
felt a diflike to the Cartefian method of fubftituting
fymbols for operations of the mind, and ftiU more was
he difgufted with the fubftitution of fymbols for the
very objefts of difcuflion, for hues, furfaces, follds, and
their affeftions. He was rather difpofed in the fo-
lution of an algebraic problem, where quantity alone
was confidered, to fubttitute figure and its afieftions
for the algebi-aic iymbols, and to convert the algebraic
formula into an analogous geometrical theorem. And
he came at laft to confider algebraic analyfis as little
better than a kind of mechanical knack, in which we
proceed without ideas of any kind, and obtain a refidt
without meaning, and without being confcious of any
procefs of reaforiing, and therefore without any convic-
tion of its truth. And there is no denying, that if ge-
nuine unfophifticated tafte alone is to be confulted, Dr
Simfon was in the right : for though it muft alio be
acknowledged, that the reafoning in algebra is as ftrift
as in the pureft geometry of Euclid or Apollonius, the
expert analyft has little perception of it as he goes on,
and his final equation is not felt by himjelf as the refult
of ratiocination, any more than if he had obtained it by
Pafcal's arithmetical mill. 1 his does not in the leaft
diminifh our admiration of the algebraic analyfis ; for
its almoft boundlefs grafp, its rapid and certain proce-
dure, and the delicate metaphylics and great addrefs
which may be difplayed in condufting it. Such, how-
ever, was the ground of the ftrong bias of Dr Simfon's
mind to the analyfis of the ancient geometers. It in-
creafed as he went forward ; and his veneration (we
may call it his iove or affedion ) for the ancient geometry
was carried to a degree of idolatry. His chief labours
were exerted in efforts to reftore the works of the an-
cient geometers ; and he has nowhere beftowed much
pains in advancing the modern difcoveries in mathema-
tics. The noble inventions, for example, of fluxions
and of logarithms, by which our progrefs in mathema-
tical knowledge, and in the ufeful application of this
knowledge, is fo much promoted, attrafted the notice
of Dr Simfon ; but he has contented himfelf with de-
SIM [
ifon. monftratinsr their truth on the genuine principles of
the ancient geometry. .Yet was he very thoroughly
acquainted with all the modern difcoveries ; and there
are to be I'een amon? his papers difcuffions and inverti-
gatiftns in the Cartefian method, which (how him tho-
roughly acquainted with all the principles, and even ex-
pert in the tours de main, of the moft refined fymbolical
analylis (a).
About the age of 25 Dr Simfon was chofen regius
profeflbr of mathematics in the univerfity of Glafgow.
He went to London immediately after his appointment,
and there formed an acquaintance with the moft eminent
men, of that brip;ht era of Britifh fcience. Among thefe
he always mentioned Captain Hdlley (the celebrated
Dr Edmund Halley) with particular refpeft ; faying,
that he had the moll acute penetration, and the moil
juft tade in that fcience, of any man he had ever known.
And, indeed, Dr Halley has llrongly exampliiied both
of thefe in his divination of the work of A^ollonius de
SeSime Spatir, and the 8th book of his Conksy and in
fome of the moft beautiful theorems in Sir Ifaac New-
ton's Pr'inc'tpia. Dr Simfon alfo admired the wide and
mafterly fteps wliich Newton was accuftomed to take in
his inveftigations, and his manner of fubftituting geome-
trical figures for the quantities which are obferved in the
phenomena of nature. It was from Dr Simfon that the
Writer of this article had the remarks which has been
oftener than once repeated in the courfe of this Work,
" That the 39th propofition of the firft book of the
Princ'tpia was the moft important propofition that had
ever been exhibited to the phyfico- mathematical philo-
fopher and he ufcd always to illuftrate to his more
advanced fcholars the fuperiority of the geometrical
over the algebraic analyiis, by comparing the folution
given by Newton of the inverfe problem of centripetal
forces, in the 42d propofition of that book, with the
one given by John Bernoulli in the Memoirs of the A-
cad^my of Sciences at Paris for 1 7 1 3. We have heard him
fay, that to his own knowledge Newton frequently in vefti-
gated his propolitions in the fymbolical way, and that
it was owing chiefly to Dr Halley that they did not fi-
nally appear in that drefs. But if Dr Simfon was well
informed, we think it a great argument in favour of the
fymbolic analyfis, when this moil fuccefsful praaical ar-
tiji (for fo we muft call Newton when engaged in a taflc
ofdifcovery) found it conducive either to difpatch or
perhaps to his very progrefs.
Returning to his academical chair, Dr Simfon dif-
charged the duties of a profeifor for more than 50 years
wiih great honour to the univeriity and to himlelf.
[t is almoft ne^dlefs to fay, that in his preleAiens he
followed ftridlly the Euclidian method in elementary
geometry. He made ufe of I'heodofius as an introduc-
tion to fpherical trigonometry In the higher geome-
try he prelefted from his own Conies ; and he gave a
irnall fpecimen of the linear problems of the ancients,
by explaining the properties, fometimes of the conchoid,
Vol. XVII. Part 11.
505 ] SIM
fometinjes of the ciffoid, with their application to the S
folution of fuch problems. In the more advanced clafs
he was accuftomed to give Napier's mode of con-
ceiving logarithms, /. e. quantities as generated by
motion ; and Mr Cotes's view ot them, as the fums of
ratiunculas ; and to demonftrate Newton's lemmas con-
cerning the limits of ratios ; asd then to give the ele-
ments of the fluxionary calculus ; and to fip.ilh his courfe
with a feledl fet of propofitions in optics, gnomonics,
and central forces. His method of teaching was fimple
and perfpicuous, his elocution clear, and his manner
eafy and imprelFive. He had the refpetl, and Rill more
the affetlion, of his fcholars.
With refpeft to his ftudies, we have already inform-
ed the reader that they got an early bias to pure geo-
metry, and to the elegant but fcrupulous methods of
the ancients.
We have heard Dr Simfon fay, that it was in a great
meafure owing to Dr Halley that he fo early directed
his eff"orts to the reftoration of the ancient geometers.
Pie had recommended this to him, as the moft certain
way for him, then a very young man, both to acquire
reputation, and to improve his own khowledge and tafte,
and he prefented him with a copy of Pappus's Mathe-
matical CoUeftions, enriched with fome of his own notes.
The perfpicuity of the ancient geometrical analyfis, and
a certain elegance in the nature of the ibliitions which
it affords, efpecially by means of the local theorems,
foon took fii-m hold of his fancy, and made him, with
the fanguine expeftation of a young man, diredl his
vei-y firft eff"orts to the recovery of this in Mo; and tho
reftoration of Euclid's Porifms was the firft tadi whicli
he ferhimfelf. The accomphfhed geometer knows what
a defperate taflc this was, from the fcanty and mutilated
account which we have of this work in a finglc paflage
of Pappus. It was an ambition which nothing but fuc-
cefs could juftify in fo young an adventui-er. He fuc.
ceeded ; and fo early as 171 8 feemed to have been in
complete poffefTion of this method of inveftigatloii,
which was confidered by the eminent geometers of an-
tiquity as their fureft guide through the labyrinths of
the higher geometry, Dr Simfon gave a fpecimen of"
his difcovery in 1723 in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions. And after this time he ccafed not from his en-
deavours to recover that choice colledion of Porifms
which Euclid had coUecled, as of the moft general uft;
in the folution of difhcult queftions. What fome of
thefe muft have been was pointed out to Dr Simfon by
the very nature of the general propofition of Pappus,
which he has reftored. Others wu e pointed out by the
lemmas which Pajjpus has given as helps to the young
mathematician towards their demonftration. And, be-
ing thus in poffefrion of a confidcrable number, their
mutual relations pointed out a fort of iyilem, of which
thefe made a part, and of which the blanks now re-
mained to be filled up.
Dr Simfon, having thus gained his favourite point,
3 S had
(a) In 1753 the writer of this article being then his fcholar, requefted him to examine an account which he
gave him of what he thout^ht a new curve (a conchoid having a clicle for its bait). Dr Simfon returned it
next day with a regular hft of its leading properties, and^he inveftigation of fuch as he thougiit his Ichclar
would ndt fo ealily trace. In this hafty fcrawl the lines related to the circle were familiarly confidered as arith-
nie'ic^l fradic^as of the radios confidered as unity. This was before Eukr publiPaed his Aiithmetic of the Sines
and Tangents, now In univerial ufe.
S I M
[ 5o5 ]
S I M
Sin-.fo". Ivad leifure to turn his attention to the other works of
the ancient geometers, and the porifms of Euclid now
had only an occafioual (hare. The loci plant of Apol-
lonius w'as another taflc which he very early engaged in,
and completed about the year i 738. But, after it was
printed, he imagined that he had not given the tpfijfinxt
propofttmnes of ApoUonius, and in the precife fpirit and
order of that author. The impreffion lay by him for
fome years ; and it was with f;reat reluftance that he
yielded to the intreaties of his mathematical friends,
and publifhed the work, in 1746, with fome emenda
lions, where he thought he had deviated fartheft from
his author. He quickly repented of this fcanty con-
cefTion, and recaUed what he could of the fmaU number
of copies which he had given to the bookfellers, and the
imprefTion again lay by him for years. He afterwards
re-correfted the work, and ftiU with fome reluftance
allowed it to come abroad as the Reftitution of Apol-
lonius. The public, however, had not been fo fafti-
dious as Dr Simfon, and the work had acquired great
celebrity, and he was now confidered as one of the firft
and the moft elegant geometers of the age : for, in
the mean time, he had publifhed his Conic Sedions, a
work of uncommon merit, whether we confider it as
equivalent to a complete reftitution of the celebrated
work of ApoUonius Pergseus, or as an excellent fyftem
of this important part of mathematics. It is marked
with the fame features as the loci plani, the moft anxious
folicitude to exhibit the very text of ApoUonius, even
in the proportions belonging to ' the books which had
been completely loft. Thefe could be recovered in no
other way but by a thorough knowledge of the precife
plan propofed by the author, and by taking it for
granted that the author had accurately accompliflied
this plan. In this manner did Viviani proceed in the
firft attempt which was made to reftore the conies of
ApoUonius ; and he has given us a detaU of the procefs
of his conjedures, by which wc may form an opinion
of its juftnefs, and of the probability how far he has
attained the defired objed. Dr Simfon's view in his
performance was fomething different, deviating a little
in this one cafe from his general track. He was not
altogether pleafed with the work o^ Viviani, even as
augmented by the eighth book added by HaUey, and his
wifh was to reftore the ancient original. But, in the
mean time, an academical text book for conic fedions
was much wanted. He was much diffatisficd with thofe
in common ufe ; and he was not infenfible of the advan-
tage refulting from the confideration of thefe fedions,
independent of the cone firft introduced by Dr WaUis.
He therefore compofed this excellent treatife as an
elementary book, not to fuperfede, but to prepare for
which ftiU remained !n it, appeared of magnitude fuffi-
cient to merit the moft careful efforts for their removal.
The DATA alfo, which were in like manner the intro-
dudion to the whole art of geometrical inveftigation,
feemed to caU more loudly for his amending hand. For
it appears that the Saracens, who have prcferved to us
the writings of the ancients, have contented themfelves
with admiring thefe celebrated works, andlhave availed
themfelves of the knowledge which they contain ; but
they have ihown no inclination to add to the ftock, or
to promote the fciences which they had received. They
could not do any thing without the lynthetical books-
of the geometers ; but, not meaning to go beyond the
difcoveries which they had made, they negleded all the
books which related to the analytic art alone, and the
greateft part of them (about 25 out of 30) have irre-
coverably perifhed. The data of Euclid have fortu-
nately been prcferved, but the book was negleded, and
the only ancient copies, which are but three or four, are
miferably erroneous and mutilated. Fortunately, it is
no very arduous matter to reinftate this work in its ori-
ginal perfedion. 'I'he plan is precife, both m its extent
and its method. It had been reftored, thereiore, with
fuccefs by more than one author. But Dr Simfon's
comprehenfive view of the whole analytical fyftem point-
ed out to him many occafions for amendment. He
therefore made its inflitution a joint tallc with that of
the elements. AU the lovers of true geometry will ac-
knowledge their obligations to him for the edition
of the Elements and data which he publifhed about
1758. The text is correded with the moft judicious
and fcrupulous care, and the notes are ineflimable, both
for their information, and for the tendency which they
piuft have to form the mind of the ftudent to a true
judgment and tafte in mathematical fubjeds. The more
accomplifhcd reader wUl perhaps be fometimes difpoled
to fmile at the axiom which feems to pervade the notes,
" that a work of Euclid muft be fuppofed without er-
ror or defed." If this was not the cafe, Euclid has
been oblivjed to his editor in more inftances than one.
Nor fhould his greateft admirers think it impofTible that
in the progreis of human improvement^ a geometrical
truth fhould occur to one ot thefe latter days, which
efcaped the notice of even the Lincean Euclid. Such
merit, however, Dr Simfon nowhere claims, but lays
every blame of error, omiflion, or obfcurity, to the
charge of Proclus, Theon, and other editors ^and com-
mentators of the renowned Grecian.
'^i here is another work of ApoUonius on which Dr
Simfon has beftowed great pains, and has reftored, as
we imagine, omnibus numeris perfeSuni) viz. the Sect 10
DETERMiNATA ; ouc of thofc performances which are
Simfoi
the ftudy of ApoUonius ; and accordingly accommodates
it to this purpofe, and gives feveral important propofi-
tions in then proper places, expre/s/y as rejlitutiims of
ApoUonius^ whom he keeps conftantly ia view through
the whole work.
Much about this time Dr Simfon ferioufly began to
prepare a perfed edition of Euchd's Elements. The
intimate acquaintance which he had by this time
acquired with all the original works of the ancient geo-
meters, and their ancient commentators and critics, en-
courap-cd him to hope that he could reftore to his ori-
ginal luftre this leader in mathematical fcience ; and the
errors which had crept into this celebrated work, and
of indifpenfable ufe in the application of the ancient an-
alylis. This alfo feems to have been an early talk, tho'
we do not know the date of his labours on it. It did
not appear tiU after his death, being then publifhed
along with the great work, the Porifms of Euclid, at
the expence of the late Earl Stanhope, a nobleman in-
timately converfant with ihc ancient geometry, and
zealous for its reception among the mathematicians of
the prefent age. He had kept up a conftant corre-
fpondence with Dr Simfon on mathematical fubjeds ;
and at his death in 1768, engaged Mr Clow profeffor
of logic in the univerfity of Glafgow, to whofe care
the Dodor had left aU his valuable papers, to make a
felec-
S I M
S I M
feleaion of fuch as would ferve to fupport and incveafe
his well earned reputation as the Restorer of an-
cient Geometry.
We have been thus particular m our account ot Dr
Simfon's labours in thefe works, becaufe hls manner of
execution, while it docs honour to his inventive pow-
ers, and fliows his juft tafte in mathematical compofi-
tion, alfo confirms our former aflertion, that he carried
his refpea for the ancient geometers to a degree of
fuperftitious idolatry, and that his fancy, unchecked,
viewed them as incapable of error or imperfeaion.
This is diftindly to be feen in the emendations which
lie has ffiven of the texts, particularly in his editions
of EucUd. Not only every Imperfeaion of the read-
incr is afcrlbed to the Ignorance of copyifts, and every
indiftinanefs in the conception, inconclullvenefs in the
rcafonlng, and defea In the method, Is afcrlbed to the
ignorance or miftake of the commentators ; but It Is
all along affumed that the work was perfea in its kind ;
and that by exhibiting a perfecl work, we reftore the
genuine original. This Is furely gratuitous ; and it is
^ery poflible that It has, In fome inftances, made Dr
SImfon fail of his anxious purpofe, and give us even
a better than the original. It has undoubtedly made
hina fail In what Jhould have been his great purpofe, viz.
to give the world a conneaed fyftem of the ancient
geometrical analyfis ; fuch as would, In the firft place,
exhibit It in Its moil engaging form^ elegant, perfpicu-
ous, and comprehenfive ; and. In the next place, fuch
as (hould engage the mathematicians ot the prcfent age
to adopt it as the moft certain and fuccefsful conduc-
tor in thofe laborious and difficult refearches in which
the demands of modern fcience continually engage
them. And this might have been expeaed, in the pro-
vince of fpeculative geometry at leaft, from a perfon of
fuch extenfive knowledge of the properties of figure,
and who had fo eminently fucceeded In the many trials
which he had made of Its powers. We might have ex-
peaed that he would at leaft have exhibited in one fy-
ftematic point of view, what the ancients had done in
feveral detached branches of the fcience, and how far
they had proceeded in the folution of the feveral fuc-
ceflive clalTes of problems ; and we might have hoped,
that he would have Inftruaed us In what manner we
fhould apply that method to the folution of problems
of a more elevated kind, daily prefented to us in the
queftions of phyfico-mathematical fcience. By this he
would have acquired diftinguifhed honour, and fcience
would have received the moft valuable Improvement.
But Dr Simfon has done little of all this ; and we can-
not fay that great helps have been derived from his la-
hours by the eminent mathematicians of this age, who
are fnccefsfuUy occupied in advancing^ our knowledge
of nature, or in improving the arts of life._ He has in-
deed contributed greatly to the entertainment of the
fpeculative mathematician, who is more delighted with
the cosfcious cxercife of his own reafoning powers, than
with the final refuh of his refearches. Yet we are not
even certain that Dr Simfon has done this to the ex-
tent he wifhed and hoped. He has not engaged the
liking o! mathematicians to this analyfis, by prefenting
It in the moft agreeable form. His own extreme an-
xiety to tread in the very footfteps of the original au-
thors, has, in a thoufand inftances, precluded him from
uling his own extenfive knowledge, that he might not
employ principles which were not of a clafs inferior to ^
that of the queftion in hand. Thus, of neceffity, did
the method appear trammelled. We are deterred from
employing a pigcefs which appears to reftrain us in the
application of the knowled(»e which we have already
acquired ; and, difgufied with the tedious, and perhaps
indirea path, by which we muft arrive at an objea
which we fee clearly over the hedge, and which we
could reach by a few fteps, of the fecurity of which
we are otherwife perfeaiy afl'ured. Thefe prepofief-
fions are indeed founded on miftake ; but the miftake i<
fuch, that all fall into it, till experience 1ms enlarged
their views. This circumftance alone has hitherto pre-
vented mathematicians from acquiring that knowledge
of the ancient analyfis which would enable them to pro-
ceed in their refearches with certainty, difpatch, and
dehght. It Is therefore deeply to be regretted, that
this eminent genius has occupied, in this fuperftitious
palaeology, a long and bufy life, which might have been
employed in original works of infinite advantage to the
world, and honour to himfelf.
Our readers will, it is hoped, confider thefe obferva-
tions as of general fcientific importance, and as inti-
mately conneaed with the hiftory of mathematics ; and
therefore as not improperly introduced in the biogra-
phical account of one of the moft eminent writers on
this fcience. Dr Simfon claimed our notice as a ma-
thematician ; and his alFeaionate admiration o^ the an-
cient analyfis is the prominent feature of his literary
charaaer. By this he Is known all over Europe ; and
his name is never mentioned by any foreign author with-
out fome very honourable allufion to his diftinguilhed
geometrical elegance and fltill. Dr James Moor, pro-
feflbr of Greek in the univerfity of Glafgow, no lefs
eminent for his knowledge in ancient geometry than
for his profeflional talents, put the following appofite
Infcrlption below a portrait of Dr Simfon :
Geometriam, sub Tyranno barbaro s«va
SeRTITUTE DIU SdUALENTEM, in LiBERTATEM
Et DECUS ANT1QJ7UM VINDICAVIT
Unus.
Yet It muft not be underftood that Dr Simfon's pre-
dileaion for the geometrical analyfis of the ancients did
fo far miflead him as to make him neglea the fymbo-
lical analyfis of the prefent times ; on the contrary, he
was completely mafter of it, as has been already obfer-
ved, and frequently employed It. In his academical
kaures to the ftudents of his upper claffes, he ufed to
point out its proper province (which he by no means li-
mited by a fcanty boundary), and in what cafes it might
be applied with fafety and advantage even to queftions^
of pure geometry. He once honoured the writer of
this article with the fight of a veiy fhort differtation on
this fubjea (perhaps the one referred to in the preface to
his Conic Seaions). In this piece he was perhaps more
liberal than the moft zealous partifans of the fymbolical
analyfis could defire, admitring as a fufficient equation
of the Conic Seaions L = -pn where L is the latus
reaum, x is the diftance of any point of the curve from
the focus, p is the perpendicular drawn from the focus
to the tangent In the given point, and c Is the chord of
the equicurve circle drawn thro' the focus. Unfortu-
nately this differtation was not found among his pa-
3 S 2 peis.
SIM [5
^^f"" pers. He fpoke lnln,irh terms of the Analytical Works
'~" of Mr Cotes, and of the two BernouUie. He was con
faked by Mr M'Laurin during the progrefs of his ine-
ftimable Treatife of Fhixions, and contributed not a
little to the reputation of thnt work. The fpirit of
that rnoft in'Tem'ous al.'ebraic dcraonilration of the flu-
xions of a redtangic, and the very procefs of'the argu-
ment, is the fame with Dr Simfon's in his differtation
on the limits of quantities. It was therefore from a
thorough acquaintance with tlie fubjedt, and by a juft
tafte, that he was induced to prefer his favourite analy-
f's, or, to fpeak innre properly, to exhort mathematici-
ans to employ it in its own fphcre, and not to become
ignorant o* [-cointtry, while they fuccefsfully employ-
ed the fyinbol ca! analvfis in cafes wliich did not require
it, and wliich fuffcred by its admifTion. It mud be ac-
knowledged, however, tliat in his later years, the dif-
f^uft which he felt at the artiticial and flovcnly employ-
mcnt on fubjtds of pure geometry, fometimes hin-
dered him from even looking at the moft refined and in-
genious improvements of the algebraic analyfis which
occur in^ the writings of Euler, D'Alembert, and
other eminent mailers. But, when properly in-Tormed
of them, he never failed to give them their due praife ;
i\nd we remember him fpeaking, in terms of great fa-
:isfa6tion, of an improvement of the infinitefimal cal-
culus, by D'Alembert and De la Grange, in their re-
fearcheg concerning the propagation of found, and the
vibrations of rr^ufical cords.
And that Dr Simfon not only was mafler of this cal-
culus and the fymbolical calculus in general, but held them
in proper efteem, appears from two valuable differta-
tions to be found in his pofthumous works; the one on
logarithms, and the other on the hmits of ratios. The
lall, in particular, fhows how completely he was fatis-
iied with refpefl; to the folid foundation of the method
of fluxions ; and it contains an elegant and ilrid de-
nionliration of all the applications which have been
r.-.adc of the method by its illullrious autlior to the ob-
jects of pure geometry.
We hoped to Iiave given a much more complete and
iiiflruftive account of this eminent geometer and his
works, by the aid of a perfon fully acquainted with
both, and able to appreciate their value ; but an acci-
dent has deprived Us of this affiilance, when it was too
late to procure an equivalent : and we muft requeft our
l eaders to accept of this very impei-feft account, fince
we cannot do juftice to Dr Simfon's merit, unlefs al-
inoit equally converfant in all the geometry of the anr
cient Oreeks..
The life of a hterary man rarely teems with anecdote;
snd a mathematician, devoted to his ftudies, is perhaps
more abftrafted than any other perfon from the ordina-
ry occurrences of life, and even the ordinary topics of
converfation. Dr Simfon was of this clafs ; and, having
never married, lived entirely a college life. Having no
occafion for the commodious houfe to which his place
in the univerfity intitled him, he contented himfelf with,
chambers, good indeed, and fpacious enough for his
fober accommodation, and for receiving his choice col-
ledion of mathematical writers, but without any deco-
ration or commodious furniture. His official fervant
fufficed for valet, footman, and chambermaid^ As this
retirement was entirely devoted to ftudy, he entertained
iio company in his chambers, but in a neighbouring.
08 ] SIM
houfe, where his apartment was facred to him ani his S'
guefts.
Having in early life devoted himfelf to the rcfloratlon '
of the works of the ancient geometers, he ftudied them
with unremitting attention ; and, retiring from the pro-
mjfcuous intercourfe of the world, he contented himfelf
with a fmall fociety of intimate friends, with whom he
could lay afide every reftraint of ceremony or referve, and
indulge in all the innocent frivolities of life. Every Friday
evening was fpent in a party at whiil, in which he ex-
celled, and took delight in inftru£ting others, till in-
creafing years nr-ide him lefs patient with the dalnefs o!
a Icholar. The card-party was followed by an hour or
two dedicated folely to playful converfation. In l:ke
manner, every Saturday he had a lefs feleft party to
dinner at a houfe about a mile from town. The Doc-
tor's long lii^e gave him occafion to fee the (Jramatls
perfoTKE of this little theatre feveral times completely
changed, while he continued to give it a perfonal iden-
tity : fo that, without any defign or wifh of his own,
it became, as it were, his own houfe and his own fami-
ly, and went by his name In this flate did the prefent
writer firll fee it, with Dr Simfon as its father and
head, refpefted and beloved by every branch ; for, as it
was for relaxation, and not for the enjoyment of his
acknowledged fuperiority, that he continued this habit
o| his early youth ; and as his notions " of a fine talk"
did not confift in the pleafure of having " tolfed and
gored a good many to-day," his companions were as
much at their eafe as he wilhed to be himfelf; and it
was no fmall part of their entertainment (and of his too),
to fmile at thofe innocent deviations from commoa,
forms, and thofe miilakes with rcfpe£t to life and man-
ners, which an almod total retirement from the world,
and Inceffant occupation in an abflraft fcience, caufed
this venerable prefident- frequently to exhibit. Thele
are remembered with a more affefting regret, that they
are now " with the days that are pall," than the moil
pithy apophthegms, uflieted in. with an emohatlcal,
" Why, Sir!" or " No, Slr^' which precludes all reply.
Dr Simfon never exerted his prefidial authority, unlefs
It were to check fome infringement of good brcedin r,or
any thing that appeared unfriendly to religion or purity
of manners ; for thefe he had the higheft reverence. We
have twice heard him fing (he had a fine voice and moil
accurate ear) fome lines of a Latin hymn to the divine
geometer, and each time the rapturous tear flood in his
eye.
But we aflc the reader's pardon fjr this digrelFion; it
is not however ufelefs, fince it paints the man as much as
any recital of his ftudies ; and to his acquaintances we
are certain that it will be an acceptable memorandum.
To theni it was often matter of regret, that a perfon of
fuch eminent talents, which would have made him fhinc
equally in any hne of life, fhould have allowed hImfelF
to be lo completely devoted to aftudy which abftra61:ed,:
lum from the ordinary purfuits of men, unfitted him for
the aftlve enjoyment of hfe, and kept him out of thofe
walks which they frequented, and where they would have
rejoiced to ineet him.
Dr Simfon was of an. advantageous ftature, with a-
fine countenance; and even in his old age had a grace-
ful carriage and manner, and always, except when in,
mourning, dreffed in white cloth. He -was of a cheer-
ful difpofztionj and though he did not make the firll.
advances^
\
S I N
[ 509 1
S I N
advances to acqxiaintance, had the moft afFaWe manner,
and ftrangers were at perfeft eafe in his company. He
enjoyed a long courfe of uninterrupted health ; but to-
wards the clofe of life fuffered from an acute difeafe,
mid was obliged to employ an afliftant in his profefllonal
labours for a few years preceding his death, which hap-
pened in 1768, at the age of 81. He left to the uni-
verfity his valuable library, which is now arranoed apart
from the reft of the books, and the public ufe of it is
limited by particular rules. It is confidered as the moft
choice colkftion of mathematical books and manufcripts
in the kingdom, and many of them are rendered doubly
valuable by t)r Simfon's notes.
SIN, a breach 'ot tranfgreflion of fome divine law or
command.
SINAI, or SiNA, a famous mountain of Arabia Pe-
ligsa, upon which God gave the law to Mofes. It
ftands in a kind of peninfula, formed by the two arms
of the Red Sea, one of which ftretches out towards the
north, and is called the Gulph of Kolfum; the other ex-
tends towards the eaft, and is called the Gulph of Elan,-
er the Elani [fJj Sen. At this day the vVrablafts call
Mount Sinai by the name of Tor, that is, the " mown-
tain,' / way of excellence ; or G'lbel or Jilel Moufa,
the mountain of Mofes." It is 260 miles from Cairo,
Much has been faid of the writings to be feen at Si- Slnapi"
nai and in the plain about it ; and fuch were the hopes ^""V"
of difcoveries refpefting the wanderings of the Tfraelites
from thefe writings, that Dr Clayton bifhop of Clogher
offered L. 500 Sterling to defray the expences of jour-
ney to any man of letters who would undertake to cO"
py them. No man, we believe, undertook this taflc :
and the accurate Danifh traveller Niebuhr found no
writings there but the names of perfons who had vifited
the place from curiofity, and of Egyptians who had
chofen to be buried in that region.
SINAPIS, Mustard, in botany: A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of tetr adynamia, and to the or-
der (A fdiqu'fa ; and in the natural fyftem ranged under
the 39th order, S'diqunfa. The calyx confifts of four
expanding ftrap-fhaped deciduous leaves ; the ungues or
bafes of the petals are ftraight ; two glandules between
the fhorter ftamina and piftillum, alfo between the
longer and the calyx. There are 17 fpecies ; the arven-
fis, orientalis, brafiicata, alba, nigra, pyrenaica, pubef-
cens, chinenfis, juncea, erucoides, allioni, hifpanica, mil-
lefolia, incana, Isevigata, cernua, and japonica. Three
of thefe are natives of Britain ; the alba, nigra, and ar-
venfis.
I . The alba, or white muftard, which is generally cul-
and generally it requires a journey of ten days to travel tivated as a falad herb for winter andfpring ufe. This
thither. The wildernefs of Sinai, where the Ifraelites
continued incampcd for almoft a year, and where Mofes
erefted the tabernacle of the covenant, is confiderably
elevated above the reft of the country ; and the afcent
to it is by a very craggy way, tlie greateft part of which
is cut out o: the rock ; then one comes to a large fpace
of ground, which is a plain furrounded on all fides by
rocks and eminences, whofe length is nearly 12 miles.
Towards the extremity of thi:^ plain, on the north fide,
two high mountains ftiow themfclves, the higheft of
which is called Sinai and the other Horeb. The tops of
Horeb and Sinai have a veiy fteep afcent, and do not
ftand upon much ground, in cemparifon to their extra-
ordinary height ; that of Sinai is at leaft one-third part
higher than the otlier, and its afcent is more upright
and d iff] cult.
Two German miles and a half up the mountain
P.ands the convent of St Catharine. The body of this
monaftery is a building 1 20 feet in length and almoft
as many in breadth. Before it ftands another fmall
building, in which is the only gate of the convent,
which remains always fnut, except when theT)iftiop is
here. At other times^, whatever is introduced within
the convent, whether men or provifions, is drawn up by
the roof in a bafl^et, and with a cord and a pulley. The
whole building is ol hewn ftone ; which, in fuch a de-
fert, rauft have coft prodigious cxpence and pains. Near
this chapel iffues a fountain of very good trcfh water ;
it is looked upon as miraculous by lome who cannot con-
ceive how water can flow from the brow of fo high and
barren a mountain. Five or fix paces frona it they
fliow a ftone, the height of which is four or five feet, and
breadth about three, which, they fay, is the very Hone
whence Mofes caufed the water to gufh out. Its co-
lour is of a fpotted grey, and it is as it were fet in a
kind of earth, where no other rock appears. This ftone
lias 1 2 holes or channels, which are about a foot wide,
whence it is thought the water came forth for the If-
taelites to drink,
rifes with a branched hairy ftalk two feet high ; the
leaves are deeply jagged on their edges and rough. The
flowers aie difpofed in loofe fpikes at the end ot the
branches, ftanding upon horizontal footftalks ; they
have four yellow petals in form of a crofs, which are
fucceeded by hairy pods, that end with long, compref-
fed, oblique beaks ; the pods generally contain four
white feeds.
2. The nigra, or common muftard, which is frequent-
ly found growing naturally in many parts of Britain,
but is alfo cultivated in fields for the feed, of which
the fauce called mujlard is made. This rifes with a
branching ftalk four or five feet high ; the lower leaves
are large, rough, and very like thole of turnip ; the
upper leaves are fmaller and lefs jagged. The flowers
are fmall, yellow, and grow in fpiked clufters at the end
of the bi'anches ; they have four petals |)laced in form
of a crofs, and are fucceeded by fmooth four-cornered
pods.
3. I'he arvenfis, grows nattirally on arable land in
many parts of Britain. The feed of this is commonly
lold under the title of Durham muftard-feed. Of this
there are two varieties, if not diftinft fpecies ; the one
with cut, the other with entire leaves. The ftalks rife
two feet high ; the leaves are rough ; in the one they are
jagged like turnip-leaves ; in the other they are long and
entire. The flowers arc yellow ; the pods are turgid,
angular, and have long beaks.
Muftard, by its acrimony and pungency, ftimulatcs
the folids, and attenuates vllcid juices; and hence ftands
defervedly recommended for exciting appetite, afliiling
digefiion, promoting the fluid fecretions, and for the
other purpofes of the acrid plants called antifcorbuti -. It-
imparts its tafte and fmcll in perfcftion to aqueous li-
quors, and by diftillation with water yields an eflential
oil of great acrimony. To reftified fpirit its feeds
give out very little either of their fmell or tafte. Sub-
jedled to the prefs, they yield. a confiderable quantity o£
mild i.^ipid oil; which is «;s free from acrimony as that
SIN Is
of almonds. They are applied as an external Hlmulant to
benumbed or paralytic limbs; to parts afFefted with fixed
rheumatic pains ; and to the foles of the feet, in the
low ftage of acute difeafes, for raifing the pulfe : in this
intention, a mixture of equal parts of the powdered
feeds and crumb of bread, with the addition fometimes
-of a little brulfed garlic, are made into a cataplafm with
•a fufficient quantity of vinegar.
SINAPISM, in pharmacy, an external medicine, in
■form of a cataplafm, compofed chiefly of miiftard-feed
•pulverized, and other ingredients mentioned in the pre-
ceding article.
SINCERITY, lionefty of intention, freedom from
hypocrify. See Moral Philosophy, n" 157.
SINCIPUT, in anatomy, the forepart of the head,
reaching from the forehead to the coronal future.
SINDY, a province of Hindoftan Proper, boufided
on the weft by Makran, a province of Perfia ; on the
north by the territories of the king ef Candahar ; on
the north-eaft by thofe of the Selks ; on the eaft by a
fandy defert ; and on the fouth-eaft by Cutch. It ex-
tends along the courfe of the river Sinde or Indus from
its mouth to Behker or Bhakor, on the frontiers of
Moultan. Reckoned that way, it is 300 miles long ;
and its breadth, in its wideft part, is about 160. In
many particulars of foil and climate, and in the general
appearance of the furface, SIndy refembles Egypt ; the
lower part of it being compofed of rich vegetable mould,
and extended into a wide dell ; while the upper part of
it is a narrow flip of country, confined on one fide by a
ridge of mountains, and on the other by a fandy defert,
the river Indus, equal at leaft to the Nile, winding
through the midft of this level valley, and annually
overflowing it. During great part of the fouth-weft
monfoon, or at leaft in the months of July, Auguft,
and part of September, which is the rainy feafon in moft
other parts of India, the atmofphere is here generally
clouded ; but no rain falls except very near the fea. In-
deed, veiy few fhowers fall during the whole year ;
owing to which, and the neighbourhood of the fandy
deferts, which bound it on the eaft and on the north-
weft, the heats are fo violent, and the winds from tliofe
quarters fo pernicious, that the houfes are contrived fo
as to be occafionally ventilated by means of apertures
on the tops of them, refembling the funnels of fmall
chimneys. When the hot winds prevail, the windows
are clofely fliut ; and the loweft part of the current
of air, which is always the hotteft, being thus exclu-
ded, a cooler, becaufe more elevated, part defcends into
the houfe through the funnels. By this contrivance
alfo vaft clouds of duft are excluded ; the entrance of
which would alone be fufficient to render the houfes un-
inhabitable. The roofs are compofed of thick layers
of earth in ftead of terraces. Few countries are more
unwholefome to European conftitutions, particularly
the lower part of the Delta. The prince of this pro-
•vince is a Mahometan, tributary to the king of Can-
dahar. He refides at Hydrabad, although Tatta is the
capital. The Hindoos, who were the original inhabi-
tants of SIndy, are by their Mahometan governors treat-
ed with great rigour, and denied the public exercife of
their religion ; and this feverity drives vaft numbers of
them Into other countries. The inland parts of SIndy
produce faltpetre, fal-ammoniac, borax, bezoar, lapis la-
10 1 SIN
zuli, and raw Hlk. They have alfo manufaaorlea of Sb
cotton and fi!k of various kinds ; and they make fine II
cabinets. Inlaid with ivory, and finely lackered. They
alfo export great quantities of butter, clarified and
wrapt up in duppas, made of the hides of cattle. The
ladies wear hoops of ivory on both their arms and legs,
which when they die are burnt with them. They have
large black cattle, excellent mutton, and fmall hardy
horfes. Their wild game are deer, hares, antelopes,
and foxes, which they hunt with dogs, leopards, and a
fmall fierce creature called a flilahgufli.
SINE, or Right SiNB of an Arch, in trigonometry,
is a right Hne drawn from one end of that arch, perpen-
dicular to the radius drawn to the other end of the
arch ; being always equal to half the cord of twice the
arch. See Trigonometry and Geometry.
SINECURE, a nominal office, which has a revenue
without any employment.
SINEW, a tendon, that which unites the mufcles to
the bones.
SINGING, the aftion of making divers Inflexions
of the voice, agreeable to the ear, and correfpondent
to the notes of a fong or piece of melody. See Me-
lody.
The firft thing to be done in learning to fing, is to
raife a fcale of notes by tones and femitones to'an oc-
tave, and defcend by the fame notes ; and then to rife
and fall by greater intervals, as a third, fourth, fifth,
&c. and to do all this by notes of different pitch. Then
thefe notes are reprefented by lines and fpaces, to which
the fyllables/fl, fol, la, mi, are apphed, and the pupil
taught to name each line and fpacc thereby j whence
this praaice is calledyo/./am^, the nature, reafon, effefts,
&c. whereof, fee under the article Solfaing.
Singing of Birds. It is worthy of obfervatlon, that
the female of no fpecies of birds ever fings : with birds
it Is the reverfe of what occurs in human kind. Among
the feathered tribe, all the cares of life fall to the lot of
the tender fex ; theirs is the fatigue of Incubation ; and
the principal (hare in nurfing the helplefs broo4: to al-
leviate thefe fatigues, and to fupport her under them,
nature hath given to the male the fong, with all the
little blandifiiments and foothing arts ; thefe he fondly
exerts (even after court/hip) on fome fpray contiguous
to the neft, during the time his mate is performing her
parental duties. But that flie fhould be filent is alfo
another wife provifion of nature, for her fong would
difcover her neft ; as would a gaudinefs of plumage,
which, for the fame reafon, feems to have been deaied
her.
On the fong of birds feveral curious experiments and
obfervations have been made by the Hon. Daines Bar-
rington. See Phi/. Tranf. vol. Ixiil.
SINGULAR NUMBER, In grammar, that number of
nouns and verbs which ftands oppofed to plural. See
Grammar, n* 14.
SINISTER, fomethlng on or towards the left hand.
Hence fome derive the word fmijler, a finenda ; becaufe
the gods, by fuch auguries, permit us to proceed in our
defigns.
Sinister, is ordinarily ufed among us for unlucky ;
thaugh, in the facred rites of divination, the Romans
ufed it in an oppofite fenfe. Thus avis fmijlra, or a bird
on the left hand, was efteemed a happy omen : whence,
' ia
S I ? C 5^
tier in the law of the 12 tables, Jt}ejtnlflra fopuU magtfler
'"•^Sinister, 5n heraldr>'. The iiniaer fide of an ef-
cutcheon Is the left-hand fide ; the finifter chief, the left
angle of the chief; the finifter bafe, the left-hand part
of the bafe.
Sinister AfpeS, among aftrologers, is an appearance
of two planets happening according to the fuceeffion of
the figns ; as Saturn in Aries, and Mars in the fame de-
gree of grcmini. . , • 1 11 j
SINISTRT, a feft of ancient heretics, thus called
becaufe they held the left hand In abhorrence, and made
it a point of reUgipn not to receive any thing there-
^^^SINKING FUND, a provifion made by parliament,
confifting of tkc furplufage of other funds, intended to
be appropriated to the payment of the national debt j
on the ciedit of which very large fums have been bor-
rowed for public ufes. See National Debt and Re-
VENUE. J.
SINOPICA TERRA, in natural hiltory, the name ot
a red earth of the ochre kind, called alfo rubricaftno-
pica, and by fome authors>o/w. It Is a very clofe, com-
paa, and weighty earth, of a fine glowing purple co-
lour. It Is of a pure texture, but not very hard, and
of an even but dufty furface. It adheres firmly to the
tongue. Is perfcdly fine and fmooth to the touch, does
not crumble eafily between the fingers, and ftains the
hands. It melts very flowly in the mouth, is perfeftly
pure and fine, of an auftere aftrlngent tafte, and fer-
ments violently with aquafortis. It was dug in Cappa-
docia, and carried for fale to a city in the neighbour-
hood called Sinope, whence it had its name. It is now
found In plenty in the New Jerfeys In America, and is
called by the people there bloodjlone. Its fine texture
and body, with Its high florid colour, muft make it very
valuable to painters ; and from Its aftnngency it will
probably be a powerful medicine.
SINOPLE, in heraldry, denotes vert, or green co-
lour in armories.— Sinople Is ufed to fignlfy love, youth,
beauty, rejoicing, and liberty ; whence it is that letters
of grace, ambition, legitimation, &c. arc always fealed
with green wax. ,
SINUOSITY, a ferles of bends and turns m arches
or other irregular figures, fometlmes jutting out and
fometlmes falling In.
SINUS, in anatomy, denotes a cavity m certain bones
and other parts, the entrance whereof Is very narrow,
and the bottom wider and more fpaclous.
Sinus, in furgery, a little cavity or facculus, fre-
quently formed by a wound or ulcer, wherein pus is col-
lefted.
SIPHON. See Hydrostatics, n 25.
SIPHONANTHUS, in botany ; a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of tetrandia and order of mono-
gynia. The corolla is monopetalous, funnel-fhaped ;
the tube Is very narrow, and much longer than the ca-
lyx. There are four berries, each containing one feed.
There Is only one fpecles, the indica.
SIPONTUM, Sepuntum, or Sipus (anc. geog.),
a town of Apulia, fo denominated (according to Stra-
bo) 'rum the great quantity of fepi^ or cnttlefifh that
arc thrown upon the coaft. Diomed is fuppofed by
the fame author to have been the fwunder of this place;
Slren«
I ] SIR
which appears from Livy to have become a colony of Slpunculus
Roman citizens. In the early ages of Chriftian hierar-
chy, a bifhop was fixed in this church ; but, under the
Lombards, his fee was united to that of Beneventum.
Bein? again feparated, Sipontum became an archleplf-
copal' diocefe in 1094, about which time It was fo lU
treated by the Barbarians, that it never recovered Its
fplendour, but funk Into fiich mifery, that in 1260 it
was a mere defert, from the want of Inhabitants, the
decay of commerce, and the infalubrlty of the air. Man-
fred having taken thefeclrcumftanceslnto confideratlon,
began In 1261 to build a new city on the fea-fhore, to
which he removed the few remaining Sipontines. (See
the article Manfredonia). Sipontum was fituated at
the dlltance of a mile from the fliare. Excepting a
part of its Gothic cathedral, fcarce one ftone of the an-
cient city now remains upon another.
SIPUNCULUS, In natural hiftory, a genus of the
intejltna clafs of worms in the Linnrean fyftem. Its
charaAers are thefe : the body Is lound and elongated \
the mouth attenuated and cylindrical ; and the lateral
aperture of the body rugged. There are two fpecies 5.
one found under ftones in the European, and the other
in the Indian ocean.
SIR, the title of a knight or baronet, vvhich, for
diftlndllon's fake, as It Is now given hidifcrlmlnately ta
all men, is always prefixed to the knight's Chriftian-
name, either In fpeaklng or writing to them.
SIRCAR, any office under the government In Hln-
doftan. It is fometlmes ufed for the Itate of govern-
ment Itfelf. LIkewife a province, or any number of
Pergunnahs placed under one head in the government
books, for conveniency in keeping accounts. In com-
mon ufage in Bengal, the under banyans of European
gentleman are called fircars.
SIRE, a title of honour formerly given to the king
of France as a mark of fovereignty. ■ ^
Sire, was likewlfe anciently ufed In the fame fenfe
with fieur and feigmur^ and applied to barons, gentlemen,
and citizens.
SIRENS, in fabulous hiftory, certain celebrated
fonoftrefles who were ranked among the demigods of
antiquity. Hyginus places their birth among the con-
fequences of the rape of Proferplnc. Others make
them daughters of the river Acheloiis and one of the
mufes*. The number of the Sirens was three; dSiA *o^\d,Met>
their names were Parthenope, Lygea, and Leucqfia. Some lib. iv,
make them half women and half fifti ; others, half wo-
men and half birds. There are antique reprefentations
of them ftlU fubfifting under both thefe forms. Paufa-
nias tells us, that the Sirens, by the pcrfuafron of Juno,
challenged the Mufes to a trial of feill in finging ; and
thefe having vanquilhed them, plucked the golden fea-
thers from the wings of the Sirens, and formed them
into crowns, with which they adorned their own heads.
The Argonauts are faid to have been diverted from the
enchantment of their fongs by the fuperior ftrains of
Orpheus; Uiyffes, however, had great difficulty in fe-
curing himfelf from fedu<£lion. See Odyf. lib. xli.
Pope, In his notes to the twelfth book of the Odyf-
fey, obferves, the critics have greatly laboured to explain
what was the foundation or this fiftion of the Sirens,
We are told by fome, that the Sirens were queens of
certain fmall illands named Hirenufi, that lie near Ca-
pr?£a
Sirafts,
Siren.
SIR [ 5
praea in Italy, and chiefly Inhabited the promontory of
, Minerva, upon the top of which that goddefs had a
temple, as fome affirm, built by UlyfTcs!' Here there
was a renowned academy, in the rei^n of the Sirens,
famous for eloquence and the liberal fcfences, which
gave occalion to the invention of this fable of the fweet-
nefs of the voice ami attraaing fongs of the Sirens.
But why then are they fabled \o be deftroyers, and
painted in fuch dreadful colours ? We are told, that at
lalt the ftudents abufed their knowledge, to the colour-
ing^of wrong, the corruption of manners, and the fub-
verllon of government : that is, in the language of poe-
try, they were feigned to be transformed into moniters,
and with their mufic to have enticed palTengers to their
ruin, who there confumed their patrimonies, and poi-
foned their virtues with riot and effeminacy. The place
is now called M,if/. Some wi iters tell us of a certain
bay, contraded within winding ftraits and broken
chffp, which, by the finging of the winds and beating
of the waters, returns a delightful harmony, that allures
the paffenger to approach, who is immediately thrown
againll the rocks, and fwallowed up by the violent
eddies. Thus Horace, moralifmg, calls idlenefs a Si-
Sirei
!l
SiT. n
■ ■ Vitanda ejl Improla Siren
Deful'ia.
But the fable may be applied to all pleafures in ge-
neral, which, if too eagerly purfued, betray the incau-
tious into ruin ; while wife men, hke Ulyfles, making
ufe of their rcafon, ftop their eais againil their infmua-
tions.
The learned Mr Bryant fays, that the Sirens were
Cuthite and Canaanitilh priells, who had founded tem-
ples in Sicily, which were rendered infamous on account
of the women who officiated. They were much ad-
difted to cruel rites, fo that the lliores upon which they
ref:dcd are defcribed as covered with the bones of men
deftroyed by their artifice. VirgU. ^Mneid. lib. v.
V. 864.
All andient authors agree in telling us, that Sirens in-
habited the coaft of Sicily. The name, according to
Bochart, who derives it from the Phoenician language,
implies a fongllisefs. Hence it is probable, fays Dr Bur-
ney, that in ancient times there may have been excellent
lingers, but of corrupt morals, on the coaft of Sicily,
who, by feducing voyagers, gave rife to this fable.
And if this conjeaure be well founded, he obferves,
the Mufes are not the only pagan divinities who pre-
If ived their influence over mankind in modern times j
for every age has its Sirens, and every Siren her vota'
r:e3 ; when beauty and talents, both powerful in them-
felves, are united, they become ttill more attraaive.
Siren, in zoology, a genus of animals belongin-^ to
the_ clafs of amphibia and the order of meantes. It is
a biped, naked, and furniflied with a tail ; the feet are
brachiated with claws. This animal was difcovered by
-Dr Garden in Carolina ; it is found in fwampy and
:iraiddy places, by the lides of pools, under the tiunks
of old trees thut hang over the water. The natives
call it by the name of rnvd-in^^uana. LinnJEus firft ao-
prehendet!, that it was the larva of a kind of lizard ;
but as its fincrcrs are furnifhed with claws, and it makes
a croakfng noife, he concluded from thefe properties, as
12 ] SIS
well as from the fituation of the anus, that it could not
be the larva of the lizard, and therefore formed of it a
new genus under the name oi firen. He was alfo obli-
ged to eftabhfli for this uncommon animal a new order ' '
called meanles or gliders : the animals of which are am
phibious, breathing by means of gills and lungs, and
furniflied with arms and claws.
SI REX, in zoology, a genus of animals belonging
to the clafs of in/eds, and to the order of hymenopJera.
i he mouth has two ftrong jaws ; there are two
truncated palpi or feelers, filiform antenna, an ^ xTerted,
Ibfl, ferrated fting, a feffile, mucronated abdomen, and
lanceolated wings. There are feven fpecies.
SIRIUM, in botany; a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of tetrandria and order of monogynia. The
calvK is quadritid ; there is no corolla ; the neaarium
IS quadriphyllous and crowning the throat of the calyx •
the germen is below the corolla ; the ftigma is triHdl
and the ben y trilocular. There is only one' fpecies.
the myrtibliiirn.
SIRIUS, in aftronomy, a bright ftar in the conftel-
lation Cams. See Astronomy, n'^ 403, &c.
SIRLET (Flavins), an eminent Ronrian engraver oa
precious ftones : his Lacoon, and reprefentations in mi.
mature of antique ftatues at Rome, are veiy valuable
and fcarce. He died in 1737.
SIROCCO, a periodical wind which generally blows
in Italy and Dalmatia every year about Eafter. It
blows from the fouth-eaft by fouth : it is attended with
heat, but not rain; its ordinary period is twenty
days, and it ufually ceafes at funfet. When the fcirocco TraJ,
does not blow in this manner, the fummer is almoft free'''"
from wefterly winds, whirlwinds, and ftorms This''''' P
xvind IS prejudicial to plants, drying and burning up
the buds ; though it hurts not men any otherwife
than by caufing an extraordinary weaknefs andlaffitude-
mconveniences that are tuliy compenfated by a plentiful
hfliing, and a good crop of corn on the mountains. In
the iuramer time, when the wefterly wind ceafes for a
day. It is a fign that the firocco will blow the day fol-
lowing, which ufually begins with a fort of whirl-
wind.
SISKIN. See Fringilla.
SISON, BASTARD-STONB PARSLEY, in botauy • A
genus of plants belonging to the clafs of pentandria,
«nd to the order of digynia ; and in the natural fyftem
arranged under the 45 th order, wnbe/Zata. The fruit
IS egg-.fliaped and ftreaked ; the involucra are fubtetra-
phyUous. There are feven fpecies; the amomum, inun-
datum, fegetum, verticiilatum, falfum, canadenfe, and
ammi. I he lour tirft are natives of Great Britain.
I. The amomum, common barftard parfley, or field ftone-
wort, is a bienmal plant about three feet high, growing
wild in many places of Britain. Its feeds are fmall,
ftriated, of an oval figure and brown colour. Their
tafte i? warm and aromatic. Their whole flavour is ex-
traaed by fpirit of wine, which elevates very little of it
jn diftillation ; and hence the fpirituous extraa has the
flavour in great perfeaion, while the watery extraa has
very little. A tinaiire drawn with pure foirit is of a
green colour. The feeds have been elteemed aperient,
diuretic, and carminative ; but are httle regarded in the
prcfeiit praaice. 2. The leaft water-pai fnep.
ihe ilem is about eight or ten inches high, branched,
2 and
SIS [5
and creeping; the leaves, below the water, are ca-
pillary ; above It arc pinnated : the un:^bels are bifid.
/It grows In ditches and ponds. 3. Segelum, corn par-
lley, or honeywort. The ftems are numerous, flcnder,
ftrlated, branched, and leaning ; the leaves are pinna-
t€d ; the giinnae are oval, pointed, and ferrated, fix or
elc^ht pair, and one at the end ; the umbels fmall and
drooping ; the flowers minute and white. It grows in
corn-fields and hedges. 4. FerticUlatum, vertlcillate fi-
fon, has fmall leaves In whirls, and capillary ; the ftem
is two feet, with few leaves ; the common umbel Is com-
pofed of 8 or 10 rays, the partial of 18 or 20; both in-
volucra are compofed of five or fix oval acute foliola; the
flowers are all hermaphrodite, and the petals white.
SISTRUM, or CiSTRUM, a kind of ancient mufi-
cal Inftrument ufed by the priefts of Ifis and Ofirls.
It Is defcrlbed by Spon as of an oval form, in manner
of a racket, with three flicks traverfing It breadthwife ;
which playing freely by the agitation of the whole In-
ftrumefft, yielded a kind of found which to them feem-
ed melodious. Mr Malcolm takes the fiflrum to be no
better than a kind of rattle. Oifelius obferves, that the
fiflrum Is found reprefented on feveral medals, and on
tallfmans.
SISYMBRIUM, wATER-CRESSEs, In botany : A
genus of plants belonging to the clafs of tetradynamiay
and to the order of fillquofa ; and In the natural fyflem
ranged under the 39th order, SiHquofa. The filiqua,
or pod, opens with valves fomewhat flraight. The ca-
lyx and corolla are expanded. There are 29 fpecics, of
which eight are natives of Britain ; the naflurtlum, or
common water-crefs ; fylveflre, water-rocket j amphl-
bium, water-radlfh ; terreflre, annual water-radlfh ;
monenfe ; fophia, flixweed ; Irio, broad-leaved hedge-
muflard.
1 .The naflurtlum grows on the brinks of rivulets and
water ditches. The leaves have from 6 to 8 pair of
fmooth fucculent and feflile pinnae ; the flowers are
fmall and white, and grow In fhort"fpikes or tufts. The
leaves of water-crefTes have a moderately pungent talie,
emit a quick penetrating fmell, like that of muflard feed,
but much weaker. Their pungent matter Is taken up
both by watery and fplrltuous menflrua, and accompa-
nies the aqueous juicr?, which IfTues coploufly upon ex-
prefTion. It Is very volatile, fo as to arlfe In great part
in diftillatlon vi'ith reftified fpirit, as Well as with water,
and almofl totally to exhale In drymg the leaves, or In-
fpHTating by the gentleft heat to the confiftence of an
extraft, either the exprcffed juice, or the watery or
fplrltuous tlndures. Both the InfpifTated juice, and the
watery extraft, difcover to the tafle a fahne Impregna-
tion, and in keeping throw up cryflalllne cfflnrefcences
to the furface. On diftilling confiderable quantities of
the herb with water, a fmall proportion of a fubtile vo-
latile very pungent oil Is obtained,
r Water-crefTes obtain a place In the Materia Medica
for their antifcorbutic qualities, which have been long
very generally acknowledged by phyficiana They are
alfo fuppofed to purify the blood and humours, and to
open vifceral obftruftions. They are nearly alhed to
fcurvy-grafs, but are more mild and pleafant, and for this
reafon are frequently eaten as falad. In the pharma-
copoeias the juice of this plant Is direfted with that of
fcurvy-grafs and Seville oranges : and Dr CuUen has re-
tnarked, that the addition of acids renders the juices of
Vol. XVII. Fart II.
Sifym-
briura
I!
Sitta.
13 1 SIT
the plantae fillquofae more certainly efFeftital, by deter-
mining them more powerfully to an acefcent fermenta-
tion.
2. Silveilre, or water- rocket. The flem Is weak,
branched, and above a foot high. The leaves are pinnated ; Bertenhout's
the pinnag lance-fhaped, and ferrated : the flowers fmall, ^y"°ff" "f
J 11 1 r 1 • n 11 Natural
and yellow ; and grow frequently in ihallow water. Mijlury.
3. Amphibium, or water-radifh. The flem Is firm,
ere£l, and two or three feet high ; the leaves are pin-
natlfid, and ferrated ; the flowers are yellow, and in
fpikes ; the pods are fomewhat oval, and fhort. It
grows in water.
4. Terreflre, or land-rocket. The leaves are pinna*
tifid ; the pods are filled with feed ; the root is annual,
and white ; the flem Is angular, red-green, and fmooth.
5. Murale, or wall-rocket. The Hems are rough, and
about eight Inches high ; the leaves grow on foot-ftalks,
lance-fhaped, fmooth, fin uated, and ferrated; the flowers
are yellow ; the pods a little comprefTed, and flightly
carinated. It grows on fandy ground in the North,
Anglefea, &c.
6. Monenfe, or yellow rocket. The ftem Is fmooth,
and about 6 or 8 Inches high ; the leaves are pinnatifid;
the pinnae remote, generally 7 pair ; the flower Is yel-
low ; the petals entire ; the calyx is clofed. It grows
in the Ifle of Man.
7. Irio, broad leaved rocket, or hedge muflard ; the
flem is fmooth, and about two feet high ; the leaves are
broad, naked, pinnated, and halber^d fhaped at the end ;
the flowers are yellow, and the pods ereft. It grows
OH wafte ground.
8. Sophia, flixweed. The ftem Is firm, branched, and
two or three feet high ; the leaves are multlfid ; the feg-
ments are narrow ; the flowers are yellow ; the petals
much lefs than the calyx ; the pods are long, ftifF, curved,
without ftyle, and ereft ; the feeds are minute, and yeU
low. It grows on walls, wafte ground, &c.
SISYPHUS, in fabulous hlftory, one of the de-
fcendents of Eolus, married Merope, one of the
Pleiades, who bore him Glaucus. He refided at E-
pyra in Peloponnefus, and was a very crafty man.
Others fay, that he was a Trojan fecretary, who was
puniiJied for difcovering fecrets of ftace ; and others
again, that he was a notorious robber, killed by The-
feus. However, all the poets agree that he was punifh-
ed In Tartarus for his crimes, by rolling a great ftone
to the top, of a hill, which conftantly recoiled, and,
rolling down Inceffantly, renewed his labour.
SISYRINCHIUM, In botany: A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of gynandria, and order of trian'
dria; and In the natural fyflem ranged under the 6th or-
der, Enfata. The fpatha Is diphyllous ; there are 6
plane petals. The capfule is trilocular and Inferior.—
There are two fpecies, the bermudiana and palmifo-
lium.
SITE, denotes the fituatlon of an houfe, &c.
and fometimes the ground-plot or fpot of earth it
ftands on.
SirTA Nuthatch, In ornithology : A genus be-
longing to the clafs of aves^ and order of pica. It Is
thus charaftcrized by Dr Latham. The bill is for thexa/;5a«V
raoft part ftraight ; on the lower* mandible there Is a Ormthoh.
fmall angle ; noftrils fmall, covered with briftles refle61-,p'>
ed over them; tongue fhort, horny at the end, andP"^^7>&c.
jagged ; toes placed three forward and one backward ;
3T the
Si'tra
II
S I V [5
the middle toe joined clofely at the bafe to both
the outiMoIl ; back toe as large as the middle one. —
J There are 1 1 fpecies : the europsea, canadenfis, caroli-
nenfis, jamaicenfis, pufiUa, major, ngevia, furlnamenfis,
cafra, longiroftra, and chloris. The europaea, or nut-
hatch, is in length near five inches three-quarters,
in breadth nine inches ; the bill is ftrong and ftraight,
about three-quarters of an inch long ; the upper man-
dible black, the lower white : the irides are hazel ; the
crown of the head, back, and coverts of the wings, of a
fine bluifh grey ; a black ftroke paffes over the eye from
the mouth : the cheeks and chin are white ; the breaft
and belly of a dull orange-colour ; the quill-feathers
dullcy ; the wings underneath are marked with two
fpots, one white at the root of the exterior quills, the
other black at the joint of the baftard-wing ; the tail
confifts of twelve feathers ; the two middle are grey,
the two exterior feathers tipt with grey ; then fucceeds
a tranfverfe white fpot ; beneath that the reft is black :
the legs are of a pale yellow ; the back toe very ftrong,
and the claws large. '"Ihe female Is like the male, but
lefs in fize, and weighs commonly 5 or at moft 6 drams.
The eggs are fix or feven in number, of a dirty white,
dotted with rufous ; thefe are depofited in fome hole of
a tree, frequently one which has been deferted by a
woodpecker, on the rotten wood mixed with a little
mofs, &c. If the entrance be too large, the bird nice-
ly ftops up part of it with clay, leaving only a fmall
hole for itfelf to pafs in and out by. While the hen is
fitting, if any one puts a bit of ftick into the hole, (he
hiffes hke a fnake, and is fo attached to her eggs, that
fhe will fooncr fuffer any one to pluck off her feathers
than fly away. During the time of incubation, the
male fuppHes her with fuftenance, with all the tendernefs
of an affedtionate mate.
The bird runs up and down the bodies of trees, like
the woodpecker tribe ; and feeds not only on infedts,
but nuts, of which it lays up a confiderable provifion in
the hollows of trees. " It is a pretty fight, fays Mr
Willoughby, to fee her fetch a nut out of her hoard,
place it faft in a chink, and then, ftanding above it with
its head downwards, ftriking it with all its force, break
the ftiell, and catch up the kernel. It is fuppofed not
to flecp perched on a twig like other birds ; for when
confined in a cage, it prefers fleeping in a hole or cor-
ner. When at reft it keeps the head down. In autumn
it begins to make a chattering noife, beinj^ filent for the
greateft part of the year." Dr Plott tells us, that this
bird, by putting its bill into a crack in the bough of a
tree, can make fuch a violent found as if it was rending
afunder, fo that the noife may be heard at leaft twelve
fcore yards.
S ITOPHYL A X,^ formed from <^'To f «< corn,"
and f i"^a?, *' keeper," in antiquity, an Athenian magi-
ftrate, who had the fuperintendence of the corn, and
was to take care that nobody bought more than was ne-
ceffary for the provifion of his family. By the Attic
laws, particular perfons were prohibited from buying
more than fifty meafures of wheat a man; and that fuch
perfons might not purchafe more, the fitophylax was
appointed to fee the laws properly executed. It was a
capital crime to prevaricate in it. There were 15 of
thefe JitophylaceSy ten for the city, and five for the Pi-
reaeus.
SIVA, a name given by the Hindoos to the Supreme
14 ] V S I u
Being, when confidered as the avenger or deftroyer. Sir
William Jones has fhown that in feveral refpefts the cha-
rafter of Jupiter and Siva are the fame. As Jupiter jTT
overthrew the Titans and giants, fo did Siva overthrow fj',
the Daityas, or children of Diti, who frequently rebel-
led againft Heaven ; and as during the conteft the god
of Olympus was furnifhed with lightning and thunder-
bolts by an eagle, fo Brahma, who is fometimes repre-
fented riding on the Garuda, or eagle, preiented the
god of deftruftion with fiery fhafts. Siva alfo corre-
fponds with the Stygian Jove, or Pluto ; for, if we cari
tely on a Perfian tranflation of the Bhagavat , the fove-
relgn of Patala, or the infernal regions, is the king of
ferpents, named Sejhanaga, who is exhibited in paintincj
and fculpture, with a diadem and fceptre, in the lame
manner as Pluto. There is yet another attribute of
Siva, or Mahadeva, by which he is vifibly diftinouiflied
in the drawings and temples of Bengal. To deftroy, ac-
cording to the Vedantis of India, the Sufis of Perfia,
and many philofophers of our European fchools, is only
to generate and reproduce in another form. Hence the
god of deftruftion is holden in this country to prefide
over generation, as a fymbol of which he rides on a white
bull. Can we doubt that the loves and feats of Jupiter
Genitor (not forgetting the white bull of Europa), and
his extraordinary title of Lapis, for which no fatisfac-
tory reafon is commonly given, have a connexion with
the Indian philofophy and mythology ?
SIUM, Water Parsnep, in botany: A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and order of
digynla, and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
45th order, Umhellatx. The fruit is a little ovated, and
ftreaked. The involncrum is polyphyllous, and the pe-
tals are heart-fhaped. There arc 1 2 fpecies ; the lati-
folium, anguftifolium, nodiflorum, fifarum, ninfi, rigi-
dius, japonicum, falearica, graecum, ficulum, repens,
and decumbens. The three firft are natives of Britain.
I. The latifolium, or great water-parfnep, which grows
fpontanesufly in many places both of England and Scot-
land on the fides of lakes, ponds, and rivulets. The
ttalk is eredl and furrowed, a yard high or more. The
leaves are pinnated with three or four pair of large el-
liptic pinnae, with an odd one at the end, all ferrated
on the edges. The ftalk and branches are terminated
with eredl umbels, which is the chief charafteriftic of
the fpecies. Cattle are faid to have run mad by feed-
ing upon this plant. 2. The angtift'ifoliumy or narrow-
leaved water-parfnep, has pinnated leaves ; the axillary
umbels are pedunculated, and the general involucrum is
pinnatifid. It grows in ditches and rivulets, but is not
common. 3. The nodiflorum^ reclining water-parfnep,
has pinnated leaves, but the axillary umbels are feffile.
It grows on the fides of rivulets.
The fium ft/arum, or fkirret, is a native of China, but has
been for a long time cultivated in Europe, and particu-
larly in Germany. The root is a bunch of flefhy fibres,
each of which is about as thick as a finger, but very un-
even, covered with a whitifh rough bark, and has a hard
core or pith running thro' the centre. From the crown
of this bunch come feveral winged leaves, confiftingof two
or three pair of oblong dentated lobes each, and termina-
ted by an odd one. The ftalk rifes to about two feet, is
fet with leaves at the joints, and breaks into branches
towards the top, each terminating with an umbel of
fmall white flowers, which are fucceeded by ftriatc4
3, feedi
Siva
Slum
SIX I i
srks feeds like thofe of parflcy. Skirrets come neareft to
parfneps of any of the efculent roots, both for flavour
and nutritive qualities. They are rather fweeter than
the parfnep, and therefore to fome few palates are not
altogether fo agreeable.
Mr Margraaf extrafted from I lb. of flcirret root
ounces of pure fugar.
SIX-Clerks, officers in chancery of great account,
next in degree below the twelve matters, whofe bufinefs
is to inrol qommifTions, pardons, patents, warrants, &c.
which pafs the great feal, and to tranfaft and file all
proceedings by bill, anfwer, &c. They were anciently
c/erict\ and forfeited their places, if they married ; but
when the conilitution of the court began to alter, a law
was made to permit them to marry. Stat. 14. and 15.
Hen. VIII. cap. 8. They are alfo folicitors for parties
in fuits depending in the court of chancery. Under
them are 6 deputies and 60 clerks, who, with the under
clerks, do the bufinefs of the office. J
SIX Nations, See Niagara.
SIXTH, in mufic, one of the fimple original con-
cords, or harmonical intervals. See Interval.
SIXTUS V. (Pope), was born the 13th December
T 521, in La Marca, a village in the feigniory of Mont-
alto. His father, Francis Peretti, was a gardener, and
Ins mother a fervant maid. He was their eldeft child,
and was called Felix. At the age of nine he was
hired out to an inhabitant of the village to keep
fheep ; but difobliging his mafter, he was foon after
degraded to be keeper of the hogs. He was en-
gaged in this employment when Father Michael An-
gelo Selleri, a Francifcan friar, aflced the road to Af-
celi, where he was goino to preach. Young Fehx
condufted him thither, and ftruck the father fo much
with his converfation and eagernefs for knowledge, that
he recommended him to the fraternity to which he had
come. Accordingly he was received among them, in-
vefted with the habit of a lay brother, and placed un-
■der the facriftan, to affift in fwceping the church, lighting
the candles, and other offices of that nature ; for which
he was to be taught the rcfponfes, and the rudiments
of grammar. His progrefs in learning was fo furprifing,
that at the age of 14 he was thought qualified to be-
gin his noviciate, and was admitted the year following
to make his profeffion.
He purfued his fludies with fuch unwearied affiduity,
that he was foon reckoned equal to the bell difputants.
He was ordained prieft in 1545, vvhen he affumed the
name of Father Montalto ; foon after he took his doc-
tor's degree, and was appointed profefibr of theology
at Sienna. It was then that he fo effectually recom-
mended himfelf to Cardinal di Carpi, and his fecretary
Boffius, that they ever remained his fteady friends.
Meanwhile the feverity and obftinacy of his temper
iticeffantly engaged him in difputes with his monat-
tic brethren. His reputation for eloquence, which
was now fpread over Italy, about this time gain-
ed him fome new friends. Among thefe were the
Colonna family, and Father Ghiiilieri, by whofe recom-
mendation he was appointed inquifitor-general at Ve-
nice ; but he exercifed that office with fo much feveri-
ty, that he was obliged to flee precipitately from that
city. Upon this he went to Rome, where he was made
procurator-general of his order, and foon after acc(jm-
pauied Cardinal Buoa CoiBpagnon into Spain, as a
,5 ] SIX
chaplain and confultcr to the inquifition. There he Sgti
was treated with great refpeft, and liberal offers were ^"**V
made him to induce him to continue in Spain, which,
however, he could nqt be prevailed on to accept.
In the mean time, news were brought to Madrid that
Pius IV. was dead, -and that Father Ghifilicri, who
had been made Cardinal Alexandrino by Paul IV. had
fucceeded hfm under the name of Pius V. Thefe
tidings filled Montalto with joy, and not without r* a-
fon, for he was immediately invefted by the pontiff with
new dignities. He was made general of his order, bi-
fliop of St Agatha, was foon after raifed to the digni-
ty of cardinal, and received a penfion. About this
time he was employed by the Pope to draw up the bill
of excommunication againft Queen Elizabeth.
He began now to call his eyes upon the papacy j
and, in order to obtain it, formed and executed a plan
of hypocrify with unparalleled conftancy and fuccefs.
He became humble, patient, and affable. He changed
his drefs, his air, his words, and his aftions, fo com-
pletely, that his moft intimate friends declared him a
new man. Never was there fuch an abfolute vic-
tory gained over the paffions ; never was a fidlitious
chara£ler fo long maintained, nor the foibles of human
nature fo artfully concealed. He courted the ambaffa*
dors of every foreign power, but attached himfelf to
the interefts of none; nor did he accept a fingle favour
that would have laid him under any peculiar obligation.
He had formerly treated his relations with the greateft;
tendernefs, but he now changed his behaviour altoge-
ther. When his brother Anthony came to vifit him,
he lodged liim in an inn, and fcnt him home next day,
charging him to inform his family that he wa« now dead
to his relations and the world.
When Pius V, died in 1572, he entered the conclave
with the other cardinals, but feemed altogether indiffe-
rent about the eleftion, and never left his apartment ex-
cept to his devotion. When folicited to join any party,
he declined it, declaring that he was of no confequence,
and that he would leave the choice of a Pope entirely
to perfons of greater knowledge and experience. When
Cardinal Buon Compagnon, who affumed the name of
Gregory XIII. was eledted, Montalto affured him that
he never wifhed for any thing f© much in his life, and
that he would always remember his goodnefs, and the
favours he had conferred on him in Spain. But the
new Pope treated him with the greatefl contempt, and
deprived him of his penfion. The cardinals alfo, de-
ceived by his artifices, paid him no greater rcfpeft,
and ufed to call him, by way of ridicule, the Roman
beaft ; the afs of La Marca.
He now affumed all the infirmities of old age ; his
head hung down upon his fhoulders ; he totteted as he
walked, and fupported himfelf on a ftaff. His voice
becam.e feeble, and was often interrupted by a cough fo
exceedingly fevere, that it feemed every moment to
threaten his diffolution. He interfered in no public
traufadllons, but fpent his whole time in afts of devo-
tion and benevolence. Mean time he conftantly em-
ployed the ablcft fpies, who brought him intelligence
of every particular.
When Gregory XIII. died in 1585, he entered the
conclave with the greatefl reluAance, and immediately
fliut himfelf up in his chamber, and was no more
thought of than if he had not exiiled. When he went
3 T 2 to
SIX [5
to mafs,. for .vv'liich purpofe alone he left his apartment,
he appeared perfv'ftly indifferent about the event of the
deftion. lie joined no party, yet flattered all.
He knew early that there would be great divifions
in the conclave, and lie was aware that when the leaders
of the different parties were difappointed in their own
views, they all frequently agreed in the eleclj^n»of fomc
eld and infirnn cardinal, the length of whofe life would
merely enable them to prepare themfclves fufficiently
for the next vacancy. Thefe views direfted his condutl,
Bor was he miltaken in his hopes of fuccefs.
Three cardinals, the leaders of oppofite faftions, be-
ing unable to procure the elcftion which each of them
wifhed, unaniraoufly agreed to make choice of Mont-
alto. When they came to acquaint him with their in-
tention, he fell into fuch a violent fit of coughing that
ever\' perfon thought he would expire on the fpot. He
told them that his reign would laft but a few days ;
that, befides a continual difPtculty of breathing, he
wanted (trength to fupport fuch a weight, and that his
fmall experience rendered him very unfit for fo impor-
tant a charge. He conjured them all thiee not to
abandon him, but to take the whole weight of affairs
upon their own Ihouldcrs ; and declared that he would
never accept the mitre upon any other terms : " If you
are refolved," added he, " to make me Pope, it will
only be placing yourfelves on the throne. For ray part,
I fliall be fatisfied with the bare title. Let the world
call mc Pope, and I make you heartily welcome to the
power and authority. The cardinals fwallowcd the bait,
and exerted themfelves fo effeftually that Montalto was
elefifed. He now pulled off the mafic wLich he had
worn for 14 years. No fooner was his eleftion fecured,
than he ftarted from his feat, flung down his ftaff in the
middle of the hall, and appeared almoft a foot taller
than he had done for feveral years.
When he was aflced, according to cuftom, if he would
accept of the Papacy, he replied, *' It is trifling to aflc
whether I will accept what I have already accepted. —
However, to fatisfy any fcruple that may arife, I tell
you that I accept it with great pleafure, and would ac-
cept another if I could get it ; for I find myfelf able,
by the Divine affiftance, to manage two papacies." His
former complaifance and humility difappeared, together
with his infirmities, and he now treated all around him
with referve and haughtinefs. The firfl care of Six-
tus V. the name which Montalto affumed, was to eor-
reft the abufes, and put a ffop to the enormities, which
were daily committed in every part of the ecclefiaflical
Itate. The lenity of Gregory's government had intro-
duced a general licentioufnefs of manners, which burfl
forth with great violence, after that Pontiff's death.
It had been ufual with former Popes to releafe delin-
quents on the day of their coronation, who were there-
fore accufloraed to furrender themfelves voluntary pri-
foners immediately after the eleftion of the Pope. At
prefent, however, they were fatally difappornted. —
When the governor of Rome and the keeper of St
Angelo waited on his Holinefs, to know his intention
in this particular, he replied, '* What have you to do
with pardons, and releafmg of prifoners ? Is it not fuf-
ficient that our predeceffor has fufFered the judges to
remain unemployed thefe 1 3 years ? Shall we alfo flain
our pontificate with the fame negleft of juflice ? We
have too long feen, with inexpreflible concern, the prodi^
] SIX
gioua dcarrec of wickcdnefs that rejgna m the (late to Si:
think of granting pat dons. Let the prifoners be brought
to a fpeedy trial, and punifhed as they deferve, to fhow
the world chat Divine Providence has called us to the
chair of St Peter, to reward the good, and chaftife the
wicked; that we bear not the fword in vain, but are the
minlflers of God, and a revenger to execute wrath o»,
them that do evil."
He appointed commilTioners to infpett the condud
of the judges, difplaced thofe who were inclined to le^
nicy, and put others of fevere diipofitions in their roomi
He offered rewards to any perfon who could convidt
them of corruption or partiality. He ordered the fvn-
dlcs of all the towns and figniories to make out a com-
plete lift of the diforderly perfons within their diftri6ts»
and threatened the flrapado for the fmallell omifTion. la
confequence of this edi6t, the fyndic of Albino wa$-
fcourged in the market-place, becaufe he had left hi*
nephew, an Incorrigible hbertine, out of bis hft.
He made very fevere laws at^ainfl robbers and affaf-
fms. Adidterers, when difcovered, fufFered death; ancj'
they who willingly fubmitted t» the proftitution of their
wives, a euflom then common in Rome, received the
fame punifhment. He was particularly careful of the
purity of the female fex, and never forgave thofe wh(>.
attempted to debauch them.
His execution of juttice was as prompt as his ediftj
were rigorous. A Swifs happening to give a Spanifh
gentleman a blow with his halberd, was ftruck by him fo-
rudely with a pilgrim's flaft that he expired on the fpot.
Sixtus informed the governor of Rome that he was to^
dine early, and that juflice muft be executed on the cri-
minal before he fat down to table. I'he Spanilh am-
baffador and four cardinals intreated him not to dif-
grace the gentleman by fuffering him to die on a gib-
bet, but to order him to be beheaded. " He fhall be
hanged (replied Sixtus), but I will alleviate his difgrac?
by doing him the honour to afTal perfonally at hia
death." He oi-dered a gibbet to be erected before his
own windows, where he continued fitting during ths
whole execution. He then called to his fervants to
bring In dinner, declaring that the a£f: of juftice which
he had jufl feen had Increafed his appetite. When he
rofe from table, he exclaimed, " God be pralfed for the
good appetite with which I have dined !"
When Sixtus afcended the throne, the whole ecclefi-
afllcal Hate was infefted with bands of robbers, who^
from their numbers and outrages, were exceedingly for-
midable y by his prudent and vigorous conduct, how-
ever, he in a fhort time extirpated the whole of thefe
banditti.
Nor was the vigour of his condud lefs confpicuoug.
in his tranfadf Ions with foreign nations. Before he had
been pope two months he quarrelled with Philip II. of
Spain, Henry III. of France, and Plenry king of Na-
varre, His intrigues indeed in fome meafure influenced
all the councik ot Europe.
After his acceflion to the pontificate he fent for his
family ta Rome, with exprcfs orders that they fhould
appear in a decent and modefl manner. Accordingly^
his fifter Camilla came thither, accompanied by hec
daughter and two grandchildren. Some cardinals, ii>
order to pay court to the pope, went out to meet her,,
and introduced her in a very magnificent drefs. Six-
tus pretended not to know her, and afl«d two or three
limes
S I X
r 5
(5xtn9. times who fte was : Upon tliis one of the cardinals faid,
" It is your filter, holy father." " 1 have but one li-
fter (replied Sixtus with a frown), and fhe is a poor
woman at Le Grotte ; if you have introduced her in
this difguife, I declare I do not know her ; yet I think
I would know her again, if I faw her in the clothes (he
ttfed to wear."
Her conduftors at lall found it neceflary to carry
her to an inn, and ftrip her of her finery. Wlien Ca-
milla was introduced a fecond time, Sixtus embraced
her tenderly, and laid, " Now we know indeed that it
is our filler : nobody lhall make a princefs of you but
ourfelves." He ftipulated with his lifter, that (he
ftiould neither allc any favour in matters of government,
nor intercede for criminal, nor interfere in the admlnr-
ftration oi jufttce ; declarin g that every requeft of that
kind would meet with a certain refufal. T hefe terms
being agreed to, and punftually obferved, he made
the moft ample proviHon not only for Camilla but ior
his whole relations.
This great man was alfo an encourajjer of learning.
He caufed an Italian tranflation of the Fjiblc to be pub-
lifhed, which raifed a good deal of difcontent among
the Catholics. When fome cardinals reproached him
for his condud in this refped, he replied, " It was
publifhed for the benelit of you cardinals who cannot
read Latin."
Sixtus died in 1590, after having reigned little more
than five years. His death was afcribed to poifon, faid
to have been adminiftered by the Spaniards ; but the
Itory feems rather Improbable.
It was to the indulgence of a difpofition naturally
formed tor feverity, that all the defeCls of this wonder-
ful man are to be afcribed. Clemency was a Itranger
to his bofom ; his punifhments wer£ often too cruel, and
feemcd fometimes to border on revenge. Pafquin was
dreffed one morning in a very nafty fhirt, and being
alked by Martorio why he wore fuch dirty linen > replied,
that he could get no other, for the pope had made his
wafherwoman a princefs, alluding to Camilla, who had
formerly been a laundrefs. The pope ordered ftrift
fearch to be made for the author of this lampoon, and
olfered him his life and a thoufand piftoles if he would
difcover himfelf. The author was fimple enough to
make his appearance and claim the reward. " It is
true i faid the pope) we made fuch a promife, and we
ftall keep it ; your life (hall be fpared, and you fhall re-
ceive the money prefently : but we have referved to
ourfelves the power of cutting off your hands and bo-
ring your tongue through, to prevent your being fo
witty for the future." It is needlefs to add, that the
fentence was immediately executed. This, however, is
the only inftance of his refenting the many fevere fa-
tlres that were publifhed againd him. .
But though the condudl of Sixtus feldom excites
iove, it generally commands our efteem, and fometimes
our admiration. He ftrenuoufly defended the caufc of
the poor, the widow, and the orphan : he never refufed
audience to the injured, however wretched or forlorn
their appearance was. He never fo-rgave thofc magi-
ftrates who were capable of partiality or corruption ;
nor fufFered crimes to pafs unpunifhed, whether commit-
ted by the rich or the poor. He was frugal, tempe-
rate, fober, and never negleded to reward the Imalleft
17 ] BIZ
favour which had been conferred on him before his ex^Slya ghufli*
altatjon. Sizar,
When he mounted the throne, the treafury w^s ^'""~'V~^
not only exhautted, but in debt ; at his death it cou-
taiued five millions of gold.
Rome v^as indebted to him for feveral of her great-
eft embeUiihmeuts, particularly the Vatican library : it
was by him, too, that trade was fuft introduced into
the Ecclefiaftical State.
SIYA-GHusH, the caracal of BufFon, an anfraal of
the cat kind. See Felis, n"' xviii.
SIZAR, or SiZER, in Latin Sizator, an appellation
by which the loweit order of lludents in the univerfi-
ties of Cambridge and Dublin are diitinguirtied, is de-
rived from the word fizey which in Cambridge, and
probably in Dublin hkewife, has a peculiar meaning.
To Jtze, in the language of the univeriity, is to get
any fort of victuals trom the kitchens, which the ftu-
dcuts may want in their own rooms, or in addition to
their commons in the hall, and for which they pay the
cooks or butchers at the end of each quarter. A lizc
of any thing is the fmalleft quantity of tiiat thing which
can be thus bought : two fizes, or a part of beef, being
nearly equal to what a young perfon wiU eat of that
diflx to his dinner ; and a lize of ale or beer being equal
to half an Englifh pint.
The lizars are divided into two clafTeSj viz. fubliza-
tores or (izars, and iizatores or proper lizars. 'J'he
former of thefc are fupplied with commons from the
table of the fellows avid tellow-commoners ; and in for-
mer times, when thefe were more fcanty than they are
now, they were obliged to fupply the deficiency by li-
zing, as is fometimes the cafe ftill. The proper fizars
had formerly no commons at all, and were therefore
obliged to fize the whole. In St John's college they
have now iome commons allowed them for dinner,
from a benefaftion, but they are ftill obliged to fize
their fuppers : in the other colleges they are allowed a
part of the fellow-commons, but mult fize the reft ;
and from being thus obliged to fize the whole or part
of their viduals, the whole order derived the name of
fizars.
In Oxford, the order fimilar to that of fizar is deno-
minated fervitoKf a name evidently derived from the me-
nial duties which they perform. In both univerfities thefe
orders were formerly diftinguifhed by round caps and
gowns of different materials from thofe of the penfioners
or commoners, the order immediately above them. But
about 30 years ago the round cap was entirely abolifhed
in both fcminaries. There is ftill,. however, in Oxford,
we believe, a diitinftion in the gowns, and there is
alio a trifling difference in fome of the fmall colleges in
Cambridge ; but in the large colleges the drefs of the
penfioners and lizars is entirely the fame.
In Oxford, the fervitorvS are Itill obliged to wait at
table sn the fellows and gentleisien -commoners ; but
much to the credit of the univerfity of Cambridge, this
moft degrading and difgraceful cuftom was entirely
aboliilied about 10 or 12 years ago, and of courfe the
fizars of Cambridge are now on a much more refpefl-
ablc footing than the fervitors of Oxford.
The fizars are not upon the foundation, and there-
fore while they continue fizars are not capable of be-
ing cledcd fellows ; but they may at any time, if they
4 choolca
S I z [5
clioofe, become penlionera : and they generally fit for
fcholiirfhips immediately before they take their firft de-
jf,;ee. If faccefsful, they are then on the founda-
tion, and are entitJed to become candidates for fellow-
fKips when they have got that degree. In the mean
time, while tlicy continue fizars, befides free commons
they enjoy many benefadtions, which have been made
at different times, under the name of Ji-zar^s prator^ ex-
hiyttionf, Sic. and the rate of tuition, the rent of rooms,
and other things of that fort within their refpeftive col-
leges, is lefs than to tlie other orders. But tho' their edu-
cation is thus obtained at a lefs expence, they are not now
confidered as a menial order; for fizars, penfioner-fcho-
lars, and even' fometiraes fellow-commoners, mix toge-
ther with the utmoft cordiality. It is worthy of re-
mark, that at every period this order has fupplied the
univerfity with its molt diftiaguiflied officers ; and that
many ot the moil illuftrious memibers of the church,
many of the moil diftinguifhed men in the other libe-
ral profelTions, have, when under-graduates, been fi-
zars, when that order was on a lefs refpedlable footing
"than it is now.
SIZE, the name of an Inflrument ufed for finding
the bignefs of fine round pearls. It confifts of thin
pieces or leaves, abeut two inches long, and half an
inch broad, fattened together at one end by a rivet. In
each of thcfe are round holes drilled of different dia-
meters. Thofe in the firll leaf ferve for meafuring
pearls from half a grain to feven grains ; thofe of the
fecond, for pearls from eight grains or two carets to
five carats, &c. ; and thofe of the third, for pearls from
iix carats and a half to eight carats and a half.
Size, is alfo a fort of paint, varnifh, or glue, ufed
by painters, &c
The (hreds and parings ©f leather, parchment, or
■vellum, being boiled in water and ftrained, make fize.
This fubftance is much ufed in many trades. — The
Tnanner of ufing fize is to melt fome of it over a gentle
fire ; and fcraping as much whiting into it as will jufl
colour it, let them be well incorporated together ; af-
ter which you may whiten frames, &c. with it. After
it dries, melt the fize again, and put more whiting,
and whiten the frames, &c. feven or eight times, let-
ting it dry between each timk,:. but 'before It is quite
dry, between each wafhing with fize, you mufl fmoothe
and wet it over with a clean brufh-pencil in fair water.
To make gold-laze. Take gum-animi and afphal-
tum, of each one ounce ; minium, litharge of gold,
•and amber, of each half an ounce : reduce all into a
very fine powder, and add to them four ounces of h'n-
feed-oil, and eight ounces of drying oil : di Teft them
■over a gentle fire that does not flame, fo that the
•mixture may only finrvmer, but not boil ; left it
fhould run over and fet the houfe on fire, Itir it con-
ftarrtly with a flick till all the ingredients are dif-
folved and incorporated, and do not leave off ftirring
till it becomes thick and ropy ; after being fufficiently
boiled, let it fland till it is almoft cold, and then
ftrain it through a coarfe linen cloth, and keep it for
ufe. — To prepare it for working, put what quantity
you pleafe in a horfe-mufcle fhell, adding as much oil
of turpentine as will difTolve it ; and making it as thin
as the bottom of your feed-lac varnifh, hold it over
a candle, and then flrain it through a lincn-rag into ano-
ther fhell .; add lo thefc as much vermilion as will make
8 ] SKA
it of a darkifh red : If It is too thick for drawing, you
may tliin it with fome oil of turpentine. The chief ufe
of this fize is for laying on metals.
The beft gold-fize for burnifliing Is made as follows j
Take fine bole, what quantity you pleafe ; grind it
finely on a piece of marble, then fcrape into it a little
beeffuet ; grind all well together; after which mix in
a fmall proportion of parchment-fize with a double pro-
portion of water, and it is done.
To make filver-fize. Take tobacco-pipe clay in fine
powder, into which fcrape fome black-lead and a little
Genoa foap, and grind them all together with parch«
ment fize as already directed.
SKATING, an exercife on ice, both graceful and
healthy. Although the ancients were remarkable for
their dexterity In mofl of the athletic fporta, yet flca-
tlng feems to have been imknown to them. It may
therefore be confidered as a modern invention ; and pro-
bably it derived its origin in Holland, where it was
praftifed, not only as a graceful and elegant amufement,
but as an expeditious mode of travelling when the lakes
and canals were frozen up during winter. In Holland
long journeys are made upon flcates with eafe and expe-
dition ; but in general lei's attention is there paid to
graceful and elegant movements, than to the expedition
and celerity of what is called journey Jkat'mg. It is on-
ly In thofe countries where it is confidered as an amufe-
ment, that its graceful attitudes and movements can be
lludied ; and there Is no exercife whatever better calcu-
lated to fet off the human figure ta advantage. The
acquirement of mofl exerclfes may be attained at an ad-
vanced period of life ; but to become an expert fliater.
It is neceffary to begin the praftice of the art at a very
early age. It is difficult to reduce the art of fi<a-
ting to a fyflem. It is principally by the imitation oF
a good flcater that a young praftitloner can form his
own pradice. The EHgliih, though often remarkable
for feats of agility upon flcates, are very deficient in
gracefulnefs ; which Is partly owing to the conilruc-
tion of the flcates. They are too much curved in
the furface which embraces the ice, confequently they
involuntarily bring the uiers of them round on the out-
fide upon a quick and fmall circle ; whereas the flcater,
by ufing flcates of a different conflruftlon, lefs curved,
has the command of his flroke, and can enlarge or di-
mlnifh the circle according to his own wifh and defir«.
The metropolis of Scotland has produced more Inflances
of elegant Heaters than perhaps any other country
whatever ; and the inflitution of a Skating Club about
40 years ago, has contributed not a httle to the Im-
provement of this elegant amufement. We are indebt-
ed for this article to a gentleman of that Club, who
has made the pratlice and Improvement of flcatlng his
particular fludy ; and as the nature of our work will
not permit the infertion of a full treatlfe on flcatlng,
we fhall prefent our readers with a few initruAIons.
Thofe who wiih to be proficients fhould begin at an
early period of fife ; and fhould fitil endeavour to throw
off the fear which always attends the commencement of
an apparently hazardous amufement. They will foon ac-
quire a facility of moving on the Infide : when they have
done this, they mufl endeavour to acquire the movement
on the outfideof the fkates; which is nothing more than
throwing themfelves upon the outer edge of the flcate, and
making the balance of their body tend towards that
fide,
S K E [51
fide, whicK will neceffarily enable them to form a fe-
micircle. In this, much affiftance may be derived from
placing a bag of lead-fhot in the pocket next to the
foot employed in making the outfide ftroke, which will
produce an artificial poife of the body, which after-
wards will become natural by practice. At the com-
mencement of the outfide ftroke, the knee of the em-
ployed limb (hould be a little bended, and gradually
brouo;ht to a rectilineal pofitiou when the ftroke is com.
pleted. When the praftitioner becomes expert in form-
ing the femicircle with both feet, he is then to join
them together, and proceed progrtffively and alternate-
ly with both feet, which will carry him forward with
a graceful movement. Care fliould be taken to ufe
very little mufcular exertion, for the impelling mo-
tion fhould proceed from the mechanical impulfe of
the body thrown into fuch a pofition as to rep^ulate the
ftroke. At taking the outfide ftroke, the body ought
to be thrown forward eafily, the unemployed limb kept
in a direft line with the body, and the face and eyes
direClly looking forward : the unemployed foot ought
to be ftretched towards the ice, with the toes in a di-
reft line with the leg. In the time of making the curve,
the body muft be gradually, and almoft Imperceptibly,
raifed, and the unemployed limb brought in the fame
manner forward ; fo that, at finiihing the curve, the bo-
dy will bend a fmall degree backward, and the unem-
ployed foot will be about two inches before the other,
ready to embrace the ice and form a correfpondent
curve. The mufcular movement of the whole body
muft correfpond with the movement of the llcate, and
fhould be regulated fo as to be almoft imperceptible to
the fpeflators. Particular attention fhould be paid in
carrylnjif round the head and eyes with a regular and
imperceptible motion ; for nothing fo much diminlfhes
the grace and elegance of floating as fudden jerks and
exertions, which are too frequently ufed by the ge-
nerality of flcaters. The management of the arms like-
wife deferves attention. There is no mode of difpofing
of them more gracefully in (Icating outfide, than folding
the hands into each other, or ufing a muff.
There are various feats of aftlvity and manoeuvres
ufed upon ilcates ; but they are fo various that we can-
not pretend to detail them. Moving on the outfide is
the primary objeft for a flcater to attain ; and when he
becomes an adept in that, he will eafily acquire a fa^
cllity in executing other branches of the art. There
are few excrcifes but will afford him hints of elegant
and graceful attitudes. For example, nothing can be
more beautiful than the attitude of drawing the bow
and arrow whilft the fkater is making a large circle on
the outfide : the manual exerclfe and military falutes
have llkewife a pretty effedi whea ufed by an expert
fltater.
SKELETON, in anatomy, the dried bones of any
animal joined together by wires, or by the natural liga-
ment dried, in fuch a manner as to (how their pofition
when the creature was alive.
We have, in the Phliofophlcal TranfaftioHS, an ac-
«ount of a human fkeleton, all the bones of which were
fo united, as to make but one articulation from the
back to the os facrum, and downwards a little way.
Gn fawing fome of them, where they were unnaturally
joined, they were found not to cohere throughout their
whole fubftance, but only about a fixth of an inch deep
9 ] SKY
all round. The figure of the trunk was crooked, the
fplnae making the convex, and the infide of the verte-
bras the concave part of the fegment. The whole had v_
been found In a charnel-houfe, and was of the fize of a
full grown perfon.
SKIDS, or Skkeds, in fea-language, are long com-
pafling pieces of timber, notched below fo as to fit
clofely upon the wales, extending, from the maln-wale
to the top of the fide, and retained In this pofition by
bolts or fpike-nalls. They are intended for prelerving
the planks of the fide, when any heavy body is hoifted
or lowered.
SKIE (Tfie of). See Sky. ^
SKIFF, a fmall boat refembling a yawl, ufually era-
ployed for pafling rivers.
SKIMMER, BLACK. See Shearbill.
SKIMMIA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 40th order,
Perfonatde. The calyx is quadripartite ; the corolla
confifts of four concave petals ; and the berry contains^
four feeds. There is only one fpecles, viz, the Japo*
nica.
SKIN, in anatomy, the general covering of the bod^
of any animal. See Anatomy, n° 74.
Skin, in commerce, Is particularly ufed for the mem-
brane ftrlpped off" the animal to be prepared by the tan-
ner, flcinner, parchment-maker, &c. and' converted into^
leather, &c. See Tanning.
SKINNER (Stephen), an Enghfti antiquarian, born
in 1622. He travelled, and ftudled in fcveral foreiga
unlverfitles during the civil wars ; and in 1654, return-
ed and fettled at Lincoln, where he praftlfed phyfic
with fuccefs until the year 1667, when he died of a
malignant fever. His works were colle(£led in folio in
1 67 1, by Mr Henfhaw, under the title of Etymologicon
Lingua ^nglicana, &c.
SKIPPER, or Saury, a fpecIesofE soy, which fee.
SKIRMISH, in war, a flight engagement between
fmall parties, without any regular order ; and is there-
fore eafily diftlnguifiied from a baU/e, which is a general'
engagement between, two armies continued for fome
time.
SKULL, in anatomy, the bony cafe in which the
brain Is Inclofed. See Anatomy, n° ii_&c.
SKULL'Cap. See Scutellaria.
SKY, the blue expanfe of air or atmofphere. For
the reafon of its blue colour and concave figure, fee
Optics.
Sky, one of the greateft of the Weftern Ifiands of
Scotland, fo called from Skianach, which in the Erfe
dialeft fignifies winged, becaufe the two promontories of
Valernefs and Troternlfil, by which it is bounded on
the north-weft and north-eaft» are fuppofed to refemble
wings. The ifland lies between the (hire of Rofs and
the weftern part of Lewis. According to the computa-
tion of Mr Pennant, Dr Johnfon, and Dr Campbell, it is
60 miles in length, and nearly the fame In width where
broadeft ; according to others it Is 50 miles In length,
and in fome places 30 broad. The ifland of Sky Is di-
vided between two proprietors; the fouthern part be-
longs to the laird of Macleod, fald to be lineally de-
fcended from Leod fon to the black prince of Man ;
the northern diftrift, or barony of Troternlfh, is the
property of Lord Macdcnald, whofe anceftor was Do-
nald,
II
Sky,
(
SKY [ J
. ^^J' _t ^'"g 0*" loi'd of the Ifles, and chief of the nume-
* '■f'us clan of Macdonalds, who are counted the moft
warhke of all the Highlanders. Sky is part of the
Ihire of Invernefa, and formerly belonged to the diocefe
of the Ifles : on the foiith it is parted from the
main land by a channel three leagues in breadth ; tho',
at the ferry of Glenelly, it is fo narrow that a man may
be heard calling for the boat from one fide to the other.
Sky is well provided with a variety of excellent bays
and harbours.
The face of the country is roughened with moun-
tains, fome of which are fo high as to be covered with
fnow on the top at midfumm-cr ; in general, their fides
9re clothed with heath and grafs, which afford good
pafturage for flieep and black cattle. Between the
mountains there are fome fertile valleys, and the greater
part of the land towards the fea-coaft, is plain and
arable. The ifiand is well watered with a great num-
ber of rivers, above 30 of which afford falmon ; and
fome of them produce black mufcles in which pearls
are bred, particularly the rivers Kilmartin and Ord:
Martin was affured by the proprietor of the former,
that a pearl hath been found in it valued at 20 1. Ster-
ling. Here is alfo a confiderable number of frefh-
water lakes well ffored \jvith trout and eels. The largeft
of thefe lakes takes its denomination from St Colum-
ba, to whom is dedicated a chapel that ftands upon a
fmall ifle in the middle of the lake. Sky llkewife af-
fords feveral catarafts, that roar down the rocks with
great impetuofity. That the ifland has been formerly
covered with woods, appears from the large trunks of
fir and other trees daily dug out of the bogs and peat-
marfhes in every part of this country.
Etatifl'ical From the height of the hills, and proximity of the
Account of fea, tlie air feldom continues long of the fame tempera-
ScMand^ ^^^.g . fometimes it is dry, oftener moid, and in the lat-
p. i4». ' ^"'^ of winter and beginning of fpring cold and pier-
cing ; at an average, three days in twelve throughout
the year fcarcely free from rain, far lefs from clouds.
Thefe, attracted by the hills, fometimes break in ufeful
and rcfrefhing fhowers ; at other times fuddenly burft-
ing, pour down their contents with tremendous noife,
in impetuous torrents that deluge the plains below, and
render the fmalleft rivulet impaffable ; which, together
with the ftormy winds fo common in this country in
the months of Auguft and September, frequently blaft.
the hopes, and difappoint the expeftations, of the hu-
fbandman. Snow has been often known to lie on the
ground from three to feven weeks ; and on the higheft
hills, even in the middle of June, fome fpots of it are
to be feen. To this various temperature of the air,
and uncertainty of weather, the fevers and agues, head-
achs, rheumatlfms, colds, and dyfentcries, which are the
prevailing diftempers, may be afcribed. That it is far,
however, from being unwholefome, is fufiiciently evin-
ced by experience ; for the inhabitants are, in gene-
ral, as ftrong and healthy, and arrive at as advanced an
age, as thofe who live in milder climates, and under a
ferenerflcy. The gout is fcarcely known in thi.s ifland.
Th'C foil is generally black, though it likewife affords
clay of different colours ; fuch as white, red, and blue,
and in fome places fuller's earth. It is, however, much
lefs adapted for agriculture than for pafture, and fel-
ilom, uiUefs in very good years, fupplies itfetf with a fuf.
20 ] SKY
ficiency of proviiions. Yet, though the foil is not ve«
ry fertile or rich, it might with proper management be
made to produce more plentiful crops. But the gene-
rality of the farmers are fo prejudiced in favour of old
cuftoms, and indeed fo little inclined to induftry, that
they will not eafily be prevailed on to change them
for better ; efpeclally if the alteration or amendment
propofed be attended with expence. Therefore, with
refpeft^ to improvements in agriculture, they are ftili
much in the fame Hate as they were 20 or 30 years
ago. Ploughs, on a new and improved model, that in
comparlfon to the advantages derived from them might
be had^ at a moderate expence, have lately been intro-
duced into feveral diftrifts around, where their good ef-
fe<fts are manifeil, in improving the crops and diminiih-
ing the labour of man and beaft ; but the laird of Raa-
fay and one other gentleman are the only perfons in
Portree that have ufed them. The cajcro'm^ a crooked
kind of fpade, is almoft the only Inftrument for labouring
the ground ufed among the ordinary clafs of tenants.
The average crops of corn are 8000 bolls.
When Mr Knox vifited this ifland in 1786, the
number of inhabitants amounted to 15,000 : but fome
gentlemen who refided there affirmed there were 1 6,000.
It is divided into eight parifhes, in each of which there
is a fchool, befides three charity-fchools in different
places.
The minerals found here are lead and iron ore,
which, however, have never been wrought to any ad-
vantage. Near the village of Sartle, the natives find
black and white marcafites, and variegated pebbles.
The Applefglen, in the neighbourhood of Loch fallart,
produces beautiful agates of different fizes and colours:
ftones of a purple hue are, after great rains, found in the
rivulets: cryflal, of different colours and forms, abounds
in feveral parts of the ifland, as well as black and white
marble, free-ftone, lime-ftone, and talc: fmall red and
white coral is found on the fouthern and weftern coafta
in great abundance. The fuel confifis chiefly of peat
and turf, which are impregnated with iron ore and
faltpetre ; and coal has been difcovered in feveral di-
ftrias.
The wild birds of all forts moft common in the coun-
try are, folan geefe, gulls, cormorants, cranes, wild
geefe, and wild ducks ; eagles, crows, ravens, rooks, cuc-
koos, rails, woodcocks, moor-fowl, partridges, plover,
wild pigeons, and blackbirds, owls, hawks, fnipes, and
a variety of fmall birds. In mild feafons, the cuckoo
and rail appear in the latter end of April ; the former
difappears always before the end of June ; the latter
fometimes not till September. The woodcock comes
in Oftober, and frequently remaifi's till March. The
tame forts of fowl are geefe, ducks, turkeys, cocks, pul-
lets, and tame pigeons.
The black cattle are here expofed to all the rigoors
of the feveie winter, without any other provender than
the tops of the heath and the alga marina ; fo that they
appear like mere flceletons in the fpring ; though, as
the grafs grows up, they foon become phimp and juicy,
the beef being fweet, tender, and finely interlarded.^ —
The amphibious animals are feals and otters. Among
the reptiles they reckon vipers, afps, weafels, frogs, toads,
and three different kinds of ferpents ; the firft fpotted
black and white, aad very poifonoug j the fecond yel-
low,
SKY [5
low, with brown fpots ; and the third of a brown co-
' lour, the fmalleft and leaft poifonous.
Whales and cahbans, or fun-fifli, come in fometlmes
to the founds after their prey, but are rarely purfued
with any fuccefs. The fifhcs commonly caught on the
coaft are herrings, hng, cod, fcate, haddock, mackerel,
lythe, fye, and dog-fifii. The average price of Hng at
home is L. 1 3, 13 s. per ton ; when fold, one by one, if
frefh, the price is from 3 d. to 5 d. ; if cured, from 5 d.
to 7d. The barrel of herrings feldom fells under 19 s.
which is owing to the great difficulty of procuring fait,
even fometimes at any price ; and the fame caufe pre-
vents many from taking more than are fufficient for
their own ufe.
The kyle of Scalpe teems with oyftersi in fuch a man-
ner, that after fome fpring-tides, 20 horfe -loads of
them are left upon the fands. Near the village of Bern-
fhill, the beach yields mufcles fufficient to maintain 60
perfons per day ; this providential fupply helps to fup-
port many poor families in times of fcarcity.
The people are ftrong, robuft, healthy, and prolific.
They generally profefs the Proteftant religion ; are ho-
neft, brave, innocent, and hofpitable. They fpeak the
language, wear the habit, and obferve the cuftoiyis that
are common to all the Hebrides. The meconium in
new-born infants is purged away with frefli butter : the
children are bathed every morning and evening in wa-
ter, and grow up fo ftrong, that a child of 10 months
is able to walk alone : they never wear (hoes or ftock-
ings before the age of eight or ten, and night-caps are
hardly known ; they keep their feet always wet j they
he on beds of ftraw or heath, which laft is an excellent
reftorative : they are quick of apprehenfion, ingenious,
and very much addifted to mufic and-poetry. They
eat heartily of fifh ; but feldom regale themfelves with
fle(h-meat : their ordinary food confifts of butter, cheefe,
milk, potatoes, colewort, brochan, and a diih called
con, which indeed is no other than the froth of boiled
milk or whey raifed with a ftick like that ufed in ma-
king chocolate.
A fort of coarfe woollen cloth called clooy or cad-
does, the manufadure of their wives, made into fhort
jackets and troufers, is the common drefs of the men.
The philibeg is rarely worn, except in fummer and on
Sundays ; on which days, and fome other occafions, thofe
in better circumftances appear in tartans, a bonnet, and
Ihort hofe, and fome in a hat, fliort coat, waiftcoat,
and breeches, of Scotch or Englifh manufafture. The
women are in general very cleanly, and fo exceffively
fond of drefs, that many maid-fervants are often known
to lay out their whole wages that way.
There are two fairs held annually at Portree, to
which almoft eveiy part of Sky fends cattle. The firft
is held in the end of May, and the fecond in the end of
July. The fair commonly continues from Wednefday
till the Saturday following. The commodities which
are fold in thefe are horfes, cows, Iheep, goats, hides,
butter, cheefe, fifh, and wool. The cattle fold in thefe
fairs fwim over to the main land through a mile or half
a mile of fea. Thoufands of thefe are yearly exported,
Rt from L. 2 to L. 3 each. Many of them are driven to
England, where they are fatted for the market, and
counted delicious eating.
In Sky appear many ruins of Danifli forts, watch-
VoL.XVir. Part II.
21 3 SLA
towers, beacons, temples, and fepulchral monuments.
All the forts are known by the term Dun ; fuch as
Dun-Skudborg, Dun-Derig, Dun-Skerinefs, Dun-Da^
vid, &c.
SKY-Colour. To give this colour to glafs, fet in the
furnace a pot of pure metal of fritt frpm rochetta or ba-
rilla, but the rochetta fritt does beft ; as foon as the
metal is well purified, take for a pot of twenty pounds
of metal fix ounces of brafs calcined by itfelf; .put it by
des;rees at two or three times into the metal, ftirring
and mixing it well every time, and dihgently flcimming
the metal with a ladle : at the end of two hours the
whole will be well mixed, and a proof may be taken ;
if the colour be found right, let the whole ftand 24.
hours longer in the furnace, and it will then be fit to
work, and will prove of a moft beautiful flcy colour.
SLAB, an outfide fappy plank or board fawed off
from the fides of a timber-tree- The word is alfo ufed
for a flat piece of marble.
SiAB-L'tne, in fea-language, a fmall cord paffing up
behind a fhip's main-fail or fore-fail, and being reeved
through a block attached to the lower part of the yard,
is thence tranfmitted in two branches to the foot of the
fail, to which it is fattened. It is ufed to trufs up the
fail as occafion requires, and more particularly for the
convenience of the pilot or fteerfman, that they may
look forward beneath it as the fhip advances.
SLACK-WATER, in fea-language, denotes the inter-
val between the flux and reflux of the tide, or between
the laft of the tbb and the firft of the flood, during
which the current is interrupted, and the water appa-
rently remains in a ftate of reft.
SLACKEN, in metallurgy, a term ufed by the mi-
ners to exprefs a fpongy and femivitrified fubftance,
which they ufed to mix with the ores _ of metals,
to prevent their fufion. It is the fcoria or fcum
feparated from the furface of the former fufions of me-
tals. To this they frequently add limeftone,^ and fome-
times a kind of coarfe iron-ore, in the running of the
poorer gold ores.
SLATE (Steganla), a ftone of a compaft texture
and laminated ftrufture, fplitting into fine plates.
Dr Hill diftinguiflies four fpecies of ftegania. i. The
whitifli fteganium, being a foft, friable, flaty ftone, of a
tolerably fine and clofe texture, confiderably heavy, per-
feaiy dull and deftitute of brightnefs,_ variegated with
a pale brown or brownifli yellow. This fpecies is com-
mon in many counties of England, lying near the fur-
face of the ground. It is generally very full of perpen-
dicular as well as horizontal cavities, many of which are
filled up with a fpar a little purer and more cryftalline
than the reft ; and is commonly ufed for covering houfes.
2 . The red fteganium is a very fine and elegant flate, of
a fmooth furface, firm and compadl texture, confider-
ably heavy, and of a very beautiful pale purple, glitter-
ing all over with fmall glofly fpangles : it is compofed
of^a multitude of very thin plates or flakes, laid clofely
and evenly over one another, and cohering pretty firm-
ly : this is very common in the northern parts o!-' Eng-
land, and is much valued as a ftrong and beautiful co-
vering for houfes. 3. The common blue fteganium is
very well known as an ufeful and valuable ftone, of a
fine fmooth texture and glofly furface, moderately hea-
vy, and of a pale greyifh blue ; compofed of a multi-
3 U tude
Sky
n
Slate.
Lju=,. •s'tS^j tfiAt*
Slate
Slavery de
fined.
vS L A [ 5
tude of even plates, laid clofe upon one another, and
ealily fplitting at the cotnmiffures oF them : this is alfo
' very common in the north parts of England, and is ufed
in moft places for the covering of houfes. There are
other fpecies of this flate, viz. the brovs^nirti blue friable
fteganium, ufually called coal-Jlate ; the greyifh black
friable fteganium, commonly called JJoiver ; and the
greyifh blue fparkling fteganium. 4. The friable, alu-
minous, black fteganium, being the Irifh flate of the
fhops : this is compofed of a multitude of thin flakes,
laid very evenly and regularly over one another, and
fplits very regularly at the commifTures of them. It is
common in many parts of Ireland, and is found in fome
places in England always lying near the furface in very
thick ftrata. In medicine it is ufed in hemorrhagies of
all kinds with fuccefs, and is taken often as a good me-
dicine in fevers.
The ifland of Eufdale, one of the Hebrides on the
weft coaft of Scotland, is entirely compofed of flate.
The ftratum is 36 feet thick. About two millions and
a half, at the rate of twenty fliilKngs per thoufand, are
fold annually to England, Canada, the Weft Indies,
and Norway.
SLAVE. See Slavery.
SLAVERY is a word, of which though generally
underftood, it is not eafy to give a proper definition.
An excellent moral writer has defined it to be " an ob-
ligation to labour for the benefit of the mafter, without
the contraft or confent of the fervant." But may not he
be properly called a flave who has given up his freedom to
difcharge a debt which he could not otherwife pay, or
who has thrown it away at a game of hazard ? In ma-
ny nations, debts have been legally difcharged in this
manner-; and in fome favagc tribes, fuch is the univerfal
ardour for gaming, that it is no uncommon thing for a
man, after having loft at play all his other property, to
flake, on a fingle throw of dice, himfelf, his wife, and
his children (a). That perfons who have thus loft their
liberty are flaves, will hardly be denied ; and furely
the infatuated gamefter is a flave by his own contraft.
The debtor, too, if he was aware of the law, and con-
traded debts larger than he could reafonably expeft to
be able to pay, may juftly be confidered as having come
under an obligation to labour for the benefit of a mafter
lu'tth his oivn confent; for every man is anfwerable for all
the known confequences of his voluntary aftions.
This definition of fiavery feems to be defeftive as well
as inaccurate. A man may be under an obligation to
labour through life for the benefit of a mafter, and yet
filas
22 ] SLA
that mafter have no right to difpofe of him by fale, or
m any other way to make him the property of a third
perfon ; but the word Jlave, as ufed among us, alwavs
denotes a perfon who maybe bought and fold hke'a
beaft in the market (b). In its original fenfe, indeed,
it was of the fame import with mh/e, iUvJinous ; but
vaft numbers of the people among whom it had that
fignification being, in the decline of the Roman empire,
fold by their countrymen to the Venetians, and by them
difperfed over all Europe, the word JIave came to de-
note a perfon in the loweft ftate of fervitude, v/ho was
confidered as the abfolute property of his mafter. See
Philology, n^ 220. ^
As nothing can be more evident than that all men Fneqului
have, by the law of nature, an equal right to life, liber- of ranki
ty, and the produce of their own labour (fee Right, ''^^'^''^^
5.), it is not eafy to conceive what can have firll
led one part of them to imagine that they liad a right
to enfiave another. Inequalities of rank are indeed in-
evitable in civil fociety ; ^nd from them refults that fer-
vitude which is founded in contrad, and is of tempo-
rary duration. (See Moral Philosophy, n'"i4i.) He
who has much property has many things to attend to,
and muft be difpofed to hire perfons to affift and ferve
him ; while thofe who have little or ri(f property rauft
be equally willing to be hired for that purpofe. And
if the mafter be kind, and the fervant faithful, they will
both be happier in this connedion than they could have
been out of it. But from a ftate of fervitude, where the
flave is at the abfolute difpofal of his mafter in all things,
and may be transferred without his own confent from
one proprietor to another, hke an ox or an afs, happi-
nefs muft be for ever baniflied. How then came a traf-
fic fo unnatural and unjuft as that of flaves to be origi-
nally introduced Into the world ?
The common anfwer to this queftion is, that it took
its rife among favages, who, in their frequent wars with
each other, either maflacred their captives in cold blood,
or condemned them to perpetual flavery. In fupport of
this opinion we have heard it obferved, that the Latin
word fervus, which fignifies not a hired fervant, but a
^a-ve,'is derivedhom fervare,"to preferve;" and that fuch
men were called /^rw, becaufe tliey were captives, whofe
lives were preftrved on the condition of their becoming
the property of the viAor.
'Jliat flavery had its origin from war, we think cx'Qj.- ^ ^
tremely probable (c), nor are we inchned to controvert fla"ery.^"
this etymology of the word fervus ; but the traffic in
men prevailed almoft univerfally long before the Latin
lan-
(a) Aleam (quod mirere) fobrii inter feria exercent, tanta lucrandi perdendive temeritate, ut cum omnia de-
fecerunt, extremo ac noviffimo^ jadu de libertate et corpore contendant. Vidus voluntariam fer\'itutem adit ;
quamvis junior, quamvis robuftior, alligari fe ac venire patitur. — Tacitus de Mor. Germ. *
The favages of North America are equally addifted to gaming with the ancient Germans, and the negroes
on the Slave Coaft of Guinea perhaps ftill more.
(b) The Roman orator's definition ofjlavery, Parad. V. is as accurate as any that we have feen. « Servitus
eft obedientia fraftl animi et abjeai et arbitrio carentis fuo whether the unhapppy perfon fell into that ftate
with or without his own contraft or confent.
(c) In the article Society, the reader will find another account of the origin of flavery, which we think like-
wife probable, though we have not transferred it to this place ; as it would, in our opinion, be wrong to crfve
to one writer what we know to belong to another. It may" be proper, however, to obferve here, that' betw^eeu
the two articles there; is no contradidion, as barbarous wars were certainly one fource of flavery.
very.
r to the
SLA [52
language or Roman name was kcard of ; and there is
' no good evidence that it began among favages. The
word ''3V., in the Old Teftament, which in our verfion
is rendered fervart, fignifies literally Jl Jlave, either born
in the family or bought with money, in contradiftinc-
tion to T^ii", which denotes a hired fervant : and as Noah
(tives.
makes ufe of the word i^y in the cuife which he de-
nounces upon Ham and Canaan immediately after the
deluge, it would appear that fiavery had its origin be-
fore that event. If fo, there can be little doubt but
that it began among thofe violent perfons whom our
tranflators have called giants*, though the original
word literally fignifies ajfaulters of eihers. Thofe
wretches feem firft to have feized upon women, whom
they forcibly compelled to minifter to their pleafures ;
and from this kind of violence the progrefs was natural
to that by which they enflaved their weaker brethren
among the men, obliging them to labour for their bene-
fit, without allowing them fee or reward,
tni^oden- After the deluge the firft dealer in flaves fecms
ired his to have been Nimrod. " He began," we are told,
*' to be a mighty one in the earth, and was a mighty
hunter,before the Lord." He could not, however, be
the firft hunter of wild beafts ; for that fpecies of himt-
ing mult have been praAifed from the beginning ; nor
is it probable that his dexterity in the chafe, which
was then the univerfal employment, could have been fo
far fuperior to that of all his contemporaries, as to en-
title him to the appellation of the " the mighty hunter
before the Lord." Hence moft commentators have
concluded, that he was a hunter of men ; an opinion
which they think receives fome countenance from the
import of his name, the word Nimrod fignifying a re-
bel. Whatever be in this, there can be little doubt but
that he became a mighty one by violence ; for being
the fixth fon of his father, and apparently much young-
er than the other five, it is not likely that his inheri-
tance exceeded theirs either in extent or in population.
He enlarged it, however, by conqueft ; for it appears
from Scripture, that he invaded the territsries of Afliur
the fon of Shem, who had fettled in Shinar ; and obh-
ging him to remove into AfTyrla, he feized upon Ba-
bylon, and made it the capital of the firft kingdom in
the world. As he had great projefts in view, it feems
to be in a high degree probable that he made bond-
fervants of the captives whom he took in his wars, and
employed them in building or repairing the metropolis
of his kingdom ; and hence we think is to be dated the
origin of poftdeluvian flavery.
That It began thus early can hardly be queftioned ;
for we know that it prevailed univerfally in the age of
Abraham, who was born within feventy years after the
death of Nimrod. That patriarch had three hundred
and eighteen fervants or flaves, born in his own houfe,
and trained to arms, with whom he purfued and con-
quered tht four kings who had taken captive his bro-
ken, xlv. ^jjgj-'g fonf. And it appears from the converfaticn
ivery in
; days of
naham.
3 1 SLA
which took place bet<vecn him and the king of Sodom ^^^^^J'^
aftel* the battle, that both believed |the conqueror had — v—
a right to confider his prifoners as part of his fpoil.
" Give me (fays the king) the perfons, and take the
goods to thyfelf." Ic is indeed evident from number-
lefs paffages of fcripture, that the domeftics whom our
tranflators call fervants were in thofe days univerfally
confidered as the moft valuable part of their mailer's
property, and claffed with his flocks and herds. Thus
when the facred hiftorian defcrlbes the wealth of Abra-
ham, he fays, that " he had Iheep and oxen, and he-affes,
and men-fervants, and mald-fervants, and llie-affes, and
camels." And when Abimelech wiflied to make fome
reparation to the patriarch for the unintended injury
that he had done him, " he took flaeep and oxen, and
men-fervants, and women-fervants, and gave them unto
Abraham, and reftored to hlrTi Sar-ah his wife." The
riches and power of Ifaac and Jacob are eftimated in
the very fame manner. Of the former it is faid, that
" the man waxed great, and went forward and grew,
until he became very great : for he had pofleflion of
flocks, and pofleflion of herds, and great ilore ot fer-
vants, may! of flaves ; and the PhUiftines envied him."
The latter, we are told, " increafed exceedingly, and
had much cattle, and mald-fervants, and men-fervants,
and camels, and afles J." ^ _ JGen.xu-
That the praftice of buying and felling fervants thus ^j^-^^'^"^]'^'
eai-ly begun among the patriarchs defccnded to their xxvi. 13,14.
pofterlty, is known to every attentive reader of the xxx. 43.
Bible. It was exprefsly authorlfed by the Jewifti law, ^^^1^'^^.;^^^
In which are many directions how fuch fervants were to ^j^^ j^^^
be treated. They were to be bought only of tl^ hea- (aic law.
tlren ; for if an Ifraelite grew poor and fold himfelt ei-
ther to difcharge a debt, or to pr-ocure the means of
fubfiftence, he was to be treated not as a flave '^'^V, but
as a hired fervant "I'^r, and r-eftored to freedom at the
year of Jubilee. " Both thy bond men and thy bond-
ciaids (fays Mofes) fliall be of the heathen that are
round about you : of them fliall ye buy bond men and
bond-maids. And ye (hall take them as an inheritance
for your children after you, to inherit them for a pof-
felfion ; they fliaU be your bond-men for ever (j ." Un- II
limited as the power thus given to the Hebrews over
their bond- fervants of heatherr extr-adtion appears to
have been, they were ftrlAly prohibited from acquiring
fuch property by any other means than fair purchafe :
he that fiealeth a man and felleth him," faid their
great lawgiver, " fliall furely be put to death ^." § Lev. xxl.
Whilft flavery, in a mild form, was permitted among g
the people of God, a much work kind of it prevailed Spread oveg
among the heathen nations of antiquity. With other tire whole
abominable cuftoms, the traffic in men quickly fpread world,
from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia, and over all the
eaft, and by degrees foiftid its way into every known
region under heaven (d).
Of this hateful commerce we (hall not attempt to trace
the progiefs thro' every age and country, but lhall cou-
3 U 2 teiu.
(d) If credit be due to a late account of China, the people of that vaft empire have nerer made merchandife
of men or v/omen. The exceptior^, however, is fo Angular, that we fliovrld be glad to fee it better authenticated ;
for it is apparent frorti works of the moft undoubted credit, that over all the other eattern countvics with whlcli
we are acquaifited flavery has prevailed from time immemorial, and that fome oi the Indian natione make lorsg
journeys into Africa for the fole purpofe of buying flaves.
SLA
Slavery.
Slavery a-
mong the
Giceks and
lib. lii.
cap. 4.
"f "^ujlin et
jBeaiiie's
J\iToral
Science,
vol. ii.
tent ourfelves with takin;=^ a tranfient view of it among
the Greeks and Romans, and a fewother nations, in whofe
cuftoms and manners our readers mufl be interefted.
One can hardly read a book of the IHad or Odyfiey,
without perceiving that, in the age oFHomer, all prifoners
of war were liable to be treated as flaves, and compelled,
without regard to their rank, fex, qr years, to labour
for their matters in offices of the vileft drudgery. So
univerfally was this cruel treatment of captives admitted
to be the right of the viftor, that the poet introduces
Heftor, in the very aft of taking a tender and perhaps
lafl: farewell of his wife, when it was furely his bufinefs
to afford her every confolation in his power, telling her,
as a thing of courfe which could not be concealed, that,
on the conqueft of Troy, {he would be compelled
To bear the victor's hard commands, or bring
The weight of water from Hyperia's fpring (E).
Pope.
At that early period, the Phoenicians, and probably the
Greeks themfelves, had fuch an eftabliflied commerce in
flaves, that, not fatisfied with reducing to bondage their
prifoners of war, they fcrupled not to kidnap in cold
blood perfons who had never kindled their refentment,
in Older to fupply their foreign markets. In the 14th
book of the OdyfTey, Ulyffes reprefents himfelf as ha-
ving narrowly efcaped a fnare of this kind laid for him
by a falfe Phoenician, who had doomed the hero to I^i-
byan flavery : and as the whole narrative, in which this
circumitance is told, is an artful fiftion, intended to
have the appearance of truth to an Ithacan peafant, the
praAice of kidnapping flaves could not then have ap-
peared incredible to any inhabitant of that ifland.
Such were the manners of the Greeks in the heroic
age ; nor were they much improved in this refpedl at
periods of greater refinement. Philip of Macedon ha-
ving conquered the Thebans, not only fold his captives,
but even took money for permitting the dead to be bu-
ried *; and Alexander, who had more generofity than
Philip, afterwards razed the city of Thebes, and fold
the inhabitants, men, women, and children, for flavesf .
This cruel treatment of a brave people may indeed be
fuppofed to have proceeded, in the firft inftance, from
the avarice of the conqueror; and in the fecond, from the
momentary refentment of a man who was favage and gene-
rous by turns, and who had no command of his paffions.
We fliall not pofitively affign it to other caufes ; but
from the manner in which the Spartans behaved to their
flaves, there is little reafon to imagine that had they re-
ceived from the Thebans the fame provocation with A-
lexander-, they would have treated their captives with
greater lenity. " At Sparta (fays a humane and ele-
gant writer) flaves were treated with a degree of ri-
gour that is hardly conceivable ; although to them, as
their hufljandmen and artificers, their proud and idle
mailers were indebted for all the neceffaries of Hfe. The
Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the praftice of de-
ceiving and butchering thole poor men, were from time
[ ]
SLA
Slave/)/
ID
Romani
to time let loofe upon them, in order to fhow their pro.
ficiency in ftratagem and maffacre. And once, without
any provocation, and merely for their own amufement,
we are told that they murdered three thoufand in one
night, not only with the connivance of law, but by its a-
vowed pcrmiflion. Such, in promoting the happinefs
of one part of fociety and the virtue of another, are the
effefts of flavery,"
It has been laid, that in Athens and Rome flaves
were better treated than in Sparta : but in the former
city their treatment cannot have been good, nor their
lives comfortable, where the Athenians relilhed that
tragedy of Euripides in which Hecuba, the wife of
Priam, is introduced as lamenting that ihe was chained
like a dog at Agamemnon's pate ! Of the eftimation
in which flaves were held in Rome, we may form a to-
lerable notion from the well known fad, that one of
thofe unhappy beings was often chained at the gate of
a great man's houfe, to give admittance to the gucfts
invited to a feail*. In the early periods of the common- * Kame,
wealth it was cuilomary, in certain facred fliews exhi-
bited on folemn occafions, to drag through the circus
a flave, who Irad been fcoui-ged to death holding in his
hand a fork in the form of a gibbet f. Btit we need t Ckero c
not multiply proofs of the cruelty of the Romans to 'i^-
their flaves. If the inhuman combats oh the gladiators '^^i'*
(lee Gladiators) admit of any apology on account
of the martial fpirit with which tliey were thought to
infpire the fpedators, the condud of Vedius PoUio
mull have proceeded from the mail wanton and brutal
cruelty. This man, who flouriflied not in the carlieft
pei-iods of the republic, when the Romans were little
better than a favage banditti, but in the polifhed age
of Auguftus, frequently threw fuch flaves as gave him
the flighteil oftence into his fifli-ponds to fatten his lam- <
preys ; and yet he was fuffered to die in peace 1 The
emperor, indeed, upon coming to the knowledge of his
cruelty, ordered his lampreys to be deftroyed, and his
ponds to be filled up ; but we do not recolleft that any
other punilhment was inflided on the favage mafter.
I'ill the reign of the fame emperor the depofitions of
flaves were never admitted in the courts of judicature ;
and then they were received only when perions were ac-
cufed of treafonable pradices.
The origin of flavery in Rome was the fame as in Origin ol
every other country. Prifoners of war were of coui-fe Roman
reduced to that ftate, as if they had been criminals. The Slavery,
didator Camillus, one of the moft accorapliflied gene-
rals of the republic, fold his Hetruriafi captives to pay
the Roman ladies for the jewels which they had pre-
fented to Apollo. Fabius, whofe cautious condud fa-
ved his country when Hannibal was vidorious in Italy,,
having fubdued Tarentum, reduced 30,000 of the citi-
zens to flavery, and fold them to the higheil bidder. Co-
riolanus, when driven from Rome, and fighting for the
Volfci, fcrupled not to make flaves of his own country-
mea ; and Julius Casfar, among whofe faults wanton
cruelty
(e) In thofe early times drawing water was the office of the meaneft flaves. This appears from Jofhua's curfe
upon the Gibeonites who had deceived him.—" Now therefore ye are curfed, and there ftiall none of you be freed
from being bond-men, and hewers of wood, and drawers of water, for the houfe of my God." To this ftate of
bondage Homer makes Hedor fay, that Andromache would necejarily be brought upon the deftrudion of Trov "
SLA
SLA
very, cvuelty Has never been reckoned, fold at on^ time fifty-
three thoufand captives for flaves. Nor did the flaves
in Rome confift only of foreigners taken in war. By
one of the laws of the twelve tables, creditors were em-
powered to feize their infolvent debtors, and keep them
in their houfes till, by their fervices or labour, they had
difcharged the fum they owed : and in the beginning
of the commonwealth they were authorifed to fell fuch
debtors, and even to put them to death (f). The chil-
dren of flaves were the property not of the common-
wealth, or of their own parents, but of their mafters ;
and thus v.ras flavery perpetuated in the families
of fuch unhappy men as fell into that ftate, whether
through the chance of war or the cruelty of a fordid cre-
ditor (g). The confe^uence was, that the number of
flaves belonging to the rich Patricians was almolt incre-
dible. Caius Cascilius liidorus, who died about feven
years before the Chriftian era, left to his heirs 41 1 6
(laves ; and if any one of thofe wretched creatures made
an unfuccefsful attempt to regain his liberty, or was
even fufpefted of fuch a defign, he was marked on the
forehead with a red hot iron (h). In Sicily, during
the moft flourifhing periods of the commonwealth, it
fetnis to have been cuftomary for mafters to mark their
flaves in this manner ; at leaft we know that fuch was
the ptaftice of Damophilus, who, not fatisfied with this
fecurity, fhut up his flaves every night in clofe prifons,
and led them out like beafts in the morning to their
daily labour in the held. Hence arofe the feivile war
J J in Sicily.
lira- Though many laws vi^ere enafted by Auguftus and
other patriotic emperors to diminifli the power of cre-
ditors over their infolvent debtors ; though the influence
of the mild fpirit of Chriftianity tended much to meli-
orate the condition of flaves, even under Pagan maftersj
and though the emperor Adrian made it capital to kill
a flave without a juft reafon ; yet this infamous commerce SUvery,
prevailed univerfally in the empire for many ages after
the converfion of Conftantine to the religion of Chrift.
ItVas not indeed completely aboliflied even in the reign
of Juftinian ; and in many countries which had once
been provinces of the empire it continued long after
the empire itfelf had fallen to pieces.
It has already been obferved, that among the ancient Slavery a*
Germans it was not uncommon for an ardent gamcfter "''""S
to lofe his perfonal liberty by a throw of the dice. This ^eilnoans.
was indeed a itrong proof of favage manners ; but the
general condition of flaves among thofe favages feems to
have been much better than among the poliflied Greeks
and Romans. In Germany the flaves were generally
attached to the foil, and only employed in tending cat-
tle, and carrying on the bufmefs of agriculture ; for
the menial offices of every great man's honfe were per-
formed by his wife and children. Such flaves were fel-
dom beaten, or chained, or imprifoned. Sometimes in-
deed they were killed by their mafters in a fit of fud-
den paflion ; but none were confldered as materials of
commerce, except thofe who had originally been free-
men, and loft their freedom by play. Thefc, indeed,
the fuccefsful gamefter was very ready to fell, both be-
caufe he felt them an ufelefs burden, and becaufc their
prcfence continually put him in mind of that ftate to
which a throw of the dice might one day reduce him-
felf.
Such is the account which Tacitus gives :}; of flavery i Mor,
among the anciant Germans. The Anglo-Saxons, how- 24-
ever, after they were fettled in this ifland feem not to^"*
have carried on that traffic fo honourably. By a ftatute
of Alfred the Great f, the purchafe of a man, a horfe, \ WilUns^
or an ox, without a voucher to warrant the fale, was Cdhahn of
ftriaiy forbidden. That law was, doubtlefs, enaded ^^tZllCri'lo
to prevent Jiea/ing of men and cattle ; but it fliows Uemylll,
U3
(f) After a certain number of citations, the law granted to the debtor thirty days of grace to raife the fum
for which he was accountable. The words of the law are : " ^ris confcffi, rebufquc jure judicatis, tricrinti dies
jufti funto, Poft dein manum endojacito. — Vincito aut nervo, aut compedibus," When the debt is confefled,
and the trial pafled, let there be thirty days of forbearance : afterwards lay hands on him ; bind him either with
a cord or fetters." After the thirty days were expired, if the debtor had not difcharged the debt, he was led
to the prsetor, who delivered him over to the mercy of his creditors ; thefe bound him and kept him in chains
for the fpace of fixty days. Afterwards, for three market-days fucceffively, the debtor was brought to the tri-
bunal of the prsetor ; then a public crier proclaimed in the forum the debt for which the prifoner was detained.
It often happened, that rich perfons redeemed the prifoner by paying his debts ; but if nobody appeared in be-
half of the debtor after the third market-day, the creditor had a right to inflift the punifliments appointed by the
law. " Tertiis nundinis capite pcenas dato aut trans Tiberim peregre venumduito ;" that is, " Let him on the
third market-day be punifhed with death, or fold beyond the Tiber as a flave." If there were feveral creditors,
ihfey were allowed, in confequence of this fevere law, to divide the body of the prifoner into feveral parts, and
fhare it among them in proportion to the fum which they demanded.
(g) This is evident from the ftory of Appius and Virginia. See Rome, n° 113.
( H ) How capricioufly and unjuftly this infamous mark was impreffed, we learn from the ftory of Reftlo. This
man being profcribed, and a reward offered for his head by the triumvirs Oftavianus, Antony, and Lepidus,
concealed himfelf from the fury of the tyrants in the beft way that he could. A flave Vs'hom he had marked with
the hot iron having found out the place of his retreat, condufted him to a cave, and there fupported him for
fome time with what he earned by his daily labour. At length a company of foldiers cominr:,^ that way, and
approaching the cave, the faithful flave, alarmed at the danger his mafter was in, followed them clofe, and fall-
ing upon a poor peafant, killed him in their prefence, and cut off his head, crying out, " I am now revenged on
my mafter for the marks with which he has branded me." The foldiers, feeing the infamous marks on his fore-
head, and not doubting but he had killed Reftlo, fnatched the head out of his hand, and returned with it in all
hafte to the triumvirs. '1 hey were no fooner gone, than the flave conveyed his mafter to the fea fide, where
they had the good luck to find one of Sextius Poropeiug's veflels, which tranfportcd them fafe into Sicily.
S L A
Sluvery,
II Karnes's
Sketchesy
Look i.
ikctch 5.
Scotland.
16
•Slavery a-
US that fo late as the ninth or tenth century a ma
^ when fairly purchafed, was, in England, as much the
In England P*'^P"^'"^y ^f buyer as the horfc on which he rode,
and or the ox which dragged his plough. In the fame
. country, now fo nobly tenacious of freedom and the
rights of man, a fpecies of llavery fimilar to that which
prevailed among the ancient Germans fubfifted even to
the end of the fixteenth century. This appears from a
commifiion iffued by Queen Elizabeth in 1574, for in-
quiring into the laeds and goods of all her bond-men and
bond-nvomen in the counties of Cornwall, Devon, Somer-
fet,and Gloncefter, in order to compound with them for
their manumiflion, that they might enjoy their lands
and goods as freemen ||. In Scotland there certainly
exifted an order of flavec or bond-men, who tilled the
ground, were attached to the foil, and with it were
transferable from one proprietor to another, at a period
fo late as the thirteenth century ; but when or how
thofe villains, as they were called, obtained their free-
dom, feems to be unknown to every lawyer and antiqua-
ry "of the prefent day. Coalliers and falters were, in the
fame country, flaves till little more than 20 years ago, that
they were manumitted by an aft of the Britifli legifla-
ture, and reftorcd to the rights of freemen and citizens.
Before that period the fons of coalHers could follow no
bufinefs but that of their fathers ; nor were they at li-
berty to feek employment in any other mineo than thofe
to which they were attached by birth, without tiie con-
fent of the lord of the manor, who, if he had no ufe
for their fervices himfclf, transferred them by a written
deed to fome neighbouring proprietor.
That the favage nations of Africa were at any period
cTrtha^^'- ^^^^^^''y exempted from this opprobrium of our nature
nians which fpread over all the reft of the world, the enhgh-
' tened reader will not fuppofe. It is indeed in that vail
country that flavery has in every age appeared in its ug-
lieft form. We have already obferved, that about the era
of the Trojan war, a commerce in flaves was carried on
between Phoenicia and Lybia : and the Carthaginians,
who were a colony of Phoenicians, and revered the cuf-
toms, manners, and religion of their parent ftate, un-
doubtedly continued the Ty nan traffic m human flefli
with the interior tribes of Africa. Of this we might
reft affured, although we had no other evidence of the
faft than what refults from the pradice of human fa-
crifices fo prevalent in the republic of Carthage. The
genuine inftinfts of nature are often fubdued by dire
fuperftition, but they cannot be wholly eradicated ; and
the rich Carthaginian, when a human viilim was
demanded from him to the gods, v/ould be readv
to fupply the place of his own child by the fon of
a poor ftranger, perlidioufly purchafed at whatever
price. That this was, indeed, a very common practice
among them, we learn from the teftimony of various
hittorians *, who aflure us, that when Agathocles the
tyrant of Syracufe had overthrown their generals Haiuio
and Bomilcar, and threatened Carthage itftlf with a
liege, the people attributed their misfortunes to the juft
anger of Saturn for having been worihipped, f.^r fome
years, by the facrifices of children meanly born and fe-
cretly bought, infiead of thofe of noble extradlion. Thefe
fubftitutions of one offering for another were conilder-
ed as a profane deviation from the religion of their fore-
fathers ; and therefore to- expiate the guilt of fo horrid
an impiety, a facrifice of two Jiundred children of the
T J26 ]
SLA
» Pohl.
^ c:rt.
JDiod. Sic.
See a!fo
7JiiiverJ'al
Mijiory,
WOJ. XV.
fir ft rank was on that occafjon made to the bfoof?y S'ave
god. As the Carthaginians were a commercial people, ^~~v
v/e cannot fuppofe that they purchafed flaves only for
facrifices. They undoubtedly condemned many of their
prifoners of war to the Itate of fervitude, and either
fold them to foreigners, or diftributed them among
their fenators and the leaders of their armies. Hanno,
who endeavoured to ufiirp the fupreme power in Car-
tilage whilft that republic was engaged in war with
Timoleon in Sicily J, armed twenty \houfand of hisl7'#
flaves in, order to carry his nefarious purpofe into exe-
cution ; and Hannibal, after his decifive viftory at Can-"^'^^' ij
nas, fold to the Greeks many of his prifoners whom the Hijory.
Roman fenate refufed to redeem ^. That illuftrious ^ Tit. \
commander was indeed more humane, as well as more '^A*''"'
politic, than the generality of his countrymen. Before
his days it was cuftomary with the CarthagiHi'ans either
to mafiacre their captives in cold blood, that they might
never again bear arms againft them, or to offer thern in
facrilice as a grateful acknowledgment to the gods by
whofe afliftance they beheved that they were vanquifhed ;
but this was not always done even by their moft luper-
ftitious or moft unprincipled leaders. Among other n'ch
fpoils which Agathocles, after his victory aheady men-
tioned, found in the camp of Hanno and Bomilcar,
were[twenty thoufand pair of fetters and manacles, which
thofe generals had provided for fuch of the Sicilian pri-
foners as they intended to preferve alive and reduce to
a ftate of flavery.
With the ancient ftate of the other African nations
we are but very little acquainted. The Numidians, 17
Mauritanians, Getulians, and Garamantes, are indeed And Ni
mentioned by the Roman hiftorians, who give us ample
details of the battles which they fought in attempting
to preferve their national independence 5 but we have
no particular account of their difierent manners and
cuftoras in that age when Rome was difputing with
Carthage the fovereignty of the world. All the Afri-
can ftates of which we know any thing, were in alliance
with one or other of thofe rival republics. ; and as the
people of thofe ftates appear, to have been Icfs enlighten-
ed than either the Romans or the Carthaginians, we
cannot luppole that they had purer morals, or a greater
regard for the facred rights of man, than the powerful
nations by whom they were either protefted or oppref-
fed. They would, indeed, infenfibly adopt their cuf-
toms; andthe ready market which Marius found for
the prifoners taken in the town Capfa, although Salluft
acknowledges + that the fale was contrary to'^the laws f "BelL Ji
of war, ftiows that flavery was then no ttrange thinn- to *^^P-
the Numidians, It feems indeed to have prevailed
through all Africa from the very firft peopling of that
unexplored counti-y ; and we doubt if in any age of the
world the unhappy negro v/as abfoiutely lecure of his
perlonal freedom, or even of nut being fold to a foreign
trader, ^
It is the common opinion that the pradice of ma- Slave-tra
king Haves of the negroes is of a very modern date ; that^'*"^^ ''^^
it owes its origin to the incurfions of the Portuguefe oup^^
the wefterncoaft of Africa ; and that but for the cun-^uTnot ■
nmg or cruelty of Europeans, it would not now exift,tiie Pott;
•and would never have exifted. But all this is a compli- S"^^^'
cation of miftakea, A learned writer has lately proved, *^^'t''h
with a force of evidence which admits of no reply *' ^''"'^'^ "J
-that from the Coaft of Guinea a great trade in flaves St
W'as Hljiory.
SLA [ 527 ]
was carried on by the Arabs fome hundreds of years
before the Portugiiefe embarked in that trafHc, or
had even fecn a woclly-headed neofro. Even the
I wanderin;; Arabs of the defert, who never had
ny friendly correfpondence with the Chriftians of
Europe, have from time immemorial been ferved by ne-
r gro flaves. " The Arab muft be poor indeed (fays M.
^'■f Sa\ignier) not to have at leafl one negro flave. His
fole occupation is the care of the herd. They are
never employed in war, but they have I't in their
power to many. Their wives, vv'ho are captive ne-
greffes, do all the domeftic work, and are roughly
treated by the Arabian women, and by the Arabs them-
felves. Their children are flaves like them, and put to
all kinds of drudecry." Surely no man whofe judge-
ment is not completely warped by prejudice, will pre-
tend that thofe roving tribes of favage3,fo rem.arkablcfor
their independent fpirit and attacljment to ancient cuf-
toms, learned to enflave the negroes from the Europe-
ans. In all probability they have, without interru})tion,
continued the praftice of flavery from the days of their
great ancettor lUimael ; and it feems evident, that notie
of the European nations had ever feen a ivooliy-headed ne-
gro till the year 1 1 00, when the crufaders fell in with
a fmall party of tliem near the town of Hebron in Ju-
dea, and v/ere lo Oruck with the novelty of their ap-
pearance, that the army burll into a general fit of
laughter II . Long before the crufades, however, v/e
know with cert ainty that the natives of Guinea had been
expofed to fale in foreign countries. In 651 the Ma-
hometan Arabs of Egypt fo harafTed the king of Nu-
bia or Ethiopia, who was a Chriftian, that he agreed to
fend them annually, by way of tribute, a 'vajl number of
Nubian or Ethiopian flaves into Egypt. Such a tribute
as this at that time, we are told, was more agreeable to
the khalif than any other, as the Arabs then made no
fmall account of thofe flaves
The. very propofal of fuch a tribute, and the eftima-
tion in which black flaves were held in Eg}'-pt, fhows
that a commerce in bond-fetvants could not then be a
new branch of trade either to the Arabs or the Ethio-
pians ; but the vail number which the Ethiopian mo-
narch was now compelled to funiifh every year, indu-
ced him to feed this great drain upon his fubjefts from
the natives of the neighbouring countries. " He ran-
ged accordingly into all that vaft blank of geography up-
on the map of the world, the fpreading bofom of the
African continent ; and even pufhed through it to its
fartheft extremities in the weft. He thus brought the
blacks of Guinea, for the firft time, into the fervice and
families of the eaft ; and the flaves which he paid in
tribute to the Arabs, whether derived from the nearer
neighbourhood of Ethiopia, fetched from the mediter-
ranean regions of Africa, or brought from the diftant
fhores of the Atlantic, were all denominated Ethiopians,
from the country by which they were conveyed into
•^EjTypt " At this time, therefore, according to Mr
Whitaker, began that kind of traffic in human fleflr
" Which fpoils unhappy Guinea of its fons."
There are not many authors from whom, in queftions
of antiquity, we differ with greater hefitation ; but, as
we meet with a female Ethiopian flave in the Eunuch oF
Terence, we cannot help fufpe£ting that Guinea was oc-
cafioiially ^' fpoiled of its fons" at a much earlier period.
At any rate, from tlie obfervations made by the European
S L A
travellers who firft penetrated into that continent, it appears Slavery
undeniable that flavery mutt have prevailed from time im-
memorial among fuch of the tribes as had never carried 'p^e ne-
on any comimerce with foreign nations. When Battel firil groes have
vilited the Giagas*, thofe people had never before feencnilaved
a white man ; yet they welcomed him and the Englilh,°^^^'^^"^^
with whom he had come, to their country, invited them tju^g
to bring their goods on fhore, and without hefitation memorial,
loaded the fliip with flaves. The Giagas were indeed * Modern
waging war with the kingdom of Benguela; and being ^"J'^'^*
cannibals, who prefer human flefh to all others, the^oj/xfiL
flaves whom they had fold to the Englifh were pro- chap. 47,
bably prifoners whom they would have killed and eaten fe*^- a.
if they had not found an opportunity of otherwife dif-
pofing of them to greater advantage. But as they had
not been incited by the Europeans to eat their prifoners,
there can be no reafon to fuppofe that by the Europeans
they had been firft induced to fell them: for we have feen
that this kind of commerce prevailed in Africa among
people much more polifhed than the Giagas fo early as
in the reign of Jugurtha.
That it was not introduced among the neoioes either
by the Arabs or by the Portuguefe, appears ftill more
evident from the behaviour of the Dahomans at the con-
queft of Whidah, and from the manner in which the
people of Angola at the eailieft ftage of their foreign-
trade procured a fupply of flaves for the Portuguefe
market. The greater part of the flaves whom the An-
golans e:;ported from St Paulo de Loanda were brought
from inter ior countries, fome hundreds of leagues di-
itant, where they could not have been regularly purcha-
fed had that commerce been till then unknown in thofe
countries. The Dahomans, in the beginning of the
year 1727, had never feen a white man: and when their
viftorious prince and his army, in their rout through
Whidah, firft met with fome Europeans in the town of
Sabi, they were fo fliocked at their complexion and
their drefs, that they were afraid to approach them,
and could not be perfuaded that they were men till
they heard them fpeak, and were affured by the
Whidanefe that thefe were the merchants who purcha-
fed all the flaves that were fold in Guinea f. Slavery, ^ ^^j^^.^^ ,
therefore, if it prevailed among the Dahomans before
that period, could not have been introduced among ^i/'^y'^*
them by European or Arabian intrigues: but we ^'"gj^,.
afl'ured by Snelgrave, who was then in the army, that^"'^'* '
thofe people treated their captives with fuch horrid
cruelty as was fhocking to the natives of the fea-coaft,
and leaves no room for doubt but that flavery had been
pra£tifed among them from the earlieft ages. A great
part of their prifoners were facrificed to their gods or
eaten by the loldiers ; and when our author expreffed
to a colonel of the guard fome /urprife that a prince fo
enlightened as the fovereign of Dahomy fhould facri-
fice fo many men whom he might have fold to great
advantage, he was gravely told, that it had been the -
cuftom of their nation, from time immemorial, to offer,"
after viftory, a certain number of prifoners to the gods;
and that they feledled the old men for viflims, becaufe
they were or lefs value at market, and more dangerous
froii their experience and cunning, than the young
men. To thofe perfons who fancy that the wars be-
tween the African princes aie carried on for the fole -
purpoie of fupplying the European fliips w ith flaves, itr '-
may be proper to remark, that one of the kings of Da-
homy flaughtered ai once not only all the captives ta-
5 ^tn
Slavery.
I T^alzeVs
Hijioty of
the King-
dom of Da-
boKty.
The route
by which
the Arabs
carried on
the flave-
trade,
B-enieiv,
p. ]85.
SLA [52
ken In war, but alfo 127 prifoners of dlfFerenl kinds,
that he might have a fufficiency of flculls to adorn the
walls of his palace ; though at the very time of that
maflacre he knew that there were fix flave-ftiips in the
road of Whidah from which he could have got for eve-
ry prime flave a price little fhort of thirty pounds Ster-
ling X-
- Thefe fads, and numberlefs others which the reader
will find detailed in the 13 th volume of the Modern
Univerfal Hiftory, by writers who were at the greateft
panis to procure authentic information ; who were nei-
ther biafled by intereft nor blinded by enthufiafm ; and
wdio appear to have held the infamous traffic in utter
abhorrence — prove beyond the poflibility of doubt, that
flavery of the word kind mufl have prevailed among all
the negro nations before they were vifited either by the
Portuguefe or by the Arabs (i). Thefe two nations
may indeed have been the firll who dragged the unhap-
py negro from his native continent, and made his flavery
doubly fcvere, by compelling him to labour, without
his own confent, for mafters whom he hardly confidered
as human beings.
On the_ beginning of this commerce, or the dreadful
cruelty with which it has been carried on to the prefent
day, it is Impoffible to refleft without horror : but there
is fome confolatlon, however fmall, in knowlno- that its
original authors were not Europeans. The purchafe of
Guinea blacks for flaves by foreip-n nations commenced
ages before the Portuguefe had laid that country open
to the Intercourfe of Europe. Even after they had made
many incurfions into it, the inhabitants were as regularly
purchafed for flaves by fome of the adjoining Hates as
they are now by the maritime Europeans.
" The Arabs of Egypt having reduced all the north
of Africa, and carrying with them their love of black
fervants, would be fure to open a ready communication
for themfelves to their country. They certainly had
one fo early as 151 2, and before the Europeans had
any for that purpofe (k). They went from Barbary
by a route that was fo much pradifed, as to be denomi-
nated exprefsly ' the way of the camels.' Meeting to-
gether at the town of Cape Cantin, that of Valadie
near it, the commercial caravan traverfed the vaft deferts,
8 ] SLA
thofe of Sarra, which run like the tropic of Cancer over Sla
them In a long Hne acrofs the country ; to a place of
great population called lioden, the IVaden or Hocien of
oiii maps, and a little to the fouth-wellof Cape Blanco.
From Hoden they turned to the left, and pufhed di-
reftly into the interior of the continent, to reach Te-
gazza, the Taga%el or Tagaza of our maps, and lying
nearly eail of Hoden. Here alTuredly they did, as the
caravan does certainly at this day ; and added to the
other wares upon their camels a quantity of fait from
thofe mines of rock-falt, which are extraordinary enough
to be noticed as rocks in our maps. This they carried, as
they ftill carry It, toTanbut, the T omhui of the maps, and
a town In the heart of the African continent. And from
this town they turned on the right for the fea-coaft
again, and reached It in the great kingdom of Mele,
the Melli of our maps, to the fouth of the Gambia, and
juft at the fpringing as it were of that grand arch
of fea which curves fo deeply into the body of tlie
land, and conftitutes the extenfive gulph of Guinea.
At Melli and at Tombut they received a meafure of
gold for a meafure of fait. The caravan coUefts gold
at Tombut to the prelent time ; but at Melli they
purchafed gold, and alfo filver, in pieces as large as peb-
bles. And at Hoden they had a great mart for Jlaves ;
the blacks being brought thither from the countries ad-
joining, and bartered away to the traders. Such was
the Slave Coaft and the Gold Coaft of former days.
The ftaple commodity of Hoden is only transferred now
to Whidah ; and diverted from the Arabs of Barbary
to the Chriftlans of Europe," by whom the negroes are Which
carried to the continent of America or to the Sugar
Iflands in the Weft Indies. In thefe countries theyf^jEli
are all fold like beafts In a market; but they experience ^eanf.
very different degrees of fervitude from the different
mafters who hold them as property. Such of them as
are reconciled to the appearance of white men, or have
been born in the European colonies, feel themfelves
as happy under a humane mafter as they could be in
their native continent (l) ; and we believe that few of
them in fuch circumftances have expreffed a defire to
return."
In the French Weft India iflands, before the late re-
volution
(i) The fame thing appears from the voyages of M. Saugnier, who had an opportunity of converfing with
many tribes of negroes, and who always fpeaks of flavery as an eftabllflied praftlce among them ; adding, that
luch as are fold for crimes are put to death by their own .countrymen if they fly from their mafter. It appears
hkewife in a ftill more ftrlking light from Dalzel's Hlftory of Dahomy, where we are told that all the Daho-
mans, from the loweft to the higheft, acknowledge the right of the fovereign to difpofe of their perfons and pro-
perties at pleafure ; and where we learn, that the fovereign himfelf affured Mr Abfon the Englifh governor at
Whidah, that all his anceftors had from time immemorial put to death every prifoner of war whom they could
not fell as a flave.
(K)In the year 1442, Anthony Gonfalez, a Portuguefe adventurer, reftored to their native country fome
Mooriih prifoners whom he had two years before forcibly carried off from the coaft of Africa. He landed them
at Rio del-Oro, and received fronr the Moors in exchange ten blacks and a quantity of gold duft. This tranlac-
tion proves, that a commerce in black fervants was then regularly carried on by the Moors and not by the Portu-
guefe. So early as the year 1502, the Spaniards began to employ a few negroes In the mines of Hlfpaniola ;
but in the year following, Ovando, the governor of that Ifland, forbade the further importation of them, alleglnc^
that they taught the Indians all manner of wickednefs, and rendered them lefs traftable than form.erly : and 1^
was not till the year 15 17 that the fupply of negroes to the Spanlfh American plantations became an eftabllflied
and regular branch of commerce. Edward's Hijlory of the Wejl Indies, Book IV. Chap. il.
(l) " I have obferved many of my flaves go on board the vefTel with joy, on my afhnance that they would be
well treated and happy on the plantation where I was going to fend them. When the Banbarans find that they
are trufled by the whites, they neyer think of making their efcape, choof:ng to be the flaves of £wro/^w rather
6 than
SLA C 529 1 SLA
volution m the mother country, which has produced in come to his knowledge. The juftices and veilry of each Slavery.
parlfli are indeed conftituted a council of proteSion., for
all its dependencies anarchy and raaflacre, the condition
of the negro-flaves was better than that of the bond-
ves in nien among the ancient Germans. " "^fhofe of them
reach who cultivated the plantations were attached to the foil,
and could not be drawn off to pay debts, or be fold fe-
(Id'^'^o P^'^^t'^^y ffon^ the eftatc on which they lived. This
meiit, g^v" them a lafling property in their huts and little
fpots of grotmd, which they might fafely cultivate with-
out dread of being turned out of poffeflion, or transfer-
red contrary to their intereft and feelings from one pro-
the exprefs purpofe of making full enquiry into the bar-
barities exercifed on Haves, and bringing the authors to
punifhment at the public expence ; and by a new flave-
a6l of Grenada, the juftices are required annually to no-
minate three freeholders to be guardians of the flaves,
who are to take an oath to fee the law duly executed;}:. \. Edtvards*^
Thefe are benevolent regulations ; but we doubt if pro- Hijlory of
teftion can be fo promptly afforded by a council of guar- ^j^J^^-^
dians as by an individual attorney who has no other era- 1,00k. iv.
prietor to another. They were under the protedlion of ployment. In fome of the other Britifh iflands, we have chap. 5.
'tmfay's
ay on the
'latment
' Conner-
law as foon as they arrived in the colony. Proper mif-
fionaries were appointed for the purpofe of training them
up to a certain degree of religious knowledge, and am-
ple funds were allotted for the maintenance of thofe ec-
clehaftics. On ill treatmeat received from his matter,
or on being deprived of his allowance of food and rai-
ment, the flave was direfted to apply to the king's at-
torney, who was obliged to profecute the matter forth-
with. That officer was alfo bound to profecute, if by
any other means he heard of the abufe ; the law adding
as the reafon, This nve ivill to be obferved, to check the
abufe of potver in the maflerX"
We wifli it were in our power to fay, that in the Bri-
_ tifh Weft India colonies flaves are equally protefted by
been confidently told that the unfortunate fons of Afri-
ca have no prote6lion whatever againft, the tyranny of a
fordid owner, or the caprice of a boyifli overfeer ( m ) ;
though it is added, that the humanity of many mafters
more than fupplies the want of laws in every refpeft
but that of improvement, and that the attachment of
others has In them a like effect;. In forac cafes good
fenfe, a regard for their reputation, and a well-informed
convlftion of their intereft, induce men to treat their ^
flaves with difcretlon and humanity. The flaves of
many a planter poffefs advantages beyond what the la-
bourer even of Britain enjoysf yet thefe advantages ^„^'^->"
all depend upon the good will of his matter ; and in no p^^* ^^d
part of the Britifli colonies are the flaves attached to the 51.
of Slaves^'^'^ as they were In the French Iflands under the old go- foil. This Angle circumftance, together with the total
nd of
negleft of their morai and religious culture, makes their
fituation much lefs eligible than was that of the French
flaves under the old government ; and affords a ftriking
proof of what the humane author whom we have juft
quoted well obferves, that " thofe men and nations
whom liberty hath exalted, and who therefore ought to
regard it tenderly in others, are conftantly for reftrain-
ing Its bleffmgs within their own little circle, and de-
light more In augmenting the train of their dependants
than in adding to the rank of fellow-citizens, or in dif-
fufmg the benefits of freedom am.ong their nelgh-
vernment, and that the fame care Is taken of their mo-
"^4 _ ral and religious improvement. This, however, we are
fiflands ^'^^^'^» cannot be fald with truth. In the ifland of Ja-
' maica, before the paffing of the confoUdated flave aS,
not many years ago, a white man, whether proprietor
or not, who had killed a negro, or by an aft of feverlty
been the caufe of his death, was, for the firft offence,
intitled to benefit of clergy, and not liable to capital
punifliment till a repetition of the crime. By the pre-
fent law, it is enafted, " That if any perfon, whether
fervatiens owncr or fuperlntcndant of flaves, fliall be convifted of
fi^Tre.iUYiQ^l^g^ any aft of paffion or cruelty^ occafioned the hours."
wC^r ^^^^^ °^ negro, it fliall be capital for the JrJ of- . ^ 5^
" " fence: and for the greater fecurity of the property. Having given this ample detail of the rife and pro- The law
and as a check ©n thofe who may have the punllhment grefs of flavery in the world, and fliiown that It has pre- f"''"-'^^''
of flaves In their power, it is particularly required, that vailed in every age, and under all religions, we fl^all now ^^y-^r^/igT
every furgeon or doftor belonging to each eftate fliall proceed to enquire whether a practice fo general be in '^^^^
fwear to the caufe of the death of each negro, to the any inftance lawful ; and if it be, how it muft be modi-
fied, in order to be rendered confittent with the rights
of man and the immutable laws of virtue.
That in a ftate of nature one man has a right to
feize upon another, and to compel him by force to la-
bour for his fubfiftence, Is a polition which we believe
has never been ferioufly maintained. But independent
communities ftand to each other In the very fame rela-
beft of his knowledge and belief ; and if any negro
dies, and is interred by the owner or overfeer, without
the doftor's having feen or been fent for to fuch negro,
in this cafe, the owner or overfeer caufing the negro to
be fo iflterred is liable to a profecutlon for fuch con-
dua."
This law muft doublefs be produftlve of good effefts ;
but being a colonial aft, it cannot have the vigour of tion that individuals do in a ftate of nature ; and therc-
the Code Noir; nor do we know of any attorney in the fore if In fuch a ftate the man of greater bodily ftrength
ifland who is obliged to defend the rights of the negroes, or mental fagacity would have no right to convert liis
or profecute the matter whofe cruelty has by any means weaker neighbour into pcrfonal property, neither can
Vol. XVII. Part II. 3 X the
than of a black man who would treat them with the^ greateft cruelty.
Saugnier and Briffon, p. 3 ^2. 335. Englitti Tranflation
Voyages to the Confl of Africa by Mefjrs
(m) In Barbadoes there is faid to be a law for the proteftlon of flaves, which is the moft Infolent trifling with
mttice and humanity that the writer of this article has ever feen. It is enafted, forfooth, " That If any man
lhall, of ivantonnefs, or only of bloody-mindednefs, or cruel intention^ •wilfully kill a negro or other flave, if hia owUj
Jtball pay into the pubUc treafury fifteen pounds Sterling ! See Dickfon's Letters en Slavery, p. 4,
SLA
Slavery, morc powerful and enlightened nation have a rli^ht
to carry off by force, or entice by fraud, the fubjcAs of
a weaker and more barbarous community for the pur-
pofe of reducing them to a {late of fervitude. This is
a truth fo obvious as to admit neither of proof nor of
denial,.
In thus ftating the cafe between two independent na-
tions, we have in our eye that traffic in flaves which is
carried on between the civihV.ed Europeans and the bar-
barous Africans: and the utmoft length which we think
an apologifl for that trade can go is to contend, that
we may lawfully purchafe flaves in thofe countries where
from time immemorial they have been a common branch
r 53® ]
SLA
46
The com*
TV. c-ifi apolo-
gy for it
iijfiifficient,
27
of commerce. But the European right to purchafe
cannot be better than the African right to fell ; and
we have never yet been informed what gives one Afri-
can a right to fell another. Such a right cannot be na-
tural, for the reafon which we have elfewhere afligned
(fee Right) : neither can it be adventitious ; for ad-
ventitious rights are immediately derived from the mu-
nicipal law, which is the public will of the ftate. But
the Hate has no authority to deprive an innocent man
of his perfonal freedom, or of the produce, of his own
labour ; for it is only to fecure thefe, by protefting the
weak from the violence of the ftrong, that ftates ate
formed, and individuals united under civil govern-
ment.
It may perhaps be fald, that by patiently fubmitting
to governments which authorife the traffic in human
flefh, men virtually give up their perfonal liberty, and
veft their governors with a right to fell them as flaves :
but no man can veft another with a right which he
pofleffes not himfelf ; and we fliall not hefitatc to af-
firm, that in a ftate of nature, where all have equal
rights, no individual can fubmit himfelf to the abfolute
difpofal of another without being guilty of the greatefl
No man has crime- The reafon is obvious. From the relation in
a right to which men ftand to one another as fellow-creatures, and
give hitn- God as their common Creator, thefe are duties in-
the abfolaite "P*^^" ^^'^'^^ peculiar to himfelf; in the perform-
difpofal of snce of which he can be guided only by his own rea-
auuther, fon, which was given him for that very purpofe. But
he who renounces his perfonal freedom, and fubmits im-
conditionally to the caprice of a mailer, impioufly at-
tempts to fet himfelf free from the obligation of that law
v/hich is interwoven with his very being, and chobfes a
direftor of his conduft different from that which God
has affigned him. A man therefore cannot put him-
felf in a ftate of unconditional fervitude ; and what he
camiot do for himfelf, he furely cannot authorize others
to do for him either by a tacit or by an open confent.
Thefe confiderations have often made us regret that
writers, for whofe talents and integrity we have the
higheft refpeft, ftiould, without accurately defining what
they mean by llavery, have peremptorily affirmed, that,
confiftently with the law of nature men may be redu-
ced to that ftate as a punifhment for crimes, or to dlf-
What kind charge debts which they cannot otherwife pay. That
of flavery a criminal, who has forfeited his hfe to the laws of his
"**y^^ country, may have his punifhment commuted for hard
Tunifli-^" ^ ^'<^^onr, till death in the courfe of nature fliall put a pe-
riod to his terreftrial exiftence, is a truth which we ap-
prehend cannot be controverted ; but to make fuch a
commutation of punifliments confiftent with the laws of
D.'ature and of nature's God, it appears to us that the
pun
jnent
kind and degree of labour muft be precifely afcertained,
and the condu6l of the criminal not left to the capricious
direftion of any individual.
Puninimcnts can be juftly infllfted only for one or
other of two ends, or for both. They may be calcula-
ted either to reform the criminal or to be a warning to
the innocent ; and thofe which moft tffeftually anfwer
both thefe purpofes are furely to be prefoi-red to fuch
as anfwer but one of them. For this i-eafon we conli-
der hard labour as a much fitter punifliment for moft
crimes than death : but to fntitle it to preference, the
kind and degree of the labour muft be afcertained by the
law ; for if thefe circumftances be omitted, and the of-
fender dehvered over as a flave to the abfolute difpofal
and caprice of a private mafter, the labour to which he
is condemned, inftead of operating to his reformation,
may be converted into the means of tempting him to
the commiffion of new ci-imes. A young woman, in the
flate of fervitude, would hardly be able to maintain her
virtue againft the folicitations of a mafter who fliould
promife her liberty or a remiffion of toil upon her yield-
ing to his defires ; and the felon, who had long been
accuftomed to a lire of vagrancy and idlenefs, would
not ftrenuoufly objeft to the perpetration of any wick-
ednefs to obtain his freedom, or even a diminution of his
daily taflc. Indeed fuch temptations might be thrown in
his way, as human nature could not reliftbut by means
of much better principles than felons can be fuppofed
to poflefs. He might be fcourged into compliance ; or
his labour might be fo increafed as to make hira for a
little refplte eagerly embi-ace the moft nefarious propo-
fal which his mafter could make : for being abfolute
property, there is no earthly tribunal to which he could
appeal for juftice ; and felons do not commonly fupport
themfclves under trials by pious meditation on a future
ftate.
By reafoning in this way, we are far from meaning to
infinuate that flave-holders in general torture their flaves
into the commiffion of crimes God forbid ! Many of
them we know to be religious, humane, and benevolent :
but they are not infallible ; and fome of them may be
Inftlgated, fome of them undoubtedly have been inftl-
gated, by avarice and other worfe principles, to compel
creatures, who are fo abfolutely their dependents, to ex-
ecute deeds of darknefs too hazardous for themfelves.
But the morality or immorality of any aftion, and the
moral fitnefs of any ftate, are to be judged of by their
natural tendency, if the one were imiverfally praftifed
and the other univerfally prevalent (fee Moral Philo-
sophy, n° 156.) : and as the natural tendency of abfo-
lute domeftic flavery among fuch creatures as men is to
throw the moft powerful temptations to vice In the
way both of mafter and of flave, it muft be In every In-
ftance, even when employed as a punifliment, inconfift-
ent with the fundamental principles of moral virtue.
Some writers Indeed have maintained, and the civil Children
law feems to fuppofe, that children are the property ofnf>t
their parents, and may by them be fold as flaves In cafes
of urgent neeeffity : but if we duly confider how pro- "ents^"^
perty is acquired (fee Property), and attend to the
natural confequenccs of flavery, we fliall foon be con-
vinced that this opinion is very ill founded. The rights
of parents refult from their duties ; and It is certainly
the duty of that man who has been the inllrument of
bringing into the world aaintelledual andmoial being,
to
SLA
SLA
vt-ry,
3°
to every thing In his power to render the cxiftence
of that being happy both in the prtfent life and In that
w hich Is to come. If this duty be confclentloufly dif-
charged, the parent has a manifell right to the grati-
tude, love, and reafonable obedience, of his child ; but
he cannot, In confequence of any duty performed, claim
a right to tiansfcr that child as property to the uncon-
trolled difpofal of any private mailer ; for this plain
reafon, that the man who is confidtred as the private
property of another, cannot reafonably be luppofed to
tnjoy happir.efs In this world, and Is under many temp-
tations to do what muft necefrarily render him miferable
in the next. See Moral Philosophy, n'' 138.
If cilmlnals cannot be lawfully reduced to a ftate of
abfolute private flavcry, much lefs furely can It be lawful
to reduce Infolvent debtors and prifoners at war co that
ftate. Many a virtuous man, who has contr?.£ted debts
with the fairelt profpedt of paying them, has been fud-
denly tendered Infolvent by fire, by flilpwreck, or by
the bankruptcy of others with whom he was necefTarlly
engaged In the courfe of his trade. Such a man can be
confidered in no refpeft as ctlminal. He has been In-
deed unfortunate ; but It would be groisly unjuft, as
well as fhockingly cruel, to add to his misfortune by re-
ducing him to a ilate to which we have jufl feen that
the vilefl felon cannot be reduced without a violation of
dulent the laws of morality. Fraudulent bankrupts Indeed, of
kiuits vvhom we daily fee many, might with great propriety
and the ilrifteil jullice be compelled to extenuate their
debts by labouring for the benefit of thofe whom they
have Injured ; and criminals of other defcrlptions might
be made to work for the benefit of the pubhc : but in
both cafes the tafic to be performed fliould be afcertain-
ed by the law, and the perfons of the labourers be pro-
tefted by the ihite. If fuch can be called flaves, their
flavery is undoubtedly confiflent with every principle of
virtue and religion ; for they fuffer nothing but the due
i cward of their deeds. Prifoners of war, however, can
upon no honefl principle be reduced even to this ilate of
n itigsted bondage ; tor they are fo far trom Incurring
guilt by fighting for their country^, that even to their
enemies their courage and conduft In fuch a caufe nt.nfl
appear worthy of reward. A victorious general has
certainly a right to prevent the priloners taken In battle
from again drawing their fwords againll him during the
continuan^ of the war ; but there are many ways by
which this, may be done efFe<Stually without chaining
the unfortunate captives to the oar, or felling them like
cattle to private purchafers, by whom they may be treat-
ed with capricious cruelty, and driven to the perpetra-
tion of the greatefl crimes,
bjec- To thele ccnclufions, and the reafoning on which
10 our they are built, we are aware it may be objeftcd, that If
private flaveiy were in every inflance unlawful and In-
confntent with the fundamental principles of morality,
it would not have prevailed among the ancient patri-
archs, and far lefs have been authorifed by the Jewifh
law.
In reply to this obje&ion, it may be obferved, that
vtrtd. /vbraham, liaac, and Jacob, though excellent men, were
not charafters abfolutely perfect ; that as their pradlice
does not authorife polygamy or incefl among us, it will
not authorife the reducing of our fellow-creatures to a
itate of hoptlefs fervltude ; and that from the clrcuni-
llances of the age In which they lived, many things
p.;llcd
ibi ur
the be
t of
r cie-
31
31
; former
were permitted to them, and were Indeed harrolefs, Slavery,
which are forbidden to us, and would now be perni- '
clous. The character of Abraham appears to have been
much more perfedl than that of his fon or grandfon ;
and was certainly equal, if not fuperior, to that of any
ether mere man of whom we read either in profane or
even In facred hiilory. We are to remember, however,
that he was born amidfl idolaters; and was probably an
Idolater hlmfelf till enlightened by the Infpiration of Je-
hovah, and called from his kindred and from his fa-
ther's houfe. Before his converfion, he raufl have had
much cattle and many flaves, which conflituted the '
riches ef that early period ; and his cafe would indeed
have been peculiarly hard, had he been commanded to
diveft himfelf of his fervants, and to depart into a flrange
country very thinly inhabited, without people to pro-
tect his flocks and herds from beafls of prey. Nor
would his lofs have contributed in any degree to the
benefit of his flaves, who, as the ranks of men were then
adjufled, could not long have preferved their liberty.
Had they not been forcibly reduced to their former
ffate by their Idolatrous countrymen, which in all pro-
bability they would have been, they muff have loon fub-
mitted to it, or perifhed by hunger. Let it be remem-
bered, too, that the bond fervants of Abraham, though
conifituting the moft valuable part of his property, were
not confidered as a fpecies of Inferior beings, but were
treated rather as childeren than as flaves. This is evi-
dent from his fpeaking of the fleward of his houfe as hia
heir, when complaining to God of the want of feed.
Indeed the manner in which this circumftance Is men-
tioned, fhows that it was then the general praft ice to
confider domeflic flaves as miembers of the family ; for
the patriarch does not fay, " I will leave my fubftance
to this Eliezer of Damafcus;" but his words are, " Be-
hold to me thou hall given no feed; and, lo! one born in
my houfe is my heir^." From this mode of expreffion \ Gen. xV,
we are llrongiy inchned to think that captives taken 3.
in war were in that age of fimpliclty incorporated Into
the family or tribe ot the comjueror, as they arc fald to
be at prefent amo"g the North American Indians, to
fupply the place of thofe who had fallen in battle. If
lo, Oavery was then a very mild thing, unattended with
tlie evils which are now in its train, and mull often have
been highly beneficial to the captive.
The other part of the objedtlon appears at firfl fight Anfwer to
more formidable : but perhaps a little attention to the t'^e other,
defign of the Mofaic economy may enable us to remove
it even more completely than this. We need not In-
form our theological readers, that one great purpofe
for which the pollerity of Abraham were feparated
from the heathen nations around them, was to preferve
the knowledge of the true God in a world run head-
long Into idolatry. As Idolatry appears to have had
fomething In Its forms of worfhip extremely captivating
to rude minds, and as the minds of the Ifraelites at the
era of their departure from Egypt were exceedingly
rude, every method was taken to keep their feparatiori
from their idolatrous neighbours as complete as pof-
fible. With this view they were commanded to facrT-
fice the animals which their Egyptian riiaflers had wor-
fhipped as gods, and were taught to confider hogs and
fuch other creatures as the heathen offered In facrince, -
when celebrating their myflical ar.d magic rites, as too
unclean to be eaten or even to be touched. Of this di-
3X2 ftindioa
SLA
r 533 ]
SLA
Y Lev, XX.
»4, J J, 26
f Deuf . vl"
3,3,4..
Slavfry. fl:niQ;Ion between clean and unclean beafts, God him-
""''y'*-^ felf affigns the reafon : " I am the Lord your God
(fays he), who have feparated you from other people ;
ye fliall therefore put difference between clean and un-
clean beafts, and between unclean fowls and- clean :|;."
P'or the fame reafon they were prohibited from inter-
liiarrying with the heathen, or having any tranfaftion
whatever with them as neighbours ; and the feven ido-
latrous nations of Canaan they were ftri(9;ly command-
ed to exterminate. *' When the Lord thy God (fays
Mofes) fliall deliver them before thee, thou fhalt fmite
them, and utterly dc;Ilroy them : thou fhalt make no
covenant with them, nor fliow mercy unto them : nei-
ther (halt thou make marria.res with them: thy daugh-
ter thou lhalt not give unto his fon, nor his daughter
fhalt thou take to thy fon ; for they will turn away thy
fon from following me, that they may ferve other gods-|-."
Under thefc laws, it is plain that no intercourfe what-
ever could have olace between an Ifraclite and a man
of any other nation, unlefs the latter was reduced to
fuch a ftate as that he could neither tempt the former
nor praftife himfelf the rites of his idolatrous worfhip.
But tlie Ifraelites were not feparated from the reft of
the world for their own fakes only: They were intend-
ed to be the repohtories of the lively oracles of God,
and gradually to fpread the light of divine truth thro'
other nations, till the fulnefs of time fhould come, when
in Chrill all things were to be gathered together in one.
To anfwer this end, it was HCcefTary that there fliould
be fome intercourfe between them and their Gentile
neighbours ; but we have feen that fuch an intercourfe
could only be that which fublifts between mafters and
their flaves.
Should this apology for the flavery which was au-
thorifed by the Jewifh law be deemed fanciful, we beg
leave to fubmit to the confideration of our readers
the following account of that matter, to which the
fame objeftion will hardly be made. It was morally
impoflible that betw^een nations differing fo widely in
rehgion, cuftoms, and manners, as the Jews and Gen-
tiles, peace fhould for ever reign without interruption ;
but when wars broke out, battles would be fought,
and prifoneis would be taken. How were thefe prifoners
to be difpofed of ? Cartels for exchange were not then
known : it was the duty of the Ifraelites to prevent
their captives from taking up arms afecond timeagainft
them ; they could not eilabiifh them among themfelves
either as artificers or as hufbandmen ; for their law en-
joined them to have no communication with the hea-
then. There was therefore no other alternative but ei-
ther to maffacre them in cold blood, or to reduce them
to the condition of flaves. It would appear, however,
that thofe flaves were raifed to the rank of citizens, or
at leall that their burdens were much lightened, as foon
as they were convinced of the trqth of the Mofaic re-
■velation, and received into covenant with God by the
Tite of circumcifion. They were then admitted to
the celebration of the paflbver ; concerning which one
law was decreed to the fl:ranger, and to him that was
home-born. Indeed, when we confider who was the
legiflator of the Jews ; when we refleft upon the num-
ber of laws enafted to mitigate flavery among them,
and caU to mind the means by which the due execution
of aE their laws was enforced, (fee Theology), we
cannot help beinf^ of opinion that the heathen, who was
reduced to flavery in Judea, might be happier, if he
pleafed, than when living as a freeman in his own
country. But whether this be fo or not, is a matter
with which we have no concern. On account of the
hardnefs of their hearts, and the peculiarity of their
circumllances, many things, of which flavery may have
been one, were permitted to the Jews, which, if prafti-
fed by Chrlftians, would render them highly guilty.
After treating thus laKgely oF flavery in general, we
need not occupy much of the reader's time with the
34
SLAVE-TRADE carried on at prefent by the mer-Slave-tj
chants oF Europe with the natives of Africa. It is well
known that the Portuguefe were the lirft Europeans who
embarked in this trade, and that their example was foon
followed by the Dutch and the Englifh, Of the rife and
progrefs of the PInglifli commerce in flaves, the reader
will find a fufiicient account in other articles of this
work^. That commerce, though long cheril'hed by 5 See C
the government as a fource of national and colonial Z"' 'J-
wealth, was from its commencement confidered by the '
thinking part of the nation as a traffic ir.confiilent with
the rights of man, and fufpefted to be carried on by
adls of violence. Thefe fufpicions have been gradually
fpread through the people at large, and confirmed, in
many inftances, by evidence incontrovertible. Laws
have in confequence been enafted to make the negroes
more comfortable on what is called the middle paffage,
and to protect them againft the wanton cruelty of their
mailers in the Wefl; Indies : but the humanity of the
nation was roufed ; and not many years ago a number
of gentlemen, of the moil refptftable charaders, find-
ing that no adequate proteftion can be afforded to per-
fons in a fl;ate of hopelefs fervitude, formed themfelves
into a foclety at London, for the purpofe of procuring
a total abolition of the flavc-trade. l.'hat the motives
which influence the leading men of this fociety are of
the purefl; kind, cannot, we think, be quefl;Ioned ; for
their objedl is to deliver thofe who had none t« help
them> and from whom they can expeft no other reward
for their labours of love than the bleflings of them who
are ready to perifh. To a caufe fo truly Chrillian, who
would not pray for fuccefs ? or who but muft feel the
moft pungent regret, if that fuccefs has been rendered
doubtful, or even been delayed, by the imprudence of
fome of the agents employed by the fociety ? This we
apprehend to have been really the cafe. Language cal-
culated only to exafperate the planters cannot ferve the
negroes ; and the legiflature of Great Britain will never
fuffer itfelf to be forced into any meafure by the me-
naces of individuals.
In the year 1793, petitions were prefentcd to parlia- Petition
ment for the abolition of this inhuman traffic, which
gave a pleafmg pifture of the philanthropy of the na- j °
tion ; but, unfortunately for the caufe of freedom, it
wasdifcovered that many of the names fubjoined to thofe
petitions had been collefted by means not the moft ho-
nourable. This difcovery, perhaps, would never have
been made, had not the infulting epithets indifcrimi-
nately heaped upon the flave-holders provoked thofe
men to watch with circurafpeftion over the condu6l of'
their opponents. The confequence was, that fufpicion*
of unfair dealing on the part of the petitioners were ex-.
cited"
35
SLA
eited in the bfeafta of many wh
ly wilhed well to the caufe, choi'e not to add their
names to thofe of fchool-boys under age, and of pea-
Cants vvbo knew not what they were fubfcribing. Let
the rights of the Africans be maintained with ardour
and firmnefs ; but never let their advocates fuppofe that
the caufe of humanity requires the fupport of artifice.
Abfolute flavcry, in which the a&ions of one man are
regulated by the caprice of another, is a ftate demon-
ftrably inconhltent with the obvious plan of the moral
government of the world. It degrades th^ mental fa-
culties of the flave, and throw*, both in his way and
in his mafter's, temptations to vice almoft infurmount-
able. Let thefe truths be let in a proper light by
thofe who have doubtlefs feen them exemplified ; and
they will furely have their full effect on the minds of a
generous, and, we truft, not yet an impious people (n).
The trade will be gradually abolifiied pains will be ta-
ken to cultivate the minds of the Weft Indian negroes ;
and the era may be at no great diilance when llavery
(hall ceafe through all the Britifli dominions,
jedlion But what benefit, it will be allied, would the ne-
the abo- groes of Africa reap from an abolition of the flave
trade ? Should any thing fo wildly incredible happen,
I as that all the nations of Chriilendom, in one common
paroxyfm of philanthropy, Ihould abandon this com-
merce in fervants, which has been profecuted in all
ages, and under all religions ; they would only abandon
it to thofe who were originally poffefi'ed of it, who Itill
penetrate into the country, and who even pufli up to
Gago at the very head of the flave coaft ; and leave the
wool-headed natives of it to Mahometan mailers, in
preference to Chriftian. Under fuch mailers they were
in Judea at the time of the crufades. Under fuch,
as we learn from MelFrs Saugnier, Briflbn, and others,
they ftill are in the deferts of Africa, as well as in the
iflandsof Johanna | and Madagafcar: and it is univerlal-
ly known that they enflave one another as a punifliment
for the moft whimfical crimes. Among them, indeed,
flavery feems to be reduced to a fyftem, and co defcend,
as it has done in more poliflied nations, from father to
EJfay an fon ; for both Saugnier and Wadftrom § fpeak of parti-
iB/iiza- cular families of negroes who are exempted from that
*• degrading ftate by the laws of the country.
All this we admit to be true. Moft certainly the
(negroes would not be exempted from the miferies of
fervitude, though Europe and the Weft Indies were
Slave,
trade.
C 533 3 S X4 A
though thev ardent- fwallowed np in the pccan. Tlie cujoms of tUc coun-
try, as the king of Dahomy aflared Mr Abfon §, will ^ .
be mac/e as long as black men ftiall continue to poflefs^ /Ja/z^/'.^
thei> own territories, in their prefent ftate of depravity Hijhr;^'.
and ignorance ; and thefe cuftoras appear tq involve
flavery of the cruelleft kind. But if flavery be in itfelf
unlawful, is it a fufficient excufe for our continuing the
traffic that it is carried on by the rude negroes and the 37
favage Arabs ? Are people, whom we fometimes affed Of no
to confider as an inferior order of beings, to furnifh ex- ^'^^"g^"''
amples of conduft to tliofe who boaft of their advance-
ments in fcience, in Hterature, and in refinement ? Or
will the benevolent Lord of all things pardon us for
opprefTing our helplefs brethren, merely becauie they
are cruelly opprefTed by others ? It is indeed true that
the natives of Guinea cannot be made really free but
by introducing among them the blcffings of religion and
the arts of civil hfe ^but furely they would have fewer
temptations than at prefent to kidnap one another, or
to commence unprovoked wars for the purpole of making.,
caotives, were the nations of Europe to abandon the
commerce in flaves(o). That commerce, we grant,
would be continued by the Arabs, and perhaps by
others of the eafiern nations ; but the fame number of
people could not be carried off by them alone that i»
nov/ carried off both by them and by the Europeans.
Were it indeed polTible to put the flave-trade under
proper regulations, fo as to prevent all kidnapping and
unjuft wars among the Africans, to fupply th-e markets ;
and were it likewife to enfure to the negroes in the Weft
Indies mild treatment and religious inftrudlion ; we are
far from being fure that while the natives of Guinea con-
tinue fo rude, and tlieir neighbours the Arabs fo felhflily
favage, it would be proper to abandon at once to hordes of
barbarians the whole of this commerce in bond fervants.
" '1 he trade, which in its prefent form is a reproach ta
Britain, might be made to take a new fliape, and be-
com.e ultimately a bleflfing to thoufandg of wretches-. -
who, left in their native country, weuld have dragged-
out a life of miferable ignorance, unknowing the hand
that framed them, unconfcious of the reafon of which
they were made capable, and heedlefs of the happi-
nefs laid up for them in ftore §, § Fam/hy*j
Slavery is, indeed, in every form an evil; but it (ccms Ef'y,
to be one of thofe many evils which, having long pre- P- '^y^>
vailed in the world, can be advantageoufly removed on-
ly by degrees, and as the moral cultivation of the flaves
may
(n) We have not infifted upon the impolicy of the flave-trade, or endeavoured to prove that its abolition
would be advantageous to tlie fugar-planters ; for the planters furely underftand their own intercft better than
thofe can do, who, having never been in the Weft Indies, are obliged to content themfelves with what informa-
tion they can glean on the fubjeft from a number of violent and contradiftory publications. To countenance
flavery under any form is undoubtedly immoral. This we know : and therefore upon this ground only have we -
©ppofed the flave-trade, which cannot be continued without preferring interett to virtue.
(o) In a fpeech which Mr Dalzel fays the king of Dahomy made to Mr Abfon, when he was informed of
what had pafled in England on the fubjeft of the flave-trade, are thefe remarkable words : " In the name of
my anceftbrs and myfelf, I aver that no Dahoman ever embarked in war merely for the fake of procuring
wherewithal to purchafe your commedities." With all due refped for his fable majefty, we muft take the li-
berty to queftion the truth of th.s folemn averment. That the flave-trade is not the Jble caufe of the Dahoman
wars every man will admit, who does not fancy that thofe people have neither palEons nor appetites, but for the
commodities of Europe : but the bare affirmation of this bloody defpot, who boafted of having killed many
thoufands at the cujlomsy will not convince thofe who have read (»itlier Wadftrom's Effay on Colonization, or
the evidence refpeding the flave-trade given at the bar of the Houfe of Commons, " that no Dahoman evtr
embarked in war merely to proture ikves to barter for European commoditie&.'*
S L E
I 5
he "fiadual.
39
maiiunuf-
fion of
iflaves.
mny enable them to fupport the rank and clifcharge the
duties of free men. '1 his is doubtlefs the reafoii why-
it was not exprci'sly prohibited by the divine Author of
our rehgion, but iuffered to vanilh gradually before' thc
mild influence of his Heavenly dodlrines. It has va-
Tlie\\oli "'^'''^^ before thefe doftrines in mott countries of Eu-
tioi) lliould ^°P^ 5 ^'^'^ ^'""^^ ^^''^ ^'"''^ hand when our
traffic in human flefh with the inhabitants of Africa
fliall ceafe ; and that the period is not veiy diltant when
the flaves in the Weft Indies fhall be fo much improved
in moral and religious knowledge, as that they may be
Dan;ier of fafely trulled with their ov/n freedom. 'L"o fet them
a futlden free m their prefent ftate of ignorance and depravity, is
one of the wildeft propofals that the ardour of innova-
tion has ever made. Such freedom would be equally
ruinous to themfelves and to their mafters ; and we may
fay of it what 'Cicero faid of lome unfeafonable indul-
gences propofed to be granted to the flaves in Sicily ;
^u/e cum accidiint, tumo eji, qu 'in intell'igat mere illam
rempubllcmn ; hmc uh 'i 'veruunt, nemo ej}, qui ullam Jpcni
Jalutis reliquam effe arbitretur.
SLAUGH'lER. See Man.st.aughter, Homi-
ciDE, Murder, &c.
SLEDGE, a kind of carriage, without wheels, for
the conveyance of very weighty things, as huge ftones,
bells, &c. The fltdge for carrying criminals, condemn-
ed for high treafon, to execution, is called hurdle.
7 he Dutch have a kind of fledge on which vhey can
carry a vefTel of any burden by land. It confifls of a
plank of the length of the keel of a moderate fliip,
raifed a little behind, and hollow in the middle; fo tliat
the lides go a little aflope, and are furnifiied with holes
to receive pins, &:c. The reft is quite even.
Sledge is a large fmith's hammer, to be iifed with
both hands ; of this there are two forts, the up-hand
fledge, which is ufed by under workmen, when the
work is not of the largeft fyrt ; it is ufed with both the
liandb before, and they feldom raife it higher than their
head. But the other, which is called the about-fledge,
and which is ufed for battering or drawing out the
largeft work, is held by the handle with both hands,
and fwung round over their heads, at their arm's end,
to ftiike as hard a blow as they can.
SLEEP, that ftate of the body in which, though
the vital functions continue, the lenfes are not affefted
by the ordinary impreffions of extemal objects. See
13reams ; and Phy siOLOcy, n"^ 287.
SiBEP-Walker, one who walks in his fleep. Many in-
ilances might be related of perfons who were addicted
to this practice ; but it will be fufficient to feleft one
remarkable inftance from a report made to the Phyfical
Society of Lauianne, by a committee of gentlemen ap-
pointed to examine a ycung man who was accuftomed
to walk in his fleep.
" The difpofition to fleep-walking feems, in the opi-
nion of tliis committee, to depend on a particular affec-
tion of the nerves, which both feizts and quits the pa-
tient duiing fleep. Under the influence of this affec-
tion, the imagination reprefents to him the objtdis that
ftruck him while awake, with as much force as if ihty
really affefted his fenles ; but does not make him per-
ceive any of thoie that are a&ually prefented to his
itnfes, except in fo far as they are connedied with the
xireams which engrols him at the time. If, during this
iiate, the imagination has no determined purpole, he
receives the imprefiion of objedls as if he were awake ;
34 ] S L E
only, however, when the imagination is excited to bend
its attention towards them. I lie perceptions obtained
in this ftate are very accurate, and, when once received, '
the imaghiation renews them occafionaily with as much
force as if they w^cre again acquired by means of the
fenfes. Laftly, thefe academicians fuppofe, that the
impreffions received during this ftate of the fenies dif-
appear entirely when the perfon awakes, and do not re-,
turn till the return of the fame dilpofition in the ner-
vous fyftem.
*' Their remarks were made on the Sieur Devaud, 3
lad thirteen years and a half old, who lives in the town
of Vevey, and who is iubjea to that fingular afteftion
or difeale called h:omnanibulijm or fleep-walkinp. Thia
lad pofTtft'es a ftrong and robuft conftitution,^ but his
nervous fyftem appears to be organifed with peculiar
dehcacy, and to difcover q{ the greateft fenf:bi-
lity and irritabihty. Kis fenfes of fmell, tafte, and
touch, are exquiftte ; he is fubjtdf to fits of imm.oderate
and involuntary laughtef, and he fometimes likewife
weeps without any apparent caule.
^ " This yoimg man does not walk in his fleep eve|-y
night ; ieveral weeks fometimes pafs without any ap-
pearance of a fit. He is fubjett to the difeafe generally
two nights luccefiively, one fit lafting for feveral hours.
The longeft are from three to four hours, and they
commonly begin about three or four o'clock in the
morning.
" The fit may be prolonged, by gently pafiing the'
finger or a feather over his upper lip, and this flight
irritation likewife accelerates it. Having once falltn
afleep upon a ftaircale, his upper lip was thus irritated
with a feather, ndien he imn.ediately ran down the fleps
with great precipitation, and refumed aU his accuftomed
adlivity. This experiment was repeated feveral times.
" The young Devaud thinks he has obferved, that,
on the evenings previous to a fit, he is fenhble of a cer-
tain heavinefs in his head, but efpecially of a great
weight in his eyelids.
" His fleep is at all times unquiet, but particularly
when the fus are about to feize him. During his
fleep, motions are obfervable in every part of his body,
with ftarting and palpitations; he uttets broken words,
lometimes fits up in his bed, and afterwards hts down
again. He then begins to pronounce words miOre di-
ftiiiftly, he rifes abruptly, and afts as he is inftigated by
the dream that then poifeffes him. He is fometimes ia
fleep fubjtft to continued and involuntary motions.
'.' The departure of the ft is always preceded by two
or three minutes of calm fletp, during which he fnores.
He then awakes rubbing his eyes hkc a perfon who has
flept quietly.
" It is dangerous to.awaken him din ing the fit, cfpe-
ciElly if it is done iuddenly ; for then he lometimes falls
into convulfions. Having rifen one night with the in-
tention of going to eat grapes, he left the houfe, pafied
through the town, and went to a vineyard where he
exptited good cheer. He was followed by feveral per-
fons, who kept I'.tfome diftance from him, one of whom
fired a piftoi, the noife of which- inftantly awakened
him, and he fell dowp without lenfe. Pie was earned
home and brought to lumlelf, when he recoUtded very
well the having been awakened in the vineyard ; but
nothing more, except the flight at being iou^id there
alone, which had n.ade hjm fwoon.
After the fits he generally feels a degree of laffi-
tuue ;
S L E
tude : rometlmes, though rarely, of indlfpofiti'on.
, the end of one of thofe fits, of which the gentlemen of
the committee were witneffes, he was affected with vo-
mitings ; but he is always foon reftored.
When he is awaked, he never for the mofl part
recolle£ls any of the aftions he has been doing during
the fit.
** The fubjecl of his dreams is circumfcribed in a
fmall circle of objefts, that relate to the few ideas with
which at his age his mind is furniilied ; fuch a$ his lef-
fons, the church, the bells, and cfpecially tales of gholls.
It is lufiiclent to ftrike his imagination the evening bo-
lore a fit with fome tale, to direft his fomnambulifm
towards the objeft of it. There was read to him while
in this fituation the flory of a robber ; he imagined the
very next moment that ht faw robbers in the room.
However, as he is much difpofed to dream that he is
furrounded with them, it cannot be affirmed that this
was an effeft of the reading. It is obferved, that wh*en
his fupper has been more plentiful than ufual, his dreams
are more difmal.
*' In their report, the gentlemen of the committee
dwell much on the ftate of this young man's fenfes, on
the impreffion made upon them by ilrange objefts, and
on the ufe they are of to him.
" A bit of itrong fmelling wood produced in him a
degree of reftlelfnefs ; the fingers had the fame effect,
whether from their fmell or their tranfpiration. He
knew win-e in which there was wormwood by the fmell,
and faid that it was not wine for his table. Metals
make no impreflion on him.
" Having been prefented with a little common wine
while he was in a ftate of apathy, and all his motions
were performed with languor, he drank of it willingly ;
but the irritation which it occafioned produced a deal
of vivacity in all his words, motions, and aftions, and
caufed him to make involuntary grimaces.
" Once he was obferved drefling himfelf in perfeft
darknefs. His clothes were on a large table, mixed
with thofe of fome other perfons ; he immediately per-
ceived this, and complained of it much ; at lall a fmall
light was brought, and then he drefl*ed himfelf with
fufficient precifion. If he is teafed or geutly pinched,
he is always fenfible of it, except he is at the time
ftron jly engroffed with fome other thing, and wiflies to
ftrike the offender ; however, he never attacks the per-
fon who has done the ill, but an ideal being whom his
imagination prefents to him, and whom he purfues thro'
the chamber without running againft the furniture, nor
can the perfons whom he meets in his way divert him
from his purfuit.
*' While his imagination was employed on various
fubje6ls, he heard a clock ftrike, which repeated at eve-
ry ftroke the note of the cuckoo. There are cuckoos
here, faid he ; and, upon being defired, he imitated the
fong of that bird immediately.
*' When he wiflies to fee an object, he makes an ef-
fort to hft his eyelids ; but they are fo little under his
command, that he can hardly raife them a line or two,
while he draws up his eyebrows ; the iris at that time
appears fixed, and his eye dim. When any thing is
prefented to him, and he is told of it, he always half
opens his eyes with a degree of difficulty, and then
Shuts them after he has taken what was offered to him.
" The report infers from thefe fadts, and from many
C 535 ] . S L E
At others relative to the different fenfes, that their fan(5iIon8 Sleep*
are not fufpended as to what the Heep-walker wilhes to ^walker,
fee, that Is, as to all thofe perceptions which accord ^""V*"
with the objefts about which his imagination is occu-
pied ; that he may alfo be difpofed to receive thofe im-
preffions, when his imagination has no other objeft at
the time ; that in order to fee, he is obHged to open
his eyes as much as he can, but when the impreffion is
once made, it remains ; that objeAs may itrike his
fight without ftriking his imagination, if it is not inte-
refted in them ; and that he is fometimes informed of
the prefence of objefts without either feeing or touch-
ing them.
" Having engaged him to write a theme, fay the
committee, we faw him light a candle, take pen, ink,,
and paper, from the drawer of his table, and begin to
write, while liu mafter diftatcd. As he was writing,
we put a thick paper before his eyes, notwithftanding
which he continued to write and to form his letters ve-
ry diftinftly ; fhowing figns, however, that fomething
was incommoding him, which apparently proceeded
from the obftruftion which the paper, being held too
near his nofe, gave to his refpiraiion.
" Upon another occafion, the young fomnambulift
arofe at five o'clock in the morning, and took the ne*
ceffary materials for v/riting, with his copy-book. He
meant to have begun at the top of a pa jje ; but finding
it already written on, he came to the blank part of the
leaf-, and wrote fome time from the following words,
Fiuni Ignari pigriiia-i/s dev'tennent ignorans par la pareffe ;
and, what is remarkable, after feveral lines he perceived
he had forgot the s in the word ignorans, and had put
erroneoufly a dovible in parejfe ; he then gave over
writing, to add the s he had forgot, and to erafe the fu-
perfluous r.
" Another time he had made, of his own accord, a
piece of writing, in order, as he faid, to pleafe his maf-
ter. It Gonfifted of three kinds of writing, text, half
text, and fmall writ ; each of them performed with the
proper pen. He drew, in the corner of the fame pa-
per, the figure of a hat ; he then aflced for a penknife
to take out a blot of ink which he had made between
two letters, and he erafed it vi'ithoiit injuring thern.
LafUy, he made fome arithmetical calculations with
great accuracy.
" In order to explain fome of the fadts obferved by
the academicians which we have here mentioned, they
eftablira two general obfervation^, which refult from
what they have faid with refped to the fenfes and the
dreams of this fiecp-walker.
'* I. That he is obliged to open his eyes, in order to
recognife objects which he wiflies to fee ; but the im-
preffion once made, although rapidly, is vivid enough
to fuperfede the neceffity of his opening them again, to •
view the fame objeAs anew ; tbit is, the fame objedls
are afterwards prefented to his imagination with as
much force and precifion as if he aftually f^w them.
" 2. That his imagination, thus warmed, reprefents
to him objefts, and fuch as he figures to himfdf, with
as much vivacity as if he really faw them ; and, laftly,
that all his fenfes, being fubordinate to his imagination,
feem concentrated in the objed with wliich it is oceu-
piedj and have at that time no perception of any thing',
but what relates to that objeft.
" Thefe two caufes united fecra to them fufficient :
7
S L E
t 536 ]
S L E
Sleep-
walk er.
for explaining one of the moft fingular fafts that occur-
, red to their obfervatlon, to wit, how the young Devaud
can write, although he has his eyes fliut, and an ob-
ftaclc before them. His paper Is imprinted on his ima-
gination, and every letter which he means to write is
alfo painted there, at the place in which it ought to
ftand on the paper, and without being confounded with
the other letters ; now it is clear that his hand, which
is obedient to the will of his imagination, will trace
them on the real paper, in the fame order in which they
are reprefented on that which is piftured in his head.
It is thus that he is able to -write feveral letters, feveral
fentences, and entire pieces of writing ; and what fcems
to confirm the idea, that the young Devaud writes ac-
cording to the paper painted on his im-Jgination is,
that a certain deep walker, who is defcribed in the
Yrtnch Encyc lope die (article Somnambulifm ) , having writ-
■ten fomething on a paper, another piece of paper of the
-fame fize was fubftituted in its ftead, which he took for
his own, and made upon this blank paper the corre£tions
he meant to have made on the other which had been
taken away, precifely in the places where they would
have been.
" It appears from the recital of another faft, that
Devaud, intending to write at the top of the firft leaf
of a white paper book, Vevey, le — ftepped a moment
as if to recoUeft the day of the month, left a blank
fpace, and then proceeded to Decembre 1787 ; after
which he aflced for an almanac : a little book, fuch as
is given to children for a new year's gift, was offered to
him; he took it, opened it, brought it near his eyes,
then threw it down on the table. An almanac which
he knew was then prefented to hini ; this was in Ger-
man, and of a form fimilar to the almanac of Vevey : he
took it, and then faid, ' What is this they have given
me ; here, there is your German almanac' At laft
they gave him the almanac of Berne ; he took this like-
wife, and went to examine it at the bottom of an alcove
that was perfeftly dark. He was heard turning over
the leaves, and faying 24, then a moment afterwards
34. Returning to his place, with the almanac open at
the month of December, he laid it on the table and
wrote in the fpace which he had left blank the 24th.
This fcene happened on the 23d ; but as he imagined
it to be the 24th, he did not miftake. The following
is the explication given of this faft by the authors of
the report.
" The4ates 23d, 24th, and 25th, of the month of
December, had long occupied the mind of the young
Devaud. The 23d and 25th were holidays, which he
expefted with the impatience natural to perfons of his
age, for the arrival of thofe moments when their little
daily labours are to be fufpended. The 25th efpecially
was the objeA of his hopes ; there was to be an illumi-
nation in the church, which had been defcribed to him
in a manner that quite tranfported him. The 24th
was a day of labour, which came very difagreeably be-
tween the two happy days. It may eafily be con-
ceived, ho\^ an imagination fo irritable as that of the
young Devaud would be ftruck with thofe pleafing
epochs. Accordingly, from the beginning of the month
he had been perpetually turning over the almanac of
Vfvey. He calculated the days and the hours that
were to elapfe before the arrivsJ of his wilhed-for ho
lidays ; he fliowed to his friends and acquaintance the Sleep-
dates of thofe days which he expedled with fo much ■^^^^l'^'''
impatience ; every time he took up the almanac, it was
only to confult the month of December. We now fee
why that date prefented itfelf to his mind. He was
performing a taflc, becaufc he imagined the day to be
the Monday which had fo long engroffed him. It is
not furprifing, that it fhould have occurred to his ima-
gination, and that on opening the almanac in the dark
he might have thought he faw this date which he was
feeklng, and that his imagination might have reprefent-
ed it to him in as lively a manner as if he had adlually
feen it. Neither is it furprifmg that he fhould have
opened the almanac at the month of December ; the
cuftom of perufing this month muft have made him
find it in the dark by a mere mechanical operation.
Man never feems to be a machine fo much as in the
ftate of fomnambulifm ; it is then that habit comes to
fupply thofe of the fenfes that cannot be ferviceable,
and that it makes thepeifon a6l with as much precifion
as if all his fenfes were in the utmoft aftivity. Thefe
circumftances deftroy the idea of there being any thing
miraculous in the behaviour of young Devaud with re-
fpeft to the date and the month that he was in queft of
and the reader, who has entered into our explanations,
will not be furprifed at his knowing the German alma-
nac ; the touch alone was fufficient to point it out to
him ; and the proof of this is the fhortnefs of the time
that it remained in his hands.
" An experiment was made by changing the place
of the ink-ftandifli during the time that Devaud was
writing. He had a light befide him, and had certified
himfelf of the place where his ink-holder was {landing
by means of fight. From that time he continued to
take ink with precifion, without being obliged to open
his eyes again : but the ink-ftandifh being removed, he
returned as ufual to the place where he thought it was:
It muft be obferved, that the motion of his hand was
rapid till it reached the height of the ftandifii, and then
he moved it flswly, till the pen gently touched the
table as he was feeking for the ink : he then perceived
that a trick had been put on him, and complained of
it ; he went in fearch of his ink-ftandifh and put it in
its place. This experiment was feveral times repeated,
and always attended with the fame circumftanccs. Does
not what we have here ftated prove, that the ftand ifh,
the paper, the table, 6cc. are painted on his imagination
in as lively a manner as if he really faw them, as he
fought the real ftandifli in the place where his imagina-
tion told him it ought to have been ? Does it not prove
that the fame lively imagination is the caufc of the
moft fingular aftions of this fleep-walker ? And laftly,
does it not prove, that a mere glance of his eye is fuffi-
cient to make his impreffions as lively as durable.'
" The comnnttee, upon the whole, recommend to
fuch as wifli to repeat the fame experiments, I. To
make their obfervations on different flcep walkers. 2.
To examine often whether th^y can read books that are
unknown to them in perfect darknels. 3. To obferve
whether they can tell the hours on a watch in the dark.
4. To remove when they write the ink-ftandifli from its
place, to fee whether they will return to the fame place
in order to take ink^ 5. And, laftly, to take notice
whether they walk with the fame confidence in a dark
8 and
S L E [537
and unknown place, as ia otje with which they arc ac-
quainted.
" 'i'hey Kkewife recommend to fiich as would con-
finn or uivalidate the above obfcrvations, to make all
their experiments in the dark ; becaufe it has been hi-
therto fuppofed that the eyes of fleep-walkers are of no
iife to them."
SLEEPERS, in natural hiftory, a name given to
thofe animals which fleep all winter ; fuch as bears,
marmots, dormice, bats, liedgehogs, fwallows, &c.
Thefe do not feed in winter, have no fenfible evacua
] S L T
the ocean. It contains 14 cities, 17 towns, 13 caftles,
278 parifheg, 1480 villages, 162 farms, 116 water mills,
and 106 gentlemens feats. It is a pleafant, fertile, po-
pulous country, and a fovereign duchy. Formerly the
king of Denmark had half of it, and the other belong-
ed to the houfe of HoUlein-Gottorp ; but the former
having conquered this duchy, had the poflTelTion of it
confirmed to him by the treaty of the north in 1720.
In 1731, a prince of Bareith-Culmbach was made go-
vernor of this duchy, who refides at Gottorp.
SLICH, in metallurgy, the ore of any metal, par ti-
SltcH
II
SHgo.
tions, breathe little or none at all, and moft of the cularly of gold, when it has been pounded, and prepa
vifcera ceafe from their funftions. Some of thefe crea- red for farther working. _ _ ^
tures feem to be dead, and others return to a ftate like The manner of preparing the flich at Chremnitz m
that of the fcetus before birth : in this ftate they con- Hungary is this ; they lay a foundation of wood three
tinue, till by new heat the fluids are attenuated, the
animal is reflored to hfe, and the funftions begin where
they left off.
Slehpers, in aftiip, timbers lying before and aft in
the bottom 'of the foip, as the rungheads do : the lower-
moft of them is belted to the rungheads, and the up-
permoft to the futtocks and rungs.
SLEIDAN (John), an excellent German hiftorian,
bora of obfcure parents, in 1506, at Sleidan, a i mall
town on the confines of the duchy of Juliers. After
ftudying fome time in liis own country, together with
his townfman the learned Fohn Sturmlus, he went to
yards deep, upon this they place the ore, and over this
there are 24 beams, armed at their bottoms with iron ;
thefe, by a continual motion, beat and grind the ore,
till it is reduced to powder: during this operation,
the ore is covered with water. There are four wheels
ufed to move thefe beams, each wheel moving fix ; a.nd
the water, as it runs off, carrying fome of the metalline
particles with it, is received into feveral bafons, one
placed behind another ; and finally, after having pafTed
through them all, and depofited fome fediment in each,
it is let off into a very large pit, almoft half an acre ifl
extent ; in which it is fuffered to ftand fo long, as to
Ills tOWnilllilll LUC ICUIUCU (Ullll OLUIUIIUO, ll<~ w».ui. Lyj , »ii vr — — - o-
France, and in i 5 ? 5 entered into the fervice of the depofit all its fediment, of whatever kind, and after thi3
cardinal and archbrfhop John du Bellay. He retired
to Stra(burg in 1542, where he acquired the elleera
and friendfliip of the motl confiderable perfons, parti-
cularly of James Sturmius ; by whofe advice and afllft-
ance he was enabled to write the hiftory of his own
time. He was empliyed In fome public negoclationa ;
but the death of his wife, in 1555, plunged him into fo
it is let OHt. This work i^ carried on day and night,
and the ore taken away and replaced by more as often
as occafion requires. That ore which Hes next the
beams, by which it was pounded, is always the cleaneft;
or richeft.
When the flich is waflied as much as they can, a
hundred weight of it ufually contains about an ounce.
<leep a melancholy, that he loft his memory entirely, and or perhaps but half an ounce of metal, which is not all
died the year following. In 1555 came out, in folio, gold ; for there is always a mixture of gold and fdver,
Deftatu Reliimus et Relpvb/ica fub Carolo ^dnto, &c. but the gold is in the largeft quantity, and ufually is
in 2? books from the year 15(7, when Luther began two-thirds of the mixture : they then put the flich in-
to preach, to the year of its publication; which hiftory to a furnace with fome hmeftone, and flacken, or the
was prefently tranflated into moft of the languages of fcoria of former meltings, and run them together. The
Europe. Befidcs this great work, he wrote, De qua- firft melting produces a fubftance called lech ; this lech
ttif;r fummis Impertis, libri ires ; with fome other hifto- they burn with charcoal, to make it lighter, to open its
tical and political pieces.
SLEIGHT of Hand= See Legerdemain.
SLEUT-HOUNDE, the ancient Scots name of the
blood-hound. The word is from the Saxon Jloty " the
imprelTion that a deer leaves of its foot in the mire,"
and hound " a dog" ; fo they derive their name from
following the track. See the article BcooD-Hound.
SLESWICK, an ancient and confiderable town of
Denmark, and capital of a duchy of the fame name in
the province of Gottorp, with a bifliop's fee, iecularized
in 1586. Clofc to it is the old palace of Gottorp, for-
merly the ducal refidence, but at prefent inhabited by
the ftadtholder or governor, 'i'his town was once much
more confiderable than it is at preient, having fuffered
greatly by the wars of Germany. It is feated on the
giilph of Sley, vrhere there is a good harbour, 60 miles
north- weft of Lubeck, and 1 25 fouth-vveft of Copenhagen.
E. Long. 10. o. N. Lat. 54. 40.
Sleswick, the duchy of, or South Jutland^ is about
JOG miles In length and 6c in breadth- It is bounded
-on the north by North Jutland, on the eaft by the Bal
body, and render it porous, after which it is called roft;
to this roft they add fand in fuch quantity as they find
neceffary, and then melt it over again.
At Chremnitz they have many other ways of redu-
cing gold out of its ore, but particularly one, in which
they employ no lead during the whole operation ;
whereas, in general, lead is always neceffary, after the
before mentioned proceffes. See Gold.
SLIDING RULE, a mathematical inftrument, fer-
ving to work queftions in gau.^ing, meafuring, &c. with-
out'the ufe of eompaffes ; merely by the Aiding of the
parts of the inftrument one by another, the hues and
divifions whereof give the aufwer by inlpeftion.
This inftrument is varioufly contrived, and applied
by various authors, particularly Everard, Coggefliall,
Gunter, Hunt, and Partridge ; but the moft common
and ul'eful are thofe of Everard and Coggefliall.
SLIGO, a county, in the province of Connaught,
Ireland, ?5 miles in length, and as much in breadth ;
bounded-on the eaft by that of Leitrim, on the weft
by the county of Mayo, on the north and north weft:
tic Sea, on the fouth by Holftcin, aud oa the weft by by the weftern ocean, and on the feuth and fouth-weft
Vol. XVil. Part IL 3 Y by
S L
by Rofcommon and Mayo
41 parlfhes, 6 baronies, i borou:/-h, and fends 4 mem-
bers to parliament, two for the county, and two for the
borouoh of the fame name, which is the only market-
town in the county, and is featcd on a bay of the fame
name, 30 miles weft of Killalla, and i 10 north-eaft of
Dul)lin. W. Long. 8. 26. N. Lat. 54. 13.
SLING, an Inftrument ferviug for caftin^ ftones
with great violence. The inhabitants of the Balearic
illands were famous in antiquity for the dexterous ma-
natrement of the fling :. it is faid they ufed three kinds
of flings, fome longer, others fnorter, which they ufed
according as their enemies were either nearer or more
lemote. It is added, that the firft ferved them for a
head- band, the fecond for a girdle, and that the third
they conftantly carried in their hand.
SLINGING is ufed varioufly at fea ; but chiefly
for hoifting up caflcs or other heavy things with
flings, /. e. contrivaiices of lopes fpliced into themfelves
at either end, with one eye big enough to receive the
caflf or whatever is to be flung. There are other flings,
which are made longer, and with a fmall eye at each
end ; one of which is put over the breech of a piece of
ordnance, and the other eye comes over the end of an
iron crow, which is put into the mouth of the piece,
to weigh and holfe the gun as they pleafe. There are
alfo flings by which the yards are bound faft to the
crofs-tree aloft, and to the head of the Kiaft, with a
ftrong rope or chain, that if the tie fliould happen to
break, or to be fliot to pieces in fight, the yard, never-
thelefs, may not fall upon the hatches.
Slikcing a Man overboard^ in order to flop a leak in
a fliip, is done thus : the man is trufle'd up about the
middle in a piece of canvas, and a rope to keep him
from finking, with his arms at liberty, a mallet in one
hand, and a plug, wrapped in oakum and well tarred in
a tarpawling clout, in the other, which he is to beat
with all difpatch into the hole or leak.
.SLOANE (Sir Hans), baronet, eminently diftin-
guiflied as a phyfician and a naturahft, was of Scotch ex-
traftion, his father Alexander Sloane being at the head
of that colony of Scots which King James I. fettled in
the north- of Ireland, where our author was born, at
Klllieagh, on the 1 6th of April 1 660. At a very early
period, he difplayed a ilrong incUnation for natural hi-
llory ; and this propenfity being encouraged by a fuit-
able education, he employed thofc hours which young
people generally lofe by purfuing low and trifling amufe-
ments, in the ftudy of nature, and contemplating her
■works. When about fixteen, he was attacked by a
fpitting of blood, which threatened to be attended with
confiderable danger, and which Interrupted the regular
courfe of his application for three years ; he had, how-
ever, already learned enough of phyfic to know that a
malady of this kind was not to be removed fuddenly,
and he prudently abilained frosn wine and other liquors
that were likely to increafe it.
By flriftly obferving this fevere regimen, which in
fome meafure he continued ever aftcr^ he was enabled
to prolong his life beyond the ordinary bounds ; being
an example of the truth of his own favourite maxim,
that fobriety, temperance, and moderation, are the bell
and raofl; powerful prefervatives that nature has granted
to mankiiid.
As foon as he recovered from this infirmity, he re-
O [ 53S ] S L O
It contains 5970 houfes, folved to perfea himfelf in the different branches of
phyfic, which was the profefllon he had made choice
of; and with this view he repaired to London, where he
hoped to receive that affiftance wliich he could not find
in his own country.
On his arrival in the metropolis, he entered himfelf
as a pupil to the great Stafi'orth, an excellent chemift,
bred under the illuftrious Stahl ; and by his inftruaions
he gained a perfeft knowledge of the compofition and
preparation of the different kinds of medicines then in
ufe. At the fame time, he ftudied botany at the cele-
brated garden at Chelfea, afliduoufly attended the. pub-
lic leftures of anatomy and phyfic, and in fhort negleft^
ed nothing that he thought hkely to prove ferviceable
to him in his future practice. His principal merit',
however, was his knowledge of natural hiftory ; and it
was this part of his charafter which introduced him
early to the acquaintance of Mr Boyle and Mr Rayr,
two of the moft eminent naturahfts of that age. His
intimacy with thefe diftinguiflied characters continued
as long as they Hved ; and as he was careful to com-
municate to them every objeft of curiofity that at-
trafted his attention, the oblervations which he occa-
fionally made often excited their admiration and obtain-
ed their applaufe.
_ After ftudying four years at London with unremlt-.
ting feverity, Mr Sloane determined to vifit foreign
coinitrles for farther improvement. In this view he
fet out for France in the company of two other ftu-
dents, and having croffed to Dieppe, proceeded to Pa;-
ris. In the way thither they were elegantly entertain-
ed by the famous M. Lemery the elder ; and in return
Mr Sloane prefented that eminent chemift with a fpeci-
men of four different kinds of phofphorus, of which,
upon the credit of other writers, M. Lemery had treat -
ed in his book of chemiftry, though he had never fcen
any of them.
At Paris Mr Sloane lived as he had done in Lon-
don. He attended the hofpitals, heard the leftures of
Tournefort, De Verney, and other eminent mafters ;
vifited all the literati, who received him with particular
marks of efteem, and employed himfelf wholly in
ftudy.
From Paris Mr Sloane went to Montpelier ; and, be-
ing furniflied with letters of recommendation from hi.
Tournefort to M. Chirac, then chancellor of that uni-
vcrfity, he found eafy acccfs, through his means, to all
the learned men of the province, particulaily to M.
Magnol, whom he always accompanied in his botanical
excurfions in the environs of that city, where he beheld
with pleafure and admiration the fpontaneous produc-
tions of nature, and learned under his inftrudions to
clafs them in a proper manner.
Having here found an ample field for contemplation,
which was entirely fuited to his tafte, he took leave of
his two companions, whom a curiofity of a different
kind led into Italy.
After fpending a whole year In colleAIng plants, he
travelled through Languedoc with the fame defign ;
and paffing through Thouloufe and Bourdeaux, return-
ed to Paris, where he made a fliort ftay. About the
end of the year 1684 he fet out for England, with an
intention of fettling there as a phyfician. Gn his ar-
rival in London, he made it his firft bufinefs to vifit his
two illuftrious friends Mr Ray and Mr Boyle, in order
S L o ' [ 5:
to communicate to them the difcoverics he had made
in his travels. The latter he found at home, but
the former had retired to EfTex ; to which place Mr
Sloane tranfmitted a great variety of plants and feeds,
which Mr Ray has defer ibed in his Hiftory of Plants,
and for which he makes a proper acknowledgment.
About the year 1706 our author became acquainted
with the celebrated Sydenham ; who foon contrafted fo
warm an affedion for him that he took him into his
houfe, and recommended him in the ftrongeft manner to
his patients. He had not been long in London before
he was propofed by Dr Martin Lifter as a candidate to
be admitted a member of the Royal Society, on the
26th of November 1684 ; and being approved, he was
defted on the 21ft of January following.
In 1685 he communicated fome curiofities to the So-
ciety ; and in July the fame year he was a candidate for
the office of their afiiftant fccretary, but with.out fuc-
cefs, as he was obliged to give way to the fuperior in-
tereft of his competitor Dr Halley. On the 12th of
April 1687, he was chofen a fellow of the college of
phyficians in London ; and the fame year his friend and
fellow traveller Dr Tancred Robinfon, having mention-
ed to the Society the plant called the Jiur of the earthy
as a remedy newly difcovered for the bite of a mad dog,
Dr Sloane acquainted them that this virtue of the plant
was to be found in a book called Be Grey's Farriery ;
and that he knew a man who had cured with it twenty
couple of dogs. This obfervation he made on the 13th
of July, and on the 12th of September following he
embarked at Portfmouth for Jamaica with the duke of
Albemarle, who had been appointed governor of that
ifland. The doclor attended his grace in quality of
phyfician, and arrived at Jamaica on the 19th of De-
cember following.
Here a new field was opened for frefh difcoveries in
natural produftions ; but the world would have been
deprived of the fruits of them, had not our author, by
incredible application, converted, as we may fay, hig,
minutes into hours. The duke of Albemarle died foon
alter he landed, and the duchefs determined to return
to Ent^land whenever an anfwer fhould be received to
the letter (he had fent to court on that melancholy oc-
cafion. As Dr Sloane could not think of leaving her
grace in her diftrefs, whilft the reft of her retinue were
preparing for their departure he improved it in making
coUedions of natural curiofities ; fo that though his
whole ftay at Jamaica was not above fifteen months, he
brouoht together fuch a prodigious number of plants,
that on his return to England Mr Ray was aftonifhed
that one man could procure in one ifland, and in fo
Ihort a fpace, fo vaft a variety.
Oh his arrival in London he apphed himfelf to the
praft ice of his profeffion ; and foon became fo eminent,
that he was <:hofen phyfician to Chrift's Hofpital on
die i7th of Odober 1694 : and this oflice he held till
the year 1730, when, on account of his great age and
infirmities, he found it necelfary to refign. It is fome-
what fingular, and redounds much to the Doftor's ho-
nour, that though he received the emoluments of his
office punAiI!dly, becaufe he would not lay down a pre-
cedent which might hurt his fucceflbrs, yet he conftant-
b/ applied the money to the relief of thofe who were
the gi-eateft objefts of compalfion in the hofpital, that
k might never be faid he enriched himfelf by giving
;9 ] S L O
health to the poor. He had been elefted fecrctary to Sloane.
the Royal Society on the 3Cth of November 1693 ; """"v—
and upon this eccafion he revived the publication of
the Philofophical Tranfadions, which had been omit-
ted for fome time. He continued to be the editor of
this work till the year 1712; and the volumes which
appeared during that period are monuments of his ifl-
duttry and ingenuity, many of the pieces contained in
them being written by himfelf.
In the mean time he pubhflied Catalcgus Plantarum
qua in Infula Jamaica fponte proveniunt, &c. Seu Fro-
dromi HifIori<z Nutural'is pars prima, which he dedica-
cated to the Royal Society and College of Phyficians.
About the fame time he formed thfc plan of a difpen-
faiy, where the poor might be furnifhed at prim.e coft
with fuch medicines as their feveral maladies might re-
quire ; which he afterwards carried into execution, with
the afijftance of the prefidcnt and other members ot the
college of phyficians.
Our author's thirft for natural knowledge feems to
have been born with him, fo that his cabinet of cuiio-
fities may be faid to have comm.enced with his being.
He was continually enriching and enlarging it ; and
the fame which, in the courfe of a few years, it had ac-
quired, brought every thing that was curious in art or
nature to be firft offered to him for purchafe. Thefe
acquifitions, however, increafed it but very flowly in
comparifon of the augmentation it received in 1701
by the death of Wilham Courten, Efq; a gentleman
who had employed all his time, and the greater part of
his fortune, in colleding rarities, and who bequeathed
the whole to Dr Sloane, on condition of his paying cer-
tain debts and legacies with which he had charged it.
Thefe terms our author accepted, and he executed the
will of the donor with the moft fcrupulous exadnefs ;
on which account fome people have faid, that he pur-
chafed Mr Courten's curiofities at a dear rate.
In 1707 the firft volume of Dr Sloane's Natural Hif-
tory of Jamaica appeared in folio, though the publica-
tion of the fecond was delayed till 1 725. By this very
ufeful as well as magnificent work the materia medica
was enriched with a great number of excellent drugs
not before known. In 1708 the Dodor was eleded a
foreign member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, in the room of Mr Tfchirnaus ; an honour fo
much the greater, as we were then at war with France,
and the queen's exprcfs confcnt was neceffary betore he
could accept it. In proportion as his credit rofe among
the learned, his pradice increafed among the people of
rank : Queen Anne herfelf frequently confukcd him,
and in her laft illnefs was blooded by him.
On the advancement of George I. to t!«ie throne,
that prince, on the 3d of April 1 7 1 6, created the Doc-
tor a baronet, an hereditary title of honour to which
no Englifli phyfician had before attained ; and at the
fame time made him phyfician general to the army, in
which ftation he continued till 1727, when he was ap-
pointed phyfician in ordinary to George II. He at-
tended the royal family till hivS death ; and was parti-
cularly favoured by Queen Caroline, who placed tlie
greateft confidence in his prefcriptions. Li the meau
time he had been unanimonfly chofen one of the tleds *^
of the college of phyficians June i. 1716, and he was
eleded preiident of the fame body on September 30.
1719, an office which he held for fixteen years. Du-
3 Y 2 lin^
S L O ^ [ 540 ] S L O
Sloane. j-i'ng that period he not only gave the higheft proofs of life. He did not, however, bury hirafelf in that foil.
''"'V-^ },Js j-eal and affiduity in the difcharge of liis duty, but tude which exdudes men from fociety. He received ^^^^
in 1721 made a prefent to that fociety of L. 100 ; and at Chelfea, as he had done in London, the vifits of
fo far remitted a very confiderable debt, which the cor- people of diftinftion, of all learned foreigners, and of
poration owed him, as to accept it in fuch finall fums as vhe royal Family, who fometimes did him the honour to
were Icaft inconvenient to the Hate of their affairs. Sir wait on him ; but, what was ftill more to his praife, he
Hans was no lefs hberal to other learned bodies. He never refufed admittance or advice to rich or poor who
had no foOncr purchafed the manor of Chelfea, than he came to confult him concerning their health. Not con--
gave the company of apothecaries the entire fi'eehold of tented with this contracted method of doing good, he
their botanical garden there, upon condition only that now, during his retreat, prefented to the public fuch
they fliould prefent yearly to the Royal Society fifty ufeful remedies as fuccefs had warranted, during the
new plants, till the number fhould amount to 200o(a). courfe of a long continued practice. Among thefe is
He gave befidcs feveral other confiderable donations for the eificacious receipt for diftempers in the eyes, and
the improvement 6i this garden ; the fituation of which, his remedy for the bite of a mad dog.
on the banks of the Thames, and in the neighbourhood During the whole courfe of his life. Sir Hans had
of the capital, was fuch as to render it ufeful in two lived with fo much temperance, as bad preferved him
refpefts ; Firft, by producing the moft rare medicinal from feeling the infirmities of old age ; but in his 90th
plants ; and, fecondly, by ferving as an excellent fchool year he began to complain of pains, and to be fenfiblc
for young botanifts ; an advantage which he himfelf of an univerfal decay. He was often heard to fay, that
had derived from it in the early part of his life. the approach of death brought no teiTors along tvith
The death of Sir Ifaac Newton, which happened in it ; that he had long expefted the ftroke ; and that he
1727, made way for the advancement of Sir Hans to was prepared to receive it whenever the great Author
the prefidency of the Royal Society. He had been of his being fhould think fit. After a fhort illnefs of
vice-prefident, and frequently fat in the chair for that thiec days, he died on the iith of January 1752, and
great man ; and by his long conneftion with this learn- was interred on the 18th at Chelfea, in the fame vault
^d body he had contrafted fo flrong an affection for it, with his lady, the folemnity being attended with the
that he made them a prefent of an himdred guineas, greateft concourfe of people, of all ranks and conditions,
eaufed a curious buft of King Charles H. its founder, to that had ever been feen before on the like occafion.
be ereded in the great hall where it met, and, as is Sir Hans being extremely folicitous left his cabinet
faid, was very inftrumental in procuring Sir Godfrey of curiofities, which he had taken fo much pains to col-
Copley's benefaction of a medal of the value of five left, Ihould be again diflipated at his death, and being
gumeas, to be annually given as an honorary mark of at the fame time unwilling that fo large a portion of
diftinftion to the perfon who communicates the beft ex- his fortune fhould be loft to his children, he bequeathed
periments to the Society. it to the public, on condition that L. 30,000 fhould be
On his being raifcd to the chair, Sir Hans laid afide made good by parliament to his family. This fura,
all thoughts of further promotion, and applied himfelf though large in appearance, was fcarcely more than the
wholly to the faithful difcharge of the duties of the of- intrinfic value of the gold and filver medals, the ores
fices which he enjoyed. In this laudable occupation he and precious ftones that were found in it; for in his
employed his time from 1727 to 1740, when, at the laft wrill he declares, that the lirfl coft of the whole
age of fourfcore, he formed a refolution of quitting the amounted at kaft to L. 50,000. Befides his library,
fervice of the public, and of hving for himfelf. With confifting of more than 50,000 volumes, 347 of which
this view he refigned the prefidency of the Royal So- were illullrated with cuts finely engraven and coloured
ciety much againft the incHnation of that refpedlable from nature, there were 35(^0 raanufcripts, and an inh*
body, who chole Martin Folkes, Efq; to fucceed him, nite number of rare and curious works of every kind,
and in a public affembly thanked him for the great and The parliament accepted the legacy, and fulfilled the
eminent fervices he had rendered them. In the month conditions,
-of January 1741, he began eo remove his library, and SLOANEA, in botany: A genus of plants be-
his cabinet of rarities, from his houfe in Bloomfbury to longing to the clafs of polyandria, and order of mono-
that at Chelfea ; and oil the 1 2th of March following, gynia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
having fettled all his affairs, he retired thither himfelf, to 50th order, Amentacea. 'I'he corolla is pentnpetalous %
enjoy in peaceful tranquillity the remains of a well-fpent the calyx pentaphyllous and deciduous; the ftigma is
perforated j
(a) This garden was firft eftabliftied by the company in 1673 ; and having after tliat period been flocked by
them with a great variety of plants, for the improvement of botany, Sir Hans, in order to encourage fo fervice-
able an undertaking, granted to the company the inheritance of it, being part of his eftate and manor of Chelfea,
on condition that it fhould be for ever preferved as a phyfic garden. Asa proof of its being fo maintained, he
obliged the company, in confideratien of the faid grant, to prefent yearly to the Royal Society, in one of their
weekly meetings, fifty fpecimens of plants that had grown in the garden the preceding year, and which were all
to be fpecincally diftinft from each other, until the number of two thoufand fhould be completed. This num-
ber was completed in the year i 761. In 1733 ^'^^ company erefted a marble ftatue of Sir Hans, executed
by Ryfbrac, which is placed upon a pedeftal in the centre of the garden, with a Latiu infcriptioa, expreflxng hia
donation, and the defign. and advaatages of it.
S L U
S M A
perforated ; the berry is cortlcofe, echlnated, polyfper-
mous, and gaping. There are two /pecies, the dmtata
and emarginata.
SLOE. SeePauNVs.
SLOOP, a fmall veffel furniflied with one maft, the
mainfail of which is attached to a galF above, or to the
maft on its foremoft edge, and to a long boom below,
by which it is occafionally fhifted to either quarter. See
Ship.
Sloop of War, a name given to the fmalleft veffels of
war except cutters. They are either rigged as fliips or
fnows.
SLOT, in the fportfman's language, a term ufed to
exprefs the mark of the foot of a ftag or other animid
proper for the chace in the clay or earth, by which
they are able to guefs when the animal paffed, and
which way he went. The flot, or treading of the
ftag, is very nicely ftudied on this occafion ; if the
flot be large, deep printed in the ground, and with
an open cleft, and, added to thefe marks, there is
a large fpace between mark and mark, it is certain that
the (lag is an -eld one. If there be obferved the flots
or treadlngs of two, the one long and the other round,
and both of one fize, the long flot is always that of the
larger animal. There is alfo another way of knowing
the old ones from the young ones by the treading ;
which is, that the hinder feet of the old ones never
reach to their fore feet, whereas thofe of the young
ones do.
SLOTH, in zoology. See Bradypus.
SLOUGH, a deep muddy place. The call fldn of
A fnake, the damp of a coal pit, and the fear of a wound,
are alfo called by the fame appellation. The flough of
a wild boar is the bed, foil, or mire, wherein he wallows,
or in which he lies in the day-time.
SLUCZK, a large and populous town in Poland, in
Lithuania, and capital of a duchy of the fame name ;
famous for three battles gained here by Conftantine
duke of Oftrog over the Tartars, in the reign of Sigif-
mund I. It is feated on the river Sluczk, 72 miles
fouth-eaft of Minfl<i, and 70 fouth of Novogrod«ck.
E. Lon^. 27. 44. N. Lat. 53. 2.
SLUG, in zoology. See Limax.
SLUICE, a frame of timber, ftone, or other matter,
ferving to retain and raife the water of a river, &c. and
an occafion to let it pais.
Such is the fluice of a mill, which ftops and collefts
the water of a rivulet, &c . to let it fall at length in the
greater plenty upon the mill-wheel : fuch alfo are thofe
ufed as vents or drains to difcharge water off land^
And fuch are the fluices of Flanders, &c. which ferve
to prevent the waters of the fea from overflowing the
lower lands.
Sometimes there is a kind of canal inclofed between
two gates or fluices, in artificial navigations, to favc the
water, and render the paffage of boats equally eafy and
fafe, upwards and downwards ; as in the fluices of Bri-
are in France, which are a kind of maflive walls built
parallel to each other, at the diftance of 20 or 24 feet,
clofed with ftrong gates at each end, between which is
a kind of canal or chamber, confiderably longer than
broad ; wherein a veflel being inclofed, the water is let
out at the firft gate, by whfch the veflel Is raifed 15 or
1 6 feet, and pafled out of this canal into another much
higher. By fuch means a boat is conveyed out of the
Loire into the Seine, though the ground between them Sluice
rife above 150 feet higher than either of thofe riversi.
Sluices are made different ways, according to the ufe .
foi which they are intended : when they ferve for navi- \ See Ca..
gatlon, they are fliut with two gates, prefenting an "<^^'
angle towards the ftream ; when they are made near the
fea, two pair of gates are made, the one to keep the
water out and the other in, as oocafion requires : in this
cafe, the gates towards the fea prefent an angle th^t
way, and the others the contrary way ; and the fpace
inclofed by thofe gates is called the chamber. When
fluices are made in the ditches of a fortrefs, to keep up
the water ih fomc parts, inf^ead of gates, fliutters are
made fo as to Aide up and down in grooves ; and when
they are made to raife an inundation, they are then fliut
by means of fquare timbers let down in cuUifes, fo as to
lie clofe and firm,
The word Jluice is formed ©f the French efclufe, which
Menage derives from the Latin exclufa, found iti the
Salic law in the fame fenfe. But this is to be reftrained-
to the fluices of mills-, &c. for as to thofe ferving to raife
vefllels, they were wholly unknown to the ancients.
SLUR, in mufic, a mark like the arch of a circle,
drawn from one note to another, comprehending two
or more notes in the fame or different degrees. If the
notes are In different degrees, it fignifies that they are
all to be fung to one fyllable ; for wind inftruments, that
they are to be made in one continued breath ; and for
fl:ringed inftruments that are ttruck with a bow, as a'
violin, &c. that they are made with one ftroke. If the
notes are in the fame degree, it fignifies that it is all
one note, to be made as long as the whole notes fo con-
nected ; and this happens moft frequently betwixt the
laft note of one line and the firft of the next ; which is
particularly caiXtA fyncopation.
SLUYS, a town of Dutch Flanders, oppofite the
ifland of Cadfand, with a good harbour, i o miles north-
of Bruges. E. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat. 5 1. 19.
SMACK, a fmall veflel, commonly rigged as a floop'
or hoy, ufed in the coafting or fiftiing trade, or as a>
tender in the king's fervice.
SMALAND, or East Gothland, a province of
Sweden, which makes part of Gothland ; and is bound-
ed on the north by Ottrogothia or Eatt Gothland, on:
the eaft by tlie Baltic Sea, on the fouth- by Schonen
and Bleckingia, and on the weft by Weftrogothia or
Weft Gothland. It is about 1 1 2 miles in length, and'
62 fn breadth. Calmar is the capital town.
SMALKAllD, a town of Germany, in Franconia^.
and in the county of Henneberg : famous for the con-
federacy entered into by the German Proteftants againft'
the emperor, commonly called the league of Smdlkald.-
The defign of it vvas to defend their rehgion and liber-
ties. It is feated on the river Werra, 25 miles fouth-
weft of Erford, and 50 north-weft of Bamberg. E,
Long. ic. 53. N. Lat. 30.49. It is fubjeft to the
prince of Hefle-Cafllel.
SMALLAGE, in botany. See Apium.
SMALT, a kind., of glafs of a dark blue colour,
which when levigated appears of a moft beautiful co-
lour; and if it could be made fufllciently fine, would be'
an excellent fuccedaneum for ultramarine, as not only
refifting all kinds of weather, but even the moft violent
fires. It is prepared by melting one part of calcined'
cobalt with two of flint powder, and one of pot-aih..
I, .At
S M E f 5
Snwraglu=, At the bottoms of the crucibles In which the fmalt Is
I W^^""- manufa£tured we generally find a regulus of a whitilh
colour inclining to red, an.l extremely brittle. This is
melted afrefh, and when cold ieparates into two parts ;
that at the bottom is the cobalfc regulus, which is em-
ployed to make more of the fmalt ; the ether is bif-
muth.
SMARAGDUS, in natural hiftory. See Eme-
*.ALD.
SMEATON (John), an eminent civil engineer, was
born the 28th of May 1724, O. S. at Aufthorpe, near
Leeds, in a houfe built by his grandfather, and where
his family have refided ever fince.
The ftrengthof his underftanding and the originality
of his genius appeared at an early age :; his playthings
were not the playthings of children, but the tools v- hich
men employ; and he appeared to have greater entertain-
ment in feeing the men in the neighbourhood work,
and afking them queflions, than In any thing elfe. One
day he was feen (to the diftrefs of his family) on the
top of his father's barn, "fixing up fomething like a
windmill ; another time, he attended fome men fixing
a pump at a neighbouring village, and obferving them
cut off a piece of bored pipe, he was fo lucky as to pro-
cure It, and he adually matle with it a working pump
that ralfcd water. Thefe anecdotes refer to clrcum-
ftances that happened while he was In petticoats, and
rnoft likely before he attained his fixth year.
About his 14th and 15th year, he had made for
•liimfelf an engine for turning, and made feveral pre-
fents to his friends of boxes in Ivory or wood very
neatly turned. He forged his iron and fteel, and
melted his riietal.; he had tools of every fort for
working in wood, ivory, and metals. He liad made a
lathe, by which he had cut a perpetual fcrew in brafs,
a thing little known at that day, which was the inven-
tion of Mr Henry Hindley of York ; with whom Mr
Smeaton foon became acquainted, and they fpent many
2. night at Mr Hindley's houfe till day-light, converfing
on thofe fubjefts.
Thus had Mr Smeaton, by the ftrength of his ge-
nius and indefatigable Induftry, acquired, at the age of
1 8, an extenfive fet of tools, and the art of working In
mofl of the mechanical trades, without the affilfance of
any mafter. A part of every day was generally oc-
cupied In forming fome Ingenious piece of mecha-
iiifm.
Mr Smeaton's father was an attorney, and defirous
pf bringing him up to the fame profcffion, Mr Smea-
ton therefore came up to London In 1742, and attend-
ed the courts In Weifminfter hall; but finding (as his
common exprefiion was) that the law did not fuit the
bent of his genius, he wrote a ftrong memorial to his
father on that fubjeci ; whofe good fenfe from that mo-
ment left Mr Smeaton to piu-fue the bent of his genius
in his own way.
In 1 75 1 he began a coiirfe of experiments to try a
machine of his Invention to meafure a fhip's way at fea,
9nd alfo made two voyages in company with Dr Knight
to try it, and a compais of his own invention and ma-
king, which was made magnetical by Dr Knight's arti-
ficial magnets : the fecond voyage was made in the For-
tune floop of war, commanded at that time by Captain
Alexander Campbell.
'yii ""^'^s elected member of the Royal So-
[2 1 S M E
clety ; the number of papers publifhed In their Tranf- Sme =
aftions will fhow the univerfality of his genius and v
knowledge. In 1759 he was honoured by an unani-
mous vote with their gold medal for his paper Intitled
" An Experimental Inquiry concerning the Natural
Powers of Water and Wind to turn Mills, and other
Machines depending on a Circular Motion."
This paper, he fays, was the refult of experiments
made on working models in the years 1752 and 1753,
but not communicated to the Society till 1759; before
which time be had an opportunity of putting the effeft
of thefe experiments Into real praClice, in a variety of
cafes, and for various purpofes, fo as to affure the So-
ciety he had found them to anfwer.
In December 1755, the Eddyftone llghthoufe was
burnt down : Mr Wefton, the chief proprietor, and the
others, being defirous of rebuilding it in the rnoft fub-
ftantial manner, Inquired of the earl of Macclesfield
(then prefident of the Royal Society) whom he thought
the molt proper to rebuild it; his Lordlhip recommend-
ed Mr Smeaton.
Mr Smeaton undertook the work, and completed It
In the fumm.er of 1 759. Of this Mr Smeaton gives an
ample defcription in the volume he publifhed in 1791 :
that edition has been fold fome time ago, and a fecond is
now In the prefs, under the revifal of his much efteemed
friend Mr Aubert, F. R. S. and governor of the Lon-
don affurance corporation.
Though Mr Smeaton completed the building of the
Eddyftone lighthoufe in 173:9 (a work that does him fo
much credit), yet it appears he did not foon get Into
full bufinefs as a civil engineer ; for in 1764, while in
YorkfhIre, he offered himfelf a candidate for one of
the receivers of the Derwcntwater eflate ; and on the
31ft of December in that year, he was appointed at a
full board of Greenwich liofpital, in a manner highly
ftattering to himfelf ; when two other perfons ftrongly
recommended and powerfully fupported were candidates
lor the employment. In this appointment he was very
happy, by the alTiftance and abihties of his partner Mr
Walton one of the receivers, who taking upon himfelf the
management and accounts, left Mr Smeaton leifure and
oppoi tunity to exert his abilities on public works, as well
as to make many improvements in the mills and in the
eftates of Greenwich hofpltal. By the year 1775 he
had fo much bufinefs as a civil engineer, that he wifhed
to refign this appointment ; and would have done It
then, had not his friends the late Mr Stuart the hofpl-
tal furveyor, and Mr Ibbetfon their fecretary, prevailed
upon him to continue in the office about two years
longer.
Mr Smeaton having nov/ got Into full bufinefs as a
civil engineer, performed many works of general utili-
ty. He made the river Calder navigable ; a work that
required great Ikill and judgment, owing to the very
impetuous floods in that river: He planned and at-
tended the execution of the great canal In Scotland for
conveying the trade of the country either to the Atlan-
tic or German ocean ; and having brought It to the
place originally intended, he declined a handfome year-
ly falary, in order that he might attend to the multi-
plicity of his other bufinefs.
On the opening of the great arch at London bridge,
the excavation around and under the iterlfngs was fo
confiderable, tliat tlie bridge was ihouglit to be in
great
S M
:or!. great danger of falling.
E C 543 ] S M E
He was then in Yorkfliire, garden on the 1 6th of September 1792, wasftruck with
the palfy, and died the 28th of OAober. <' In his ill-
and was fent for by exprefs, and arrived with the ut
moft difpatch : " I think (fays Mr Holmes, the au-
thor of his life) it was on a Saturday morning, when
the apprehenfion of the bridge was fo general that few
would pafs over or under it. He applied himfelf im-
mediately to examine ft, and to found about the fterlings
as minutely as he could ; and the committee being call-
ed together, adopted his advice, which was to repur-
chafe the ftones that had been taken from the middle
pier, then lying in Moorfields, and to throw them into
the river to guard the fterlings." Nothing fliovvs the
apprehenfions concernino the falling of the bridge more
than the alacrity with which this advice was purfued ;
the flones were repurchafed that day, horfes, carts, and
barges, were got ready, and they began the work on
Sunday morning. Thus Mr Smeaton, in all human
probability, faved London-bridge from falling, and fe-
eured it till more effeftual methods could be taken.
The vaft variety of mills which Mr Snseaton con-
ftrufted, fo greatly to the fatisfaftion and advantage of
the owners, will fhow the great ufe which he made of
his experiments in 1752 and 1753; for he never trufted
to theory in any cafe where he could have an oppor-
tunity to inveftigate it by experiment. He built a
fteam engine at Aullhorpe, and made experiments
thereon, purpofely to afcertain the power of Newco-
men'"s fteam engine, which he improved and brought to
a far greater degree of perfeftion, both in its conftruc-
tion and powers, than it was before.
Mr Smeaton during many years of his life was a
frequent attendant on parliament, his opinion being con-
tinually called for ; and here his ftrength of judgment
and perfpicuity of expreffion had its full difplay : it
was his conftant cuftom, when applied to, to plan or
fiipport any meafure, to make himfelf fully acquainted
with it, to fee its merits before he would engage in it :
by this caution, added to the clearnefs of his defcrip-
tion and the integrity of his heart, he feldom failed to
obtain for the bill which he fupported an aft of parKa-
inent. No one was heard with more attention, nor had
any one ever more confidence placed in his teftlmony.
In the courts of law he had feveral compliments paid
him from the bench by Lord Mansfield and other?, for
the new light which he threw on difficult fubjefts.
About the year 1785 Mr Smeaton's health began to
decline; and he then took the lefolution to endeavour
to avoid all the bufinefs he could, fo that he might
have leifure to publilh an account of his inventions and
works, which was certainly the firft wilh of his heart ;
for he has often been heard to fay, that " he thought
he could not render fo much fervice to his country as
by doing that." He got only his account of the Ed-
dyftone lighthoufe completed, and fome preparations to
his intended Trcatife on Mills ; for he could not refill
the fohcitations of his friends in various works: and
Mr Aubert, whom he greatly loved and refpefted, be-
ing chofen chairman of Ramfgate harbour, prevailed
upon him to accept the place of engineer to that har-
bour; and to their joint efforts the public is chiefly in-
debted for the improvements tliat have been made
rhere within thefe few years, which fully appears in a
icport that Mr Smeaton gave in to the board of truftces
in 1791, which they immediately publiflied.
Mr Smeaton being at Aufthorpe, walking in his
In h
nefs (fays Mr Holmes) I had feveral letters from him,
figned with his name, but written and figned by ano-
ther's pen ; the di61;ion of them fhowed the llrength of
his mind had not left him. In one written the 26th
of September, after minutely defcribing his health and"
feelings, he fays, ' in contequence of the foregoing, I
conclude myfelf nine- tenths dead ; and the greateft fa-
vour the Almighty can do me (as I think), will be to
complete the other part; but as it is likely to be a Hng-
ering illnefs, it is only in His power to fay when that is
hkely to happen.''
Mr Smeaton had a warmth of expreffion that might
appear to thofe who did not know him well to border
on harfhnefs ; but thofe more intimately acquainted
with him, knew it arofe from the intenfe application of
his mind, which was always in the purfuit of truth, or
engaged in inveftigating difficult fubjefks. He would-
fometimes break out haftily, when any thing was faid
that did not tally with his ideas ; and he would not
give up any thing he argued for, till his mind was con-
vinced by found reafoning.
In all the focial duties of life he was exemplary ; he
was a moft affeftionate hulband, a good father, a warm,
zealous, and fincere friend, always ready to affift thofe
he refpefted, and often before it was pointed out to
him in what way he could ferve them. He was a lover
and encourager of merit wherever he found it ; and
many men are in a j;reat meafure indebted to his af-
fillance and advice for their prefent fit nation. As a
companion, he was always entertaining and inftiuftive ;
and none could fpend any time in his company without
improvement.
SMELL, ODOURj with regard to the organ, is an-
impreffion made on the nofe by little particles conti-
nually exhaling from odorous bodies : With regard to-'
the objcft, it is the figure and difpofitlon of odorous ef-
fluvia> which, flicking on the organ, excite the fenfe of
im.elHng : And with regard to the foulj it is the per*
ccption of the impreffion of the objcdl on the organ, or
the afTcclion in the foul refidtlng therefrom. See
Anatomy, n° 140 ; and Metaphysics.
SMELLING, the aft whereby we perceive fmellsj
or whereby we become fenfible of odorous bodies, by
means of certain effluvia thereof; which, ftriking on
the ohaftory organ, briflfly enough to have their im^
pnlfe propagated to the brain, excite a fenfation in the
foul. The principal organs of fmelling are the noflrils
and the olfaftory nerves ; the minute ramifications of
which latter are diftributed throughout the whole con-
cave of the former. For their defcriptions,- fee Anato-
my.
Smelling is performed by drawing into the noflrils
the odorous effluvia floating in the air in infpirationi»
which ilrike with fuch force againfl the fibrilljE of
the ohaftory nerves, which the figure of the nofe, and
the fituation of the little bones, render oppofite thereto,
as to fhake them, and give them a vibratory motion ;
which aftion, being communicated hence to the com'-
mon fenfcry, occafions an idea of a fweet, or fetid, ac
four, or an aromatic, or a putrefied objeft, &c. The
matter in animals, vegetables, foffils, &c. which chiefly
affefts the fenfe of fmelling, Boerhaave obferves, . a
that fubtile fubllaiicc, inherent in their oily parts,
2, calleol-
Smeaton
II
Sm' lling-.
S M E
r 544 1
SMI
Smelling
II
Smtlting.
called /hints : becaufe, when this is taken away ^'rom
the nioft fragrant bodies, what remains h.'vfcarce any
. fmell at all but this, poured on the moft' inodorous
bodies, gives them a fragrancy.
Willis obferves, that brutes have generally the fcnfe
of fmelling in much greater perfeAion than man : by
this alone they diftinguifh the qualities of bodies, which
could not otherwife i5e known; hunt out their food at a
great dillance, as hounds and birds of prey ; or hid
among other fubftances, as ducks, &c. Man, having
other means oF judging of his food, &C. did not need
fo much fagacity in his nofe ; yet have we inftances of
a great deal even in man. In the Hiftoire des /^ntiiies,
we are affured there are negroes who, by the fmell
alone, can dillinguifli between the footfteps of a French-
man and a negro. It is found, that the lamina;, where-
with the upper part of the noftrils is fenced, and which
fervc to receive the divarications of the olfaftory nerves,
are always longer, and folded up together in greater
numbers, as the animal has this fenfe more acute : the
various windings and turnings of thefe laminae detain-
ing the odoriferous particles.
The fenfe of fmelling may be diminidied or deftroy-
ed by difeafes ; as by the moifture, drynefs, inflammation,
or fuppuration of the olfaftory membrane, the comprel-
fion of the nerves which fupply it, or fome fault in the
brain itfelf at their origin. A defeft, or too great a
degree of folidity of the fmall fpengy bones of the up-
per jaw, the caverns of the forehead, &c. may likewifc
impair this fenfe ; and it may be alfo injured by a col-
JeAion of fetid matter in thefe caverns, which is conti
nually exhaling from them, and alfo by immoderate ufe
of fnufF. When the nofe abounds with moifture, after
gentle evacuations, fuch things as tend to take off irri-
tation and coagulate the thin fharp ferum may be ap-
plied ; as the oil of anife mixed with fine flour, cam-
phor diflblved in oil of almonds, &c. the vapours of am-
ber, frankincenfe, gum-maftic, and benjamin, may like-
wife be received into the nofe and mouth. For moift-
cning the mucus when it is too dry, fome recommend
fnufF made of the leaves of marjoram, mixed with oil of
amber, marjoram, and anifeed ; or a llernutatory of cal-
cined white vitriol, twelve grains of which may be mix-
ed with two ounces of marjoram water and filtrated.
The fttam of vinegar upon hot iron, and received up
the noftrils, is alfo of ufe for foftening the mucus, re-
moving ob'iruftions, &c. If there be an ulcer in the
nofe, it ought to be drelTed with fome emollient oint-
ment, to which, if the pain be very great, a little lau-
danum may be added. If it be a venereal ulcer, 1 2
grains of corrofive fubHmate may be diflblved in a pint
and a half of brandy^ a table fpoonful of which may be
taken twice a day. The ulcer ought likewife to be
wafhed with it, and the fumes of cisnabar may be re-
ceived up che noftrils.
l! there be reafon to fufpeft that the nerves which
fupply the organs of fmelling are inert, or want ftimu-
lating, volatile falts, or ftrong fnuffs, and other things
which occafion fneezing, may be applied to the nofe ;
the forehead may likewife be anointed with balfam of
Peru, to which may be added a little oil of amber.
SMELT, in ichthyolo y. See Salmo.
SMELTING, in metallurgy, the fufion or melting
of the ores of metals, in order to feparate the metalline
part from the earthy, ftony, and other pai ts. See Me-
tallurgy, Part III.
SMEW, in ornithology. See Mergus.
SMILAX, ROUGH BINDWEED, in botany : A ge-
nus of plants belonging to the clals of dicecia and order
of hexandria ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under
the I 1 th order, Sarmentaceie. The male calyx is hexa-
phyllous, and there is no corolla ; the Female calyx is al-
fo hexaphyllous, without any corolla : there are three
ftyles, a trilocular berry, and two feeds. There are i8
fpecies; the afpera, excelfa, zsilanica, farfaparilla, china,
rotundifolia, laurifolia, tamnoides, caduca, bona nox,
Uerbacea, tetragona, lanceolata, and pfeudo china. Of
thefe, the fmilax farfaparilla, which affords the farfapa-
rilla root, is the moft valuable. This is well defcribed
in the London Medical Journal by Dr Wright, who,
during a long refidence in Jamaica, made botany his
peculiar ftudy.
" This fpecies (fays he) has ftems of the thicknefs of
a man's finger : they are jointed, triangular, and befet
with crooked fpines. The leaves are alternate, fmooth
and fliining on the upper fide ; on the other fide arc-
three nerves or coftae, with fundry fmall crooked fpines.
The flower is yellow, mixed with red. The fruit is a
black berry, containing feveral brown feeds.
, '* Sa:-faparilla delights in low moift grounds and near
the banks of rivers. The roots run fuperficially under
the furFace of the ground. The gatherers have only to
loofen the foil a little^ and to draw out che long fibres
with a wooden hook. In this manner they proceed
till the whole root is got out. It is then cleared of the
mud, dried, and made into bundles.
*' The fenfible qualities of farfaparilla are mucilagi-
nous and farinaceous, with a flight degree of acrimony.
The latter, however, is fo flight as not to be perceived
by many j and I am apt to believe that its medicinal
pov/ers may fairly be afcribed to its demulcent and fa-
rinaceous qualities.
" Since the publication of Sir William Fordyce's pa-
per on Sarfaparilla in the Medical Obfervations and In-
quiries, Vol. I. farfaparilla has been in more general ufe
than formerly. The planters in Jamaica fupply their
eftates with great quantities of it ; and its exhibition
has been attended wich very happy confequences in the
yawsand in venereal affeftions; as nodes, tophi, and exof-
tofis ; pains of the bones, and carious or cancerous ulcers.
" Sir WiUiam Fordyce ffeems to think farfaparilla a
fpecific in all ftages of lues ; but from an attentive and
careful obfervation of its eflFetfs in fome thoufands of
cafes, T muft declare I could place no dependence on
farfaparilla alone. But if mercury had formerly been
tried, or was ufed along with farfaparilla, a cure
was ibon effefted. Where the patients had been redu-
ced by pain, diforder, and mercury, I prefcribed a de-
coftion of farfaparilla, and a table- fpoonful of the pow-
der ot the fame, twice a day, with the greateft fuccefs,
in the moft deplorable cafes of lues, ill-cured yaws, and
carious or ill-difpofed fores or cance- s."
7'he china, or oriental fpecies of china root, has
roundiih prickly ftalks and ird berries, and is a native
of China and japan. S he pfeudo china, or occidental
fpecies, has rounder fmooth ftdks and black berries,
grows wild in Jamaica and Virginia, and bears the colds
of our own climate.
Thefe
S M I [ 545 ] SMI
Theff roots have fcarce any fmell or particular tafte: treatife on the mode of pronouncing Enr^hfh. He was
when frefh they are fald to be fomewhat acrid, but as ufeful llkewlfe in promoting the reformation. Having
brouR-ht to us they difcover, even when long, chewed, gone into the family of the duke of Somerlct, the pro-
no other than a flight unAuofity in the mouth. Boiled teftor during the mmority of Edward VI. he was em-
water, they impart a reddifh colour, and a kind of vapid ployed by that nobleman in pubhc aftairs ; and in i 548
IV. , , ,
foftnefs : the decoaion when infplfiated yields an unc-
tuous, farinaceous, almoft infipldmafs, amounting to up-
wards of half the weight of the root. They give a gold
yellow tinAure to reaified fpirit, but make no fenfible
alteration in its tafte : on drawing off the fpirit from
the filtered hquor, there remains an orange-coloured ex-
traa, nearly as Infipid as that obtained by water, but
fcarcely in li^lf its quantity
was made fecretary of ftate, and received the honour of
knighthood. While that nobleman continued in office,
he was fent ambaffador, firfl. to BrulTei^ and afterwards
to France.
Upon Mary's acceffion he loft all his places, but was
fortunate enough to preferve the friendfhip of Gardiner
and Bonner. He was exempted from perfecution, and
was allowed, probably by their influence, a penfion of
China root is generally' fuppofed to promote perfpi- L. lOO. During Elizabeth's reign he was employed
ration and urine," and by its foft unauous quahty to in public affairs, and was fent three times by that
blunt acrimonious humours. It was firfl introduced princefs as her ambaffador td France. He died in 1 577.
into Europe about the year 1535, with the charaaer His abilities were excellent, and his attainments un-
of a fpecific agalnft venereal diforders : the patient was commonly great : He was a philofopher, a phyfician, a
kept warm, a weak decoaion of china root was ufed for chemift, mathematician, linguifl, hiftorian, and architea.
common drink, and a flronger decodlion taken twice a He wrote, i. A treatife called the Ung/ijh Common^
<iay in bed to promote a fweat. Such a regimen is luea/th. 2. A letter Be Reda et Emendata Lingua GracJt
doubtlefs a good auxiliary to mercurial aheratives : but Pronunciatione. 3. De Moribus Turcarum. 4. De Drui-
whatevev may be its efiFeas in the warmer climates, it dum Moribus.
is found in this to be of Itfelf greatly infuf&cient. At Smith (Edmund), a diftinguifned Englifh poet, the
prefent the china root is very rarely made ufe of, having only fon of Mr Neale an eminent merchant, by a daugh.
f(3r fome tim£ given place to farfapariUa, which is fup- ter of baron Lechmere, was born in 1668. By his fa-
pofed to be more efFeaual. Profper Alpinus informs ther's death he was left young to the care of Mr Smith,
us, that this root is in great efleem among the Egyp- who had married his father's fifter, and who treated
tian women for procuring fatnefs and pluinpncfs. him with fo much tendernefs, that at the death of his
SMITH (Sir Thomas), was born at Walden in Ef- generous guardian he affumed his name. His writings
fex in 1512. At 14 he was fent to Queen's college are not many, and thofe are fcattered about in milcella-
Cambridge, 'where hje diftinguifhed himfelf fo much, nies and colleaions : bis celebrated tragedy of Phaedra
that he was made Henry VIII. 's fcholar together with and Hippolitus was aaed In 1707 ; and being introdu-
Johu Cheke. He was chofen a fellow of his col- ced at a time when the Italian opera fo much engroffed
lege in 1531, and appointed two years after to read the polite world, gave Mr Addifon, wlio wrote
the public Greek kaure. The common mode of reading
Greek at that time was very faulty ; the fame found
being given to the letters and diphthongs ^,
Mr Smith and Mr Cheke had been for fome time fenfible
that this pronunciation was wrong : and after a good
deal of confultation and refearch, they agreed to Intro-
duce that' mode of reading which prevails at prefent.
Mr Smith was leauriiig on Arljlotle de Republlca in
Greek. At firfl he dropped a word or two at intervals
in the new pronunciation, and fometimes he would
ftop as if he had committed a miflake and correa him-
felf. No notice was taken of this for two or three
days ; but as he repeated more frequently, his audience
began to wonder at the unufual founds, and at laft fome
of his friends mentioned to him what they had remark-
ed. He owned that fomething was in agitation, but
that it was not yet fufficiently digefled to be made pub-
lic. They entreated him earnefily to difcover his pro-
■]ea : he did fo ; and in a fliort time great numbers re-
forted to him for information. The n,w pronunciation
was adopted with enthufiafm, and foon became univer-
fal at Cambridge. It was afterwards oppofed by bi-
{hop Gardiner the chancellor ; but its iuperiorlty to
the old mode was fo vifible, that in a few years it fpread
over all England.
in 1539 he travelled into foreign countries, and ftu-
died for fome time In the univeriities of France and Ita-
ly. On his return he was made regius profeffor of ci-
vil law at Cambridge. About this time he publiflied a
V©L. XVII. Part II. 3
Mr Addifon, who wrote the
prologue, an opportunity to rally the vitiated tall? of
the public. However, notwithflanding the efteem it
has always been held in, it is perhaps rather to be con-
fidered as a fine poem than as a good play. This tra-
gedy, with a Poem to the memory of Mr John Philips,
three or four Odes, with a Latin oration fpoken at Ox-
ford In laudem Thomse Bodlell^ were publifhed as his
works by his friend Mr Oldifworth. Mr Smith died
in 1710, funk into indolence and intemperance by po-
verty and difappointments- ; the hard fate of many a
man of genius.
Smith (John), an excellent raezzotlnter, flouriflied
about 1700; but neither the time of his birth nor
death are accurately known. He united foftnefs with
ftrength, and finlfhed with freedom. He fervid his
time with one Tillct a painter in Moorfields ; and as
foon as he became his own mailer, learned from Becket
the fecret of me/.zotinto, and being farther inftruaed
by Van der Vaart, was taken to work in Sir Godfrey
Kneller's houfe ; and as he was to be the publiiher of
that mailer's works, doubtlefs received confiderable hints
from him, which he amply repaid. *' To pofterlty per-
haps his prints (fays Mr Walpok) will carry an idea of iValpoles
fomething burkfque ; perukes of an enormou? length Catalogue
flowing over fiiits of armour, compofe wonderful habits.
It Is equally ftrange that fafhion could introduce the""'""
one, and eflabllfh the praaice of reprefenting the other,
when It was out of falhion. Smith excelled in exhibi-
ting both, as he found them in the portraits of Knel-
•3Z kr,
S M I
flrivrh.
of ths h>'oya
Society of
Edin/jurgh,
voi, .ii.
. ler, who was Icfs happy in what he fubftituted to ar
""^"^ ' mour. Ill the Kit-cat chib he has poured full bottoras
chiefly over night-aowns. IF thoft ftreams of hair were
iticommo'ie In a battle, I know nothing (he adds) they
were adapted to that c*n be done in a night-gown.
Smith compofed two large volumes, with proofs of his
own plates, for which he alked L. 50. His fineft works
are duke Schomberg on horfeback ; that duke's fon
Eind fuccelfor Maynhard ; the earls of Pembroke, Dor-
fet, and Albemarle ; three plates with two fi!5;ures in
each, of young perfons or children, in which he fhone ;
William Cowper; Gibbons and his wife; Queen Anne;
the duke of Gloucefler, a whole length, with a flower-
pot ; a' very curious one of Queen Mary, in a high head,
fan, and gloves ; the earl of Godolphin ; the d'.:chefs of
Ormond, a whole length, with a black ; Sir George
Rooke, &c There is a print by him of James II.
with an anchor, but no infcription ; which not being
finilhcd when the king went away, is fo fcarce that it
is fometimes fold for above a guinea. Smith, alfo per-
formed maiiV hiftoric pieces ; as the loves of the gods,
from Titian, at Blenheim, in ten plates ; Venus {land-
ing in a fliell, from a pidure by Correggio, and many
more, of which perhaps the mofl: delicate is the holy
family with angels, after Carlo Maratti."
t-hUofopVual Smith (Dr Adam), the celebrated author of the
"rranpaiovs Inquiry into the Nature and Caufes of the Wealth of
. u...., 2^JJ^^,•Q^-^g^ ^^as the only fon of Adam Smith comptroller
of the cuftoms at Kirkaldy, and of Margaret Douglas
daughter of Mr Douglas of Strathenry. He was born
at Kirkaldy on the 5th June 1723, a few months after
the death of his father. His confliitution during his
infancy wasTinfirm and fickly, and required all the care
of his furviving parent. When only three years old he
was carried by his mother to Strathenry on a vifit to
his tmcle Mr Douglas ; and happening one day to be
amufing himfelf alone at the door of the houfe, he was
ftolen by a party of thofe vagrants who in Scotland are
called tinkers. Luckily he was mifled immediately, and
the vagrants purfued and overtaken in Leflie v/ood ;
and thus Dr Smith was preferved to extend the bounds
of fcicnce, and reform the commercial pohcy of Eu-
rope.
He received the rudiments of his education in the
fchool of Kirkaldy under David Miller, a teacher of
confiderable eminence, and whofe name deferves to be
recorded on account of the great number of eminent
men which that feminary produced while under his di-
rection. Dr Smith, even while at fchool, attrafted no-
tice by his paflionate attachment to books, and by the
extraordinary powers of his memory ; while bis friend-
ly and generous difpofition gained and fecured the af-
feftion of his fchoolfellows. Even then he was remark-
able for thofe habits which remained with him through
life, of fpeaking to himfelf when alone and of abferice
in company. He was fent in 1737 to the univerfity of
Glafgov/, where he remained till 1740, when he went
to Baliol college Oxford, as an exhibitioner on Sntll's
foundation. His favourite purfuits while at the uni-
verfity were mathematics and natural philofophy. rtf.
ter his removal to England he frequently employed him-
felf in tranflating, particularly from the French, with a
view to the improvement of his own fl:yle : a praAice
which he often recommended to all who wifhed to cul-
[ 54^ ]
S M I
tlvate the art of compofition. It was probaHy then a^
fo that he applied himfelf with the greatelt care to the
ftudy of languages, of which, both ancient and modern,
his knowledge was uncommonly extenfive and accu-
rate.
^ After feven years refidence at Oxford he returned to-
Kirkaldy, and lived two years with his mother without
any fixed plan for his future life. He had been defign-
ed for the church of England ; but diflikin;^ the eccle,
fiaftical profeffion, he refolved to abandon it'ahogetheri
and to liurlt his ambition to the pr-orpe6l of obtaining-
fome of thofe preferments to which literary attainments
lead in Scotland. In i 748 he fixed his refidence in E-
dinburgh, and for three years read a courfe of leftures
on rhetoric and belles lettres under the patronage of
Lord Kames. In 1751 he was ekaed profefTor of lo-
gic in the univerlity of Glaf,Tow, and the year follow,
ing was removed to the proftflbrfliip of moral phU
lofophy, vacant by the death of Mr Thomas Craigi«
the immediate fucceflbr of Dr Hutchefon. In this fi-
tuation he remained i 3 years, a period he ufed frequent-
ly to look back to as the moll ufeful part of his life.
His leftures on moral philofophy vme divided into four
parts : The firfl; contained natural theology ; in which
he confidered the proofs of the being and attributes of
God, and thofe truths on whicli religion is founded t
the fecond comprehended ethics, ftriclly fo called, and
confifted chiefly of thofe doctrines which he afterwards
publiflied in his theory of moral fentiments : in the
third part he treated more at leno th of that part of mo-
rality cAXtd jujlke ; and which, being fufceptible of
precife and accurate rules. Is for that reafon capable of
a full and accurate explanation : in the laft part of his
Icftures he examined thofe political regulations which
are founded, not upon the principle of juftice, but of
expediency ; and which are calculated to increafe the
riches, the power, and the profpevity of a fhite. Un-
der this view he confidered the political inititutions re-
lating to con;merce, to finances, to eccleiiaitical and
military governments : this contained the fubibricc of
his Wealth of Nations. In dehvering his leftures he
trufl;ed almoft entirely to extemporary elocution : hia
manner was plain and unafFefted, and he never failed to
intereft his hearers. His reputation foon rofe very high,
and many fliudents reforted to the univerfity merely up»
on his account.
When his acquaintance with Mr Hume firft com-
menced is uncertain, but it had ripened into friendfhip
before the year 17^2.
In 1759 he pubhfhed his Theory of Moral Senti-
ments ; a work which defervedly extended his reputa-
tion : for, though feveral of its conclufions be ill-
founded, it mufl: be allowed by all to be a lingular ef-
fort of invention, ingenuity, and fubtilty. Befides, it
contains a great mixture of important truth ; and, tho'
the author h;is fometimes been mifled, he has had the
merit of direding the attention of philofophers to a
view of human nature, which had formerly in a great
raeafnre efcaped their notice. It abounds everywhere
with the pureft and mofl; elevated maxims concerning'
the praftical conduA of life ;. and when the fubjeft of
his work leads him to addrefs the imagination and the
heart, the variety and fehcity of his illuttrations, the
richnefs and fluency of his eloquence, and the fkill with
4 whicb
S M I [ 547 ]
ij^h.\c\\ Ke win$ the attention and commands the paflions his death, which
ot his readers, leave him among our Britiih moraUfts
without a rival.
Towards the end of 1763 Dr Smith received an in-
vitation from Mr Charles Townfend to accompany the
Duke of Buccleugh on his travels ; and the liberal
terms in which this propofai was made induced him to
refign his office at Glafgow. He joined the Duke of
Buccleugh at London early in the year 1764, and fet
-out with him for the continent in the month of March
fellowing. After a Itay of about ten days at Paris,
they proceeded to Thouloufe, where they fixed their
i-efidencc for about 1 8 months ; thence they went
by a pretty extenlive route through the fouth of France
to Geneva, where they pafled two months. About
Chriftmas 1 765 they returned to Paris, and remained
there till Odlober following. The fociety in which
Dr Smith pafTed thefe ten months may be conceived in
confequcHce of the recommendation of Mr Hume. Tur-
got, Quefnai, Necker, D'Alembert, Helvetius, Mar-
montel, Madame Riccoboni, were among the number
of his acquaintances ; and fome of them he continued
ever after to reckon among the number of his friends.
In Oftober 1766 the duke of Buccleugh returned to
England.
Dr Smith fpent the next ten years of his life with
his mother at Jiirkaldy, occupied habitually in intenfe
ftudy, but unbending his mind at times in the compa-
ny of fome of his old fchoolfellows, who ftill conti«ued
to refide near the place of their birth. In 1776 he
publilhed his Inquiry into the Nature and Caufes of the
IVealth of Nations ; a book fo unlverfally known, that
any panegyric on it would be ufelefs. The variety, im-
portance, and (may we not add) novelty, of the infor-
mation which it contains ; the flcill and comprehenfive-
nefs of mind dil'played in the arrangement ; the admi-
rable illuftrations with which it abounds ; together with
a plainnefs and perfpicuity which makes it intelligible
to uU — render it unquetti»nably the moft perfect work
which has yet appeared on the general principles of any
branch of legiflation.
He fpent the next two years of his life in London,
where he enjoyed the fociety of fome of the moil emi-
nent men of the age : but he removed to Edinburgh in
1778, in confequence of having been appointed, at the
requeft of the duke of Buccleugh, one of the commif-
fioners of the curtoms in Scotland. Here he fpent the
iaft twelve years of his life in an affluence which was
more than equal to all his wants. But his ftudies feem-
ed entirely fufpended till the infirmities of old age re-
minded him, when it was too late, of what he yet owed
to the public and to his own fame The principal mate-
rials of the works which he had announced had long
ago been c©lle£led, and httle probably was wanting but
a few years of health and retirement to complete them.
The death of his mother, who had accompanied him to
Edinburgh in 1784, together with that of his coufin
Mifs Douglas in 1788, contributed to fruftrate thefe
.projefts. They had been tlf? objefts of his affeftion
for more than 60 years, and in their Society he had en-
^yed from his infancy all that he ever knew of the en-
dearments of a family. He was now alone and help-
Icfs ; and though he bore his lofs with equanimity, and
regained apparently his former cheerfulnefs, yet his
Jaealth and ftrength gradually declined till the period of
S M O
happened in July 1790, Some day*
before his death he ordered all his papers to be burnt
except a few elfays, which have fince been publifhed. v.
Of the originality and compiehenfivenefs of his views J
the extent, the variety, and the correftnefs of his infor-
mation ; the inexhauftible fertility of his invention — he
has left behind him lafting monuments. To his private
worth, the moft certain of all teitimonies may be found
in that confidence, refpeA, end attachment, which fol-
lowed him through all the various relations of life. He
was habitually abfent in converfatioii, and was apt
when he fpoke to deliver his ideas in the form of a lec-
ture. He was rai-ely known to ftart a new topic him-
felf, or to appear unprepared upon thofe topics that were
introduced by others. In his external form and a^^pear-
ance there was nothing Hucommon. When perfedly at
eafe, and when warmed with converfation, his geftures
were animated and not ungraceful ; and in the fociety
of thofe he loved, his features were often brightened by
a fmile of inexpreffible benignity. In the company of
ftr angers, his tendency to able nee, and perhaps ftill more
his confcioufnefs of that tendency, rendered his manners
fomewhat embarraffed ; an effeft which was probably
not a Httle heightened by thofe fpeculative ideas of pro-
priety which his reclufe habits tended at once to per-
fe£l in his conception, and to diminifh his power of re-
alizing.
SMITHIA, in botany : A genus of the decandria
order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 3 2d order,
Papilionacee. The calyx is monophyllous and belabia«-
ted ; the corolla winged ; the legumen inclofed in the
calyx, with three or four joints, and contain as many
feeds, which are fmooth, comprefled, and kidney-ftiaped.
There is only one fpecies, viz. the thonina.
SMITZ (Gafpar), who, from painting a great num-
ber of Magdalens, was called Mogdalen Smithy was a
Dutch painter, who came to England foon after the
Reftoration. For thefe portraits fat a woman that he
kept, and called his wife. A lady, whom he had taught
to draw, took him with her to Ireland, where he paint-
ed fraall portraits in oil, had great bufinefs, and high
prices. His flowers and fruit were fo much admired,
that one bunch of grapes fold there for L. 40. In his
Magdalens he generally introduced a thiftle on the fore
ground. He had feveral fcholars, particularly Maubert,
and one Gawdy of Exeter. Yet, notwithftanding his
fuccefs, he died poor in Ireland in 1707.
SMITHERY, a fmith's fhop; alfo the art of a fmith,
by which iron is wrought into any fhape by means of
fire, hammering, filing, ^c.
SMITING-LiNE, in a fhip, is a fmall rope faftened
to the mizen-yard-arm, below at the deck, and is always
furled up with the mizen-fail, even to the upper end
of the yard, and thence it comes down to the poop.
Its life is to loofe the mizen-fail without ftriking down
the yard, which is eafily done, becaufe the mizen-fail is
furled up only with rope-yarns ; and therefore when
this rope is pulled hard, it breaks all the rope-yarns,
and fo the fail falls down of itfelf. The failor's phrafe is,
fmite the mizen (whence this rope takes its name), that is,
hale by this rope that the fail may fall down.
SMOKE, a denfe elaftic vapour, arifing from bura-
ing bodies. As this vapour is extremely difagreeable
to the fenfes, and often prejudicial to the health, man-
3 Z 2 kind
Sill It h
II
Smokf.
S MO [ 548 ] S M O
kind hnve fallen npon feveral contrivat^ces to enjoy the be handled, for the hands might warm it
fbphical So
titty.
benefit of fire, without beins^ annoyed by fmoke. The
moll univcrfal of thefe contrivances is a tube leading
from the chamber in which the fire is kindled to the
top of the building, through which the fmoke afcends,
and is difperfed into the atmofpherc. Thefe tubes are
called chimneys ; which, when conftrufted in a proper
manner, carry off the fmoke entirely ; birt, when im-
propeily cr nftrufted, they carry oif the fmoke imper-
it&Xy, to the great annoyance ©f the inhabitants. As
our mafons at prefcnt feem to have a veiy imperfe6k
knowledge of the manner in which cliiraneys ought to
be built, we can Jiardly perform a more acceptable fer-
vice to the public than to point out the manner in
which they onzht to be conftru&ed, fo as to carry off
the finoke entirely ; as well as to explain the caufes
from which the defe<£l:s fo often complained of generally
proceed, and the method of removing them.
Tranfaaions Thofe who WGuld be acquainted with this fubjecl,
e^'*/jf y^OTf. fhould begin by confidcring on what principle fmoke
rican Phik- af^ends in any chimney. At firlt many are apt to think
that fmoke is in its nature, and of itfelf, fpecifically
lighter than air, and rifes in it for the fame re'afon that
■cork rifes in water. Thefe fee no caufe why fmoke
(hnuld not rife in the chimney though the room be ever
fo clofe. Others think there is a power in chimneys to
draiu up the fmoke, and that there are different forms
©f chimneys which afford more or lefs of this power.
Thefe amufe themfelves with fearching for the beillorm.
The equal dimenfions of a funnel in its whole length is
not thought artificial enough, and it is made, for fancied
reafons, fometimes tapering and narrowing from below
upwards, and fometimes the contrary, &c. &c. A
fimple experiment or two may ferve to give more cor-
reft ideas. Having lighted a pipe of tobacco, plunqe the
Aem to the bottom of a decanter half filled with cold
water; then putting a rag over the bowl, blow through
It, and make the fmoke defcend in the flem of the pipe,
from the end of which it will rife in bubbles through
the water ; and being thus cooled, will not afterwards
rife to go out through the neck of the decanter, but re-
main fpreading itfelf and refting on the furface of the
water. This fhows that fmoke is really heavier than
air, and that it i-s carried upwards only when attached
to or afted upon by air that is heated, and thereby ra-
refied and rendered fpecifically lighter than the air in
its neighbourhood.
Smoke being rarely feen but in company with heat-
ed air, and its upward motion being vifible, though that
of the rarefied air that drives it is not fo, Iras naturally
given rife to the error. It is now well knovsm that air
is a fluid which has weight as well as others, though
about 800 times lighter than water ; that heat makes
the particles of air recede from each other, and take up
more fpace, fo that the fame weight of air heated will
have more bulk than equal weights of cold air which
may furround it, and in that cafe muft rife, being forced
upwards by fuch colder and heavier air, which prefTes
to get under it and take its place. Th^t air is fo ra-
refied or expanded by heat, may be proved to their cora-
prehenfion by a lank blown bladder, which laid before
a fire, will Coon fwdl, grow tight, and burft.
Another experiment may be to tak€ a glafs tube
ccccl'xxi '"^^ diameter, and T2 incbes long, open at
fig.x. both ends, and fixed upright on legs fo that it need n<3t
At the end
of a quill fallen five or fix inches of the llnell light fila-
ment of filk, fo that it may be held either above the
upper end of the tube or under the lower end, your
warm hand being at a diftance by the length of the
quill. If there were any motion of air through the
tube, it would manifcil itfelf by its effeii on the filk ;
but if the tube and the air in it are of the .fame tempe-
rature with the furiounding air, there will be no fuch
motion, whatever may be the form of the tube, whether
crooked or ilraight, narro\=/ below and widening up-
wards, or the contrary, the air in it will be quiefcent.
Warm the tube, and you will find as long as it continues
warm, a conftant current of air entering below and paf-
fing up through it till difcharged at the top ; becaufe
the warmth of the tube being communicated to the air
it contains, rarefies that air, and makes it lighter thaa
the air without ; which therefore prefles in below, forces
it upwards, follows and takes its place, and is rarefied
in its turn. And, without warming the tube, if yoa
hold under it a knob of hot iron, the air thereby heat-
ed will rife and fill the tube, going out at its top ; and
this motion in the tube will continue as long as the
knob remains hot, becaufe the air entering the tube be-
low, is heated and rarefied by pafTing near and over tliat
knob.
That this motion is produced merely by the difference
of fpecific gravity between the fluid within and that
without the tube, and not by any fancied form of the
tube itfelf, may appear by plunging it into water con-
tained in a glafs jar a foot deep, through which fuch
motion might be feen. The water within and without
the tube being of the fame fpecific gravity, balance
each other, and both remain at reft. ]3ut take out tlie
tube, flop its bottom with a finger, and fill it with olive
oil, which^ is lighter than water ; then flopping the
top, place it as before, its lower end under water, its
top a very little above. As long as you keep the bot-
tom flopped the fluids remain at reft ; but the moment
it is unftopt, the heavier enters below, forces up the
lighter, and takes its place : and the motion then,
ceafes, merely becaufe the new fluid cannot be fuccef-
flvely made lighter, as air may be by a warm tube.
In faA, no form of the funnel of a chimney has any
fliare in its operation or effedl refpedting fmoice except
its height, 'i he longer the funnel, if ereft, the greater
its force when filled with heated and rarefied air to
draw in below and drive up the fmoke, if one may, in,
compliance with cuftom, ufe the exprelflon draiv, when
in fa6l it is the fuperior weight of the furrounding at-
mofpherc that prefles to enter the funnel below, and fo
drives up before it the fmoke and warm air it meets
with in its paffage.
What is it then which makes a fmoky chimney, that
is, a chimney which, inftead of conveying up all the
fmoke, difcharges a part of it into the room, offending
the eyes and damaging the furniture ?
The caufes of this effeft may be reduced to nine, dif-
fering from each other, and therefore requiring different
remedies.
1. Smoky chimneys in a neiv houfe are fuch frequently
from mere want of air. The workmanfhip of the rooms
being all good, and juft out of the workman's hands, the
joints of the boards of the flooring, and of the pannels
of wainfcotting, are all true and ti^ht ; the more fo as
tla.
S M O
[ 549 J
S M O
the walls, perhaps not yet thoroughly dry, preferve a
dampnefs in the air of the roona which keeps the wood-
work fwelkd and clofe. The doors and the fafhes too,
being worked with truth, fhut with exadlnefs, fo that
the room is as tight as a fnufF-box, no paffage being
left open for air to enter except the key-hole, and even
that is fometimes covered by a httle dropping fhutter.
Now if fmoke cannot rife but as conneAed with rare-
fied air, and a column of fuch air, fappofe it filling the
funnel, cannot rife unlefs other air be admitted to fup-
ply its place ; and if therefore no current of air enter
the opening of the chimney — there is nothing to prevent
the fmoke from coming out into the room. If the motion
upwards of the air in a chimney that is freely fupplied
be obferved by the rifing of the fmoke or a feather in
it, and it be confidered that in the time fuch feather
takes in rifing from the fire to the top of the chimney,
a column of air equal to the content of the funnel mull
be difcharged, and an equal quantity fupplied from the
room below, it will appear abfoluiely impoflible that
this operation Ihould go on if the tight room_ is kept
{hut ; for were there any force capable of drawing con-
ilantly fo much air out of it, it miift foon be exhaufted
like the receiver of an airrpump, and no animal could
live in it. Thofe therefore who ftop every crevice in a
room to prevent the admiflion of frefh air, and yet would
have their chimney carry up the fmoke, require incon-
iiilencies, and expe£l impoffibilities. Yet under this fi-
tuation it is not uncommon to fee the owner of a new
houfe in defpair, and ready to fell it for m.uch lefs than
it colt ; conceiving it. uninhabitable becaufe not a chim-
ney in any one of its rooms will cany off the fmoke
unlefs a door or window be left open. Much ex-
pence has alfo been made to alter and amend new chim-
neys which had really no fault : in one houfe particu-
larly which Dr FrankHn knew that belonged to a no-
bleman in Weftminfter, that expence amounted to no
lefs than L. 300, after his houfe had been, as he thought,
finifhed and all charges paid. And after all, feveral of
the alterations were ineffedual, for want of underftand-
ing the true principles.
Remedies. When you find on trial that opening the
door or a window enables the chimney to carry up all
the fmoke, you may be fure that want of air from witli-
out was the caufe of its fmoking. " I fay from iviih-
cut (adds Dr p-ranklin), to guard you agalnft a com-
mon miftake of thofe who may tell you the room is
large, contains abundance ©f air fufficient to fupply any
chimney, and therefore it cannot be that the chimney
wants air. Thefe reafoners are ignorant that the large-
nefs of a room, if right, is in this cafe of fmall im.port-
ance, fince it cannot part with a chimney full of its air
without occafioning fo much vacuum ; which it requires
a great force to effeft, and could not be borne if ef-
feaed."
It appearing plainly then, that fome of the outward
air mult be admitted, the queftion will be, how much i»
abfolutely nec-eC'ary ? for you would avoid admitting
more, as being contrary to one of your intentions in
having a fire, viz. that of warming your. room. To
difcover this quantity, fhut the door gradually while a
middling fire is burning, till you find that before it is
quite fluit the fmoke begins to come out into the room ;
then open it a little till you perceive the fmoke comes
out no longer. Tfacrc hold the door, and obferve the
width of the open crevice between the edge of the door
and the rabbet it fhould fiiut into. Suppofe the di-
ftancc to be half an inch, and the door eight feet high;
you find thence that your room requires an entrance
for air equal in area to 96 half inches, or 48 fquarc
inches, or a paffage of 6 inches by 8. This, however,
is a large fuppofition ; there being few chimneys that,
having a moderate opening and a tolerable height of
funnel, will not be fatisfied with fuch a crevice of a
quarter of an inch : ."Dr Franklin found a fquare of 6
by 6, or 36 fquare inches, to be a pretty good medium
that will ferve for moft chimneys. High funnels with
fmall and low openings may indeed be fupplied through
a lefs fpace ; becaufe, for reafons that will appear here-
after, the force of levity, if one may fo fpeak, being
greater in fuch funnels, the cool air enters the room
with greater velocity, and confequently more enters ia
the fame time. This, however, has its limits ; for ex-
perience Ihows, that no increafed velocity fo occafioned'
has made the admiffion of air through the key- hole
equal in quantity to that through an open door, though
through the door the current moves flowly, and through
the key-hole with great rapidity.
It remains then to be confidered, how and where
this neceffary quantity of air from without is to be ad-
mitted fo as to be leall inconvenient : for if at the door^.
left fo much open, the air thence proceeds direftly to-
thc chimney, and in its way comes cold to your back
and heels as you fit before your fire. If you keep the
door fhut, and raife a little the fafh of your window,
you feel the fame inconveRience. Various have been
the contrivances to avoid this ; fuch as bringing in frelh
air through pipes in the jams of the chimney, which
pointing upwards fhould blow the fmoke up the funnel^
©pening pafiages into the funnel above, to let in air for
the fame purpofe. But thefe produce an effeft con-
trary to that intended : for as it is the conftant current
of air pafSng from the room through the opening of
the chimney into the fvmnel which prevents the fmoke
from coming out into' the room, it you fupply the funnel
by other means or in other ways with the air which it
wants, and efpeeially if that air be cold, you dimlnifh the
force of that current, and the fmoke in its efforts to en-
ter the room finds lefs refiiiance.
'J he wanted air muft then indlfpenfably be admitted:
into the room, to fupply what goes OiF thrt)ugh the
opening of the chimney. M. Ganger, a very ingenious
and intelligent French writer on the fubje<?t, propofes
with judgment to admit it above the opening of the
chimney ; and to prevent ineonvenisnce from its cold-
nefs, he dlrefts that it may be fo made, that it IhaU
pafs in its entrance through winding cavities made be-
hind the iron b-ack and fides of the fire-place, and un-
der the iron hearth-plate ; in which cavities it will be
warmed, and even heated, fo as to contribute much, in-
ftead of cooling, to the warming of the room. This
invention ia excellent in itfelf, and may be ufed with;
advantage in building new houfes ; becaufe the chim-
neys may then be fo difpofed as to admit conveniently
the cold air to enter fudi paffages : but in houfes built
without fuch views, the chimneys are often fo fituated
as not to afford that convenience without great and ex-
penfive alterations. Eafy and cheap methods, though
not quite fo perfeft in themfelves, are of more general,
utility ; andliich are the following.
In-,
Smokes
S M O [ 55c
SmoVte. In all rooms where there is a fire, the body- of air
' warmed and rarefied before the chimney is continually
* changing place, and making room 'Oi- other air that is
to be warmed in its turn. Part c;f it enters and gees
up the chimney, and the reft rifes and takes place near
the ceiling. If the room be lofty, that warm air re-
HiaiijS above our heads as long as it continues warm,
and we are little benefited by it, becaufe it does not
defcend till it is cooler. Few can imagine the difference
of climate between the upper and lower parts of fuch ^
room, who have not tried it by tlie thermometer, or b"^
going up a ladder till their heads are iiear the ceiling.\
It is then among this warm air that the wanted quan-'i
tity of outward air is beft admitted, with which beinsf
mixed, its coldnefs is abated, and its inconvenience di-
minifhed fo as to become fcarce obfervable. This may
be eafily done by drawing down about an inch the upper
fafh of a window^ ; or, if not moveable, by cutting fuch
a crevice through its frame ; in both which cales it will
be well to place a thin flielf of the length to conceal
the opening, and floping upwards, to direft the entering
air horizontally along and under the ceiling. In fome
houfes the air may be admitted by fuch a crevice made
in the wainfcot, cornice, or plallering, near the ceiling
and over the opening of the chimney. This, if pra6ti-
cable, is to be chofen, becaufe the entering cold air
will there meet with the warmeft rifmg air from before
the fire, and be fooneft tempered by the mixture. The
Fig. 4. fame kind of flielf fhould alfo be placed here. Anotlier
way, and not a very difficult one, is to take out an up-
per pane of glafs in one of your fafhes, fet it in a tin
frame, giving it two ipringing angular fides, and then
replacing it, with hinges below on which it may be
turned to open more or lefs above. It?|?ill then have
the appearance of an internal flcy-light." By drawing
this pane in, more or lefs, you may admit what air you
find neceflary. Its pofition will naturally tlmow that
air up and along the ceiling. This is what is called in •
France a Was iji das ? As this is a German queftion,
the invention is probably of that nation, and takes its
name from the frequent aficiq]^ of that queftion iivhen it
firft appeared. In England fome have of late years
cut a round hole about five inches diameter in a pane
of the fafli and placed againft it a circular plate of tin
hung on an axis, and cut into vanes; which, being fepa-
rately bent a little obliquely, are afted upon by the en-
tering air, fo as to force the plate continually round
like the vanes of a windmill. I bis admits the outward
air, and by the continual whirling of the vanes, does
in fome degree difperfe it. The noife only is a little
inconvenient.
2. A fecond caufe of the fmoking of chimneys Is,
their openings in the room being too large ; that is, too
wide, t6o high, or both. Architefts in general have nd
other ideas of proportion in the opening of a chimney
than what relate to fymmetry and beauty refpefting
the dimenfions of the room ; while its true proportion
refpedling its funftion and utility depends on quite
other principles; and they might as properly propor-
tion the ftep in a ftaircafe to the height of the flory,
inftead of the natural elevation of mens legs in mount-
ing. The proportion then to be regarded, is what re-
lates to the height of the funnel. For as the funnels
in the different ftories of a houfe are neceffarily of dif-
ferent heights or lengths, that from the loweft floor be-
I 1 S M O
ing the higheft or longeft, and thofe of the otlier floors Smo
fliorter and fi^orter, till we we come to thofe in the
garrets, which are of courfe tb^ fiiortelt ; and the force
ot draft being, as already faid, in proportion to the
height of funnel filled with rarefied air, and a current
of air from the room into the chimney, fufficient to fill
the opening, being neceffary to oppofe and prevent the
fmoke from coming out into the room ; it follows, that the
openings of the longeft fimnels may be larger, and that
thofe of the fhorter funnels fliould be fraaller. For if
there be a large opening to a chimney that does not
drawftrongly, thefunnel m.ay happen to be funu'fhedwith
the air which it demands by a partial current entering on
one fide of the opening, and leaving the other fide free
ot any oppofing current, may permit the fmoke to iffue
there into the room. Much too of the force of draft
in a funnel depends on the degree of rarefaftion in the
air it contains, and that depends on the nearnefs to the
fire of its paffage in entering the funnel. If it can
enter far from the fire on each fide, or far above the
fire, in a wide or high opening, it receives little heat in
paffing by the fire, and the contents of the funnel are by
th Jfe nieans kfscifftrent in levity from the furrounding
atilmfphere, and its force in drawing confequently weak-
er. Hence if too large an opening be given to chim-
neys in upper rooms, thofe rooms will be fmoky : On
the other hand, if too fmail openings be given to chim-
neys in the lower r<)oms, the entering air operating too
diredly and vioknily on the fire, and afterwards ftrength-
ening the draft as it afccnda the funnel, will confume
the fuel too rapidly.
Remedy. A s different circumftanccs frequently mix
themfilves in thefe m.atters, it is difficult to give precifc
dimtnfions for the openings of all chimpeys. Our fa-
thers made them generally much too large : we have
leffened them ; but they arc often ftill of greater dimen-
fions than they fhould be, the human eye not being ea-
fily reconciled to fudden and great changes. If you
fufpeA that your chimney imokes from the too great
dimenfion of its opening, contradl it by placing move-
able boards fo as to lower and narrow it gradually
till you find the fm.oke no longer ilfues into the room.
The proportion fo found will be that which is proper
for that chimney, and you may employ the bricklayer
or mafon to reduce it accordingly. However, as in
building new houfes fomtthing mull be fometimes ha-
zarded, Br Franklin propofes to make the openings in
the lower rooms about 30 inches fquare and iS deep,
and thofe in the upper only i8 inches fquare and not
quite fo deep ; the intermediate ones diminifliing in pro*
portion as the height of the funnel is diminiflied. In the
larger openings, billets of two feet long, or half tkc com.-
mon length of cordwood, may be burnt conveniently ;
and for the fmaller, fuch wood may be fawed into
thirds. Where coals are the fuel, the grates will be
proportioned to the openings. The fame depth is
nearly neceffary to all,- the funnels being all made of a
fize proper to admit a chimney-fweeper. If in large
and elegant rooms cuftom or fancy fhould require the
appearance of a larger chimney, it may be formed of
ejipenfive marginal decorations, in marble, &c. But in
time perhaps, that which is fitteft in the nature of things
may come to be thought handfomeft.
3. Another caufe of fmoky chimneys is too Jbori a
funnel. This happens neceffarily in fome cafes, as where
S M O
• a clu'iTmey is requn-ed in a low bin'ldinT ; Tor, it the
funnel be raifed high above the roof, in order to tlrength-
en its draft, it is then in danger of being blown down,
and crufhing the roof in its fall.
Remerlles. Contrail the enduing of the chimney, fo
as to oblige all the entering p.ir to pafs through or veiy
near the fire ; whereby it will be more heated and rare-
fied, the funnel itfelf be more warmed, and its contents
have more of vvlnt may be called the force of levity, fo
as to rife llrongly and maintain a good draft at the
opening.
Or you may in fome cafes, to advantage, build addi-
tianal ftories over the low building, which will fupport
a high funnel.
If the low building be ufed as a kitchen, and a con-
traftion of the- opening therefore inconvenient, a hrj:e
one being neceffary, at leaft when there are great din-
ners, for the free management of fo many cooking uten-
fils ; in fuch cafe the bell expedient perhaps would be
to build two more funnels joining to the firft, and ha-
ving three moderate openings, one to each funnel, in-,
ilead of one large one. When there is occafion to ufe
but one, the other two may be kept fiiu^b-y flidiiig
plates, hereafter to be defcribed ; and-^^^j^oF all of
them may be ufed together when w^t^^Jphis will
indeed be an expence, but not an ufelefs one, fmce
cooks will work with more comfort, fee better tha..
a fmoky kitchen what they are about, your viftu
will be cleaner dreffed and not tafte of fmoke, as is
ten the cafe ; and to render the effcdl more certain, a
Hack of fftfee funnels may be fafely built higher above
the roof than a fingle funnel.
The cafe of too Ihort a funnel is more general than
would be irnagined, and often found where one would
not expeft it. ^ For it is not uncommon, in ill-contri-
ved buildings, inflead of having a fannel for each room
or fire-place, to bend and turn the funucl of an upper
room fo as to make it enter the fide of another funnel
that comts from below. By thefe means the tipper loom
funnel is made fhort of courfe, fince its len^Jth can only
be reckoned from the place where it enters the Wer
room funnel ; and that funnel is alfo fhortened by all
the diftance between the entrance of the fecond funnel
and the top of the Hack : for ail that part being readi-
ly fupplied with air through the fecond funnel, adds no
ftrenoth to the draft, efpecially as that air is cold when
there is no fire in the ftcond chimney. The only eafy
remedy here is, to keep the opening of that fuBnel ihut
in which there is no fire.
4. Another very common caufe of the fmokinp- of
chimneys is, their orerpowtrif-o one miother. For in-
llance, if there be two cliim.neys in one large room, and
you make fires in both of them, the doors and windows
clofe Huu', you will find that the greater and llronger fire
(hall overpower the weaker, from the funsel of wliith it
will draw air down to fupply its own demand; which air
defcending in the weaker funnel, will drive down its
Imoke, and force it into tl>c room. If, inllead of being
■in one room, the two chimneys are in two different rooms
communicating by a door, the cafe is the fame when-
ever that door is open. In a very tight houfe, a*
kitchen chunney on the lowell floor, when it had a
great fire in it, has been known to ovcrpov/er any
other chimney in the houfe, aod draw air and fmoke
I 55» 1
S M O
into Irs room as o^ten as the door communicating with An-\oki>,
the ftai cafe was opened. u-».-y-»p>
Rene /j;. Take care that every room have the means
of fupplying itfelf from without witli the air which ils
chimney may require, fo that no one of them may be
obliq-ed to borrow from another, nor under tlie neceffity
of lending. A variety of thefe means have been alrendv
defcribed.
5. Another caufe of fmoking is, whm thtops of clnm^
neys are commatuled by h'ighvr buddings ^ or hy a hill, fo
that the wind blowing over fuch eminences falls like
water ov ;r a dam, iometimes ahnoft perpendicularly on
the tops of the chimneys that lie in its way, and beats
down tfie fmoke contained in them.
Jo illullrate this, let A {fig. ^.) repiefent a fmall
building at the fide of a great rock B, and the wind
coming in the direaion CD ; when the current of air
comes to the point D, being hurried forward with irreat
velocity, it ge es a little forward, but foon defcends
downward, and gradually is refletled more and more in.
ward, as repreiented by the dotted lines EE, &c. fo
that, defcending downwards upon the top of the chim-
ney A, the fmoke is beat back again into the apart-
ments.
It is evident that houfes fituated near high hills or
thick woods will be in fome meafure expofed to the
e inconvenience ; but it is likewife plain, that if a
'ufe be fituated upon the flope of a lull (as at F,
g. 5.), it will not be in any danger of fmoke wheit
the wind blows towards that fide of the hill upon which
it is fituated; for the current of air cominir over the
houfe-top in the direftion GH, is immediately changed
by the flope ol the hill to the dircdion PIC, which
powerfully draws the fmoke upward from the top ox
the chimney. But it is alfo evident, that a houfe in
this fituation will be liable to fmoke when the wind
blows from the hill j for the current of air coming
downward in the diretlion CH, will her.t dov/nward
on the chimney F, and prevent the fmoke from afcerd^
ing with freedom. The effed will be nuich height-
ened if the doors and windows are cliiefly in the lowef-
moft fide of the houfe»
Remedy. That commonly applied to this c;afc is 3
turncap made of tin or plate iron, covering the chimney
above and on three fides, open on one fide, turning on
a fpindle ; and which being guided or governed by a
vane always prefer :s its back to the current. This
may be generally eftetlual, though not certain, as there
may be cafes in which it will not fuccced. Raifing
your funnels if pradicabie, fo as their tops may be hi rh-
er, or at leaft equal, with the commanding eminence^'is
more to be depended on. hut the turning cap, being
eafierand cheaper, fhould firft be tried. " If obliged to
build in fuch a fituation, I would choofe (fays Dr
Franklin) to place my doors on the fide next the hilL
and the backs of my chimneys on the farthefl fide ; for
then the column of air falling over the eminence, and of
courfe preffing on that below, and forqng it to enter
the dooss or 'was-ift.dasc6 on that fide, would tend to
balance the prefTure down the chimneys, and leave
the funnels more free ia the exercife of their func-
tions."
6. There is another cafe which is the reverfe of that
laH mentiooed. It is wh§re the commanding eminence
Sniol^e.
i'ig. 4.
S M O . [ 552 1
is farther from the whid than the chimney commanded.
To explain this a figure may be neceOary. Suppofe
then a building whofe fide AB happens to_ be exposed
to the v/ind, and forms a kind of dam apainil its pro-
prefs, Suppofe the wind blowing in the direction FE.
The air obilruaed by this dam or building AB will
like water prefs and fearch for paffages through it; but
finding none, it is beat back with violence, and ipreads
itfelf on every fide, as is reprefented by the curved
lines e, e, e, f, e, e. It will therefore force itfelf dov/n
the fm'all chimney C, in order to get through bv fome
door or window open on the other fide of the,buildm.f.
And if there be a fire in fuch chimney, its fraoke is of
courfe beat down, and fills the room.
Remedy. There is but one remedy, which is to raife
fuch a funnel higher than the roof, fupporting it if ne-
ceffary by iron bars. For a turncap in this cafe has no
effed,' the dammed up air prelTing down through It in
whatever pofition the wind may have placed its open-
ing.
'Dr Franklin mentions a city in which many houies
are rendered fmoky by this operation. For their kitch-
4:ns being built behind, and conneded by a paffage with
the houfes, and the tops of the kitchen-chimneys lower
than the tops of the houfes, the whole fide of a ftreec
when the wind blows againft its back forms fuch a dam
as above defcribed ; and the wind fo obftruftcd forces
down thofe kitchen-chimneys (efpecially when they
have but weak fires in them) to pafs through the paf-
faoe and houfe into the fireet. Kitchen chimneys fo
jormed and fituated have another inconvenience. In
fummer, if you open your upper room windows for
air, a light breeze blowing over your kitchen chimney
towards^ the houfe, though not ftrong enough to force
down its fmoke as aforefaid, is fiifficlent to waft it mto
your windows, and fill the rooms with It ; which, be-
fides the difagreeablenefs', damages your funiiture.
7. Chimneys, otherwife drawing well, are fometiiues
made to fmoke by the improper and inconvenient Jltuatim
of a door. When the door and chimney are on the
fame fide of the room, if the door being in the corner
is made to open againll the wall, which is common, as
being there, when open, more out of the way, it follows,
that when the door is only opened in part, a current of
air rufiiing in paffes along the wall into and acrofs the
opening of the chimney, and flirts fome of the fmoke
out into the room. This happens moxt certainly when
ihc door Is fliutting, for then the force of the current is
augmented, and becomes very inconvenient to thofe
who, warming themfelves by the tire, happen to fit in
its way.
remedies are obvious and eafy. t^ither put an
intervening fcreen from the wall round great part of
the fireplace ; or, which is perhaps preferable, fhift the
hinges- of your door, fo as it may open the other way,
and when open throw the air along the other wall.
8. A loom that has no fire In its chimney is fome-
times filled with fmoke which is received nt the top of its
funnel y and defcends into the room. Funnels without fires
have an effeft according to their degree of coldnefs or
^varmthon the air that happens to be contained In them.
'J 'he furrounding atmofphere is frequently changing its
tpmperature ; but ftacks of funnels covered from winds
and fun by the houfe. that contains them, retain a more
. cijusl temperature. If, after a warm feafon, the out-
S M O
ward -air fuddenly grows cold, the empty warm funnels Sn
begin to draw ll/ongly upward ; that is, they rarefy '
the air contained in them, which of courie rifes, cooler
air enters below to fupply its place, is rarefied in its
turn, and rifes ; and thi* operation continues till the .
funnel, grows cooler, or the outward air warmer, or
both, when the motion eeafes; On the other hand, if
after a cold feafon the outward air fuddenly grows warm
and of courfe lighter, the air contained in the cool fun-
nels being heavier defcends Iiito the room ; and the
warmer air which enters their tops being cooled in its
turn, and made heavier, continues to defcend ; and this
ooeration coes on till the funnels are warmed by the
pafling of wann air thro' them, or the air itfelf grow.'}
cooler^ When the temperature of the air and of the
funnels Is nearly equal, the difference of warmth in the
air between day and night is faOicIent to produce thefe
currents : the air will begin to afcend the i unnels as the
cool of the evening comes on, and this current will con-
tinue till perhaps nine or ten o'clock the next morning,
when it begins to hefitate ; and as the heat of the day
approaches, it fets downwards, and continues fo till to-
wards evening, when it again hefitates for forne time,
and then goes upwards conftantly during the night, as
before mentioned. Now when fmoke ifliilng from the
tops of neighbouring funnels pafles over the tops of fun-
nels vv'hich are at the time drawing downwards, as they
often are in the middle part of the day, fuch fmoke is
of necefTity drawn into thefe funnels, and defcends with
the air into the chamber.
The remedy is to have a Hiding plate that will fliut
perfeftly the offending funn(^. Dr Franklin has thus
defcribecl it : *' The opening of the cliimney Is cou-
traSied by brick-work faced with marble flaba to about
tw6feet between the jams, and the bread brought down
to within about three feet of the hearth. An iron
frame is placed jufi under the breall, and extending
quite to the back of the chimney, fo that a plate of the
fame metal may Aide herizontally backwards and for-
wards in the grooves on each fide of the frame. Thrs
plate Is juil fo large as to fill the whole fpace, and fhut
the chimney entirely when thrult quite in, which Is con-
venient when there is no fire. Draw it out, fo as to^
leave between its further edge and the back a fpace of
about two inches ; this fpace is fufficient for the fmoke
to pafs ; and fo large a part of the funnel being ftopt
by the reft of the olate, the paffage of warm air out of
the room, up the chimney, Is obftrufted aud retarded ;
and by thofe means much cold air is prevented from co-
ming in through crevices, to fupply its place. This et-
fcft is made manifeft three ways. i. Wiien the fire
burns brilkly in cold weather, the howling or whilf ling
nolfe made by the wind, as It enters the room through
the crevices, when the chimney is open as ufual, ceafes
as foon as the plate is Aid in to its proper diltance.
2. Opening the door of the room about half an inch,
and holding your hand againil: the opening, near the
top of the door, you feel the cold air coming in againft
your hand, but weakly, if the plate be in. Let another
perfon fuddenly draw It out, fo as to let the air of the
room go up the chimney, with its ufual freedom where
chimneys are open, and you Immediately feel the cold
air rufhing in ifrongly. 3. If Jomething be fet againfl
the door, jull fufficient, when the plate is in, to keep
the door nearly fimt, by lefilllcg the preffure ot the
air
S M O
[ 553 1
S M O
air that would force it open ; then, when the plate is
drawn out, the door will be forced open by the in-
creafed preffure of the outward cold air endeavouring
to set in to fupply the place oF the warm air that now
paffes out of the room to go up the chimney. In our
common open chimneys, half the fuel Is wafted, and its
£ffea loft ; the air it has warmed being immediately
.drawn oif." „ , i,
9. Chimneys which generally draw well, do neverthe-
lefs fometimes give fmoke Into the rooms, it being driven
down by Jlrong ivrnds faffing over the tops of their funnels^
though not defcending from any commanding eminence.
This cafe is moft frequent where the funnebs Ihort and
the opening turned from the wind. It is the more
grievous, when it happens to be a cold wind that pro-
duces the effed, becaufe when you moft want your fire
you are fometimes obhged to extlnguifh it. To un-
derftand this. It may be confidcred that the rifing light
air, to obtain a free iffue from the funnel, muft pufh out
of its way or oblige the air that is over It to rife. In
a time of calm or of little wind this is done vifibly ;
for we fee the fmoke that is brought up by that air
rife in a column above the chimney : but when a vio-
lent current of air, that is, a ftrong wind, paffes over
the top of a chimney, its particles have received fo much
force, which keeps them in a horizontal dlreftion and
follow each other fo rapidly, that the rifing light air
hastiot ftrength fufRcIent to oblige them to quit that
direftion and move upwards to permit its iffue.
Remedies. In Venice, the cuftom is to open or widen
the top of the flue rounding it in the true form of a fun-
nel. In other places the contrary is praftlfed ; the
tops of the flues being narrowed Inwards, fo as to>form
a (lit tor the iffue of the fmoke, long as the breadth of
the funnel, and only four inches wide. This feems to
have been contrived on a fuppofitlon that the entry of
the wind would thereby be obftrufted. and perhaps it
might have been imagined, that the whole force of the
rifing warm air being condenfed, as it were, in the nar-
row opening, would thereby be ftrengthened, fo as to
overcome the refiftance of the wind. This, however,
did not always fucceed ; for when the wind was at
north-eaft and blew frefti, the fmoke was forced down
by fits into the room where Dr Franklin commonly fat,
fo as to oblige him to fhift the fire into another. The
pofition of the flit of this funnel was indeed north-eaft
and fouth-weft. Perhaps if it had lain acrofs the wind,
' the effed might have been different. But on this we
can give no certainty. It feems a matter proper to be
referred to experiment. PofTibly a turncap might have
been ferviceable, but It was not tried.
With all the fcicnce, however, that a man fliall fup-
pofe hlmfelfpoffefled of in this article, he may fometimes
meet with cafes that fliall puzzle him. " I once lodged
(fays Dr Frankhn) in a houfe at London, which in a
little room had a fmgle chimney and funnel. The open-
ing was very fmall, yet it did not keep in the fmoke,
and all attempts to have a fire in this room were fruit-
lefs. 1 could not imagine the reafon, till at length ob-
fervlng that the chamber over it, which had no tireplace
in it, was always filled with fmoke when a fire was kin-
died below, and that the fmoke came through the cracks
and crevices of the wainfcot ; I had the walnfcot taken
down, and difcovered that the funnel which went up
behind it had a crack many feet in length, and wide
Vol. XVII. Part II.
enough to admit my arm ; a breach very dangerous with
regard to fire, and occafioned probably by an apparent
Irregular fettling of one fide of the houfe. Tlie air en-
tering this breech freely, deftroyed the drawing force of
the funnel. The remedy would have been, filling up
the breach, or rather rebuilding the funnel : but the
landlord rather chofe to ftop up the chimney.
" Another puzzling cafe I met with at a friend's
country houfe near London. His beft room had a
chimney in which, he told me, he never could have a
fire, for all the fmoke came out into the room. I flat-
tered myfelf I could eafily find the caufe and prefciibe
the cure. I had a fire made there, and found it as he
faid. I opened the door, and perceived It w^as not
want of air. I made a temporary contraftlon of the
opening of the chimney, and found that it was not its
being too large that caufed the fmoke to iffue. I went
out and looked up at the top of the chimney : Its fun-
nel was joined In the fame ftack with others ; fome of
them fliorter, that drew very well, and I faw nothing to
prevent its doing the fame. In fine, after every other
examination I could think of, I wa-s obliged to own the
InfufRcIency of my flcIU. But my friend, who made no
pretenfion to fuch kind of knowledge, afterwards difco-
vered the caufe himfelf. He got to the top of the fun-
nel by a ladder, and looking down found it filled with
twigs and ftraw cemented by earth and Uned with fea-
thers. It feems the houfe, after being built, had ftood
empty fome years before he occupied it ; and he con-
cluded that fome large birds had taken the advantage of
its retired fituation to make their neft there. The rub-
bifh, confiderable In quantity, being removed, and the
funnel cleared, the chimney drew well, and gave fatis-
fadlon."
Chimneys whofe funnels go up in the north wall of
a houfe, and are expofed to the north winds, are not fo
apt to draw well as thofe in a fouth wall ; becaufe when
rendered cold by thofe winds, they draw downwards.
Chimneys indofed in the body of a houfe are better
than thofe whofe funnels are expofed in cold walls.
. Chimneys in ftacks are apt to draw better than fepa-
ratc funnels, becaufe the funnels that have conftant fires
in them warm the others in fome degree that have
none.
SMOKE-Jack. This ingenious machine Is of German
extraction ; and Mefllnger, in his GolleSion of Mechani-
cal Performances, fays it Is very ancient, being repre-
fented in a painting at "Nurenbergh, which is known to
be older than the year 1350.
Its conftrualon is abundantly fimple. An upright
iron fpindle GA (fig. -S-)' P^^'^^'^ ^" narrow part
of the khchen chimney, turns round on two pivots H
and T. '1 he upper one H paffes through an iron bar,
which is built in acrofs the chimney ; and the lower pi-
vot I is of tempered fteel, and is conical or pointed,
refting in a conical bell-metal focket fixed on another
crofs bar. On the upper end of the fpindle is a circu-
lar fly G, confifting of 4, 6, 8, or more thin iron plates,
fet obliquely on the fpindle hke the fails of a windmill,
as we ftiall defcribe more particularly by and by. Near
the lower end of the fpindle is a pinion A, which works
in the teeth of a contrate or face wheel B, turning on a
horizontal axis BC. One pivot of this axis turns in a
cock fixed on the crofs bar, which fupports the lower
end'-of the. upright fpindle HI, and the other pivot
4 A turns
PTate
CCCCLXXI.
S M O
turns m a cock fixed on the fide wall of the chimney;
To that this axle I's parallel to the front of the chimney!
On the remote en J of this horizontal axle there is a
imall pulley C, having a deep angular ;?roovc. Over
this p-ulley there pafTes a chain CDE, in the lower bi^ht
of which hano-s t!ie larce pulley E of the fpit. This
end ot th-i rpit turns loofely between the branches of the
fork of the rack or. raxe F, but without reftin r on it.
This is on the top cfa moveable fland, which'can be
fhifted nearer to or farther from the fire. The other
twd turns in one of the notches of another rack. The
nnmbtr of teeth in the pinion A and wheel B, and the
diameters of the puIL-ys C and E, are fo proportioned
that the fly G makes from 12 to 20 turns for one turn
of the fpit.
The manner of opcatio- of this ufeful machine is
eafily underftood. The air which contributes to the
burning of the fuel, and pafies through the midft of it,
is oreatly_he?.ted, and expanding prodigioufly in bulk,
becomes lighter than tlie neighbouring air, and is there-
fore puihed by it up the chimney. In like raaaner, all
the air which comes near the fire is heated, expanded,
becomes ligiiter, and is driven up tlse chimney. This
is called the draught or fuaion, but would with greater
propriety be termed the drift of the chimney. As the
chimney Gradually contraa? in its dimenfions, and as
the fame quantity of heated air palTes through every
feftion of it, it is plain that the rapidity of its afcent
muft be greateil in the narroweft place. There the fly
G fliould be placed, becaufe it will there be expofed to
the llrongefl current. This air, flriking the fly vanes
obliquely, pufhes them afide, and thus turns them round
with a confiderable force. If the joint of meat is ex-
aaiy balanced on the fpit, it is plain that the only re-
finance to the motion of the fly is what arifes from the
fn'ftion of the pivots of the upright fpindle, the friaion
of the pinion and wheel, the fridion of the pivots of
th'e horizontal axis, the fridion of the fmall end of the
fpit, and the friction of tbe chain in the two pulleys.
The v/hole of this is but a mere trifle. Bat there is fre-
iqiiently a confiderable inequality in the weight of the
meat on different fides of the fpit : there muft there-
fcjre be a firfficicnt overplus of force In the impulfe of
the afcending air on the vanes of the fly, to over-
come this want of equilibrium occafioned by the unfkil-
fiilnefs or negligence of the cook. There is, how-
lever, commonly enough of power when the machine 33
properly conftruaed. The utility of this machine will,
we hope, procure us the indulgence of fome of our
readers, while we point out the circumfl:ances on which
its performance depends, and the maxims which ftould
ise follgwed in its confliruaion.
The upward current of air is the moving power, and
ftould be increafed as much as pcifTible, and applied in
r 554 ]
S M O
Every thing will in-
the moil advantageous manner j ^
creafe the current which improves the draught of the
chimney, and feeures it from fmoking. A fmoky chim-
ney mull always have a weak current. For this parti-
cular, therefore, we refer to vvhat has been delivered in
the article Pneumatics, 359 ; and in the article
Smoke.
With refpea to the manner of applying this force, it
is evident tlrat the befl: conftruaion of a windmill fails
Avill be nearly the befl; confl:ruaion for the fly. Ac-
cording to the ufual theory of the impulfe of fluids,
the greateil efTeaive Impulfe (that Is, In the direftfon cf
the fly's motibn) will be produced if the plane of the
vane be inclined to the axis in an angle of 54 derrces
46 minutes. But, fmce we have pronounced this "the-
ory to be fo very defeaive, we had better take a deter-
mmation founded on the experiments on the impulfe of
fluids made by the academy of Paris. Thefe authorife
us to (ay, that 49 i. or 50 degrees will be the belt antde
to give the \^ne : but this muft be underftood only of
that part of it which Is clofe adjoining to the axis. The
vane itfelf muft be twifted, or wcathred as the mill-
Wrights term It, and muft be much more oblique at
Its outer extremity. The exaa polltion cannot be
determined with any preclfion ; becaufe this depends on
tlic proportion of the velocity of the vane to that of the
current of heattd air. This is fubjea to no rule, beino-
changed according to the load on the jack. We im^.
gine that an obliquity of 6 ? degrees for the outer ends
of the vanes^wHl be a good portion for the generality
of cafes. Meffn-iger defcribes an ingenious contrivance
for changing this angle at pleafure, in order to vary the
veloc'ty of the motion. Each vane is made to turn
round a midrib, which ftands out like a i-adius from the
fpindle, and the vane is moved by a ftltf wire attached to
one of the corners adjoining to the axle. Thefe wires
are attached to a ring which Aides on the fpindle like
the fpreader of an umbrella ; and it is ftopptd on any
part of the fpindle by a pin thruft through a hole in
the fpindle and ring. We mention this briefly, it be-
mg eafily underftood by any mechanic, and but of little
confequence, becaufe the machine is not fufceptible of
much precifion. ^
It is eafy to fee that an Increafe of the furface of the
vanes will increafe the power : therefore they Ihould oc-
cupy the whole fpace of the circle, and not confift of
four narrow arms like the fails of a windmill. It is bet-
ter to make many narrow vanes than a few broad ones*
as will appear plain to one well acquainted with the
mode of impulfe of fluids aaing obliquely. We recom-
mend 8 or 12 at leaft ; and each vane fliould be fo
broad, that when the whole Is held perpendicular be-
tween the eye and the light, no light fhall come through
the fly, the vanes overlapping each other a vcy fmall
matter. We alfo recommend the making them of ftiff
plate. Their weight contributes to the fteady motion,
and enables the fly, which has acquired a confiderable
-velocity during a favourable pofition of things, to retain
a momentum fufEcient to pull round the fpit while the
heavy fide of the meat is rifing from its lowcft pofition.
In fuch a fituation a light fly foon lofes its momentum^
and the jack ttaggers under its load.
It is plain, from what has been faid, that the fly
fliould occupy the whole of that fcaion of the vent
where it is placed. The vent muft therefore be brouoht
to a round form In that place, that none or the current
may pafs ufelefsly by it.
It is an important queftion where the fly fliould be
placed. If in a wide part of the vent, It will have a-
great furface, and aa by a long lever; but the current
in that place is flow, and its impulfe weak. This is a fit
fubjea of calculation. Suppofe that we have It in our
choice to place it either as it is drawn in the figure, or far-
ther up at g, where Its diameter muft be one half of whu
It 13 at G. Since the fame quantity of heated air paffes
through both fedtions, and the fedion g has only one-
four tli
Srno]
S M 0 [ J55 ] . ^ O . .
fourth of the area of the fe£lIon G, it is plain that the It is always of importance to avoid this flipping of Smikc-
. ait mull be movin,^ four times failer, and that its impulfe the chain by balancing the loaded (pit. For this pur- ^^^^l*^'"
is 1 6 times greater. But the furface on which it is aft- pofe it will be extremely convenieiit to have what is
h'^ is the fourth part of that of the fly G ; the actual called a balance-Jke'wer. Let a part of the fpit, imme-
impulfe therefore ia only four times greater, fuppofmij diately adjoining to the pulley, be made round, and let -
both flies to be moving with the fame relative velo- an arm be made to turn on it ftiffly, fo that it may be
city in refpeft of the current ; that is, the rim of made faft in any pofition by a fcrew. Let a leaden ball
each moving with the fame portion of the velocity of be made to Aide along this arm, with a fcrew to fallen
the current. This will be the cafe when the fmall it at any diftance from the fpit. When the meat is
fly turns eis^ht times as often in a minute as the large fpitted, lay it on the racks, and the heavieft fide will
fly: for the air is moving four times ns quick at immediately place itfelf undcrmoft. Now turn round
and the diameter of g is one-half of that of G. the balance-flcewer, fo that it may point ftraight up-
Therefore, when the fmall fly is turning eight times as wards, and make it fall in that pofition by the fcrew.
quick as the great one, there is a quadruple impulfe Put the leaden ball on it, and Aide it inwards or out-
aCling at half the diftance from the axis. The momen- wards till it exaftly balasces the heavy fide, which will
turn or energy therefore of the current is double. There- appear by the fpit's remaining in any pofition in which
fore, fuppofing the pinion, wheel, and pulleys of both it is put.
jacks to be the fame, the jack with the fmall fly, placed The greateft difficulty is to keep the machine in re-
in the narrow part or the vent, will be i6 times more pair. The moft confequeiJtial part of it, the firft rao-
powerful. ver, the fly, and the pinion and wheel, by which its mo-
By this example, more eafily underftood than a ge- tion is tranfmitted t9 the reft of the machine, are fitu-
neral procefs, it appears that it is of particular impor- ated in a place of difficult accefs, and where they are
tance to place the fly in an elevated part of the vent, expofed to violent heat and to the fmoke and foot. The
where the area may be much contraded. In order ftill whole weight of the fly, refting on the lower pivot I,
farther to increafe the power of the machine, it would muft exert a great preffiire there, and occafion great
be very proper to lengthen the fpinc^le ftill more, and fridllon, even when this pinion is reduced to the fmall-
to put anotlier fly on it at a confiderable diftance above eft fize that is compatible with the neceflary ftrength.
the firft, and a third above this, &c. The pivot muft be of hardened fteel, tapered hke an ob-
As the velocity of the current changes by every tu4e cone, and muft turn in a conical focket, alfo of
change of the fire, the motion of this jack muft be very hardened fteel or of bell-mctal ; and this feat of preffure
unfteady. To render it as adjuftable as may be to the and fridion muft be continually fupplied with oil, which
particular purpofe of the cook, the pulley E has feveral it confumes very quickly. It is not fufficient that it
grooves of different diameters, and the fpit turns more be from time to time fmeared with an oiled feather ;
or lefs flowly, by the fame motion of the fly, according there muft be an iron cup formed round the focket,
as it hangs in the chain by a larger or fmaller pulley or and kept filled with oil. It is furprifing how quickly
groove. it difappears : it foon becomes clammy by evaporation,
Such is the conftrudion of the fmoke jack in its moft and by the foot which gathers about it. The continued
fimple form. Some are more artificial and complicated, rubbing of the pivot and focket wears them both very
having, in place of the pulleys and'connefting chain, a faft ; and this is increafed by hard powders, fuch as
fpindle coming down from the horizontal axis BG. On fandy duft, that are hurried up by the rapid current
the upper end of this fpindle is a horizontal contrate every time that the cook ftirs the fire. Thefe, getting
wheel, driven by a pinion in place of the pulley C. On between the rubbing parts, caufe them to grind and
the lower end is a pinion, driving a contrate wheel in wear each other prodigioufly. It is a great improve-
place of the pulley E. This conftruftion is reprefent- ment to invert thefe rubbing parts. Let the lower end
ed in fig. 6. Others are conftnided more fimply, in of the fpindle be of a confiderable thicknefs, and have a
the manner reprefented in fig. 7. But our firft con- conical hollow nicely drilled in its extremity. Let a
ilrudion has great advantage in point of fimplicity, blunt pointed conical pin rife up in the middle of the
j!.nd allows a more eafy adjuitment of the fpit, which oil-cup, on which the conical hollow of the fpindle may
may be brought neaier to the fire or removed farther reft. Here will be the fame fteady fupport, and the
from it without any trouble ; whereas, in the others, fame fridion as in the other way ; but no grinding
with a train of wheels and pinions, this cannot*ibe done duft can now lodge between the pivot and its fock-
v/ithout feveral changes of pins and fcrews. The only et : and if this upright pin be fcrewed up through
imperfedion of the pulley is, that by long ufe the the bottom of the cup, it may be fcrewed farther up in
grooves become flippery, and an ill balanced joint is apt proportion as it wears; and thus the upper pivot g
to hold back the fpit, while the chain Aides in the will never defert its hole, a thing which foon happens in
grooves. This may be completely prevented by ma- the common way. We can fay from experience, that a
king the grooves flat inftead of angular (which greatly jack conftruded in this way will not require the fifth
diminifhes the fridion), and furnifhing them with ftiort part ot the repairs ot one done in the other way.
fluds or pins which take into every third or fourth link It is of importance that the whole be fo put toge-
of the chain. If the chain be made of the fimpleft ther as to be eafily taken down, in order to fweep the
form, with flat links, and each link be made of an exad vent, or to be repaired, &c. For this purpofe, let the
length (making them all on a mould), the motion will crofs bar which carries the lower end of the uprii>ht
be as eafy as with any wheelwork, and without the fpindle be placed a little on one fide of the perpendicu-
kaft chance of flipping, lar line from the upper pivot hole. Let the cock which
4 A 2 . carries
S M O
[ 556 ]
S M O
Sn-.okc- carries the oil-cup and the pivot of the horizontal axis
Jijck fcrewed to one fide of this crofs bar, fo that the
Sniollet. centre of the cup may be exactly under the upper pivot
— Y— hole. By this conlliwftion we have only to unfcrew
this cock, and then both axles come out of their places
at once, and may be replaced without any trouble. We
have flcetched i-n fio. 8. the manner in which this may
be done, v/here M reprefents a feftion of the lower
crofs bar. BCDE is the cock, fixed to the bar by the
pins which go throu;jh both, with finger nuts, a and b
on the oppofite fide. F / is the hard fteel pin with the
conical top on which the lower end I of the upright
fpindle AG refts, in the manner recommended as the
beft and the moft dm-able. The pivot of the horizon-
tal axis turns in a hole at E the top of the cock.
After all, we muft acknowledge that the fmoke jack
18 inferior to the common jack that is moved by a
weight. It is more expenfive at firft, and requires
more frequent repairs ; its motion is not fo much un-
der command ; it occafions foot to be thrown about
the fire, to the great annoyance of the cook ; and it is
a great encumbrance when we would clean the vent.
SMOKE-Fnrtk'wgs. i he pentecoftals or cullomary
oblations offered by the difperfed inhabitants within a
diocefe when they made their proceffion to ,the mother
or cathedral church, came by degrees into a {landing an-
nual rent called Jmoke- far things.
SMOKE-Siher. Lands were holden in fome places by
the payment of the fum of 6 d. yearly to the fheriff,
c^YioA. fmokc-fiher (Par. 4. Edw. VI.} Smoke-filver
and fmoke-penny are to be paid to the minifters ot di-
vers parilhes as a modus in lieu of tithe-wood : and in
fome manors formerly belonging to religious houfes,
there is itill paid, as appendant to the faid manors, the
ancient Peter-pence, by the name of fmoke ■money (Ttvlfd.
H'lft. Vindicat. 77.) — The bifhop of London anno I444
iffued out his commifiion, /evandum le fmoke-far-
things, &c.
SMOLENSKO, a large and ftrong city of Ruffia,
and capital of a palatinate of the fame name, with a
caftle feated on a mountain, and a bilhop's fee. It is
llrong by its fituation, being in the middle of a wood,
and furrounded by almofl. inacceflible mountains. It has
been taken and retaken feveral times by the Poles and
Ruffians ; but thefe lail have had poffeflion of it ever
fince the year 1687. It is feated on the river Nieper,
near the frontiers of Lithuania, 188 miles fouth weft of
Mofcow. E. Long. 3 1 , 2 2. N. Lat. 54. 30.
Smolensko, a duchy and palatinate of Ruffia, bound
ed on the north by Biela, on the eaft by the duchy of
Mofcow, on the fouth by that of Severia and the pala-
tinate of Meiflaw, and on the weft by the fame palati-
nate and by that of Witeplk. It is full of forefts and
mountains : and the capital is of the fame name.
SMOLLET (Dr Tobias), an author whofe writings '
will tranfmit his name with honour to pofterity, was
born in the year 1720 at a fmall village within two
miles of Cameron, on the banks of the river Leven.
He appears to have receivtd a clalJical education, and
was bred to the practice of phyfic and furgery ; and in
the early part of his life ferved as a furgeon's mate in the
navy.
The incidents that befel him during his continuance
in this capacity ferved as a foundation for Roderic Ran-
dom, one of the mofl entertaining novels I'n the Engh'fTi S^iol'
tongue. He was prefent at the fiege of Carthagena ;
and in the before mentioned novel he has given a faith-
ful, though not very pleafing, account of the manage-
ment of that ill-condudled expedition, which he cenfures
in the warmeft terras, and from circumltances which
fell under his own particular obfervation.
His conneftion with the fea feems not to have been
of long continuance ; and it is probable that he wrote
feveral pieces before he became known to the public by
his capital produftions. The firft piece we know of
with certainty is a Satire in two parts, printed firft in
the years 1746 and 1747, and reprinted in a CoUeftion
of his Plays and Poems in 1777. About this period, or
fome time before, he wrote for Mr Rich an opera in-
titled Alcefte, which has never been performed nor
printed.
At the age of 18 he wrote a tragedy intitled The
Regicide, founded on the ftory of the aflaflination of
James I. of Scotland. In the preface to this piece,
publiflied by fubfcription in the year 1749, ^'t-
terly exclaimed againft falfe patrons, and the dupli-
city of theatrical managers. The warmth arid impetu-
ofity of his temper hurried him, on this occafion, into
unjuft reflfdfions againft the late George Lord Lyttle-
ton and Mr Garrick ; the charadler of the former he
charadferifed in the novel of Peregrine Pickle, and he
added a burlefque of the Monody written by that no-
bleman on the death of his lady. Againft Mr Garrick
he made illiberal ill-founded criticifms ; and in his novti
of Roderic Random gave a very unfair reprefentationt
of his treatment of him refpefting this tragedy. Of
this conduft he afterwards repented, and acknowledged
his errors ; though in the fubfequent editions of the no-
vel the paflages which were the hafty eff"ufions of difap-
pointment are not omitted.
However, in giving a ftcetch of the liberal arts in
his Hiftory of England, he afterwards remarked, *' the
exhibitions of the ftagc were improved to the moft ex-
quifite entertainment by the talents aiid management of
Garrick, who greatly furpafled all his predeceflbrs of
this and perhaps every other nation, in his genius for
afting, in the fweetnefs and variety of his tones, the ir-
refiftible magic of his eye, the fire and vivacity of his
aftion, the eloquence of attitude, and the whole pathos
of expr efiion.
" Candidates for literary fame appeared even in the
higher fphere of lite, embellifhed by the nervous fenft
and extenfive erudition of a Corke; by the delicate tafte,
the poliftied mufc, and the tender feelings, of a Lyttle-
ton." I
Not fatisfied with this public declaration, he wrote
an apology to Mr Garrick in ftill ftronger terms. With
thele ample conceffions, Mr Garrick was completely fa-
tisfied ; fo that in 1737, when Dr Smollet's comedy of
the Repriials, an afterpiece of two afts, was performed
at Drury Lane theatre, the latter acknowledged himfelf
highly obliged for the friendly care of Mr Ganick ex-
erted in preparing it for the ftage ; and ftill more for
hisaciing the part ot Lufignan in Zara for his benefit,
on the fixth inftead of the ninth night, to which he was
only intitled by the cuftom ot the theatre.
The Adventuresof Roderic Random,pubhftiedin 1748,
2 vols 1 2mo, a book which itill continues to have a mo^
extend ve
S M O r 557 1 S M O
CKtcnfive fale, firft eftabllHied the Doftor's repatation. but there h certainly a very obvious fimilitude between S^i;^
All the Lft^^^^^^^ and the beginning of the fecond ap- the charaaers of the three heroes of the Doaor^s clue —
tars to conlHl of real incidenf and charaaer, tho' cer- produaions. Roderic Randon., Peregr>ne P.ck e, and
Linlyagooddc lheightenedandcUfguifed. Thf Judge his Matthew liraruble, are a! brothers of the fame famdy
I a Kifa^ther, Crab and Potior, the two apothecaries, and The fame fatzncal cynical, d|^-pofiuon, the g- '
^Snmre Gawky, were charaaers well known in that rofity and benevolence are the- dilbn.uiflung and cha-
«.?t of the kingdom where the fcene was laid. Cap- raaeriftical features of all three ; but they are lar W
fains Oakhum and Whiffle, Doaors Mackfhane and being ferv.le copies or imitations f''^^^ ^J*^-
Morg-an, were alfo faid to be real perfona.oes ; but their differ as much as the Ajax Diomed, and Achilles of
iviui^m, _ ^ ^ r ^ ^ Homer, This was undoubtedly a great effort ot ge-
nius ; and the Doaor feems to have defcribed his own
charaaer at the different ftages and fituations of his
life.
Before he took a houfe at Chelfea, he attempted to
names we have either never learned or have now for
gotten. A bookbinder and barber long eagerly con-
tended for being fhadowcd under the name Strap.
The Doaor feems to have enjoyed a pecuhar felicity in
dcfcribirg fea-charaaers, particularly the officers and
failors of the navy. His Trunnion, Hatchway, and fettle as praaitioner of phyfic at Bath ; and with that
Pipes are highly finifhed originals ; but what exceeds view wrote a treatife on the waters ; but was uniuccets-
thL 'all, and pei^aps equals any charaaer that has yet ful, chiefly becaufe he could not render himfelf agree-
been painted by the liappieft genius of ancient or mo- able to the women, w^.ofe favour is certamly of great
L-n times, is his Lieutenant Bowling. This is indeed confequence to aU candidates for eminence, whether in
nature itfelf ; original, unigue, and> gf.erls. medicine or divinity. This, however, was ^ hu^ ex-
Bv the publication of this work the Doaor had ac- ttaord.nary ; for thofe who ren?embered Dr Smollet at
aulrcd fo great ^ reputation, that henceforth a certain that time, cannot but acknowledge that he w^as as grace-
deeree of fuccefs was infured to every thing known or ful and handfome ^ man as any of the age he lived in
fuipeaed to proceed from his hand. In the courfe of befides, there was a certain dignity in his air and man-
a L years, the Adventures of Peregrine Pickle ap- ner which conld not but infpire refpea wherever he ap-
peared a work of great inaenuity and contrivance in peared. Perhaps he was too foon d.fcouraged ; tn all
the con pofition, and in which an uncommon degree of probability, had he perfevered, a man of his great learn-
erudition is difplayed, particularly in the defcription of ing, profound fagacity, and intenfe application, befidea
the entertainment given by the Republican Doaor, af- being endued with every other external as well as inter-
ter the manner of "the ancients. Under this perfonage
the late Dr Akenfide, author of The Pleafiircs of Ima-
gination, is fuppofed to be typified ; and it would be
difficult to determine whether profound learning or ge-
nuine humour predominate moil in this epifode. An-
other epifode of The Adventures, of a Lady of Quality,
likewife inferted in this work, contributed greatly to Its
fuccefs, and is indeed admirably executed; the materials,
it is faid, the lady herfelf (the celebrated hdy Fane J
furnifhed. _ _ .
Thefe were not the only original compofitions of this
ftamp with which the Dodfor has favoured the public.
Ferdinand Count Fathom, and Sir Launcelot Greaves,
are ftill in the hft of what may be called reading novels,
and have gone through feveral editions ; but there is no
injuRice in placing them in a rank far below the former.
No doubt invention, charaaer, compofition, and con-
trivance, are to be found in both ; bi^ tite« -Situations
nal accomplifhment, mull have at laft fucceeded, and,
had he attained to common old age, been at the head of
his profeflion.
Abandoning phyfic altogether as a profeffion, he fix-
ed his reildence^at Chelfea, and turned his thoughts en-
tirely to writing. Yet, as an author, he was not near
fo fuccefsful as'his happy genius and acknowledged me-
rit certainly deferved. He never acquired a patron
among the great, who by his favour or beneficence re-
lieved him from the neceffity of writing for a fubiillence.
The truth is, Dr Smollet poffeffed a loftinefs and eleva-
tion of fentiment and charaaer which appears to have
difqualif^edhim for paying court to thofe who were ca-
pable of conferring favours. It would be wrong to call
this dUpofition pride or haughinefs ; for to his equals
and inferiors he was ever polite, friendly, and generous,
Bookfellers may therefore be faid to have been, his on-
ly patrons ; and from them he had conftant employ-
are defcribed which are hardly poffible, and charaaers ment in tranflatmg, cornpiling, and reviewing He
a e pa nted which, if not akogether unexampled, are at tranflated Gil Bias and Don Quixote, both fo happily,
reaftTcompatible with modL manners ; and which that all the former tranijat.ons ot thefe excellent pro-
oulh not to be, as the fcenes are kid in modern duaions of genms have been almoft fuperfeded by hi .
ougnt not u , ^.^ ^^^^^ hkewife appears to a tranflation of Voltaire's
Profe Works : but little of it was done by his own
hand ; he only revifed it, and added a fqw notes. He
was concerned in a great variety of compilations, Hi3
Hitlory of England was the principal work of that
kind. It had a m.otf extenfive iale ; and the Doaor is
faid to have received L. 2000 for writing it and the
continuation.
In 175'; he fet on foot the Critical Review, and
continued the principal manager of it till he wer.t abroad
for the firfl time in the year 1763, He was pcrhapa
too acrimonious fometimes in the condua of tliat work;
and at the fame time diiplayed too much fenfibility
when
times.
The 4afl work which we believe the Doaor publifhed
was of much the fame fpecies, but caft into a different
form — The Expedition of Humphrey CHnker. It con-
fifts of a feries of letters, written by different perfons to
their refpeaive correfpondents. He has here carefully
avoided the faults which may be juflly charged to his two
former produaions. Here are no- extravagant charac-
ters nor unnatural fituations. On the contrary, an ad-
mirable knowledge of life and manners is difplayed ;
and moft ufeful leffons are given apphcable to intereft-
ing but to very common fituations.
We know not whether the remark has been made,
■S:iTOiIct
S M O [5
J wlicn any of the iinfcrtvmate aiilhors attempted to re-
taliate whofe works he had perliaps juftly cenfured.
Among other coutroverfics in vvluch his enoaq-ementa
m this publication involved him, the moft material in
Its confequences was that occafioned by his remarks on
" pamj^,hlet publiflied by Admiral Knowles, That gen-
tleman, in defence of his condiid on the expedition to
Rochfort, publifhed a vindication of himfelf ; which fal-
ling under the Dolor's examination, produced fome
very fevere ftridures both on the performance and on
the charafter of the writer. The admiral immediately
commenced a profecution againtl the printer ; declarina-
at the fame time that he defired only to be informed
who the writer was, that if he proved to be a gentle,
man he might obtain the fatisfaftton of one from hira.
In this affair the Doftor behaved both with prudence
and with fpirit. Defirous of compromiiin^ the difpute
%vith the admiral in an amicable manner, he applied to
his friend Mr Wilkes to interpofe his good offices with
his opponent. The admiral, however, was inflexible ;
and jull as fentence was going to be pronounced againll
the printer, the Do6tor came into court, avowed him-
felf the author of the Striaures, and declared himfelf
ready to give Mr Knowles any fatisfaaion he chofe.
The admiral immediately commenced a frefh aftion
agaiiaft the Doftor, who was found guilty, fined L.ioo,
and condemned to three months imprifonment in
the KinjT's Bench. It is there he is faid to have
written The Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves, in
which he has defcribed fome remarkable charafters, then
. his fellow-prifoners.
^ When Lord Bute was called to the chief adminiftra-
tion of affairs, he was prevailed upon to write in defence
of that nobleman's meafures ; which he did in a weekly
paper called the Briton, 'f'hlg gave rife to the famous
North Briton; wherein, according to the opinion of
the public, he was rather bafHed, The truth is, the
Dodtor did not feem to poffefs the talents ncceflary for
pohtical altercation. He wanted temper and coolnefs ;
and his friends accufed his patron of having denied him
the neceffary information, and even neglefted the fulfil-
ling of fome of his other engagements with him. Be
that as it will, the Doftor is faid not to have forgotten
him in his fubfeqnent performances.
Befides the Briton, Dr SmoUtt is fuppofed to have
written other pieces in fupport of the caufe he efpou-
fcd. The Adventures of an Atom, in two volumee, are
known to be his produdlion.
His conftitution being at lail greatly impaired by a
fedcntary life and affiduous appHcation to ftudy, he
went abroad for his health in June 1763, and continued
in France and Italy two years. He wrote an account
of his travels in a feties of letters to fome friends, which
were afterwards publifhed in two volumes oftavo, 1766,
During all jhat time he appears to have laboured under
a conftant lit of chagrin. A very flight perufal of thele
letters will fufficiently evince that this obfervaUon is
founded in fad, and is indeed a melancholy inftance of
i\\t influence of bodily diftemper over the beft difpofi-
tion.
His relation of his travels is aftually cynical ; for
which Sttrne, in his Sentimental Journey, has animad-
verted on him under ihecharafter of Smelfungus. The
Doftor lived to return to his native country : but his
?8 ]
S M U
health continning to dpcline, and meeting with fre^h Sm
mortifications and difappointments, he went back to ^-^^"^
Italy, where he died in Oaober,2i, 1771. He was em-
ployed, duving the laft years of his life, in abridgins^
the Modern Univerfal Hiflory, great part of which he
had originally written himfelf, particularly the hifloriea
of France, Italy, and Germany.
He certainly met with many mortificationa and dif.
appointments ; whicli, in a letter to Mr Garrick, he
thus feelingly expreffes : <« I am old enough to have
feen and obfcrved, that we are all playthings of For-
tune ; and that it depends upon {omething as infignifi.
cant and precarious as the toffing up of a halfpenny,
whether a man rifes to affluence and honours, or conti.
nues to his dying day flrugghng with the difficultiea
and difgraces of life."
It would be needlefs to expatiate on the charafter of
a man fo well known as Dr Smollet, who has, befides,
given fo many flriaures of his own charader and man.
ner of living in his writings, particulariy in Hum^phrey
Clinker} where he appears under the appellation of
Mr Serie, and has an interview with Mr Bramble 5 and
his manner of living is defcribed in another letter, where
young Melford is fuppofed to dine with him at his houfe
in Chelfea. ^I^o doubt he made money by his connec*
tions with the bookfellers ; and had he been a rigid
economilf, or endued with the gift of retention (an ex'
preffion of his own), he might have lived and died very
independent. However, to do juftice to his memory,
his difficulties, whatever they were, proceeded not from
extravagance or want of economy. He was hofpitabk,
but not oftentatioufly fo ; and his table was plentiful,
but not extravagant. No doubt he had his failings ;
but flill it would be difficult to name a man who was
fo refpeftabk for the gualities of his head, or more ami.
able for the virtues of liis heart.
Since his death a monument has been ereaed to hia
memory near Leghorn, on which isinfcribedan epitaph
written in Latin by his friend Dr Armilrong, author
of 'J'he Art of Prelerving HeaUh, and many other ex-
cellent pieces. An iufcription written in Latin was
likewife iafcribed on a pillar ereaed to his memory ori
the banks of the Lcveu, by one of his relations.
To ihefe memoirs we are extremely forry to add,
that fo late as 1785 the widow of Dr Smollet was re.
fiding in indigent circumflances at Leghorn, On thia
account the tra^*edy of Venice Preferved was aaed for
her benefit at Edinburgh on the 5th of March, and an
excellent prologue fpoken on that occafion.
The pieces inferted in the pofthumous colkdion of
Dr SmoUet's plays and poems are, The Regicide, a
tragedy: The Reprifal, a comedy; Advice and Re,
proof, two fatires ; The Tears of Scotland } Verfes on
a Young Lady; a Love Elegy, in imitation of Tibullus;
two Songs; a Burlefquc Ode; Ode8 to Mirth, to
Sleep, to Levcn Water, to Blue-ey?d Ann, and to In<
dependence.
SMUGGLERS, perfons who import or export pro-
hibited goods without paying the duties appointed by
the law.
_ The duties of cuRoms, it is faid, were originally
ftituted, ill Older to enable the king to afford ptotec-
tion to trade againfl pirates ; they have fince been coa.
tinued as a branch of the public revemie. As duties
S M U [5
'■ impofcd upon the importation of p^oods ncceflkrily raiFes
thtir price above what they might otherwife have been
fold !or, a temptation is prefented to import the com-
modity clandcftiatly and to evade the duty. Many
perfor?, prompted by the hopes of (i^ain, and confider-
jncc the violation of a pofitive hnv of this nature as in no
refpedt criminal (an idea in which they have been en-
couraged by a prer-.t part of the community, who make
no Icruple to purchafe fmuaoled goods), have enoaged in
this illicit trade. It was impoffible that government
could permit this practice, which is highly injurious to
the fair trader, as the fmugolcr is enabled to underfell
him, while at the fame time he imipairs the national re-
venue, and thus wholly deilroys the end for which thefe
duties were appointed- Such penalties are there'ore in-
iii(3ed as it was thought would prevent fmuggllng.
Many laws have been made with this view. If any
' goods be fhipped or landed without warr?.nt and pre-
fence of an officer, the veffel fliall be forfeited, and the
wharfinger fliall forfeit I.. 100, ijnd th.e mailer or ma-
liner ot any fliip inward bound ftall forfeit the value of
thfe goods : and any carman, porter, or other afFddiHg,
fliall be committed »o gaol, till he find furety of tlic
good behaviour, or until he fhall be difcharged by the
court of exchequer ( 1 3 & 14 C. II. c 1 1 . ) If goods
be reliy^lcd after drawback, th.e veflel and goods fliall
be forfeited ; and every perfon concerned therein fhall
forfeit doul)le the value of the drawback (8 An. c. i^^.)
Goods taken in at fea iball be forfeited, and alfo the
veifel into vvl ich they are taken ; and every perfon con-
.•crned therein fhall forfeit treble valne (9 G. It. c.
A veffti hovering near the coaft fhall be forfeited, if
under 50 tons burden ; and the goods fhall alfo be for-
fiited, or the value thereof (5 G. III. c. 43.) Perfons
receiving or buying run goods fhall forfeit L. 20 (8 G.
c. 18.) A^ concealer of run goods fliall forfeit treble
value (8 G. c. 18.) Offering rim goods to fale, the
farr.e fhall be forfeited, and the perfon to whom they
are offered may feize them ; and the perfon ofltring
them to fale fliall forfeit treble value (11 G. c. 30,) A
■yorf^r or other perfon carrying run p,oods fhall forfeit
treble value (9 G. II. c. ^$.) Perfons armed or dif-
guifcd carrying run goods fhall be guilty of ftlony,
and tranfpoited for feven years (8 G. c. 18, 9 G. 11.
c- 35 )
But the laft ftatute, 19 G. II. c. 34. is for this pur-
pofe in/iar omnium ; for it makes all Forcible ails of
imugglin-,'-, carried on in defiance of the laws, or even
in difguife to evade them, felony without benefit of cler-
gy : enading, that if three or more perfons fhall af-
■femble, with fire-arms or other ofienfive weapons, to af-
fifl: in the illegal exportation or importation of goods,
or in refcuing the fame after feizure, or in refcuiug of-
fenders in cuflody for fuch offences ; or fliall pafs with
fuch goods in difguife ; or fhall wound, flioot at, or af-
fault, any officers ot the revenue when in the execution
of their duty ; fuch perfons fliall be felons, without the
benefit of clergy.
When we confider the nature, and ft:ill more the hi-
flory, of mankind, we muft allow that the enafting of
fevere penal laws is not the way to prevent crimes.' It
were indeed much to be wiflied that there were noJuch
•"ng as a political crim.e ; frr the generality of men,
uut cfpecially the lower orders, not difcerning the pro-
59 ]
S M Y
Sm-, rm
priety or utility of fucli l iw?, confider them as c ppi-ef- S.-'Ujoisrs
five and tyrannical, and never hefitate to violate thera
when they can do it whh ifnpunity, l!iP;ead therefore
of puiilfiiing fmuogitrF, it wonld be much better to re- Sm^ti/s
move the temptation. But the high duties which have ^'•^'^■^'ith cf
been impeded upon the importation of many different "''^''f''^?"'
forts of foreign goods, in order to difccurage their con-^"'""''
fumption in Great Britain, have in many cafes ferved
only to cncoura;;e fmugr;I!ng ; and in all cafes have re-
duced the revenue of the cultoms below what more mo.
derate duties would have afforded. 'J'he faying of Dr
Switt, that in the arithmetic of the cuftoms two and
two, iniUad of making !our, make fonietimes only one,
holds perfedly true with regard to fuch heavy duties,
which never coidd have been impofed, had not the m.er-
cantile fyftem taught us, in many cafes, to employ tax-
ation as an inilrument, not of revenue, but of mono-
The bounties which are fometlmes given upon the
exportation of home produce and manufa^f ures, and the
drawbacks which are paid upon the re-exportation of
tiie greater part of foreign goods, have given occafion
to many frauds, and to a^fpecies of fmuggling more de-
flrucfive of the public revenue than any other. In or-
der to obtain the bounty or drawback, the goods, it is
well known, are fometlmes fiiipped and fent to fea, but
foon afterwards clandeftincly rclanded in fomc other part
of the country.
Heavy duties being impofed upon almofl; all goods
imported, our merchant importers fmuggle as muchj
and make entry of as little as they can. Gur merchant-
exporters, on the contrary, make entry of more than
they export ; fometlmes out of vanity, and to pafs for
great dealers in go&ds wiiich pay no duty ; and fome-.
times to gain a bounty or a drawback. Our exportSj
in confequence of thefe different frauds, appear upon
the cuftotnhoufe books greatly to overbalance our im-
ports ; to the unfpeakable comfort of thofe politiciau'i
wdio meafure the national profperity by what they call
the balance of trade.
SMU P, in hufbandry, a difeafe in corn, when the
grains, inftead of being filled with flour, are full of a
flinking black powder. See Wa t at.
^ SjVIYRNA, or Ism I R, at prefent the largefl; and
richefl city of A fia Minor, is fittiated in north latitude
38° 28', and irt E. Long. 270 25' from Greenwich, and
about 183 miles weft by fouth of Conftantinople. The
town extends along the fhore about half a mile on a
gentle declivity. The houfes of the Englifli, French, ■
and Dutch confuls are handfome itrudlures; thefe, with
rnoft of thofe occupied by the Chrifbian merchants, are
waflied on one fide by the fea, forming a ftreet naiued
Frnnh-flreetf from its being folely inhabited by European
Chriftians. In the year 1763 the whole of this quarter
was confumed by fire : the lofs fuflaip.ed by this cala-
mity in merchandife was effimated at a million and a ■
half of Turkifli dollars, "or near L. 2co,ooo Sterling,
'I'he port is one of the fineft of the Levant, it being-
able to contain the largefl; fleet ; and indeed there are
feldom in it fewer than joo fliips of different nations. ■
A caftle ftands at its entrance, and commands all the Paym'',
flllpping which fail in or out. There is likewife an old Geogrn^b^,
ruinous caftle, near a mile in circumference, which flands
in the upper part of -the city, and, according to tradi-
5 tiou.
S M Y
r ]
SNA
Smyrna, tion, was built by the emprefs Helena: and near it is
" v'-— ^an ancient ftruflurc, faid to be the remains of a-palaoe
where the Greek council was held when Smyrna was
the metropolis of Afia Minor. They alfo fhow the
ruins of aa amphitheatre, where it is faid St Polycarp,
the firft bifhop, fought with lions.
This city is about four miles in circumference, and
nearly of a triangular form j but the fide next the
mountain is much longer than the other fides. The
houfes are low, and moftly built with clay-walls, on ac-
count of the earthquakes to which the country is fub-
je£l ; but the caravanferas and fome other of the public
buildings have an air of magnificence. ^ The ftreets are
wide, and almoft a continued bazar, in which a great
part of the merchandize of Europe and Afia is expofed
to fale, with plenty of provifions ; though thefe are not
fo cheap as in many other parts of Turkey, on account
of the populoufnefs of the place, and the great refort
of foreigners. It is faid to contain 15,000 Turks,
10,000 Greeks, 1800 Jews, 200 Armenians, and 200
Franks. The Turks have 19 mofques ; two_ churches
belong to the Greeks; one to the Armenians; and
the Jews have eight fynagogues. The Romanifts have
three convents. 'I'here is alfo one of the fathers Delia
Terra Santa. Here refides an archbifliop of the Greek
church ; a Latin bilhop who has a falary from Rome,
with the title of biOiop of Smyrna in partibus infideliumj
and the Englilh and Dutch fadories have each their
chaplain.
The walks about the town are extremely pleafant,
particularly on the weft fide of Frank ftreet, where
there are feveral little groves of orange and lemon trees,
which being always clothed with leaves, bloffoms, and
fruit, regale feveral of the fenfes at the fame time. The
vines which cover the little hills about Smyrna afford
both a delightful profped and plenty of grapes, of
which good wine is made. Thefe hills are agreeably
interfperfed with fertile plains, little forefts of olives
and other fruit-trees, and many pleafure-houfes, to
which the Franks ufually retire during the fummer. In
the neighbourhood of Smyrna is great plenty of game
and wild-fowl, and particularly deer and wild-hogs.
The fea alfo abounds with a variety of good fifh. The
European Chriftians are here allowed all imaginable li-
berties, and ufually clothe themfelves after the Euro-
pean manner.
The chief commerce of this city confifts in raw filk,
filk-ftuffs, grograms, and cotton yarn.
However, the unhealthfulnefs of the fituatlon, and
more efpecially the frequent earthquakes, from which,
it is faid, they are fcarcely ever free for two years to-
gether, and which have been felt 40 days fucceffively,
are an abatement of the pleafure that might otherwife
be enjoyed here. A very dreadful one happened in
June 1688, which overthrew a- great number of the
houfes ; and the rock opening where the caftle ftood,
fwallov/ed it up, and no leis than 5000 perfons perifhed
on this occaiion.
In the year 1758, fo defolating a plague raged here,
that fcarcely a fufficlent number of the inhabitants fur-
vlved to gather in the fruits of the earth. In the year
1772, three-fourth parts of the city were confumed by
fire ; and fix years after it was vlfited by the moft dread-
ful earthquakes, which continued from the 25th bf June
to the 5th of July ; by which fucceffive calamitjea the Sm
city has been fo much reduced, that its former confe-
quence is never likely to be rellored.
The ladies here wear the oriental drefs, confifting of
large trowfers or breeches, which reach to the ancle ;
long I'efts of rich filk or velvet, lined in winter with
cottly furs ; and round their waift an embroidered zone
with clafps of filver or gold. Their hair is plaited,
and defcends down the back often in great profufion.
The girls have fometlmes abo/c twenty thick trefles,
befides two or three encircling the head as a coronet,
and fet off with flowers and plumes of feathers, pearls,
or other jewels. They commonly ftain it of a chefnut
colour, which is the moft defired. Their apparel and
carriage are alike antique. It is remarkable that the
ti'owfers are mentioned in a fragment of Sappho as
part of the female drefs.
SMYRNIUM, Alexanders: A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs o'l pentandria, and to the order of
dtgynia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
45th order, UmbeUatte. The fruit Is oblong and ftrla-
ted ; the petals have a fharp point, and are keel-fhaped.
There are five fpecies : l. The perjip/iatum^ or perfoliate
alexanders, which is a native of Candia and Italy ;
2. The Mgyptiacum ; 3. The anreum, or golden alexan-
ders, which is a native of North America ; 4. The /«-
tegerrimum ; 5. The olufairum, common alexanders, a
native of Britain ; the leaves of which are cauline, ter-
nate, petiolated, and fcrrated. It grows on the fea-
coaft at Dunglas on the borders of Berwickfliire North
Britain. Since the introduAion of celery into the
garden, the alexanders Is almoft forgotton. It was for-
merly cultivated for falading, and the young fhoots or
ftalks blanched were eaten either raw or ftewed. The
leaves too were boiled in broths and foups. Jt is a
warm comfortable plant to a cold weak ftomachj^ and
was in much efteem among the monks, as may be in.
ferred by its ftill being found in great plenty by old ab-
bey walls.
SNAFFLE, in the manege, is a very flender bit-
mouth without any branches, much ufed in England ;
the true bridles being referved for war.
SNAIL, In zoology. See Helix and Limax.
SNAKE, in.zoology. See Anguis and Serpens.
Method of Preferving Snakes. When the fnake is
killed, it muft firft be waftied clean, and freed from all
filth and naftlnefs ; then It is to be put into a glafs of a
proper fize, the tail firft, and afterwards the reft of the
body, winding it in fplral afcending circles, and dlfpo-
fing the back, which is alway the moft beautiful, out-
wardly. A thread, conncAed with a fmall glafs bead, is,
by the help of a needle, to be pafled through the upper
jaw from within outwardly, and then through the cork
of the bottle, where it muft be fattened ; by this means
the head will be drawn into a natural pofture, and the
mouth kept open by the bead, whereby the teeth, &c.
will be difcovered : the glafs is then to b6 filled with
rum, and the cork fealed down to prevent Its exhala-
tion. A label, containing the name and properties of
the fnake, is then to be affixed to the wax over the
cork ; and in this manner the fnake will make a beau-
tiful appearance, and may be preferved a great number
of years ; nor will the fpirits impair or change the luttre
of its colours.
SNA r i
SN/iKS-Siones, /ftnmonita, in natural hlftory, the name
of a large genus of foffil fhells, very few if any of which
are yet known in their recent ftate, or living either on
our own or any other- fliores ; fo that it feenis won-
derful whence fo vaft a number and variety of them
fhould be brought into our fubterianean regions. They
feem Indeed difperfed in great plenty throughout the
world, but nowhere are found in greater numbers, beau-
ty, and variety, than in our ifland.
Mr Harenberg found prodigious numbers of them on
the banks of a river in Germany. He traced thia river
throuiih its feveral windings for many miles, and among
a great variety of belemnitas, cornua ammonis, and coch-
litae, of various kinds ; he found alfo great quantities of
wood of recent pctrifaftion, which flill preferved plain
marks of the axe by which it had been cut from the
trees then growing on the fhore. 'i'he water of this I'iver
lie found in dry feafons, when its natural fprings were
not diluted with rains, to be confiderably heavier than
common water ; and many experiments fhowed ^ him
that it contained ferruginous, as well as ftony particles,
in great quantity, whence the petrifaftions in it appear-
ed the lefs wonderful, though many of them of recent
•date.
Of the cornua ammonis, or ferpent-ftones, he there
obferved more than 30 different fpecies. They lie im-
merfed in a bluilh foflil (tone, of a foft texture and fatty
appearance, in prodigious numbers, and of a great va-
riety of fizes, from the larger known forts do-A'n to
fuch as could not be feen without very accurate infpec-
tion or the affiftance of a microfcope. Such as lie in
the fofteft of thefe ftones are foft like their matrix, and
eafily crumble to pieces ; others are harder. In a piece
of this ftone, of the bignefs of a finger, it is common to
find ©r more of thei'e foffils ; and often they are feen
only in form of white fpecks, fo minute that their fi-
gure cannot be diilinouinied till examined by the nu-
crofcope.
They all confift of feveral volutae, which are different
in number in the different fpecies, and their ftrias alfo
are extremely various ; fome very deep with very high
ridges between them, others very flight ; fome ftraight,
others crooked ; others undulated, and fome termina-
ting in dots, tubercles, or cavities, towards the back,
and others having tubercles in two or three places.
They are all compofed of a great number of chambers
or cells, in the manner of the nautUin Grarorum, each
having a communication with the others, by means of a
pipe or fiphunculus. There is a fmall white {hell fifh
of Barbadoes, which fecms ti-uly a recent animal of
this genus ; and in the Eaft Indies there is another
alfo, fmall and grcyifh ; but the large and beautifully
marked ones are found only foflil.
They are compofed of various fofiil bodies, often of
auarry ftone, fometimes of the matter of the common
pyrites, and of a great variety of other fubftances ; and
though they appear ufually mere Hones, yet in fome the
pearly part of the original fhell is preferved in all its
beauty. Sometimes alfo, while the outer fuhftance is
ef the matter of the pyrites, or other coarfe, ftony, or
mineral matter, the inner cavity fs filled with a pure
white fpar of the common pkted texture. 'I'his gives
a great beauty to the fpecimen. The cornua ammonis,
or fnake-rtones, are found in many parts of England,
particularly in Yorkflure, where they are very plentiful
in the alum rocks of feveral fizes.
Vol. XVJJ. Part II.
61 ] S N E
SNAKS'Root, in botany. See Polvgala.
SNAKK-lVeed, in botany. See Polygonum.
SNAPEDRAGON, in botany. See ANTiaain-
Root
SNEEZING, a convulfive motion of the mufcles of
the breaft, whereby the air is expelled from the nofe
with much vehemence and noife. It is caufed by the ir-
ritation of the upper membrane of the nofe, occafioned
by acrid fubftances floating in the air, or by medicines
called fternutatory.
This irritation is performed either externally, by
ftrong fmells, as marjoram, rofes, occ. or by duft float-
ing iu the air, and taken in by infpiration ; or by fharp
pungent medicines, as creffes and other fternutatories,
which vellicate the membrane of the nofe ; or internally,
by the acrimony of the lympha or mucus, which natu-
rally moiftens that membrane. The matters caft foitli
in fneezing come primarily from the nofe and throat ;
the pituitary membrane continually exuding a mucus
thither ; and, fecondatily, from the breaft, the trachea,
and the bronchia of the lungs.
The praftlce of faluting the perfon who fneezed ex-
ifted in Africa, among nations unknown to the Greeks
and Romans. The accounts we have of Monomotapa
inform us*, that when the prince fneezes, all his fuh-*^ StraJ/i,
jefts in the capital are advertifed of it, that they xmj^''''^'^"'^'
offer up prayers for his fafety. The author of the con-
queft of Peru affures us, that the cacique of Guachoia
having fneezed in prefence of the Spaniards, the In-
dians of his train fell proftrate before him, ftretched
forth their hands, and difplayed to him the accuftomed
marks of refpeft, while they invoked the fun to en-
lightea him, to defend him, and to be his conftant
guard.
Every body knows that the Romans faluted each
other on thefe ocafions : and Pliny relatesf, that '1 ibe- f -P'''"- ^i/?-
rius exadted thcfe figns of homa,?re when drawn in his^^"''^""'"
chariot. Superftition, whofe influence can debafe eve-
ry thing, had degraded this ciiftom for feveral ages, by
attaching favourable or unfavourable omens to ineezing
according to the hour of the day or night, according to
the figns of the zodiac, accoi ding as a work was more
or lels advanced, or according as one had fneezed to the
right or to the left "4:. If a man fneezed at rifing from f Spovtf.
table or from his-beid, it was neceffary for him to fit or ^^^^^^
lie down again. You are ftruck with aftoniftment, faid '
Timotheus to the Athenians, who wiftied to return in-
to the harbour with their fleet (J, becaufe he had fneezed; § Fronting
you are ftruck with aftonifliment, becaufe among i o,coo ^
there is one man wdiofe brain is moift.
Polydore Virgil pretends, that in the time of Gre-
gory the Great, there reigned in Italy an epidemic dif-
temper, which carrried off by fneezing all thofe who
were feized by it ; raid that this pontiff ordered prayers
to be made againft it, accompanied by certain figns of
the crofs. But befides that, there are very few cafes
in which fneezing can be confidered as dangerous, and
that it is frequently a favourable fymptom |j ; it is evi- 1| Hippncrat^
denf, that we ought not to date from the fixth century Ha//m
the origin of a cuftom which lofes itfelf in the obfcutity
of antiquity. Avicenna and Cardan fay, it . is a fort of
cofivulfion, which gives occafion to dread an epilepfy,
and that this difeafe is endeavoured to be warded off by
prayers. Clement of Alexandria confiders it as a mark
of intempei-ance and effeminacy, which ought to be
profcribed. And he inveighs bitterly againft thofe
B who
S N E
r 1
S N O
^ Homeri
edyjf.
Ub..xvii,.
§ Xfnoph.
$neetm^. 'wfto endeavour to procure fnee?.Ing by external aid,
" ' ■ Montaigne, on the contrary, explains this fadl ip a tone
gather cynical. It is fmgular enough, that fo many ri-
<diculou8, contradiftor}'', and fuperftitious opinions, have
not abohfhed thofe cuftomary civilities which are ftill
preferved equally amonfr high and low ; and which on-
ly the Anabaptifts and Quakers have rejefted, becaufe
they have f enounced falutations in every cafe.
Among the Greeks fneezing was almofl; always a oood
omen. It excited marks of tendei nefs, of refpeft, and
attachment. The genius of Socrates informed him by
-P^*'"'"'^^ fneczing, when it was necelTary to perform any aftion*.
^at"' '^^^ young Parthenis, hurried on by her paffion, refol-
f Ar'Jenad. '^^'^ \vrit« to Sarpedon an avowal of her love f ; flie
fneezes in the moft tender and impaflioned part of her
letter : This is fufficient for her ; this incident fupphes
the place of an anfwer, and perfuades her that Sarpedon
js her lover. Penelppe, haralfed by the vexatious court-
fhip of her fuitors, begins to cuife them all, and to pour
forth vows for the return of Ulyfles %- Her fon Tele-
machus interrupts her by a loud fneeze. She inilantly
exults with joy, and regards this fign as an alTurance of
the approaching return of her hufband. Xenophon was
haranguing his troops ; a foldier fncezed in the mo-
ment when he was exhorting them to embrace a dange-
rous but neceflary refolution. The whole army, mo\.ed
by this prcfage, determine to purfue the projeft of their
general ; and Xenophon orders facrifices to Jupiter the
preferver^.
This religious reverence for fneezing, fo ancient and
fo uiilverfal even in the times of Homer, always excited
the curiofity of the Greek philofophers and of the rab-
bins. Thefc laft have fpread a tradition, that, after the
creation of the world, God made a general law to this
purport, that every living man fhould fneeze but once
in his life, and that at the fame inilant he ihould render
^ Acad. des up his foul into the hand of his Creator |[, without any
preceding indlfpofition, Jacob obtained an exemption
from the common law, and the favour of being Informed
of hi« laft hour ; He fneezed and did not die ; and this
fign of death was changed into a fign of life. Notice
of this was fent to all the princes of the earth ; and they
ordained, that in future fneezing (hould be accompanied
with forms of blefling, and vows for the perfons who
ftieezed.
Ariftotle remounts likewlfe to the fources of natural
religion. He obferves, that the brain is the origin of
the nerves, of our fentiments, our fenfations, the feat of
the foul, the image of the Divinity ^ ; that upon all
thefe accounts, the fubftance of the brain has ever been
held in honour ; that the firll men fwore by their head ;
that they durft not touch nor eat the brains of any ani-
mal ; that it was even a facred word which they dared
not to pronounce.' Filled with thefe ideas, it is not
wonderful that they extended their reverence even to
fneezing. Suck is the opinion of the moll ancient and
fagacious philofophers of Greece.
According to mythology, the firll fign of life Pro-
metheus's artificial man gave was by fternutation. This
fnppofed". creator is faid to have ftolen a portion of the
folarrays ; and filling with them a phial, which he had
laade on purpofe, fealed it up hemetically. He inftant-
ly flies back to his favourite automaton, and opening
the phial holds it clofe to the ftatue ; the rays ftill re-
taining all their a^ivity) infuiuate thcmfelves through
Jnfci if
if.ol. iv.
the pores, and fct the fadltious man a fneezing. Pre-
metheus, tranfported with the fuccefs of bis machine,
offers up a fervent prayer, with wiihes for the preferva-
tion of fo fingular a being. His automaton obferved
him, remembering his ejaculations, was very careful, on
the hke occafions, to offer thefe wifiies in behalf of his
defcendants, who perpetuated it from father to fon in
all their colonies.
SNIGGLING, a metliod of fifhing for eels, chiefly
ufed in the day-time, when they are found to hide
themfelves near wears, mills, or flood gates. It is per-
formed thus : Take a ftrong line and hook, baited with
a garden-worm, and obferving the holes where the eels
lie hid, thruft your bait into them by the help of a flick;
and if there be any, you lhall be fure to have a bite ;
and may, if your tackling hold, get the largeil eels.
SNIPE, in ornithology. See Scolopax and Shoot
ING.
SNORING, in medicine, otherwife called Jlertor^ h
a found like that of the ceichnon, but greater and more
manifeft.
Many confound thofe afiPeftions, and make them to
differ only in place and magnitude, calling by the name
oijlertor that found or noife which is heard or fuppofed
to be made in the paffage between the palate and the
noftrils as in thofe who fleep ; that boiling or bubbhng
noife, which in refplration proceeds from the larynx, er
or head, or orifice of the afpera arteria, they call cerchon;
but if the found comes from the afpera arteria itfelf,
they will have it called cerchnos^ that is, as fome under-
fland it, a rattling, or as others a ftrldulous or whee-
zing roughnefs of the afpera arteria. In dying perfono
this affetlion is called by the Greeks p^xx.^^> rhenchos^
which, is a fnoring or rattling kind of noife, proceeding
as it were from a conflict between the breath and the
humours in the afpera arteria.
This and fuch like affeftions are owing to a weak»
nefs of nature, as when the lungs are full of pus or hu-
mours : to which purpofe we read in the Prognoftics of
PI ippoc rates," " it is a bad fign when there is no expec.^
toration, and no difcharge from the lungs, but a noife
as from an ebullition is heard in the afpera arteria from
a plenitude of humour." Expeftoralion is fupprefTed
either by the vifcidity of the humour, which requires
to be difcharged, and which adhering to the afpera ar-
teria, and being there agitated by the breath, excites
that bubbling noife or ftertor ; or by an obftrudlion of,
the bronchia ; or, laftly, by a compreflion of the afpera
arteria and throat, whence the paffage is ftraitened, in
which the humeurs beiiig agitated, excite fuch a kind
of noife as before defcribcd. Hence Galen calls thofe
who are ftrait-breafted Jlertorous. That author affigns.
but two caufes of this fymptom, which are either the
ftraitnefs of the paffage ef refpiration or redundance of
humours, or both together ; but it is neceffary to add .
a third, to wit, the weaknefsvof the faculty, which is.
the caufe of the rhenchos ia dying perfons, where nature,
is too weak to make difcharges.
From what has been faid we conclude, that this-
fymptom, er this fort of fervour or ebullition in the
throat, is not always mortal, but only when nature is.
oppreffed with the redundance of humour, in fuch a.
manner, that the lungs cannot difcharge ^themfelves by.
fpitting ; or the paffage appointed ^or the breath (being,
the afpera prteria) very much obftrudcd, upon which.
acccHint
S N O
account many dying perfons labour under a flertor with
their mouths gaping.
SNOW, a well-known meteor, formed by the freer,-
ino- of the vapours in the atmofphere. It differs from
hall and hoar-froft, in being as it were cryftallized,
■which they are not. This appears on examining a
flake of Ihow by a magnifying glafs; when the whole
of it will appear to be compoied of fine fhining fpicula
diverging hke rays from a centre. As the flakes fall
down through the atmofphere, they are continually
joined by more of thefe radiated fpicula, and thus in-
creafe in'bulk like the drops of rain or hailftones. Dr
Crew, in a difcourfe of the nature of fnow, obferves,
that many parts thereof are of a regular figure, for the
moft. part liars of fix points, and are as perfeft and
tranfparent ice as any we fee on a pond, &c. Upon
each of thefe points are other collateral points, fet at
the fame angles as the main points themfelves : among
-which there arc diverS other irregular, which are chief-
ly broken points, and fragments of the regular ones.
Others alfo, by various winds, feem to have been thaw-
ed and frozen again into irregular clufters ; fo that it
feems as if the whole body of fnow were an infinite mafs
of icicles irregularly figured. That is, a cloud of va-
pours being gathered into drops, the faid drops forth-
with defcepd; upon which defcent, meeting with a
freezing air as they pafs through a colder region, each
[ 563 ] S N O
of the fnow, and the regularity of the ftrufture of its
parts (particularly fome figures of fnow or hail which
fall about Turin, and which he calls rofeUeJ, Ihow that
clouds of fnow are afled upon by fome uniform caufe
hke eleftricity ; and he endeavours to fliow how eleftri-
city is capable of fomaing thefe figures. He was con-
firmed in his conjeftures by obferving, that his appara-
tus for obferving the elettricity of the atmofphere never
failed to be eledtrified by fnow as well as rain. Pro-
feflbr Winthrop fometimes found his apparatus elcftri-
fied by fnow when driven about by the wind, though it
had not been affefted by it when the fnow itfelf was
falling. A more intejjfe ele6lricity, according to Bec-
caria, unites the particles of hail more clofely than the
more moderate electricity does thofe of fnow, in the
fame manner as we -fee that the drops of rain which
fall from thuijder- clouds are larger than thofe which fall
from others, though the former defcend through a lefg
fpace.
But we are not to confider fnow merely as a curious
and beautiful phenomenon. The Great Difpenfer of
univerfal bounty has fo ordered it, that it is eminently
fubfervient, as well as all the works of creation, to his
benevolent defigns. Were we to judge from appear-
ances only, we might imagine, that fo far from being
ufeful to the earth, the cold humidity of fnow would
be detrimental to vegetation. But the experience of
Snow.
drop is immediately frozen into an icicle, fhooting itfelf all ages afferts the contrary. Snow, particularly in thofe
forth into feveral points ; but thefe ftill continuing their northern regions where the ground is covered with it
defcent, and meeting with fome intermitting gales of for feveral months, fru6tifies the earth, by guarding the
-warmer air, or in their continual waftage to and fro
touching upon each other, fome of them are a little
thawed, "blunted, and again frozen into chillers, or in-
tangled fo as to fall down in what we cdWJaies. ^
The lightnefs of fnow, although it is firm ice, is ow-
ing to the excefs of its furface, in comparlfon to the
matter contained under it ; as gold itfelf may be ex-
tended in furface till it will ride upon the leaft breath
of air.
he whitenefs of fnow is owing to the fmall particles
into which it is divided ; for ice, when pounded, will
become equally white. An artificial fnow has been
made by the following experiment. A tall phial of
aquafortis being placed by the fire till it is warm, and
filings of pure filver, a few at a time, being put into it;
after a brifk ebullition, the filver will diflblve flowly.
The phial being then placed in a cold window, as it
cools the filver particles will flioot into cryftals, feveral
ef which running together will form a flake of fnow,
which will defcend to the bottom of the phial. While
they are defcending, they reprefent perfectly a fliower
of filver fnow, and the flakes will lie upon one another
at the bottom like real fnow upon the ground.
corn or other vegetables from the intenfer cold of the
air, and efpecially from the cold piercing winds. It has
been a vulgar opinion, very generally received, that fnow
fertilizes the lands on which it falls more than rain, in
confequence of the nitrous falts which it is fuppofed to
acquire by freezing. But it appears from the experi-
ments of Margraaf(A) in the year 1751, that the che-
mical difference between rain and fnow-water is ex-
ceedingly fmall ; that the latter is fomewhat lefs ni-
trous, and contains a fomewhat lefs proportion of earth
than the former ; but neither of them contain ei-
ther earth or any kind of fait in any quantity which
can be fenfibly efficacious in promoting vegetation. Al-
lowing, therefore, that nitre is a fertilizer of lands, which
many are upon good grounds difpofed utterly to deny,
yet io very fmall is the quantity of it contained in fnow,
that it cannot be fuppofed to promote the vegetation
of plants upon which the fnow has fallen. The pecu-
liar agency of fnow, as a fertilizer in preference to rain,
may admit of a very rational explanation, without re-
curring to nitrous falts fuppofed to -be contained in it. It
may be rationally afcribed to its furnifliing a covering to
the roots of vegetables, by which they are guarded from
According to Signior Beccaria, clouds of fnow differ the influence of the atmofpherical cold, and the internal
rain, hat in the circumflance h^at of the earth is prevented from efcaping.
The internal parts of the earth, by fome principle
4 B 2 which
in nothing from clouds of rain, but in the circuinflance
of cold that freezes them. Both the regular diffution
(a) Margraaf colleAed of the pureft fnow he could find as much as when melted afforded icorneafures of
•water , each meafure containing 36 ounces. By difl-illiug this quantity he obtained 60 grains, not oi nitre, but
©f calcareous earth, with fome grains of the acid of fca-falt, impregnated with a nitrous vapour. The fame quan-
tity of rain-water colleded in the winter months with equal attention, when diftillcd yielded 100 grains ©f cal-
careous earth with fome grains of the acid of nitre and fea-falt. The chemical difierence therefore between raia
and fnow is very fmall.
S N O [
which we do rot underftand, is heated uniformly to the
48th degree of Fahrenheit's thermometer. This debtee
of heat is greater than that in which the watery juices
of vegetables freeze, and it is propagated from the in-
ward parts of the earth to the furface, on which the ve-
g'ctables grow. 'I'he atmofphere being variably heated
by the adlion of the fun in different climates, and in the
fame chmate at different feafons, communicates to the
furface of the earth and to fome diftance below it th-e
degree of heat or cold which prevails in itfelf.. Diffe-
rent vegetables are able to preferve life under different
degrees of cold, but all of them perifh when the cold
which reaches their roots is extreme. Providence has
therefore, in the coldeft climates, provided a covering
of fnow for the roots of vegetables, by which they are
prottded from the influence of the atmofpherical cold.
The fnow keeps in the internal heat of the earth, which
furrounds the roots of vegetables, and defends them from
the cold of the atmofphere.
Snow or ice water is always deprived of its fixed air,
which efcapes during the procefs of congelation. Ac-
cordingly, as fomx of the inhabitants of the Alps who
ufe it for tlieir conflant drink have enormous wens up-
on their throats, it has been afcribed to this circum-
ftance. If this were the caufe of thefe wens, it would
be eafy to remove it by expofing the fnow-water to the
air for fortie time. But feveral eminent phyficians have
rejefted the notion that fnow-water is the caufe of thefe
wens ; for in Greenland, where fnow-water is common-
ly ufed, the inhabitants are not affeded with fuch fwtl-
hngs : on the other hand, they ar^ common in Sumatra
where fnow is never feen.
Snow, in fea-affairs, is generally the largeftof all two-
mafled veffels employed by Europeans, and the moft
convenient for navigation.
The fails and rigging on the mainmafl and fgrematl
of a fnow are exaftly fimilar to thofe on the fame marts
in a fhip ; only that there is a fmall mail behind the
mainmafl of the former, which ciirries a fail nearly re-
fembhng the mizen of a fhip. The foot of this mafl is
fixed on a block of wood on the quarter-deck abaft the
mainmafl ; and the head of it is attached to the after-
top of the maintop. The fail which is called the try-
fail is extended from its mafl towards the ftern of the
vefiel.
When the floops of war are rigged as fnows, they
are furnifhed with a horfe, which anfwcrs the purpofe
of the tryfail-mafl, the fore-part of the fail being' at-
tached by rings to the faid horfe, in different places of
its height.
SNoiy-Grollo, an excavation made by the waters on
the fide of Mount Etna, by making their way under
the layers of lavp, and by carrying away the bed of
pozzolana below them. It occurred to the proprietor,
that this place was very fuitable for a magazine of
fnow : for in Sicily, at Naples, and particularly at Mal-
ta, they are obliged for want of ice to make ufe of fnow
for cooling their wine, fherbet, and other hquors, and
for making fweetmeats.
This grotto was hired or, bought by the knights of
Malta, who having neither ice nor fnow on the burning
rock which they inhabit, have hired feveral caverns on
Etna, into which people whom they employ colled and
preferve quantities of fnow to be fent to Malta when
needed. This grotto has therefore been repaired with-
] IS N O
in at the experce of that order; flights of fleps are cut S
into it, as well as two openings from above, by which '^"^
they throw in the fnow, and through which the grotto,
is enlightened. Above the grotto they have alfo le-
velled a piece of ground of confiderable extent : this
they have inclofed with thick and lofty walls, fo thiit
when the winds, which at this elevation blow with great
violence, cany the fnow from the higher parts of tlie
mountain, and depofite it in this inclofure, it is retained
and amafled by the walls. The people then remove it
into the grotto through the two openings ; and it is
there laid up, and preierved in fuch a manner as to re-
fifl the force of the fummer heats ; as the layers of lava
with which the grotto is arched above prevent thenj
from making any impreffion.
When the feafon for exporting the fnow comes on, it
is put into large bags, into whlc^h it is preffed as clofely
as pofllble ; it is then carried by men out of the grotto,
and hid upon mules, which convey it to the fhore,
where fmall veffels are waiting to carry it away.
But before thofe lumps of fnow are put into bags,
they are wrapped in frefh leaves ; fo that v/hile they
are conveyed from the grotto to the fhore, the leaves
may prevent the rays of the fun from making any im-
prefTion upon them.
The Sicilians carry on a confiderable trade in fnow,
which affords employment to fome thoufands of mules,
horfes, and men. They have magazines of it on the
fummits of their loftieft mountains, from which they
diflribute it through all their cities, towns, and houfes ;
for every perfon in the ifland makes ufe of fnow. 'I'hey
confider the pradice of coohng their liquors as abfolnte-
ly neccflTary for the prdervation of health ; and in a cli-
mate the hiat of which is conflantly relaxing the fibre?,
cooling liquors, by communicating a proper tone to the
hbres of the ftomach, mufl greatly flrengthen them for
the performance of their fundions.
In this climate a fcarcity of fnow is no lefs dreaded
than a fcarcity of corn, wine, or oil. We are inform-
ed by a gentleman who was at Syracufe in \he year
1777, when there was a fcarcity of fnow, the people of
the town learned that a fmall veflTel loaded witli that ar.
tide was pafGng the coaft : without a moment's delibera-
tion they ran in a body to the fhore and demanded her
cargo which when the crew refufed to dehVer up, the
Syracufans attacked and took, though with the lofs of
feveral men.
SNOTv.Drop^ in botany. See Chionanthus.
SNOWDON-HiLL, the name of a mountain in Caer-
naryonfliire in Wales, generally thought to be the high-
efl in Britain ; though fome have been of opinion that
its height is equalled, or even exceeded, by mountains
in the Highlands of Scotland. The mountain is fur-
rounded by many others, called in the Welfh language
Crib Cochf Crib y Di/lill, L/iiueddy yr ^rran, &c.
According to Mr Pennant*, this mountainous trad » y
yields fcarcely any corn. Its produce is cattle and fheep ; to
which, during fummer, keep very high in the moun-
tains, followed by their owners with their famihes, who
refide during that feafon in havodtysy ar fummer dairy-
houfes," as the farmers in the Swifs Alps do in their
fennts. Thefe houfes confift of a long low room, with
a hole at one end to let out the fmoke from the fire
which is made beneath. Their furniture is very fimple^
ftones are fubilkuted for ftools, aad their beds are of
hayj
S N O [
on- hay, ranged along the fides. They manufacture their
own clothes, and dye them with the Itchm omphaloides
and lichen I'and'mus, moffcs collefted from the rocks.
During fiimmer the men pafs their time in tending their
herds or in makinpr hay, &c. and the women in milk-
ing or in making butter and cheefe. For their own ufe
they milk both ewes and goats, and m.ake cheefe of
the milk. Their diet confilts of milk, cheefe, and but-
ter : and their ordinary drink is whey ; though they
565 ] S N Y .
clouds by this lofty mountain, it becomes faddenly and
unexpectedly enveloped in mift, when the clouds have ^
jull before appeared very high, and very remote. At
times he obferved them lower t® hair their height ; and
notwithftandin J they have been dilperfed to the tijjht
and left, yet they have met from both fides, and united
to involve the fiimmit in one great obfcurity.
The height of Snowdon was meafuted, in 1682, by
Mr Cafwell, with inftruments made by Flamrtead : ac-
Snydei s.
have, by way of referve, a few bottles of very ftrong cording to his meniuration, the height is 3720 feet;
beer, which they ufe as a cordial when fick._ They are " " ^^\,^ .^ ^ -^^s^
people of good underftanding, wary, and circumfptft ;
tall, thin, and of flrong conftitutions. In the v.-inter-
time they defccnd into the bcn-dref, or " old dweUing,"
where they pafs their time in inaftivity.
The view from the higheft peak of Snowdon is very
extenfive. From it Mr Pennant faw the county of
but more modern computations make it only 35^^»
reckoning from the quay at Caernarvon to the higheil
peak. The ftone that compofes this mountain is ex-
cefiively hard. I^arge coavl'e cryftals, and frequently
cubic pyrites, are found in the Hfiiires. An immenle
quantity of water rufhes down the fides of Snowdon and
the neighbouring mountains, infomuch that Mr Pennant
Chefter, the high hills of Yorkfhire, part of the north of fuppofes, if colkaed into one ftreara, they would ex-
I'hioland, Scotland, and Ireland; a plain view of the ille ceed the waters of the Thames.
- ' ■ **' SNUFF, a powder chiefly made of tobacco, the ufe
known to need any defcriptioa
cif Man ; and that of Anglefea appeared like a map ex
tended imder his feet, with every rivulet vifible. Our
author took much pains to have this view to advantage;
fat up at a fatm on the weft till about 12, and walked
up the whole way. The night was remarkably fine
and flarry ; towards morning the liars faded away, lea-
ving an interval of darknefs, which, however, was foon
difpelled by the dawn of day. The body of the fun ap-
peared moft diftindl, with the roundnefs of the moon,
before, it appeared too brilliant to be looked at. The
fea, which bounded the weftern part of the profpe(£t,
appeared gilt with the fun-beams, firll in flendcr ftreaks,
and at length glowed with rednefs. The profpedl was
difclofed like the gradual drawing up of a curtain in a
theatre ; till at laft the heat became fufiiciently ftrong
to raife mifts from the various lakes, which in a flight
degree obfcured the profpcft. The fhadow of the moun-
tain extended many miles, and fhowed its bicapitated
form ; the Wyddfa making one head, and Crib y Dlftill
the other. At this time he counted between 20 and
30 lakes either in Caernarvon or in Merionethfliire. In
making another vifit, the fky was obfcured very foon
after he got up. A vaft rniil involved the whole cir-
cuit of the mountain, and the profpeft down was hor-
rible. It gave an idea of numbers of abyfTes, concealed
by a thick fmoke furioufly circulating around them. Ve-
of which is too well
here.
Tobacco is ufually the bafis of fnuff ; other matters
being only added to give it a more agreeable fcent, &c.
The kinds of fnuff, and their feveral names, are Infinite,
and new ones are daily invented ; fo that it would be
difficult, not to fay impofhble, to give a detail of them.
We fhall only fay, that there are three principal fortsi:
the firil granulated ; the fecond an impalpable powdcr ;
and the third the bran, or coarfe part remaining after
fifting the fecond fort.
" Every profefled, inveterate, and incurable fnuft'-
tsker (fays Lord Stanhope), at a mo(<erate computa-
tion, takes one pinch in ten minutes. Every pinch,
with the agreeable ceremony of blowing and wiping the
nofe and other incidental circumitances, confumes a mi-
nute and a half. One minute and a half out of every
ten, allowing 16 hours to a fnuff-taking day, amounts
to two hours and 24 minutes out of every natural day,
or one day out of every ten. One day out of every 10
amounts to 36 days and a half in a year. Hence if we
fuppofe the praftic^e to be perfifted in 40 years, two en-
tire years of the fnuff-taker's life will be dedicated to
tickling his nofe, and two mere to blowing it. The
expence of fnuff, fnuff-boxes, and handkerchiefs, will be
ry often a guft of wind made an opening in the clouds, the fubjeft of a fecond effay ; in which it will appear.
which gave a fine and diftinft vifta of lake and valley
Sometimes they opened in one place, at others in many
at once ; exhibiting a moft ftrange and perplexing fight
of water, fields, rocks, and chafms. They then elofed
again, and every thing was involved in darknefs ; in a
few minutes they would feparate again, and repeat the
above-mentioned ^{cene with iiifinite variety. From this
profpeft our traveller defcended with great reluftauce ;
but before he had reached the place where his horfes
were left, he was overtaken by a thunder ftorm. The
rolling of the thunder-claps, being reiterated by the
mountains, was inexpreffibly awful ; and alter he had
mounted, he was in great danger of being fwept away
that this luxury encro?.ches as much on the income of
the fnuff-taker as it does on his time ; and that by a
proper application of the time and money thus loft to
the public, a fund might be conftitutcd for the difcharge
of the national debt." See Nicotiana.
SNYDERS (Francis), a Flemifli painter, born nt
Antwerp in 1579, and bred under his countryman Hen-
ry Van Balen. His genius firft difplayed itfelf in paint-
ing fruit : he afterwards attempted animals,' huntings,
&c. in which he exceeded all his predecelTors. He
alfo painted kitchens, &c. and gave dignity to fubjefta
that feemed incapable of it. He was made painter to
Ferdinand and Ifabella, archduke and duchefs, and be-
by the torrents which poured down in confequence of came attached to the houfe of the cardinal infant of
a very heavy rain. Spain. The king of Spam and the cleftor Palatine
It is very rare (Mr Pennant obferves) that the tra- adorned their palaces with huntings by this artift. Rii-
veller gets a proper day to afcend this hill : it indeed bens, Jordaens, and Snyders, ufed to co-operate m the
often appears clear; but by the evident attraaion of the enriching of each other's piaures according to their
fcverail
S O A
sSoal-fiih,
S >ap.
feveral talents ; and thus they became more vahiable
than if finiftied by either of them fingly. Snyders died
an 16C7. ^
SOAL-Fi SH, in Ichthyology. See Pleuronec-
-TES.
SOAP, a compofition of cauftic, fixed alkaline fait,
and oil, fometimes hard and dry, lomctimes foft and li-
quid ; much ufed in wafhing, whitening linens, and by
dyers and fullers. — Soap may be made by feveral me-
thods, which, however, all depend upon the fame prin-
ciple. The foap which is ufed in medicine is made
without heat. See Chemistry, n° 1026.
In manufaftures where large quantities of it are pre-
pared, foap is made with heat. A lixivium of quicklime
and foda is made, but is lefs concentrated than that
above refeiTed to, and only fo much that it can fuftain
a frefh egg. A part of this lixivium is to be even di-
iuted and mixed with an equal weight of oil of ohves.
The mixture is to be put on a gentle fire, and agita-
ted, that the union may be accelerated. When the mix-
ture begins to unite well, the reft of the lixivium-ts to be
added to it ; and the whole is to be digefted with a
very gentle heat, till the foap be completely made. A
trial is to be made of it, to examine whether the juft
proportion of oil and alkali has been obferved. Good
foap of this kind ouj:^ht to be firm, and very white when
cold ; not fubjeft to become moift by expofure to air,
and entirely mifcible with pure water, to which it com-
municates a milky appearance, but without any drops
-of oil floating on the furface. When the foap has not
thefe qualities, the combination has not been well made,
or the quantity of fait or of oil is too great, which faults
muft be correfkd.
^ In foft or liquid foaps, green or black foaps, cheaper
40ils are employed, as oil of nuts, of hemp, of fifii, &c.
Thefe foaps, excepting in confiftence, are not effentially
different from white foap.
Fixed alkahs are much difpofed to unite with oils
that are not volatile, both vegetable and animal, fince
this union can be made even without heat. The com-
pound refulting from this union partakes at the fame
time of the properties of oil and of alkali ; but thefe
.properties are modified and tempered by each other,
according to the general rule of combinations. Alkali
formed into foap has not nearly the fame acrimony as
when it Is pure ; it Is even deprived oF almoft all Its
caufticity, and its other faline alkaline properties are
almoft entirely aboliftied. The fame oil contained in
foap is lefs combuftible than when pure, from its union
with the alkali, which is an uninflammable body. It
is mifcible, or even foluble. In water, to a certain de-
Ifree, by means of the alkali. Soap Is entirely foluble
jn fpirit of wine ; and ftill better In aquavitas ftiarpened
by a little alkaline fait, according to an obfervatlon of
Mr Geoflfioy.
The manufafture of foap in London fitft began In
the year 1524 ; before which time this city was ferved
with white foap from foreign countries, and with grey
foap fpeckled with white from Briftol, which was fold
for a penny a pound ; and alfo with black foap, which
fold for a halfpenny the pound.
The principal foaps of our ©wn manufaAure are the
ibft, the hard, and the ball foap. The foft foap Is ei-
ther white or green. The procefs of making each of
.thefe fhall now be defcribed.
[ s^6 ]
S O A
_ Green foft foap. The chief ingredients tifed in ma- So^
Jcmg this are lees drawn from pot-afh and linje, boiled''
up with tallow and oil. Firft, the ley of a proper de-
gree of ftrength (which muft be eftimated by the weight
of the liquor), and tallow, are put into the copper to-
gether, and as foon as they boil up the oil is added ;
the fire is then damped or flopped up, while the ingre'
dients remain in the copper to unite ; when they^are
united, the coppei* is again made to boil, being fed or
filled with lees as it bolls, till there be afufficient quan-
tity put Into it; then it is boiled off and put into calks.
Whea this foap is firft made it appears, uniform ; but
in about a week's time the tallow feparates from the
oil into^ thofe white grains which we fee in common
foap. Soap thus made would appear yellow, but by a
mixture of indigo added at the end of the boib'ng, it is
rendered green, that being the colour which refults
from the mixture of yellow and blue.
White foap. Of this one fort is made after the fame man-
ner as green foft foap, oil alone excepted, which Is not
ufed in white. The other fort of white foft foap Is
made from the lees &f aflies of lime boiled up two diffe-
rent times with tallow. Firft, a quantity of lees and
tallow are put into the copper together, and kept boil-
ing, being fed with lees as they boil, until the whole is
boiled fufficiently ; then the lees are feparated or dif-
charged from the tallowifli part, which part is removed
into a tub, and the lees are thrown avray ; this is called
the frjl half-boil : then the copper is filled again with
frefli tallow and lees, and the firft half-boil is put out
of the tub into the copper a fecond time, where It Is
kept boiling with frelh lees and tallow till the foap Is
produced. It is then put out of the copper into the
fame fort of caflis as are ufed for green foft foap. The
common foft foap ufed about London, generally of a
greenifh hue, with fome white lumps, is prepared chief-
ly with tallow : a blackifh fort, more common In fome
other places, k faid to be made with whale oil.
Hard foap is made with lees from alhcs and tallow,
and is mpft commonly boiled twice : the firft, called the
half-boi/, hath the fame operation as the firft half-boil of
foft white foap. Then the topper is charged with frefh
lees again, and the firft half boil put Into it, where it
is kept boiling, and fed with Ices as it boils, till it grains
or is boiled cnotigh ; then the ley is difcharged from it,
and the foap put into a frame to cool and harden. Com-
mon fait is made ufe of for the purpofe of graining the
foap ; for when the oil or tallow has been' united with
the ley, after a little boiling, a quantity of fait is thrown
Into the mafs, which diflblving readily in water, but
not in the oil or tallow, draws out the water in a con-
fiderable degree, fo that the oil or tallow united with
the fait of the ley fwims on the top. When the ley Is
of a proper ftrength, lefs fait Is neceffary to raife the
-curd than whea it is too weak. It muft be obferved,
that there is no certain time for bringing off a boiling
of any of thefe forts of foap ; It frequently takes up
part of two days. ^
BaUfoapy commonly ufed In the north, is made with
lees from allies and tallow. The lees are put into the
copper, and boiled till the watery part is quite gone,
and there remains nothing in the copper but a fort of
faline matter (the very ftrength or efl"ence of the ley) ;
to this the tajlow is put, and the copper is kept boill
ing and ftlrring for above half an hour, in which time
the
S O A
I S^7 1
S O A
the foap is made ; and then it is mt out of the cop-
per into tubs or bafkets with fheets in them, and imme-
diately (whilll foft) made into balls. It requires near
24 hours in this procefs to boil away the watery part
of the ley.
When oil unites with alk^K in the formation of foap,
it is little altered in the connexion of its principles ;
for it may be feparated from the alkali by decompofing
foap with any acid, and may be obtained nearly in its
original ftate.
Concerning the decompofition of foap by means of
acids, we muft obfcrve, firft, that all acids, even the
weakeft vegetable acids, may occalion this decompofi-
tion, becaufe every one of tbem has a greater affinity
than oil w ith fixed alkali. Secondly, thefe acids, even
when united with any bafis, excepting fixed alkali, are
capable of occafioning the fame decompofition ; whence
all ammoniacal falts, all falts with bafis of earth, and all
thofe with metaUic bafes, are capable of decompofing
foap, in the fame manner as difengaged acids are ; with
this difference, that the oil feparated from the fixed al-
kah, by the acid of thefe falts, may unite more or lefs
intimately with the fublbnce which was the bafis of the
neutral fait employed for the decompofition, _
Soap may alfo be decompofed by diftillation, as Le-
mery has done. When firlt expofed to fire, it yields a
phlegm called by him a fpirit ; which neverthelefs is
neither acid nor alkaline, but fome water which enters
into the compofition of foap. It becomes more and
more coloured and empyrcumatic as the fire is increa-
fed, which fliows that it contains the moft fubtle part
of the oil. It feems even to raife along with it, by
help of the oil and aftion of the fire, a fraall part of the
alkali of the foap : for, as the fame chemift obferves, it
occafions a precipitate in a folution of corrofive fubli-
mate. After this phlegm the oil rifes altered, precife-
ly as if it had been dittilled from quicklime, that is,
empyreumatic, foluble in fpirit of wine, at firft fuffi-
eiently fubtle and afterwards thicker. An alkaline re-
fiduous coal remains in the retort, confifting chiefly of
the mineral alkali contained in the foap, and which may
be difengaged from the coal by calcination in an open
fire, and obtained in its pure Hate.
Alkaline foaps are very ufeful in many arts and trades,
and alfo in chemiftry and medicine. Their principal uti-
lity confifts in a deterfive quaUty that they receive from
their alkali, which, although it is in fome meafure fatura-
ted with oil, is yet capable of a6ling upon oily matters,
and of rendering them faponaceous and mifcible with
water. Hence foap is very ufeful to cleanfe any fub-
ftances from all fat matters with which they happen to
i)e foiled. Soap is therefore daily ufed for the wafliing
and whitening of Hnen, for the cleanfing of wooUeii-
cloths from oil, and for whitening fiik and freeing it
from the refinous varnifh with which it is naturally co-
vered. Pure alkaline Hxiviums being capable of dlffol-
Tfing oils more effeftually than foap, might be employed,
for the fame purpofes ; but when this aftlvity is not
mitigated by oil, as it is in foap, they are capable of al-
tering, and even of dcftroying entirely by their caufti-
city, moft fubftances, efpecially animal matters, as filk,
wool, and others : whereas foap cleanfes from oil almoft
as effeftually as pure alkali, without danger of altering
or deftroying ; which renders it very ufeful.
Soap was imperfedly known to the ancieatSt It is
mentioned bv Pliny as made of fat and afaes, and as an Sosp,-
invention of the Gauls. Aretjeus and others inform us, ^TTT^'*'
that the Greeks obtained their knowledge oi its medi- /v/^./u-j/
,cal ufe from the Romans. Its virtues, according to Botariy,-
Bcrgius, are detergent, rcfolvent, and aperient, and itsPi39'=''
ufe recommended in jaundice, gout, calculous complaints,
and in obftruftlons of the vifcera. The efficacy of foap
in the firft of thefe difeafes was experienced by Sylvius,
and fince recommended very generally by various au--
thorr, who have written on this cortiplaint ; and it has-
alfo been thought of ufe in fupplying the place of bile
in the priraas viae. The utihty of this medicine in idle-
rical cafes was inferred chiefly from Its fuppofed power
of difiolvlno biliary concretions ; but this medicine ha»
loft much of its reputation In jaundice, fince it is novr
known that gall ftones have been found in many after
death who had been daily taking foap for feveral months
and even years. Of its good eft"e£ls in urinary calcu-
lous afftftions, we have the teftimony of feveral, efpe-
cially when diflblved in lime-water, by which its efficacy
is confiderably Increafed ; for it thus becomes a power-,
ful folveiit of mucus, which an ingenious modern author
fuppofes to be the chief agent in the formation of caU
culi : It is, however, only in the incipient ftate of the
difeafe that thefe remedies promife effeftual benefit ;
though they generally abate the more violent fymptoms
where they cannot remove the caufe. With Boerhaave
foap was a general medicine : for as he attributed moft
complaints to vifcidlty of the fluids, he, and moft of the
Boerhaavlan fchool, prefcrlbed it in conjundtlon with
different refinous ,and other fubftances, in gout, rheu- -
matifm, and various vlfceral complaints. Soap Is alfo
externally employed as a refolvent, and gives name to
feveral officinal preparations.
From the properties of foap we may know that it
muft be a very effeftual and convenient anti-acid. It
abforbs acids as powerfully as pure alkalis and abfor»-
bent earths, without having the caufticity of the for-
mer, and without oppreffing the ftomach by its weight
like the latter.
Laftly, we may perceive that foap muft be orvs of
the beft of all antidotes to ftop. quickly, and with the
leaft inconvenience, the bad effeds of acid corrofive poi-
fons, as aquafortis, corrofive fubllmate, &c.
Soap imported is fubjeft by 10 Ann. cap. 19. to a
duty of 2d. a pound (over and above. fonner duties) 5.
and by 12 Ann. ftat. 2. cap. 9. to the farther fum of
i d. a pound. And by the fame afts, the duty on foap
made In the kingdom Is i^d. a pound- By 17 G. III.
cap. 52. no perfon within the limits of the head office -
of excife in London fhall be permitted to make any
foap unlefs he occupy a tenement of 10 L a year,
be affefTed, and pay the parifli rates ; or elfewhere,
iihlels he be affcffed, and pay to church and poor.
Places of making are to be entered on pain of 50 I.
and covers and locks to be provided under a forfeiture,
of lool. ; the furnace-door of every utenfil ufed in the
manufafture of foap fhall be locked by the. excife offi-
cer, as foon as the fire is damped or drawn out, and
faftenlngs provided, under the penalty of 50 1. ; and
opening or damaging fuch fattening incurs a penalty of
100 1. Officers are required to enter and furvey at all
times, by day or night, and the penalty of obftrufting
is 20 1. and they may unlock and examine every copper,
&c. between the hours of five in the morning and cle-
ft . v«»
S O G
Soap
II
Socage
Comment,
vol. ii.
ven in the evening, and the penalty of obftniaing is
Every maker of foap before he begins any ma-
rking, if within the bills of mortahty, fhall give i 2 hours,
if elfe^'here 24. hours, notice in writing to the officer,
of the time when he intends to begin, on pain of qol.
No maker fliall remove any foap unfurveyed on pain of
20 1. without giving proper notice of his intention.-
And if any maker (hall conceal any foap or materials,
he fhall forfeit the fame, and alfo 500!. Every barrel
of foap fhall contain 2 if6 lb. avoirdupois, half barrel
128 lb. firkin 641b. half-firkin 321b. bcfides the weight
or tare of edch caflc : and all foap, excepting hard cake
foap and ball foap, fhall be put into fuch caflcs and no
mher, on pain of forfeiture, and 1; 1. The maker fhall
weekly enter in writing at the next office the foap made
by him in each week, with the weight and quantity at
eich boiling, on pain of 50 1. ; and within one week
after entry clear ofF the duries, on pain of double duty.
See, befides the ftatutes above cited, 5 Geo. III. cap. 45.
12 Geo. III. cap. 46. 11 Geo. cap. 30. i Geo. flat. 2.
cap. 36.
Siijr key's So^p. See Chemistry, n° 1027.
^cid So/it. This is formed by the addition of con-
centrated acids to the expreffed oils. . Thus the oil is
rendered partially foluble in water ; but the union is not
fufficiently complete to anfwer any valuable purpofe,
SoAf -Berry Tree. See Sapindus.
So A f -Earth. See Steatites.
SOAPWORT. See Saponaria.
SGC (Sax.), fignifies power or liberty to minifter
juftice or execute laws : alfo the circuit or territory
wherein fuch power is exercifed. ' Whence our law-
Latin word focca is ufed for a feigniory or lordfliip en-
franchifed by the king, with the liberty of holding or
keeping a court of his fockmen : And this kind of li-
berty continues in divers parts of England to this day,
and is known by the names of fohe and foken.
SOCAGE, in its moft general and extenfive fignifi-
cation, feems to denote a tenure by any certain and
determinate fervice. And in this fenfe it is by our
ancient writeis conftantly put in oppofition to chivalry
or knight-fervice, where the render was precarious and
imcertain. The fervice muft therefore be certain, in or-
der to denominate it focage ; as to hold by fealty and
20s. rent; or, by homage, fealty, and 20s. rent ; or,
by homage and fealty without rent ; or, by fealty and
r 568 J
s o c
nure of knight- fervice. This is peculiarly remarkable
in the tenure which prevails in Kent, called gavelkind,
which is generally acknowledged to be a fpecies of fo-
cage-tenure ; the prefervation whereof inviolate from
the innovations of the Norman conqueror is a faft uni-
verfally known. And thofe who thus preferved their
liberties were faid to hold in free and common focaoe.
As therefore the grand criterion and diflinguifhing
mark of this fpecies of tenure are the having its renders
or fervices afcertained, it will include under it att other
methods of holding free lands by certain and-'invariable
rents and duties ; and in particular, Petit SERjEAN-rr,
Tenure in Burgage, and Gavelkind. See tliefe ar-
ticles.
SOCIETY, a number of rational and moral be- Defi.!iti
ings, united for theit common prefervation and happi-
nefs.
There are flioals of fiflies, herds of quadrupeds, and How fa
flocks of birds. But till obfervation enable us to de- ''ru'es s
termine with greater certainty, how far the inferior ani-
mals are able to look throut'-h a feries of means to the ftat^ ''^
end which thefe are calculated to produce, how far
their conduft may be influenced by the hope of re-
ward and the fear of punifliment, and whether they are
at all capable of moral diitinf^ions — we cannot with
propriety apply to them the term Society. We call
crows, and beavers, and feveral other fpecies of animals,
gregarious ; but it is hardly good Engliflx to fay that
they are for.ial.
It is only human fociety, then, that can become the ManJir
fubjea of our prefent invefligation. The phenomena t'ne or 1;
which it preients are highly worthy of our notice. facial b
Such are the advantages which each individual evi- !' «' ^"^
dently derives from living in a focial flatc ; and fo help-JJferva
lets does any human being appear in a fohtary flate, 4
that we are naturally led to conclude, that if there ever A focia
was a period at which mankind were folitary beings, ^^''^ ^
that period could not be of long duration f . for their ^'^'^^^
averlion to folitude and love of fociety would foon in.
duce them to enter into focial union. Such is the opi-
nion which we are led to conceive, when we compare
our own condition as members of civilized and en~
lightened fociety with that of the brutes around us, or
with that of favages in the earlier and ruder periods of
focial life. When we hear of Indians wandering naked
through the woods, deflitute of arts, unflcilled m agri-
: - ' "1 'v-'"-./ uix.wugii Ln.. wuv>us, uciiiLULc ur arcs, unuaued in ajrn-
certain corporal fervice, as ploughing the lord's land for culture, fcarce capable of moral diftinaions, Void of all
three davs : or. bv fealtv onlv without anv nt^pr ((^r. i-/>i;,r;«i,o — ^^n-.,/r..j ^i n , r .
three days ; or, by fealty only without any other fer
: for all thcfe are tenures in focage.
Socage is of two forts : /r^?-focage, where the fer-
vices are not only certain but honourable ; and vil/ein-
focage, where the fervices, though certain, are of a bafer
nature (fee Villkkjage). Such as hold by the former
tenure are called, in Glanvil and other fubfequent au-
thors, by the name of liberA fokcmanni, or tenants in free-
focage. The word is derived •from the Saxon appella-
tion /Xir, which fioniBes liberty or privilege ; and, bein-J-
joined to an ufual termination, is called focage^ in La-
tin focogium ; fignirying thereby a Iree or privileged te-
nure.
It feems probable that the focage-tenures were the
relics of Sax-on liberty; retained by fuch perfons as had
neither, forfeited them to the king, nor been obliged to
exchange their tenure for the more honourable, as it
%vas called, but at the fame time more burthenfome, te-
religious fentiments, or pofTefTed with the mofl abfurd
notions concerning fuperior pov/ers, and procuring
means of fubfiftence in a manner equally precarious with
that or the beafls of prey — we look down with pity on
their condition, or turn from it with homir. When-
we view the order of cidtivated fociety, and confider
our inflitutions, arts, and manners — we rejoice over our
fuperior wifdom and liappinefs.
Man in a civilized Ifate appears a being of a fuperior
order to man in a favage f\ate ; yet fome philofophera
tell us, that it is only he who, having been educated ia
fociety, has been taught to depend \ipon others, that
can be helpkfs or miferable wi>en placed in a fohtarv
flate. ^ They view the favage who exerts himfelf witli
intrepidity to fupply his wants, or bears them with for-
titude, as the grcateft hero, and poflefSng the greatcft
happinefs. And therefore if we agree with them, that
the propcnfities of nature may have prompted men to
7 enter
S O G
t 5^9 1
s o c
lrdin^
iitfien-
lilloiy.
enter into focml union, though they mny h^vye hoped
'■^^to enjoy fuperior fecmity and happinefa by engaging
, to protetS: and iupport each other, we mud conclude
that the Author of the univerle has delHned man to at-
tain greater dignity and happinefs in a favage and fo-
litary than in a foclal ftate ; and therelore that thofe
difpofitions and views which lead us to fociety are lal-
lacious and inimical to our real intereft.
Whatever be the fuppofed advantages of a foHtary
' ftate, certain it is that mankind, at the earlieft periods,
were united in fociety^ Various theories have been
formed concerning the circumftanccs and princlpks
vvhiqh {{ave rife to this union : hut we have elfewhere
fhown, that the greater part of them are founded in er-
j-or; that they htppofe the original ftate of man to have
bten that of favages ; and that fiich a fuppofition is con'
tradlfiled by the moft authentic records of antiquity.
For though the records ot the earlier ages are gene-
rally obfcure, fabulous, and imperfeft ; yet happily
there \s'o/te free from the ImperfeAIons of the reft, and
of undoubted authenticity, to which we may fafely have
Sm/-recourfef. This record is the Pentateuch of Mofes,
'i" 7 — which prefents us with a genuine account of the Origin
of man and of fociety, perfethly confonant to what we
J have laid down in the article referred to (fee Savage).
{late According to Mofes, the firft fociety was that of a
)ciety huftjaiid and wife united in the bonds of marriage : the
firft governrnent that of a father and huft)aad, the maf-
ter of his family. Men livedtogether under the patriar-
chal form of government while they employed themfelves
chiefly in tending flocks and herds. Children in fuch
circumftances cannot foon rife to an equality with their
parents, where a man's Importance depends on his pro-
perty, not on his abilities. When flocks and herds are
the chief articles of property, the fon can only obtain
thefe from his father; in general therefore the fon muft be
■entirely dependent on the father for the means of fubfift-
ence If the parent during his life beftow on his children
any part of his property, he may do it on fuch conditions
as fliall make their dependence upon him continue till
the period of his death When the community are by
this event deprived of tl^<^ir head, inftead of continuing
in a ftate of union, and felefting fome one from among
themfelves whom they may Inveft with the authority of
fi parent, they feparate Into fo many diftin£l tribes, each
fubjcfted to the authority of a different lord, the mafter
of the family, and the proprietor of all the flocks and
herds belonging to it. Such was the ftate of the firft
focietles which the narrative of Mofes exhibits to our
g attention,
lories of Thofe phllofophers who have made fociety. In Its va-
f'*" rious ftages between rudenefs and refinement, the fubjeft
in the their fpectilatlons, have generally confidered mankind,
ii. of in whatever region of the globe, and under whatever
climate, as proceeding uniformly through certain regu-
lar gradations from one extreme to the other. They
regard them, firft, as gaining a precarious fubfiftence by
gathering the fpontaneous fruits of the earth, preying
on the inhabitants of the waters, if placed on the fea
ftiore, or along the banks of large rivers; or hunting
wild beafts, if In a fituation where thefe are to be found
in abundance, without foreHght or Induftry to provide
for future wants when the prefent call of appetite is gra-
tified. Next, they fay, man rifes to the Ihepherd ftate,
and next to that of hufbandraeuj when they tarn their
Voi« XVII. Part IL
;t7
attention from the management of flocks to the cultc- So'"'*'*'".
vatlon of the ground. Next, thefe hufhandmen Improve '
their powers, and better Iheir condition, by becoming
artizans and merchants ; and the beginning of this pe-
riod is the boundary between barbarity and civiliza-
tion.
Thefe are the ftages through which they who have
employed themfelves en the natural hiftory of fociety
have generally condudled mankind in their progrefs
from rudenefs to refinement : but they feem to have
overlooked the manner in which mankind were at firft
eftabhfhed on this earth; for the circumftances in which
the parents of the human race were originally placed ;
for the degree of knov/ledge communicated to them j
and for the Inftruftion which they muft have been ca-
pable of communicating to their pofterity. They ra-
ther appear to confider the Inhabitants of every diffe-
rent region of the globe as aborigines, fprlnging at
firft from the ground, or dropped on the fpot which
they inhabit ; no lefs ignorant than Infants of the na-
ture and relations of the objefts around them, and of
the purpofes which they may accomplifli by the exer-
cife of their organs and faculties. , ^
The abfurdity of this theory has been fully demon- Are fanci ■
ftrated in another place : and if we agree to receive the f>jl°
Mofaic account of the original eftabliftiment of m.an.-
kind, we fhall be led to view the phenomena of foclal
life in a light very different. We muft firft allow, that
though many of the rudeft tribes are found in the ftate
p{ hunters or fibers ; yet the hunting or filhing ftate
cannot have been Invariably the primary form of fociety.
Notwithftanding the powers with which we are endow-
cd, we are In a great meafure the creatures of circum-
ftances. Phyfical caufes exert, though indireftly, a
mighty Influence In forming the character and dired-
ing the exertions of the human race. From the infor-
mation of Mofes we gather, that the firft focietles of
men lived under the patriarchal form of government,
and employed them.felves In the cultivation of the
ground and the management of flocks. And as we
know that mankind, being fubjecled to the influence
both of phyfical and moral caufes, are no lefs liable to
degeneracy than capable of improvement ; we may ea-
fily conceive, that though defcqnding all from. the fame
original pair, and though enlightened with much tradi-
tionary knowledge relative to the arts of life, the order
of fociety, moral diftindlions, and rehglous obligations;
yet as they were gradually, and by various accidents,
difperfed over the earth, being removed to fituatlons
In which the aits with which they were acquainted
could but little avail them, where Induftry was over-
powered, or indolence encouraged by the feverity or
the profufion of nature, they might degenerate and fdl
Into a condition almoft as humble and precarious as
that of the brutal tribes. Other moral caufes might
alio concur to debafe or elevate the human character in
that early period. The particular charadier of the ori-
ginal fettlers in any region, the manner in which they
were connected with one another, and the arts which
they were bcft qualified to exerclfe, with various other
caufes of a fimilar nature, would have confiderable in-
fluence in determining the charailer of the fociety.
When laying afide tlie fpint of theory and fyftem,
we fet ourielvts, with due humihty, to trace fafts, and
to lillea to evidence, though idur dllcoveries may be
4 Q fewer
s o c
, Society, fewer than we fhould otherwife fancy them; yet the
■ ■ " ' kni')wledge whicli we thus acquire will be more ufeful
and folid, and our fpeculations more confiftent with the
fpirit of true philofopliy. Here, though we learn from
the information ot the facrcd writings, that the firlt
family of mankind was not cruelly expofed in this
world, as children ->vhom the inhumanity of their parents
induces them to defert ; yet we are not, in confequence
of admitting^ this faft, laid under any neceffity of deny-
incT or explaining away any of the other phenomena
which occur to our obftrvation when tracing the natu.
ral hiilory of fociety. Tradition may be corrupted ;
arts and fciences may be loll ; the fublimell religious
doftrines may be debated into abfurdity.
If- then we are defnous of furveying fociety in ics ru-
deft form, we mull look, not to the earlieft period of
its exiftence, but to thofe diftrifts of the globe where
external circumftances concur to drive them into a ftate
of ftupidity and wretchednefs. Thus in many places of
the happy clime of Afui, which a variety of ancient re-
cords concur with the facred writings in reprefentiii^
as the lirft peopled quarter of the globe, we cannot trace
the form of lociety backwards beyond the fliepherd
ftate. In that {late indeed the bonds which connect
focie~ty extend not to a wide" range of individuals, and
men remain for a long period in diftinil families ; but
S yet that ftate is highly favourable to knowledge, to
Yeti^ fome happinefs, aad to virtue'. Again, the torrid and the
^I'fta"'"" rci^Ions of the earth, though probably peopled
realized.' ^ \&tec period, and by tribes fprung from the fame
ftock with the fliepherds of Afia, have yet exhibited
mankind in a much lower ftate. It is hi the parched
deferts of Africa and the wilds of Aaierica that human
beings have been tound in a condition approaching the
neareft to that of the brutes.
We may therefore with fome propriety defert the
order of time, and take a view of the different fta^ts
through which philolophers have confidered mankind
as advancing, beginning with that of rudenefs, though
we have fhown that it cannot have been the firft in
the progrefs.
Where the human fpecies are found in the loweft
and rudeft ftate, their rational and mora! powers are very
faintly difplayed ; but their external fenfes are acute,
and tlieir bodily organs aClive and vigorous. Hunting
and fiihing are then their chief employments on which
they depend for fupport. During that portion of their
time which is not fpent in thefe purfuits, they are funk
in illUefs indolence. Deftitute of forefight, they are
roofed to aftive exertion only by the preffure of imme-
diate neceffity or the urgent calls of appetite. Accuf-
tomed to endure the feverity of tlie elements, and but
fcantily provided with the means of fubfiftence, they ac-
quire habits of rehgnation and fortitude, which are be-
htld with aftonifhment by thofe who enjoy the plenty
and indulgence of cultivated life. But in this ftate of
want and depreffion, when the powers and pofleffions of
every individual are fcarce fufficient for his own fup-
portv^ when even the calls of appetite are repreffed be-
caiife they cannot alv/ays be gratified, and the more re-
fined pailions, which either originate from fuch as arc
merely animal, or are intimately connedled with them,
have not yet been felt — in this ftate all the milder af-
fe£tions are unknown ; or i'^ the breafl is at all fenfible to
their impulfe^ it is eiftremely fteble. Hufband axid
f 57^ I
s o c
Rudeft ftate
or firft
tlage of
fociety.
wife, parent and child, brother and brother, are united So
by the weakeft ties. Want and misfortune are not
pitied. Why indeed fhould they, where they cannot
be relieved ? It is impoflible to determine how far be-
iiigs in this condition can be capable of moral diftinc.
tions. One thing certain is, that in no ftate are the
human race entirely incapable of thefe. If we hften,
however, to the relations of refpeftable travellers, we
muft . admit that human beings have fometimes been
found in that abjefl ftate where no proper ideas of fnb-
ordination, government, or dillindlion of ranks, could be
formed. No diftinft notions of Deity can be here enter-
tained. Beings in fo humble a condition cannot look
through the order of the univerfe and the harmony of
nature to that Eternal Wifdom and Goodnefs which
contrived, and that Almighty Power which brought
into exiftence, the fyilem of things. Of arts they muft
be almoit totally deftitute. They may ufe fome inftru-
ments for fifning or the chace ; but thefe muft be ex-
tremely rude and fimple. If they be acquainted with
any means to ftielter them from the inclemency of the
elements, both their houfes and clothing will be auk-
ward and inconvenient.
But human beings have net been often found in fo^^cc
rude a ftate as this. Even thofe tribes wkich we deno-
minate favage, are for the moft part farther removed pr^c
f rom mere animal life. - They generally appear united ibcie
under fome fpecies of government, exercHlng the powers
of reafon, capable of morality, though that m.orah'cy be
not always very refined ; difplaying fome degree of fo-
cial virtues, and afting under thcinfluence of religious
fentiments. Thofe u'ho may be confidered as but one
degree higher in the fcale than the ftupid and wretched
beings whofe condition we have furveycd, are to be
found ftill in the hunting and fifhing ftate ; but they
are farther advanced towards focial life, and are become
more fenfible to the impulfe of focial affeClion. By
unavoidable intercourfe in their employments, a few in«
dividual hunters or fifhers coptraft a certain degree of
fandnefs for each other's company, and are led to take
fome part in each other's joys and forrows ; and whea
the focial afFeftions thus generated (fee Passion) be-
gin to exert themfelves, all the other powers of the
mind are at the fame time called forth, and the cir-
cumftances of the little fociety are immediately impro-
ved. We behold its members in a more comfortable
condition, and find reafon to view the human cbaradler
with more complacency and refpeft. Huts are now
built, more commodisus clothes are fafhioned, inffru-
mcnts for the annoyance of wild beafts and even of
enemies are contrived ; in fhort, arts, and fcience, and
focial order, and religious fentiments, and ceremonies,
now make their appearance in the rifing fociety, and
fervc to charafterize it by the particular form which
diftinguiflies each of them. But though focial order
is no longer unknown nor unobferved, yet the form of
government i& ftill extremely fimple, and its ties are but
loofe and feeble. It will perhaps bear fome refemblance
to the patriarchal ; only all its members are on a moi-e
equal footing, and at the fame time lefs clofely con-
nefted than in the fhepherd ftate, to which that form of
government feems almoft peculiar. The old men are
treated with veneration ; but the young are not entire-
ly fubjeft to them. They may liflen refpeftfully to
their advice j but they do not fubmit to iheir arbitrary
commandSi
S O C [ 57^ ] S O C
commands. Where mankind are m the ftate of hun- riod in the hiftory of every nation,
ters and fifhers, where the means of fubfiftence are pre-
carioufly acquired, and prudent foreiight does not
prompt to accumulate iiuich ptovlfion for the future,
no individual can acquire comparative wealth. As foon
as the fon is grown up, he ceafes to be dependent on
his father, as well as on the fociety in general. Diffe-
rence of experience therefore conftitutes the only di-
llin£lion between the -young and the old ; and it the
old have experience, the young have ftrength and acti-
vity. Here, then, neither age nor property can give
rife to zfiy ftriking diilinftion of ranks. All who have
attained to manhood, and are not difabled by unufual
deficiency of ftrength or agility, or by the infirmities of the difference of circumftances always enables us to ac
old a?e are on an equal footing ; or if any one polfefs count in a fatisfaftory maimer for the diftinftion of theii
The charadlers and Society,
circumftances of nations are fcarce lefs various and ano- — — >r~*~
malous than thofe of individual*. Among many of
the American tribes among the ancient inhabitants of
the forefts of Germany, whofe manners have been fo ac-
curately delineated by the mafterly pen of Tacitus, and
in fome of the iflands icattered over the fouthern ocean,
religion, arts, and government, have been found in that
ftate which we have defcribed as characterizing the fc-
cond ftage of fecial life. But neither can we pretend
that all thofe fimple and rude fucieties have been de-
fcribed by hiftorians and travellers as agreeing precifely
in their arts, manners, and religious fentiments ; or that
a pre-eminence over the reft, he owes it to fuperior ad-
drefs or fortitude. The whole tribe deliberate ; the old
give their advice ; each individual of the aflembly re-
ceives or rejeds it at his pleafure (for the whole body
think not of exercifing any compulfatory power over
the will of individuals) ; and the warrior who is moft
diftinguifhed for ftrength, addrefs, and valour, leads out
the youth of the tribe to the chace or againft the ene-
my. War, which in the former- ftage did not prevail,
as- they who were ftrangers ta focial fentiments vi^ere,
at the fame time, fcarce capable of being enemies, iiow
firft begins to depopulate the thinly inhabited regions
where thofe hunters and fifhers purfae their prey. They
are fcattered, poflibly in fcanty and feparate tribes, over
an immenfe traft of country ; but they know no me-
dium between the affeftiou which brethren of the fame
tribe bear to each other and the hatred of enemies.
Though thinly fcattered over the earth, yet the hunt-
ing parties of different tribes will fometimes meet ag
they range the for^;fts ; and when they meet, they will
naturally" view each other with a jealous eye; for the
fucccfs of the one party in the chace may caufe the
other to be unfuccefsful ; and while the one fnatches
the prey, the other muft return home to all the pangs'
of famine. Inveterate hoftility will therefore long pre-
vail among neighbouring tribes in the hunting ftate.
If we find them not incapable of focial order, we
may naturally expeft that their condud v/i\l be influ-
enced by fome fentiments of religion. They have at
this period ideas of fuperior beings. They alfo prac-
tife certain ceremonies to recommend them to thofe be-
ings ; but both their fentiments and ceremonies are fu-
pei-ftitious and abfurd.
We have elfewhere ftiown (fee Polytheism) how
favage tribes have probably degenerated from the pure
worfhip of the one true God to the ador ation of a
multitude of imaginary divinities in heaven, earth, and
hell. We have traced this idolatrous worfhip from that
of the heavenly bodies, through all the gradations of
their
charafters. There is a variety of fads in the hiftory of
the early periods of fociety, which no ingenuity, no in-
duftry however painful, can reduce under general heads.
Hei'e, as well as when we attejnpt to philoiophize on
the phenomena of the material world, we lind reafon to
confefs that our powers are weak, and our obfervatioa
confined within a narrow fphere.
But we may now carry our riews a little forward, -pj^jj-j {[^g^
and furvey human life as approaching ibmewhat nearer in the pro-
to a civilized and enlightened ftate. As pi-operty is ac-g5tfs of fo-
quired, inequality and fubordination of ranks neceffarily '."^
tollow : and wiien men are no longer equal, trie manypfp.Qpg^^y
are foon fubjefted to the will of the few. But what and inequa-
gives rife to thefe new phenomena is, that after having I'ty of
often fuftered from the precarioufnefs of the hunting ""^"^^'^P'
and fifhing ftate, men begin to extend their cares be-^^*'^'
yond the prefent moment, and to think of providing
fome fupply for future wants. When they are enabled
to provide fuch a fupply, either by purfuing uie chace
with new eagernefs and perfeverance, by gathering the
fpontaneous fruits of the earth, or by breeding tame
animals — thefe acquifitions ar-e at firft the property of
the whole fociety, and dlltrlbuted from a common {tore
to each individual according to his wants : But as va-
rious reafons will foon concur to convince the commu-
nity, that by this mode of diftributlon, induftry and ac-
tivity ai-e treated with injaftice, while negligence and
indolence receive more than their due, each individual
will in a fhort time become his own fteward, and a
community of goods will be abolifhed. As foon as di- '
ftindt ideas of property^ are formed, it muft be unequal-
ly diftributedr ; and as foon as property- is unequally dl-
ltrlbuted, there arifes an inequality of ranks. Hei'e we
have the origin of the depreffion of the female fex in
rude ages, of the tyrannical authority exercifed by pa-
rents over their chlldi-en, and pei'haps of flavery. The
women cannot difplay the fame perfeverance, or adtivi-
ty, or addrefs, as the men in purfuing the chace. They
ai-e therefore left at home : and from that moment are
daemon-worfhip, hero-woi-fhip, and ftatue- worfhip, to no longer equals, but flaves and dependants, who muft
that wonderful inftance of abfurd fuperftition which in-
duced the inhabitants of fome countries to fall proftrate
in adoration before the vileft reptiles. But though we
are convinced that the heavenly bodies have by all ido-
laters been confidered as their firft and greateft gods,
we pretend not that the progrefs through the other
ft?.ges of polythelfm has been everywhere in the very
fame order. It is inde.ed impofTible to exhibit under
one general view an account of arts, manners, and reh-
fubfift by the bounty , of the males, and muft therefore
fubmit with implicit obedience to all their capricious
commands. Even before the era of property, the fe-
male fex were viewed as inferiors; but till that period
they were not reduced to .a ftate of abject flavery.
In this period of fociety new notions are formed of
the relative duties. Men now become citizens, mafters,
and fervants ; hufbands, parents, &c. It is ImpofTible
to enumerate all the "various modes of a,ovtrnmenL
gk)U3 fentimeaits, -vvhich may apply to fome certain pe- which take place among the tribes who have advanced
4 C 2 to
S O C [57
to this ftacrc ; but one thing cettain is, that the autho-
rity of the few over the many is now fiift eftabhfiied,
and that the rife of property iirft introduces inequality
of ranks. In one phce, we fhall perhaps find the com^
numity fubjed^ed during this period to the will of a
firigle peifon ; in another, power may be lodged in the
bands of a number of chiefs; air.d in a third, every indi-
vidual may have a voice in crenting public officers, and
in enafting laws for the fupport of pubh'c order. But
as no cede of laws is formed during this period, juf-
tice is not very impartially adminiftered, nor are the
txgiits of individuals very faithfully guarded. Many ac-
tions, vihich will afterwards be conjidered as lieinouOy
immoral, are now conhdered as praife- worthy or indil:-
fci-ent. This is tlie age of hero-worlliip, and of houfe-
hold and tutelary gods ; for it is in this ft age of focicty
that the invention of arts, which gave riJe to tliat wor-
fhip, contributes rrjoit confpicuoufly to the public good.
War, too, which we confidered as beginning firft to i-a-
vage the earth during- the form.er period, and which is
another caufe of the dei'i c-^tion ot dead men, will Ilill
prevail in this age, and be carried on with no lefs fero-
city than before, though in a mote fyilematic form.
T he prevalence of war, and the means by which fub-
fiftence is procured, c:mnot but have confiderablc influ-
ence on the charafter and lentiments of focieties and in-
dividuals. The hunter and the wairior are charafters
in many refpec\s different from the {hepherd and the
hufbandman. Such, in point of government, arts, and
manners, religious and moral feutiments, were feveral of
the German tribes defcribed by Tacitus ; and the Bri-
tons whofe chavafter has been flietched by the pen of
Cajfar : fuch, too, were the Romans in the early period
of their I'Jflory; fuch too the inhabitants of Afia Minor
about the time of the fiege of Troy, as well as the Greeks
whom Homer celebrates as" the dcllroyers of the Tro-
jan ftate ; the nortliern tribes alfo, who poiued thro'
Afia, Africa, and Eun^pe, and overthrew the Roman
•empire, appear to have been of a nearly fimilar charac-
ter. It fcems to be a general opinion aniong thofe
who have dircfled their attention to the hiftory of fo-
ciety, that, in the fcale afccnding from the loweil con-
dition of hurnan beings to the moft civilized and en-
lightened ifate of focicty, the fnepheid flate is the next
in order above the hunting ; and that as mankind im-
prove in knowledge and in moral fentiments, and as the
forefts are gradually depopulated of their inhabitants,
inftcad of deftroying the inferior animals, men become
their guardians and proteilcors. But we cannot unre-
fervedly fiibfcribe to this opinion : we believe, that in
tlie Ihepherd ftate focieties have been fametimes found
fuperior t® the moll polifhed tribes of hunters ; but
upon viewing the annals of mankind in early ages, we
obferve that tliere is often no inconfiderable refemblance
even between hunters and fliepherds in point of the im-
provement of the rational faculties and the moral fenfe
and we are therefore led to think, that thefe two ftates
are fometimes parallel : for inilance,. feveral of the, Ai-
metican tribes, who ftill procure their fubfiilence by
hunting, appear to be nearly in the ftate which v/e have
defcribed as the third ftage in the progr'efs of fociety j
and the flncient Ihepherds of Afia do not appear to have,
been much more cultivated and refined. We even be-
Jieve that men have fometimes turned their attention
from huating to. ?.oriciilturc without paiBng through
Sori
i»
culture
2 ] S O G
any intermediate ftate. Let us remember, that much
depends upon local circumftances, and fomewhat un.
douhtedly on original infplration and traditionary in-
ftriidion. In this period of fociety the ftate of the
arts well deferves our attention. We fhall find, that
the fliepherds and the hunters are in that refpeft on a
pretty equal footing. Whether we examine the records
of ancient hiftory, or view the iflands fcattered through
the South Sea, or range the wilds of America, or fur-
vey the fnowy waftes of Lapland and the frozen coall:
ot Greenland — ftill we find the ufeful arts m this pe-
riod, though known and cultivated, in a vei-y rude ftate;
and the fine arts, or fuch as are cultivated merely to
pleafe the fancy or to gratify caprice, difplaying an pdd
and fantaftic, not a true or natural, taffe ; yet this is
tlie period in which eloquence fliines with tlie trueft
luftrp : all is metaphor or glov^ ing fentiment. Lan-
guages are not yet copious ; and therefore fpeech is
f^gnuative, exprcffive, and forcible, llie tones and gef-
tures of nature, not being yet laid afide, as they gene-
rally are, from regard to decorum, in more poliflied
ages, give a degree of force and expreflion to the ha-
rangues of the ruftic or favage orator, which the mofl
laborious ftudy of the rules of rhetoric and elocution
could not enable _ even a more poliftied orator to dif-
play.
But let us advance a little farther, and contemplate Fourtfi
our fpecies in a new light, where they will appear with f^^?/ J
greater dignity and amiablenefs of charafter. Let us ^'"'^"^^
view them as hufbandmen, artizans, and legiflators. nfli;
Whatever circumifanccs might turn the attention of arts
any people from hunting to agriculture, or caufe the^"^'*^'^'
herdfman to yoke his oxen for the ctdtivation of the^"^"\^
ground, certain it is that this change in the occupation ^/.^yenj
w^ould produce an happy change on the character and ment a
circumftances of men; it would oblige them to exert ''"^^'^'^'^
a more regular and perfeveriug induiiry. The himter
is like one of thofe birds that are defcribed as pafluig
the winter in a torpid ftate. The fhepherd's life is ex-
tremely indolent. Neither of thefe is very favourable
to refinement. But different is the condition of the
hufbandman. His labours fucceed each other in resiu-
lar rotation through the year. Each feafon with him
has its proper employments : he therefore muft exert
adive perfevering induftry ; and in this ftate wc often
find the virtues of rude and pohftied ages united. This
is the period v/here barbarifm ends and civilization
begins. Nations have exifted for ages in the hunt-
ing or the fhephcrd ftate, fixed as by a kind of llagna-.
tion, without advancihg farther. But fcarce aay in-
ftances occur in the hiftory of mankind of thofe who
once reached the ftate of hufbandmen, remaining long
in that condition without rifing to a more civilized and
polifhed ftate. Where a people turn their attention in
any confidefable degree to the objeds of agriculture, a
diltinftion of occupations naturally arifes am.ong them.
I'he hufbandman is fo clofely employed thro' the feve-
ral feafons of the year in the labours of the field, that
he has no longer leifure to exercife all the rude arts
known among his countrymen. He has- not time to
fafhion the inftruments of hufbandry, to prepare his
clothesj to build his houfe, to manufafture houfehold
utenfils,. or to tend thofe, tame animals whkh he con-
tinues to rear. Thofe different departments therefore
now begiu to employ differeat perfons j each of whom
2 dedicates
S O G
[ 573 ]
S O G
dedicates \ih whole time and attention to hl3 owo oc-
cupation. The maniifafture of cloth is for a confider-
^ble time managed exclufively by the women ; but fmiths
and joiners arifc from amonof the men. Metals bcgm
now to be confidered as valuable materials. The inter-
courfe of mankind is now placed on a new footing;. Be-
fore, every individual praftifed all the arts that were
known, as far as was neceffary for fupplying himfelf
with the conveniences of life. Now he confines him-
felf to one or to a few of them ; and, in order to ob-
tain a neceffary fupply of the produftians of thole arts
which he does not cultivate himfelf, he gives
change a part of the produdlons of his own labours.
Here we have the origin of commerce.
After continuing peihaps for fome time in this ilate,
as arts and diftlnftions multiply in fociety, the ex-
chancre of one commodity for another is found troii-
blefome and inconvenient. It is ingenioufly^ contri-
ved to adopt a medium of commerce, which being efti-
inated not by its Intrlnfic value, but by a certain nomi-
nal value which it receives from the agreement of the
fociety among whom it is ufed, ferves to render the ex-
change of property, which is fo neceffary for the pur-
pofes of focial life, eafy and expeditious. Wherever me.
tals have been known, they appear to have been adopt-
ed as the medium of commerce almoft as foon as fuch a
medium began to be ufed : and this is one important
purpofe for which they ferve ; but they have ftlll more
important ufes. Almoft all the neceffary arts depend
on them. Where the metals are known, agriculture
praaifed, and the neceffary arts diftributcd among diffe-
rent orders of artifans— civilization and refinement, if
not obftruded by fome accidental cireumftances, ad-
vance with a rapid progrefs. With regard to the firil
applying of the precious metals as the medium o! com-
merce, we may obferve, that this was probably not ac-
complifhed by means of a formal contradt. They might
be firft ufed as -ornaments ; and the love of orna-
ment, which prevails among rude as much as among
civilized nations, would render every one willing to re-
ceive them in exchange for fuch articles as he coald
fpare. Such might be the change produced on fociety
with regard to the neceffary arts by the origin of agri-
culture. As foon as ornament and amufement are
thought of, the fine arts begin to be cultivated. In
their origin therefore they are not long pofterior to the
neceffary and ufeful arts. They appear long before men
Kach the comfortable and refpcftable condition of huf-
bandmen ; but fo rude is their charafter at theii firil
origin, that our Dikttand would probably view their
produftions of that period with unfpeakable contempt
9nd difguft. But in the period of fociety which we
now confider, they have afpired to an higher charafter;
yet poetry is now perhaps lefs generally cuUIvated than
during the fiiepherd ftate. Agriculture, confidered by
itfclf, is not direaiy favourable either to refinement of
manners or to the fine arts. The converfation of (hep-
herds is generally fuppofcd to be far more -elegant than
that of hufbandmen ; but though the dIrcA and imme-
diate effefts of this condition of life be not favourable
to the fine arts, yet indiredly it has a ftrong tendency
to promote their improvement. Its immediate influ-
ence is extremely favourable to the neceffary and ufe-
ful arts ; and thefe are uo leis iavourable to the fine
arts.
One of the nobleft changes^which the introduition of Society,
the arts by agriculture produces on the form and cir- ^—
cumffances ot fociety, is the introdudion of regular go-
vernment and laws. In tracing the hiftory of' ancient
nations, we fcarce ever find laws introduced at an ear-
lier period. Minos, Solon, and Lycurgus, do not ap-
pear to have formed codes of >vifdom and jufticc for re-
gulating the manners of their countrymen, till after the •
Cretans, the Athenians, and even the Lacedemonian?,
had made fome progrefs in agriculture and the uftful
arts.
ex- Religion, under all its various forms, has in every
ftage oF fociety a mighty influence on the fentiments
and conduft of men (^fee Religion) ; and the arts cul-
tivated in fociety have on the other hand fome' influ*
ence on the fyftem of religious belief. One happy ef-
fe£t which will refult from the invention of arts, though
perhaps not immediately, will be, to render the charac-
ter of the deities more benevolent and amiable, and the
rites of their worflilp more mild and humane.
The female fex In this period generally find the yoke
of their flavery fomewhat lightened. Men now become
eafier in their circumilances; the fecial affedlions affurae
ftronger influence over the mind ; plenty, and fecurlty,
and eafe, at once communicate both delicacy and keen-
nefs to the fenfual defiies. All thefe circumilances con-
cur to make men relax in fome degree that tyrannic
fway by which they before deprefied the fofter fex.
The foundation of that empire, where beauty triumphs
over both wifdom and ftrength, now begins to be laid.
Such are the effects which hiftory warrants us to attri-
bute to agriculture and the arts ; and fuch the outlines
of the charadler of that which we reckon the fourth
ftage in the progrefs of fociety from rudenefs to refine-
ment. I;^
Let us advance one ftep farther. We have not yet Fifth ftager'
furveyed mankind in their moft pollijied and cultivated ^^j^^'^'^
ftate. Society is rude at the period when the arts firft p'^j^^y.
begin to fliow themfelves, in compariibn of that ftate which H-
to which it is raifed by the indullrious cultivation c: terature,
them. The neighbouring commonwealths of Athens ^''.''^^^J^^
and Lacedemon afford us a happy opportunity of c'^^- nmlh
paring this with the former ftage in the pro,|refs of fo- cu'tivared,
cictv. The chief effedt produced by the inftitutions of aid reUj.!;ion ■
Lycurgus feems to have been, to fix the manners of ^'^l^'^^* ^
countrymen for a confiderable period in that ftate to "i^^'^-jging
which they had attained In his days. Spartan virtue ^fpga.
has been admired and extolled in the language of en-
thufiafm ; but in the fame manner has the chara<9;er
and the condition of the favage inhabitants of the wilds
of A merica, been preferred by fome philofophers, to the
virtues and the enjoyments of focial life in the moft po-
liced and enlightened ftate. The Spartans in the days
of Lycurgus had begun to cultivate the ground, and
were not unacquainted with the ufeful arts. They
muft foon have advanced farther had not Lycurgus ari-
fen, and by effc6ling the eftabllfhment of a code of laws,
the tendency of which appears to have been in many
particulars directly oppofite to the defigns of nature,
retarded their pro<>refs towards complete civilization
and refinement. The hiftory of the Lacedemonians,
therefore, while the laws of Lycur^jius continued in-
loice, exhibits the manners and character of a people in
that which we have denominated the fourth ftage in the
progrefs of fociety. But if we turn our eyes to their;
neigh*
s o c
Sociftv.
[ 574 ]
S O G
neigliljours tKe Athenians, we behold In their hiftory
the natural progrefs of opinions, arts, and manners.
The ufeful arts are firft cultivated witli fuch fteady in-^
duftry, as to raife the community to opulence, and to
furnlfh them with articles for commerce with foreign
nations. The ufeful arts cannot be raifed to this height
of improvement without leading men to the purfuit of
fcicnce. Commerce with foreign nations, flcill in the
ufeful arts, and a tafte for fcience, mutually aid each
other, and confpire to promote the improvement of the
fine arts. Hence magnificent buildings, noble ftatues,
paintings expreffive of life, a<£lion, and pafllon ; and
poems in which imagination adds new grace and fubli-
mity to nature, and gives the appearances of focial life
more irrefiftible power over the afFtdlions of the heart.
Hence are moral diftinftions more carefully ihidied, and
the rights of every individual and every order in fociety
better underftood and more accurately defined. Moral
icience is generally the firft fcientific purfuit which
ftrongly attrafts the attention of men. Lawgivers ap-
pear before geometricians and aftroiiomers. Some par-
ticular circumftances may caufe thefe fciences to be cul-
tivated at a very early period. In Egypt the overflow-
ing of the Nile caufed geometry to be early cultivated.
Caufes no lefs favourable to the ftudy of aftronomy,
concurred to recommend that fcience to the attention of
the Chaldeans long before they had attained the height
of refinement. But, in general, we find, that the laws
of morality are underftood, and the principles of morals
inquired into, before men make any confiderable progrefs
in phyfical fcience, or even profecute it with any degree
of keennefs. Accordingly, when we view the ftate of
literature in this period (for it is now become an objeft
of io much importance as to force itfelf on our atten-
tion), we perceive that poetry, hiftory, and morals, are
the branches chiefly cultivated. Arts are generally
cafual inventions, and long praclifed before rules and
principles on which they are founded afl'ume the form
of fcience. But morality, if coniidered as an art, is
that art which men have fooneft and moftconftantly oc-
cafion to pradlife. Befides, we are fo conftituted by
the wifdom of nature, that human adlions, and the events
which befal human beings, have more powerful influ-
ence than any other objeft to engage and fix our at-
tention. Hence we are enabled to explain why mora-
lity, and thofe branchea of literature more immediately
connefted with it, are almoft always cultivated in prefe-
rence to phyfical fcience. Though poetry, hiftory, and
morals, be puifued with no fmall eagernefs and fuccefs
in that period of fociety which we now confider, we
need not therefore be greatly furprifed that natii-
Yiil philofophy is neither very generally nor very fuccefs-
fjdiy cultivated. Were we to confider each particular
in that happy change which is now produced on the
circumftances of mankind, we Ihould be led into a too
minute and perhaps unimportant detail. This is the
period when human virtue and human abihties fhine with
moft fplendour. Rudenefs, ferocity, and barbarifm, are
now banilhed. Luxury has made her appearance ; but
as yet {lie is the friend and the benefadtrefs of fociety.
Commerce has ftimulated and rewarded induftry, but
has not yet contra6ted the heart and debafed the cha-
racier. Wealth is not yet become the fole objeft of
purl lilt. The charms of focial inteicourfe are known
sjid rcliftied ; but domeftic duties are not yet deferted
for public amufements. The female fex acquii-e new
Influence, and contribute much to refine aud polifh the
manners of their lords. Religion nov^' an"umes a milder
and more pleafrng form ; fplendid rites, magnificent
temples, pompous factifices, and gay feftivals, give even
fuperftuion an influence favourable to the happinefs of
mankind. The gloomy notions and barbar-qus rites of
former periods fall into difufe. The fyftem of theoloo-y
produced in former ages ftill remains : but only the mild
and amiable quahties of the deities are celebrated ; and
n©ne but the gay, humane, and laughing divinities, are
worfhipped. Philofophy alfo teaches men to difcar-d
fuch parts of their religion as are unfriendly to good
morals, and have any tendency to call forth or cherifh
unfocial fentiments iu the heart. War ( for in this pe-
riod of fociety enough of caufes will arile to arm one
nation agalnft another) — war, however, no longer retains
its former fei-ocity ; nations no longer ftrive to extirpate
one another ; to procure redrefs for real or imaginary
injuries ; to humble, not to deftroy, is now its objeft.
Prifoueys are no longer murdered in cold blood, fub-
jefted to horrid and excruciating tortures, or condemn-
ed to hopelefs llavery. They are ranfomed or exchan-
ged ; they return to their country, and again fight un-
der its banners. In this period the arts of government
are likewife better underftood, and praftifed fo as to
contribute moft to the interefts of fociety. Whether
monarchy, or democracy, or ariftocracy, be the efta-
bhlhed form, the rights of individuals and of focie-
ty are in general r-efpe6ted. The interefts of feciety
are fo well underftood, that the few, in order to pre-
fer-ve their influence over the many, find it neceflary to
ad rather as the faithiul forvants than the imperious
lords (if the public. Though the hberties of a nation
in thia ftate be not accurately defined by law, nor their
property guaranteed to them by any legal inftitutions,
yet their governors dare not violate their liberties, nor
deprive them wantonly of their properties. This is tru-
ly the golden age of fociety : every trace of barbarifm
is entirely effaced ; and vicious luxury has not yet be-
gun to fap the virtue and the happinefs of the commu-
nity. Men live not in hftlefs indolence ; but the Induftry
In which they are engaged is not of inch a nature as to
overpower their ftrength or exhauft their fplrits. The
focial aifedions have now the ftrongcft influence on
mens fentiments and conduft.
But human affairs are fcarce ever ftationary. Theo^^..,
circumftances of mankind are almoft always changing, and de
either growing better or worfe. Their manners are ever °f ^"^'^
in the fame fludtuating ftate. They either advance to-
wards perfedlion or degenerate. Scarce have they at-
tained that happy period in which we have juft contem-
plated them, when they begin to decline till they per-
haps fall back Into a ftate nearly as low as that from
which we luppofe them to have emerged. Inftances
of this unhappy degeneracy occur more than once in
the hiftory of mankind ; and we rray finilh this fhort
flvetch of the hiftory of fociety by mentioning in what
manner this degeneracy takes place. Perhaps, ftridly
fpeaking, every thing but the firaple neceffaries of life
may be denominated luxury : For a long time, how-
ever, the welfare of fociety is beft promoted, while its
members afpire after fomething more than the mere ne-
ceffar-ies of life. As long as thefe fnpei-fluities are to
be obtained only by adive and hoiieft exertion ; as long
as
14
epen
S G C [
• as they only enwa^c^e the leifure hours, without beco-
mmq the chiel" objects of purfuit — the employment
which they pjve to the faculties is favourable both to
the virtue and the happinefs of the human race.
The period arrives, however, when luxury is no long-
er ferviceable to the interefts of nations ; when (lie is
no longer a graceful, elegant, aftive form, but a lan-
guid, overgrown, and bloated carcafe. It is the love
of luxury, which contributed fo much to the civiliza-
tton of fociety, that now brings on its decline. Arts
are cultivated and improved, and commerce extended,
till enormous opulence be acquired : the effcA of opu-
lence is to awake the fancy, to conceive ideas of new
and capricious wants, and to inflame the breaft with
new defires. Here we have the origin of that felfiHi-
nefs which, opeiatino; in conjuncftion with caprice and
the violence of unbridled paflions, contributes fo mucli
to the corruption of virtuous manners. Selfifhnefs, ca-
price, indolence, effeminacy, all join to loofen the bonds
of fociety, to bring on the degeneracy both of the ufe-
ful and the fine arts, to banifli at once the mild and the
auftere virtues, to dellroy civil order and fiibordination,
and to introduce in their room anarchy or defpotxfm.
Scarce could we have found an example of the beau-
tiful form of fociety which we laft attempted to defcrlbe.
Never, at leafl;, has any nation continued long to enjoy
fuch happy circumftances, or to difplay fo amiable ai-id
refpeftable a charadler. But when we fpeak of the de-
chning ftate of fociety, we have no difficulty in finding
inftances to which we may refer. Hiftory tells of the
Affyrians, the Egyptians, and the Perfians, all of them
once flourlfltiing nations, but brought low by luxury
and an unhappy corruption of manners. The Greeks,
the Romans, and the Arabians, owed their fall to the
fame caufcs ; and we know not if a fimilar fate does
not now threaten many-of thofe nations who have long
made a diftinguifhed figure in the fyftem of Europe.
The Portuguefe, the Venetians, and the Spaniards,
have already fallen ; and what is the prefent ftate of our
neighbours the French ? They have long been a people
deftitutc of religion, corrupted in morals, unfteady in
conduA, and (laves to pleafure and public amufements.
Among them luxury had 'arrived at its higheft pitch ;
and the confequence has been, that after capricioufly
(baking ofi' the yoke of defpotifra, they have eftablilhed,
or rather fet up (for eftablifhed it cannot be), a motely
kind of government, which, in the courfe of a few
years, has exhibited fcenes of tyranny and opprefTion, to
which we doubt if the annals of the world can furnifh
any parallel. Yet this is the people whofe manners the
other nations of Europe were ambitious to imitate.
May thofe nations take v/arninnr in time, and avoid the
rocks upon which they have fpht.
ding Thus have we viewed the feveral ftages In which fo-
clety appears in its progrefs from rudenefs to refine-
ment and decay. The Intelligent reader will perceive,
that the various- and anomalous phenomena which occur
in the natural hiftory of fociety, cannot ealily be fol-
ved ; becaufe the ncceffary information cannot be ob-
tained. Others have been well accounted for by the
refearches of curious phllofophlcal Inquirers. Local
circumftances, the influeuce of climate, the intcrcourfe
of nations in different ftates of civilization, have been
iaken notice of, as caufeg fer.ving to" accelerate or retard
575
3 s o c
the progrefs of arts and manners. But our proper bu-
finefs here was merely to mark the gradations between
barbarlfm and refinement : and as the painter v;ho Is to
exhibit a ferles of portraits reprefenting the human
form in infancy, puerility, youth, and manhood, will
not think of delineating all that variety of fii^ures and
faces which each of thofe periods of life affords, and
will find hirafelf unable to reprefent in any fingle
figure all diverfitles of form and features ; fo we have
not once thought of defcribing particularly under this
article, all the various national charafters reducible to
any one of thofe divlftons under which we have viewed
the pH^refs of fociety, nor have found It poflible to
comprehend luider one confiftent view, all the particu-
lars wj^jch may be gathered from the remains of anti-
quity ^Tom the relations of later travellers, and the ge«
neial records of hldory concerning the progrefTive cha-
racter of mankind In various regions, and under the In-
fluence of various accidents and circumftances. This
indeed would have even been Improper, as all that in-
formation appears under other articles m this Work.
SOCIETIES, aftbeiations voluntarily formed by a
number of Individuals for promoting knowledge, Induftry,
or virtue. They may therefore be divided into three claf-
fes; focieties for promoting fclence and hterature, focle-
tles for encouraging and promoting arts and manufac-
tures, and focieties for diffufing religion and morality and
relieving; diftrefs. Societies belonging to the firft clafs ex-
tend their attention to all the fclences and literature in
general, or devote it to one particular fclence. The
lame obfervation may be applied to thofe which are in-
ftituted for improving arts and manufaftures. Thofe
of the third clafs are eftablifhed^ either witli a view to-
prevent crimes, ae the Philanthropic Society ; for the
diftufion of the Chrlftian rellj^IsH among unenlightened
nations, as the Society for the Propagation of-the Gofpel
in Foreign Parts; or for introducing arts and civiliza.
tion; along with a knowledge of the Chrlftian religion,
as the Sierra Leona company.
The honour of planning and iuftituting focieties
for thofe valuable purpofes is due to modern times.
A literary aflbciatlon Is faid to have been formed in the
reipTi of Charlemagne (fee'AcADEMy ) ; but the plan
feeras to have been rude and defeftive. Several others
were Inftltuted in Italy In the L6th century ; but from
the accounts which we have fcen of them, they fecm to-
have been far inferior to thofe which are moft flourlfhing
at prefent. The moft enlarged idea of literary focietlea-
feems to have originated. with the great Lord Bacon, the
father of modern philofophy, who recommended to the
reigning prince to Inftltute focieties of learned men, who-
fhould give to the world from time to time a regular
account of their refearches and difcoveries. It was the
idea of this great phllofopher, that the learned world
flrould be united, as it were, into on^: immenfe republic;
which, though coniifting of many detached ftates, fhould
hold a ftri(St union and preferve a m.utual intelligence
with each other. In every thing that regards the com-
mon intereft. The want of this union and Intel li.;cnce-
he laments as one of the chief obftacles to the advance-
ment of fcience ; and, juilly conftderlng the inftitutiou
of public focieties, in the different countries of Europe,,
tinder the aufpices of the fovertign, to be the beft re-
medy for that defeft, he has given, in his fanciful work,
the New Atlantis, the delineation of a philofophlciil
2, ^'^^^f^
Societie?,
firclet'e*.
Hifory of
the Koyal
Society,
ad edit.
V- i9-
s o c C
fociety on the moft extended plan, (or the Improvv-tseut
'of* ?.!! arts and fciences ; a work which, thou:'h written
in the lan^ua^e, and tinftured with the colouving of
rnmar.ce, is full of the nobleft phHorophic views. The
plan of Lord Bacon, which met \yith little attention
from the age in which he hved, was deftined to prodiice
its,efFe6: in a period not very diftant. The fcheme of a
philofophical colle!re by Cowley is acknowledged to have
had a powerful influence in procuring the eftablifliment
of the Royal Society of Lor.don by charter from
Charles II. § ; and Cowley's plan is manifeftly copied
in almoft all its parts from th?it in the New Adantis.
The inflitution of the Royal Society of LonSiP was
foon followed by the eftabllftiment of the Royal Aca-
demy of Sciences at Paris ; and thefe two havejerved
as models to the philofophical academies of higtieft re-
putation in the other "kingdoms of Europe.
The experience of ages has fhown, that improvements
■of a public nature are belt carried on By focieties of li-
beral and ingenious men, uniting their labours without
•regard to nation, feft, or party, in one grand purfuit
alike interefting to all, whereby mutual prejudices are
worn off, and a humane philofophical fpirit is cherlfhed.
Men united together, and frequently meeting ior the
parpofe of advancing the fciences, the arts,^ agriculture,
manufaftures, and commerce, may oftentimes fuggeft
fuch hints to one another as may be improved to im-
portant ends : and fuch focieties, by being the repofito-
lies of the obfervations and difcoverles of the learned
and ingenious, may from time to time fuvnifh the world
with ufeful publications which might olherwife be loft:
576 ] , S o G
cletiesj that their beneficial effedls are alrejidy confplcu.
-for men of ingenuity and modefty may not choofe to lord-chancellor or keeper, the lord chiet-jaftice
rilk their reputation, by fending abroad iinpatronized 1o.^_.K:.f.;„ft;,.. th. Oc
what a learned fociety might judge richly worthy the
public eye ; or perhaps their clrcumftances being ftrait-
cned, they may not be able to defray the expence of
publication. Societies inltltuted for promoting know-
ledge may alfo be of eminent fervice, by exciting a fpirit
of emulation, and by enkindling thofe ("parks of genius
which otherwife might for ever have been concealed ;
and if, when pofTelfed of funds fufiicient for the pur-
pofe, they reward the exertions of the induftrlous and
enterprlfmg with pecuniary premiums or honorary me-
dals, many important experiments and ufeful difcoverles pofc, regulating themfelves by the laws of the land and
will'be made, from which the pubhc may reap the high- the canons of the church ; and when the new fociety
eft advantages. "^^^ formed, they had already tranfmitted to xAmerica
Eminent inftances of the beneficial effeas of fuch in- and the Weft Indies L. 8oo worth of Bibles, Books of
ftitutions we have in the Royal Academy of Sciences at Common Prayer, and treat ifea of pradlcal religion, be
Paris, the Royal Society, and the Society inftituted for
the Encouragement of Arts, Manufaftures, and Com-
merce, in London, and many others of a fimilar kind.
We win now give fome accoimt of the moft emtpent
focieties ; arrangln-:! them under the three claffes into
which we liave divided them : I. Re/igious ond Humane
So'-ieties. II. Societies for Promoting Science and Literature,
III. Societies for Encouraging jirts^ Manufadures^ &c.
I. Religious and Humane Societies.
1. Socieiy for the Propagation of the Go/pel in Foreign
Parts, was inftituted by King William III. in 1701,
in order to fecure a maintenance for an orthodox cler-
gy, and to make otlier provifions for propagating the
gofpel in the plantations, colonies, and faftorles beyond
the feas. I'o that end he incoi-porated the archbifliops,
feveral of the bifhops, and others of the nobility, gentry,
and clergy, to the number of 90, into one body, which,
by the name of The Society for the Propagation of the
Gofpel in Foreign Parts, was to plead and be impleaded;
to have perpetual fucceflion, vf\xh privilege to purchafe
li. 2000 a-year inheritance, and eftates tor lives or
years, with other goods and chattels to any value. By
its charter the fociety is authorifed to ufe a common
feal ; and to meet annually on the third Friday in Fe-
bruary for the purpofe of choofing a prefident, vice-
prefident, and officers for the year enfuing ; and on the
third Friday in every month, or oftener if there fliould
be occafion, to tranfaft bufmefs, and to depute perfons
to take fubicriptioHS, and collect: money contributed for
the purpofes aforefald ; and of all moneys received and
laid out, it is obliged to give account yearly to the
of the
King's-bench, the lord-chief-juftlce of the Common-.
pleas, or to any two of thefe magiftrates. Of this fo..
ciety there is a ftanding committee at St Paul's chap-
ter-houfe, to prepare matters for the monthly meeting!,
which is held at St Martin's Hbrary.
Before the incorporation of the fociety for the pro-
pagation of the gofpel in foreign parts, there had been
formed, for the promoting of Chriftian knowledge both
at home and in the colonies, a voluntary affociation of
perfons of rank and refpedablHty, who in March 1 699
began to hold ftated meetings in London for that pur-
aia 1
mane
cier.i
fides fecuring a tolerable maintenance to feveral clergy-
man on that continent. This affociation ftlll fubfifts un-
der the denomination of The Society for Promoting Chri^
Hereby a fpirit of difcovery and improvement has been Jian Knoivledge, and has been produilive of much good
in the cities of London and Weftminfter ; but upon the
formation of the new fociety, into which all its original
members were incorporated by name, the care which
the voluntai-y affociation had taken of the colonies de-
volved of courfe upon the incorporated fociecy ; of
which incorporation we believe the objeft has been
fbmetimes miflaken, and the labours of its miffionaries
grofsly miireprelented. It has by many been fuppoled
that the fociety was incorporated for the fole purpofe of
converting the favage Americans ; and it has been much
blamed for fending mifiionaries into provinces where, in
the defpicable cant of the complainers, a gofpel-minifiry
was already eftablifhed. But aii impartial view of the
rife
excited among the ingenious in almoft every nation ;
knowledjre of various kinds, and greatly ufeful to man-
kind, has taken place of the dry and unlnterefting
fpeculations of fchoolmen ; and bold and erroneous hy-
pothefis has been obliged to give way to demonftratlve
experiment. In ftiort, fince the eftablifliment of thefe
focieties, folid learning and philofophy have more in-
creafed than they had done for many centuries before.
As to thofe focieties eftabllftied for promoting in-
duftry, religion and morality, and rehcving diftreis, the
defign is laudable and excellent, and prefents a beautiful
plfture of the philanthropy of modern times. We are
liappy to find, from the minutes of fome of thefe fo-
s o c
S O C [
rife and progrefs of the American provinces, now be-
come independent dates, will fliow the folly and injuf-
tice of thofe complaints.
The Englifh colonies in North America were in the
lad century formed and firft peopTed by religious men ; _
who, made uneafy at home by their intolerant brethren, manners, difcreet behaviour, and a competent degree of
left the old ivorld to enjoy in peace that firft and chief ufeftil knowledge, fhown themfelves worthy of the choice
prerogative of man, the free luorjh'tp of God according to of thofe who fent them." We have the honour to be
his otvn confcience. At one time Puritans were driven acquainted with fome of the miffionaries fent at a later
577 1 ... .
do, good fervice in bringing thofe planters to a ferioiis
fenfe of rehgion. " I fpeak it knowingly (fays he),
that the miniftcrs of the gofpel, in thofe provinces which
go by the name of New England, fent and fupported at
the expence of the foclety, have, by their fobriety of
acrofs the Atlantic by the epifcopal church ; at another,
Churchmen were forced away by the preftyterians juft
as the revolutions of (late threw the civil power into
the hands of the one or the other party ; and not a few
members of the church of Rome were chafed to the
wilds of America by the united exertions of both. It
has been often obfervcd, that people perfecuted for their
rehgion become for the moft part enthufiaftically at-
tached to it ; and the condufl of thofe colonifts was in
perfeft harmony with this obfervation. Their zeal, in-
flamed by their violent removal to the other heraifphere,
kept religion alive and aftive among themfelves ; but
their poverty difabled them from fupplying fuel to the
flame, by making provlfion for a miniftry to inftru£l
their offspring. The confequence was, that the new
period, and have reafon to believe that, down to the
era of the American revolution, they had the fame vir-
tues, and were doing the fame good fervices, which pro-
cured to their predecelfors this honourable teftimopy
from one of the greateft and the beft of men. Surely
fnch a miffion deferved not to be evil fpoken of by fec-
tarifl;s of any denomination who believe in Chrift ; ef-
pecially as the very charter of incorporarion afllgns as
a reafon for miffionaries being fent to the colonies,
*' that by reafon of their poverty thofe colonies were
deftitute and unprovided of a maintenance for mini*
Hers and the public worfhip of God."
The fociety, however, was incorporated for other
purpofes than this. It was obliged by its charter to
attempt the converfion of the native Americans and the
Chriftian commonwealth, without the kindly affiftance negro flaves ; and we have reafon to believe, that, as
•of its mother-country, would have been, in the words of foon as the fpiritual wants of the colonifts were decent
!. of
the Roman hiftorian, Res unim atatis. Againft this danger
a timely aid was to be provided by the fociety ; which,
as it confiftcd not of fanatical members, would not in-
truft the important buhnefs of the miffion to fanatical
preachers, who, though always ready for fuch fpiritual
enterptifes, are never quahfied to carry them on with
fuccefs.
It was therefore thought fit to affign a decent main-
tenance for clergymen of the church of England, who
might preach the gofpel to their brethren in America :
and though thofe miffionaries in general carefully avoid-
ed the conduft of thofe of Rome, whofe principal aim
is to reduce all churches under fubmlffion to the papal
tyrarny ; yet fo lately as 1765, did fome of the colo-
nies, in which the puritanic fpirit of the laft century
charadlerifed the church eftabliftied by law, raife a hi-
deous outcry againft the fociety for fending a miffion
jnto their quarters, though only for the fervice of the
difperfed members of the Epifcopal church refiding
among them, and for the converfion of thofe men whom
their rigid fanaticifm had prejudiced againft Chriftianity
itfelf.
Indeed the commodity called freethin king, as
Bilhop Warbarton expreffes it, was at an early period
imported by the opulent and fafliionable colonifts. The
celebrated Berkeley, who had refided fome years in
Rhode Ifland, and at his return vi^as called upon to
preach the anniverfary fermon before the fociety, in-
forms us, that the ifland where he hved was inhabited
bv an Englifti colony, confiding chiefly of feftarles
of many differeait denominatiens ; that feveral of the
better fort of the inhabitants of towns were accuftomed
to afTemble themfelves regularly on the Lord's day for
ly fupplied, it was not inattentive to thefe glorious ob-
je£ts. Its fuccefs indeed in either purfuit has not been
fo great as could be wifhed ; but it vvould be rafh and
unfair to attribute this failure to the prefident, vice-
prefident, or other officers of the corporation at home.
An erroneous notion, that the being baptized is incon-
fiftent with a ftate of flavery, rendered the felfifti colo-
nifts for a long time averfe from the converfion of their
negroes, and made them throw every obftacle in the
way of all who made the attempt ; while the difficul-
ties of the Indian miffion are fuch as hardly any clergy-
man educated in a Proteftant country can be fuppofed
able to furmount.
He who hopes fuccefsfully to preach the gofpel
among a tribe of favage wanderers,. muft have an ardent
zeal and unwearied diligence ; appetites fubdued to all
the diftreffes of want ; and a mind fuperior to all the
terrors of mortality. Thefe qualities and habits may
be acquired in the church of Rome by him who from
infancy has been trained up in the feverities of fome of
the monafllc orders, and afterwards fent to the college
de projyaganda Jide to be in(ti"uAed i« the languages, and
inured to the manners and cuftomsof the barbarous na-
tions whofe converfion he is deftined to attempt. But
in the reformed churches of Britain there are no mo-
nadic orders, nor any college de propaganda fide ; and
yet without the regular preparation, which is to be
looked for in fuch inftitutlons alone, it is not in na-
ture, whatever grace may efPeft, for any man cheerfully,
and at the fame time foberly, to undergo all the accU-
raulated diftrefl'es ever ready to overtake a faithful mif-
fionary among lavage idolaters. A fanatic zealot will
indeed undertake it, though he is totally unquaHfied
the performance of divine worlhip ; but that moft of for every fober and important work ; and a man of
thofe who were difperfed through the colony rivalled
fome well bred people of other countries, in a thorough
indifference for all that is facred, being equally carelefs
of outward worftiip and of inv.'ard principles. He adds,
that the miffionaries had done, and were continuing to
Vol. XVII. Part II.
ruined fortunes may be preffed into the fervice, though
the impotency of his mind has ftiown him unable to
bear either poverty or riches. The failure of the fo-
ciety therefore in its attempts to convert the American
Indians may be attributed, we think, in the firft in-
4 D ftance,
s o c
r n8 ]
S O C
"B-ej^jc^m ftance, to the want of a college i^e profiagmda for train-
ing up youn;'' men for the American rniflion.
Perhaps another caufe of this failure may be found
in the conduft of the miffionaries, who, it is to be pre-
fumed, have not always employed in a proper manner
even the fcanty qualifications which they aflually pof-
fefled. The gofpel, plain and hmple as it is, and fitted
in its nature for what it was ordained to efFeft, cannot
be apprehended but by an intelle£l fomewhat raifed
above that of a favage. Such of the miffionaries there-
fore as began their work with preaching to favage and
hrutal men, certainly fet out at the wrong end ; for to
make the gofpel underflood, and much more to propa-
gate and eftablifh it, thofe favarres fhould have been firft
taught the neceffary arts of civil life, which, while they
improve every bodily accommodation, tend at the fame
time to enlarge and enlighten the underllanding. For
want of this previous culture, we doubt not, it hath hap-
pened that fuch of the favages as have been baptized in-
to the faith have fo feldom perfevered themfelves, or
been able in any degree to propagate among their tribesj
the Chriftianity which they had been taught, and that
fucceffive miflions have always found it neceffary to be-
gin anew the work ot converlion.
To one or other of thefe caufes, or to both, may
juftly be attributed the little progrefs which reformed
Chriftianity has made among the Indians of North A-
merica ; and not to any want of zeal, attention, or, libe-
rality, in the directors of the fociety at home. .IDuring
the dependence of the United States en the mother-
country, great part of the fociety's funds was properly
expended in keeping alive a juft fenfe of religion among
the Chriftian colonifts from Europe, who had furely the
firft claims upon this beft of charities ; but now that
America has feparatcd herfelf from Great Britain, and
• fhown that (he is able to maintain her independence,
and to make ample provifion for a regnlar clergy of
her own, the members of the corporation muft feel them-
lelves at liberty to beftovv greater attention, and to ex-
pend more money than they could formerly do, on the
converfion of fuch Indians as have any intercourfe with
the fettlements which we ftill pofTefs. To a body fo
refpeAable, we prefume not to offer advice ; but we
cannot help thinking, with Bifhop Berkeley, that the
moft fuccefsful miflionaries would be children of In-
dians, educated in a confiderable number together from
the age of ten or twelve in a college de propaganda jide,
where they fhould be in no danger of lohng their mo-
ther-tongue while they were acquiring a competent
knowledge of reHgion, morality, hiftory, practical ma-
thematics, and agriculture. " If there were a yearly
*f'ppTh^ of ^"PP^y (*^ys he) of a dozen fuch miffionaries fent abroad
Churches in into their refpeftive countries, after they 'had received
•«r Foreign the degree of mafter of arts, and been admitted into
Flsntatio/tj, ^jgjy orders, it is hardly to be doubted but that in a
little time the world would fee good and great effefts of
their miffion." '
a. Society in Scotland for Propagating Chriftian Know-
man
cict
/edge, was inflitutej in the beginning of the prefent ew- ReU
tury. At that period the condition of the Scotch Hi;; h- ^"'^
landers was truly deplorable. Shut up in defolate iflandi
by tempeftuous feas, or difperfed over a wide extent of l
country, interfered by high mountains, rapid rivers,
and arms of the fea, without bridges or highways, by
which any communication could be kept open either
with remote or neighbouring diftrifts, they lived in
fmall detached companies in hamletw or folitary huts.
Being thus fecluded from intercourfe with the more ci-
viUzed part of the ifland, they could not enjoy the ad-
vantages of trade and manufaftures. As their foil was
barren and their climate fevere, in agriculture no pro-
grefs was to be expefted : and as they wei-e acquainted
with no language but Gaelic, in which no books were
then written, to poffefs knowledge was impoffibie. Their
parifhes being of great extent, often 30 or 40 miles
long and of a proportionable breadth, and fometimes
conlifting of feveral iflands feparatcd by feas, which are
often rmpaffable, a confiderable number of the inhabi-
tants was entirely deprived of religious inflruftion or
fell a prey to Popifh emiffaries. A fmgle fchool in fuch
extenfive parifhes could be of little benefit; yet many
parifhes were entirely deftitute even of this refource ;
and where fchools were eftabliflied, the want of books
prevented them from producing the ufeful effefts other-^^
wife to have been expected from them (a). To all
this we muft add, that they lived in a ftate of the great'
eft oppreffion : For though the Highlands formed a
part of the Britifh empire, the bleffings of the Britifh
conftitution had not reached them. The feudal fyfterrx
reigned in its utmoft rigour ; the chieftains exercifm^
the moll dcfpotic fway over the inferior Highlanders,
whom at their pleafure they deprived of their lives or
property (b).
Thus the Highlanders were ignorant, oppreffed, and
uncivilized ; flaves rather than fubjefts ; and either en-
tirely deftitute of the advantages of the Chriftian reli-
gion, or unqualified to improve them. Hitherto they
had been unhappy and ufelefs to themfelves and danger-
ous to the ftate ; for they were ready at the call of
their chieftains to iffue from their mountains, and to
turn their arms againft their lawful king and his loyal
fubjefts. This charafter, however, arofe from their Ir-
tuation. It was therefore impoffibie for benevolent
minds to contemplate this unhappy fituation of their
countrymen without feeling a defire to raile them to the
dignity of rational beings, and to render them ufeful as
citizens.
Accordingly, in the year 1701, fome private gentle-
men of the city of Edinburgh, who had formed them-
felves into a fociety for the reformation of manners, dt-
refted their attention to the Highlands of Scotland,
and endeavoured to devife fome plan for alleviating the
dittreffes of the inhabitants. The remedy which pro-
mifed to be moft efficacious was, to eftabhih charity
fchools in different places. But as the exigency was
great, it was no eafy matter to raife a fufficient fund for
this
(a) Even fo late as the year 1758, no fewer than 175 parifhes, whhin the bounds of 39 prelhyteries, had nof
parochial fchool. We are forry to add, that even in the prefent enlightened and benevolent age the complaiut
is not entirely removed.
(b) The feudal lyftem was at length abolilhed in the year 1748 by the jurlfdiaion ad.
s o c
[ 579 J
s o c
ihl* pUPpefe. They began therefore with what volim-
tary fubfcriptioiis they could procure, hoping after-
wards to increafe their capital by vacant ilipends and
public contributions. A memorial with this view was
prefented to the General Affembly in 1 704, which re-
ceived their approbation ; and they accordingly paffed
an aft, recommending a general contribution. In 1706
the General Affembly appointed fome of their number
to inquire more carefully into the ftate of thf High-
lands, and the year following appointed a feleft com-
mittee to confer with the gentlemen who had fuggefted
the plan. The refult of thefe conferences was the pub-
lication of propofals " for propagating Chriilian know-
kdge in the Highlands and iflands of Scotland, and in
foreign parts of the world." Copies of thefe propo-
fals, with fubfcription papers, were diftributed through
the kingdom; and the contributions having foon a-
mountcd to L. rooo, her majefty Queen Anne encou-
raged this infant fociety by her royal proclamation, and
at the fame time iffued letters patent under the great
feal of Scotland for erefting certain of the fubfcribers
into a corporation ; the firll nomination of whom was
lodged with the lords of council and feffion.
This corporation held its firft meeting on Thurfday
3d November 1709. It was attended by feveral of the
nobility, fourteen of the lords of fefiion, many gentle-
men of rank, together with moft of the minifters of the
city of Edinburgh and neighbourhood. A prefident,
fecretary, and treafurer, with a committee of fifteen di-
reftors, were appointed for the difpatch of bufmefs. At
their fecond meeting in January 1 7 1 0, a fcheme ot ma-
nagement was formed and approved ; in which it was
propofed, i. To ered and maintain fchools in fuch
places of Scotland, particularly in the Highlands and
Iflands, as fhould be found to need them mod ; in which
fchools all perfons whatfoever Ihould be taught by fit
and well qualified fchoolmafters, appointed by the^ fo-
ciety, to read the Holy Scriptures and other pious
books ; as alfo to write, and to underltand the common
rules of arithmetic, with fuch other things as fhould be
thought luitable to their circumftances. 2. That the
fchoolmafters fhould be particularly careful to inltrud
their fcholars in the principles of the Chriilian reform-
ed religion ; and for that end fhould be obliged to cate-
chife them at Icaft twice a week, and to pray publicly
with them twice a-day. 3. That not only fuch as were
unable to pay fhould be taught gratis, but that thofe
whofe circumftances required it, fhould have fuch farther
encouragement as the fociety fhould think fit in a con-
fiftency with their patent. 4. To name fome prudent
perfons, minifters and others, to be overfeers of thofe
fchools, who fliould take care that the fchoolmafters do
their duty, and that the inftruAions to be given from
time to time by the fociety or their committee be punc-
tually obferved ; which overfeers fhould make their re-,
port to the fociety quarterly or half-yearly at tartheft.
5. To give fuitable encouragement to fuch minifters or
catechifts as fhould be willing to contribute their affift-
Ence towards the farther inftruftion of the fcholars
remote from church, by not only catechifing, but
preaching to them ; which minifters or catechifts ftiould
take the fame care of the other inhabitants as of
the fcholars. 6. To extend their endeavours for the
advaacement of the Chriftian religion to heathen na-
tions ; and for that ^ -d to give encouragement to mi- Religlom
nifters to preach the gofpel among them. _
Having thus formed a plan, they immediately pro- ciet'ies.
ceeded to eftablifti fchools in the moft ufeful and eco- u— -y— — i
nomical manner ; and as the capital continued to accu-
mulate, the intereft was faithfully applied, and the utU
lity of the inftitution was more extenfively diffufed.
Until the year 1738 the attention of the fOciety had '
been wholly direfted to the eftablifhment of fchools ;
but their capital being then confiderably augmented,
they began to extend their views of utility much farther.
The grand objeft of all public affociations' ought cer« '
tainly to be the promoting of religion and morality. It
muft, however, be evident to every man of refieftion, that
thefe can neither be propagated nor pieferved among a
people without agriculture, unaccuftomed to commerce
and manufadures, and confequently without labour or
exertion. Languor and debility of mind muft always
be the companions of idlenefs. While the Highlanders
roved about with arms in their hands, the latent vigour
of their minds muft often have been called forth into ac
tion ; but when their arms were taken away, and
themfelves confined to a domeftic life, where there was
nothing to roufe their minds, they muft have funk into
indolence and inaftivity. All attempts therefore to in-
ftrud them in reUgion arid morality, without introdu-
cing among them fome of the neceffary arts of life,
wo\ild probably have been unavailing. The fociety ac-
cordingly refolved to adopt what appeared to them the
moft efi^cftual methods of introducing induftry among
the Highlanders. But as their patent did not extend
far enough, they applied to his majefty George 11. for
an enlargement of their powers ; and accordingly ob-
tained a fecond patent, by which they are empowered,
" befides fulfilling the purpofes of their original patent,
to caufe fuch of the children as they fhall think fit to
be bred to hulbandry and houfewifery, to trades and
manufactures, er in fuch manual occupations as the fo?
ciety fhall think proper."
'l~he objefts of this fecond patent the fociety have
not failed to purfue ; and though many obftacles and
difcouragements to their efforts occurred among a rude
and barbarous people, yet their perfeverance, and the
obvious utihty of their plans, at length fo far overcame
the reluftance of the inhabitants, that no lefs than 94
fchools of induftry in various parts of the Highlands and
iflands are now upon their eftablifiiment, at which arc
educated 2360 fcholars.
The fociety, while anxioufly endeavouring to diff'ufe
a fpirit of induftry through the Highlands, were ftill
equally folicitous to promote tlie knowledge of the
Chriftian religion. As the Englifti language had been
the only channel by which knowledge was conveyed to
them (a language which, being not ufed in converfa-
tion, was in all refpefts foreign to them), it was judged
requifite that they fliould have the Scriptures in their
vernacular tongue. The fociety therefore firft appoint-
ed a tranflation of the New Teftament to be made in-
to GaeHc : A tranflation was accordingly undertaken
by the Rev. Mr Stewart minifter of KiUin in Perth-
ftiire, and printed in 1767, which isfaid to be executed
with much fidelity. Of this work many thoufand co-
pies have been diftributed in the Highlands. The great-
er part of the Old Teftament has alfo been tranflated
4 D 2 by
S O C ' [ 580
Religious by the Rev. Dr Smith of Campbelton and others, but
mant s'o'- ^^^^y R^v- Stewart of Lufs, by the appoint-
cieties. ^^^^ the expence of the fociety : and as foon as
U— -y-— ~ the remaining part can be got ready, the whole will be
fold at fo low a price as the poor may without difficul-
ty afford. This plan the fociety have judicioufly cho-
fen, in order to prevent difcontent and murmuring ; ef-
fefts which the diffufion of the Scriptures ought never
to produce ; but which could not pofiibly have been
prevented, had the diftribution been gratuitous, and of
courfe partial.
For fome years paft the funds of the fociety have ra-
pidly accumulated, from the very liberal donations of fe-
veral individuals.
Lady Glenorchy - L. 5,000
By a perfon unknown - 10,000
Lord Van Vryhouven of Holland 20,000
Mifs Gray of Teaffes - 3>500
In confequence of thefe great additions to their ftock,
infinuations have been thrown out that the fociety have
become fo wealthy as to be at a lofs for proper objeds
on which to beftow their increafed revenue. If fuch
an opinion be ferioujly entertained by any one, we muft
beg him to remember, that the fociety have erefted and
endued no lefs than 323 fchools for religion, the firft
principles of literature and induftry, at the annual ex-
pence of L. 3214, 10 s. Steriing ; and that at thefe fe-
minaries arc educated from 14,000 to 15,000 chil-
dren ; who, but for the means of inftruAion thus ob-
tained, would in all probability be bred up in ignorance
and idlenefs : That they employ 1 2 miffionary minifters
and catechifts in remote parts of the Highlands and
iflands, or among the ignorant Highlanders fettled in
the great towns of Scotland, at the annual expence of
J^. 296 ; That they beftow a burfary or penfion of
L. 1 5 per annum on each of fix ftiidents of divinity ha-
viHg the Gaelic language : That they employ two mif-
fionary minifters and one fchoolmafter amon:^ the Onei-
da and Stockbridge Indians of North America (being
the deftination of certain legacies bequeathed to them for
that purpofe), at the annual expence of L. 140. Such
is their fixed fcheme of annual expenditure, amounting in
all to L.3740, 10 8. Sterling— a fum it will be acknow-
ledged of veryconfiderable magnitude. Thewholeof their
incidental expences arifing from the Gaelic tranflation
of the Scriptures of the Old Teftament ; from annui-
ties which they have to pay, in confequence ef fums left
them as refiduary legatees ; from land and houfe-taxes ;
from enabling. candidates for the office of fchoolmafter
to come to Edinburgh for examination ; from furnifhing
books to poor fcholars in their various fchools ; and
from removing fchoolmafters from one ftation to an-
other, is generally about L. 875, which added to the
former fum makes the whole annual expence amount to
L. 4615, 10 s.
If it be inquired at what expence, in the management
of it, this extenlive and compHcated charity is annually
condufted, we are authorifcd to fay, that the treafurer,
] s o c
bookholder, and clerk, are allowed each L. 25 per an-
num, the fame falaries which were annexed to thefe of-
fices from the commencement of the fociety. T'he
beadle or officer is allowed L. 1 2 per annum . No fa-
lary whatever is enjoyed by any of the other officers of
the fociety. The fecretary, comptroller, accountant,
and librarian, although fubjefted, fome of them elpe-
cially, to no fmall expence of time and labour, have no
pecuniary recompenfe or emolument. Theirs are la-
bours of love, for which they feek and expeft no other
reward than the confcioufnefs of endeavouring to pro-
mote the beft interefts of mankind. The whole amount
of the expence of managing the bufmefs of the focitty,
including the above falaries, and coals, candle, ftatioiV.
ary ware, poftages, and other incidents, exceeds not at
aji average L. 115 per annum. From this ftatement it
appears, that hitherto at leaft the dircdlors have been at
no lofs for important objefts within the proper fphere
of their inftitution on which to beftow their increafed
funds. They have, it is true, the difpofal of very con-
fiderable fums for promoting the objeds of the inftitu-
tion ; but they are ^ fo far from accumulating wealth,
that every year their expenditure, notwithftanding the
late increafe of their capital, exceeds rather than falls
fhort of their income. They have depended upon a
kind Providence and a generous public to refund thefe
anticipations of their revenue, and hitherto they have
never been difappointed.
Thus has the Society for Propagating ChriftianKnow.
ledge proceeded for almoft a century. It was founded
by the pious exertions of a few private individuals,
whofe names are unknown to the world ; and its funds,
by faithful and judicious management, as well as by ge-
nerous contributions, have now become of fuch magni-
tude, as to excite the hope that they will be produftive
of the moft valuable effefts. The benefits arifing from
public focieties, it is well known, depend entirely upon
the management of their diredors. If fo, the advanta-
ges which have accrued from this fociety intitle it to
the praife and gratitude of the nation. While eager to
increafe the number of fchools, the fociety have not
been inattentive to their profperity. In the year 1771
Mr Lewis Drummond, a gentleman in whom they pla-
ced great confidence, was commiffioned by them to vilit
their fchools, and to make an exad report of their ftatc
and circumliances. Aj^ain, in the year 1790, acorn-
miffion was granted to the Rev. Dr Kemp, one of the '
minifters of Edinburgh and fecretary to the fociety, to
vifit all the fchools on their eftablifhment. This labo-
rious and gratuitous taflc he accomplifhed in the courfe
of four fummers with much abihty and care, and highly
to the fatisfadlion of the fociety. At his return he com-
municated a variety of important information refpeding
the ftate of the Highlands and iflands, and the means
neccffary for their improvement in religion, literature,
and induftry ; an abftraft of which was publifhed by the
fociety in appendixes to the anniverfary fermons preach-
ed before them in the years 1789, 90, 91, and 92 (c).
I'he
(c) It is well known, that the number of Roman Catholics in the Highlands is confiderable j but it muft
give much pleafure to the Proteftant reader to be informed, that the ancient malignant fpirit of Popery has in
that diftria given place to mildnefs and liberaHty. This is chiefly owing to the gentleman who fuperintends the
pnefts in that quarter, whofe mind is enlightened by fcience and learning.' So far from being hoitile to the
views
s o c
t 5'
Capital.
Schools.
Scholars.
1 2
L. 6,177
25
8,168
48
78
2757
IC9
19,287
128
24,308
152
6409
28,413
176
34,coo
180
7OCO
Salaries
3,080
12,913
3»2i4
i4'370
The following table will exhibit at a glance the funds,
eftablifhnnent, . and expenditure, of the fociety, from a
few years after its commencement to the prefent time.
Where the number of fcholars is not mentioned, the de-
feat may be fuppHed by taking an average from thofe
years where a computation has been made. Where the
capital is not mentioned, it may eafily be made out by
conflxiering the falaries as the intereft.
A.D.
i7'3
1715
1719
1727
1732
1742
1753
1758
1781
1793
1794-
Hitherto we have taken no notice of the correfpond-
ing board which was eftablifhed at London fo early as
the year 1729, to receive fubfcriptions and lay out
fums. That board indeed remained long inadtive ; but
in 1773 its members began to co-operate more cordially
with their brethren in Scotland. Since that period an
annual fermon has been preached in recommendation
of the chanty ; and the preacher is now felefted
without any regard to the religious denomination to
which he belongs ; fometimes from the church of Eng-
land, fometimes from the church of Scotland, and fome-
times from fedarics of different perfuafions. The meet-
ings of the correfpondent board have been attended by
many of the nobility and gentry, who have made great
exertions to promote the views of the fociety. From
its prefent flourlfhing ftate therefore, from the indefa-
tigable exertion and laudable zeal of the managers, and
from the countenance and fupport which they have re-
ceived from perfons of the firtt rank and refpeftability
in the nation, the benevolent mind may look forward
with Huich confidence and fatisfaftion to a period not
very diftant, when its beneficial eflfefts fnall be felt net
only in the Highlands, but fhall be communicated to
the reft of the nation. We have been thus particular
in our account of the Society for Propagating Chriftian
Knowledge, bccaufe we have had accefs to the molt
authentic fources of information, and becaufe we know
it to be an inftitution calculated to enhghten and im-
prove a confiderable part of the Britifh nation.
3. Society of the Sons of the Clergy ^ was incorporated
by King Charles II. in 1678, by the name of The Go-
vernors of the Charity for Relief of the Poor Wido-ws and
Children of Clergymen. This fociety is under the direc-
tion and management of a prefident and vice-prefident,
three treafurers, and a court of affiftants compofed of
forty members- Several hundreds of widows and chil-
!i ] S O C
drenofthe clergy have annually received confiderable
rehef from this ufeful charity. ^^^^^
4. Society for the Sons of the Clergy of the Eftablifhed cieties.
Church of Scotland, was inftituted at Edinburgh in Fe- y ■ »
bruaiy 1790, and was conftituted a body corporate by
his majelly's royal charter in 1792. The fociety, after
feveral meetings, are of opinion, that the period in
which the families of clergymen feel moft urgently the
need both of friends and oip pecuniary aid, is that which
commences with the introduftion of the fans either to
an unlverfity or to bufinefs, and terminates with their
eftablifhment in their refpcftive profeffions ; that ma-
ny of the minifters of this church, living at great di-
fiances from the feats either of univerfities or of bufi-
nefs, poffefs incomes which, in the prefent ftate of the
country, are inadequate to the purpofes of procuring for
their fons either the literary or profeflional education
which might enable them to come forward' with credit
and fuccefs in the world ; that the fons of clergymen,-
from domeftic tuition and example, have in genetal very
advantageous means of receiving in their early years the
impreffions of virtue and honour, together with the ru-
diments of liberal knowledge ; and that of courfe the
public intereft may be promoted, by enabling this claf&
of young men to obtain their fhare in the rcfpeftable fi-
tuations of hfe. The views ef the fociety have been
limited to the fons only of clergymen ; as they are of
opinion, that within the limits which they have fixed,
the field of beneficence will be ftill very extenfive, and
the claims for aid as many and as great as their funds
can be fuppofed able to anfwer, at leaft for many years
to come. If the fociety fhall ever be in a fituation to
undertake more than the aids which will] be necelfary in
bringing forward the fons of the clergy, it may then be
confidered in what manner the daughters alfo m.ay be-
come fharers in its bounty.
5. Royal Humane Society, was inftituted in London
in 1774, for the recovery of perfons drowned or other-
wife fuffocated. We have already giv-en fome account
of focieties inftituted in other countries with the fame
views, and have alfo copied the direft ions of this fociety
for the recovery of life, for which fee the article
Drowning. We have therefore only to ftate, that the
plan of this fociety is fo adverfe to any private inte-
refted views, that it acquits its founders of all fordid
motives. For the medical praftitioners accept no pe-
cuniary recompenfe for the time which they devote to
a difficult and tedious procefs ; for the anxiety which
they feel while the event is doubtful ; for the mortifi-
cation which they too often undergo, when death, in
fpite of all their efforts, at laft carries off his prey ; nor
for the infults to which they wiUingly expofe them-
felves from vulgar increduhty. Their fole reward is in
the holy joy of doing good. Of an inftitution thus free
in its origin from the fufpicion of ambitious views, and
in its plan renouncing felf-intereft in every fhape, phi-
lanthropy muft be the only bafis. The good intentipn
therefore of the fociety is proved by its conftitution ;
the
views of the fociety, he recommended to his clergy to promote them. They accordingly received thejccretary
with much politenefs j exhorted the people to fend their children to the Proteftant fchools to be inftrufted in li^
terature, to be taught to read the Scriptures in their own language, and to be made acquainted with thofe great
principles of religion in which all Chriftians are agreed. What a blelfed reformation !
S O G
C 58
Re%!ous the wifdom and utility of tht undertaking are proved
nianeSo'- ^7 '^^^ fuccefs : not kfs than 3000 fellow-creatures ha-
" cieries. ving fince its coramencement been (1794) reftored to
^— V— — ' the community by its timely and indefatigable exer-
tions. For it is to be obferved, that the benefit of this
fociety is by no means confined to the two cafes of
drowninfr and fufpenfion. Its timely fuccours have
roufed the lethargy of opium taken in immoderate and
repeated dofes ; they have refcued the wretched viftiins
ot- intoxication ; rekindled the life extinguifhed by the
fudden ftroke of lightning ; recovered the apoplectic ;
reftored life to the infant that had loft it in the birth ;
they have proved efficacious in cafes of accidental fmo-
thering ajfid of fuffocation by noxious damps ; in in-
ftances in which the tendernefs of the infant body or
the debility of old age greatly lefTened the previous
probability of fuccefs ; infomuch that no fpecies of
death fcem.s to be placed beyond the reach of this So-
ciety's affiftance, where the mifchief had gone no far-
ther than an obftruftion of the movements of the animal
machine without any damage of the organs themfelves.
In confequence of every neceflary affiftance afforded by
this fociety, fimilar inftituti-ons have been eftablifhed at
Algiers, Lifbon, Philadelphia, Bofton, Jamaica, Dublin,
X-eith, Gla^ow, Aberdeen,, Birmingham, Glouccfter,
Shropfliire, Northamptonflure, Lancafter, Briftol, White-
haven, Norwich, Exeter, Kent, and Newcaftle. The
fociety has publifhed an 8vo volume with plates, confift-
ing of cafes, correfpondence, and a variety of intereft-
ing matter relating to the objetl of this benevolent infti-
tution.
6. The Philanthropic Society., was inftituted in Sep-
tember 1788. It aims at the prevention of crimes, by
removing out of the way of evil counfel, and evil com-
pany, thofe children who are, in the prefent ftate of
things, deftined to ruin. It propofes to educate
and inftru^ft in fome ufeful trade or occupation the chil-
dren of convijfts or other infant poor who are engaged
in vagrant or criminal courfes ; thus to break the chain
of thofe pernicious confederacies, deprive the wicked of
fucceffors, the gaols of inhabitants, juftice of its viftims,
and by all thefe means add citizens to fociety. Thi*
inftitution is not only calculated to decreafe vice and
infamy, but to increafe ufeful induftry ; fo that thofe
children who would otherwife fucceed to their parents
hereditary crimes, and become the next race of beggars
aed thieves, will now be taught to fupply by honeft
means their own wants and the wants of others.
To carry into effeCl thefe dtfirable purpofes, it is the
firft bufinefs of the fociety to feleA from prifons, and
from the haunts of vice, profligacy, and beggary, fuch
objefts as appear moft likely to become obnoxious to
the laws, or prejudicial to the community ; and, in the
execution of this duty, the affiftance of the magiftrates,
the clergy, and all who are interefted in the promotion
©f good morals and good government, is moil earneflly
requefted. For the employment of the children, feveral
houfes are fupported, at Cambridge Heath, near Hack-
ney, in each of which a mafter-workman is placed for
the purpofe of teaching the children fome ufeful trade.
The trades already eflabliftied are thofe of a printer,
carpenter, ftioemaker, and taylor. The girls are at pre-
fent educated as menial fervants.
In the year 1791 no lefa than 70 children were un-
a J S O C
der the proteaion of this fociety, among whom were ma- SdcJatJ
ny who have been guilty of various felonies, burglariea, ^-'romoi
and other crimes. Yet, fingular as it may appear, in ? "'^"'^^
lefs than two years thofe very children became no lefs re-
markable for induftry, adivity, decency, and obedience,
than they formerly were for the contrary vices. Such
are the grounds on which the Philanthropic Society
now claims the attention and folicits the patrenage of
the public. If we regard humanity and reliixionrthis
inftitution opens an afylum to the moft forlorn and ab-
jea of the human race ; it befriends the moft fi-iend-
lefs ; it faves from the certain and fatal confequences of
infamy ard vicious courfes orphans and deferted chil-
dren. If we regard national profperity and the public
welfare, it is calculated to increafe induftry 5 and it di-
rects that induftry into the moft ufeful and neceffary
channels. If we regard felf-intereft, its immediate objeft
is to proteft our perfons from affault and murder, our
property from depredation, and our peaceful habitations
from the defperate fury of midnight incendiaries.
One guinea per annum conftitutes a member of the
fociety ; and L. 10 at one payment a member for Hfe.
A life-fubfcription, or an annual payment of at leaft two
guineas, is a neceffary qualification for being clcdted in-
to the committee.
II. Societies for Promoting Science and Li-
terature.
I . The Royal Society of London is an academy or body
of perfons of eminent learning, inftituted by Charles 11.
for the promoting of natural knowledge. The origin
of this fociety is traced by Dr Sprat, its earlieft hifto-
rian, no farther back than to " fome fpacc after the end
of the civil wars" in the laft century. The fcene of the
firft meetings of the learned men who laid the founda-
tion of it, is by him fixed in the univerfity of Oxford at
the lodgings of Dr Wilkins warden of Wadham col-
lege. But Dr Birch, on the authority of Dr Walhs,
one of its earlieft and moft confiderable members, af-
figns it an earher origin. According to him, certaiit
worthy perfons, refiding in London about the year
1645, being " inquifitive into natural and the new and
experimental philofophy, agreed to meet weekly on a
certain day, to difcourfe upon fuch fubjefts, and were
known by the title of The Jnvijibk or Pbllofophical CaU
lege." In the years (648 and 16^9, the company who
formed thefe meetings were divided, part retiring to Ox-
ford and part remaining in London ; but they conti-
nued the fame purfuits as when united, correfponding
with each other, and giving a mutual account of their
rtfpedive difcoveries. About the year 1659 great-
er part of the Oxford fociety returned to London, and
again uniting with their tellow-labourers, met ence, if
not twice, a-veek at Grcfham college, during term
time, till they were fcattered by the public diftraftions
of that year, and the place of their meeting made a
quarter for foidiers. On the reftoration 1660 their
meetings were revived, and attended by a greater con-
courfe of men eminent for their rank and learning.
They were at laft taken notice of by the king, who
having himielf a confiderable tafte for phyfical fcience,
was pleafed to grant them an ample charter, dated the
15th of July J 662, and afterwards a fecoad dated 15th
April 1763, by which they weie creeled into a corpo-
ration)
S O G
for
r?(tion, eonfiftlnp of a prefident, council, and fellows, for
s o c
1 fellows, for foclety was cftnbllflied in Edinburgh by the 'es^^a ^o^^e^fJes^?»
oromotin^ natural knowledtre ; and to give their invefti- Ruddlman :and others, which nvi 73 1 was fucceeded by ^^j;;'^';
gations, a^ainft which ftrange prejudices were entertain
ed, every poffihle fupport, he (ometimes honoured their
meetings with his prefence.
Their manner of elefting fellows is by balloting.
Their council are in number 2 r, including the prefi-
dent, vice -prefident, treafurer, and two fecretaries ; 1 1
of which are continued, for the next year, and 1 o more
added to them; all chofen on St '\ndrew's day. Each
member at his admiffion fubfcribcs an engagemei^t that
he will endeavour to promote the good of the fociety ;
trom which he may be freed at any time, by fignilying
to the prefident that he defires to withdraw. The
charges have been different at different times, and were
at hril irregularly paid ; but they are now five guineas
paid to the treafurer at admiffion ; and 1 3 s. per quar-
ter fo long as the perfon continues a member : or, in
a fociety Tnilituted for the improvement of medical ijttrature,
knowledge. In the year 1739 the celebrated .-Mac- ' —
laurin conceived the idea of enlarging the plan of this
fociety, by extending It to fubjeds of philofophy and
literature. The iniiitution was accordingly new-mo-
delled by a printed fet of laws and regulations, the
number of members was increafed, and they were di-
ftinguiflied from that time by the title of T/je Society for
Improving Arts and Sciences, or more generally by the
title of The Philofophlcal Society of Edinburgh. Its
meetings, however, were foon interrupted by the difor.
ders of the country during the rebellion in 1745 ; and
they were not renewed till the year 1752. Soon after
this period the Prft volume of the Tranfaftions of the
Philofophical Society of Edinburgh was publiihed, un-
der the title of EJfays and Obferv^tions, Phyfical and Li*
ter lo long as tuc pcnuu cuhuuiucb <x intmui-i . ui, m v*^. ..^^^ -ri/- ' ' r 1
lieu of the annual fubfcription, a compofition of 25 gui- terary, and was followed by other volumes of acknow-
neas in one payment. It^dged merit. About the end of the year 1782, m a
Their defign is, to « make faithful records of all the meeting of the profeffors of the univerhty ol Edmburgh,
works of nature or art which come within their reach; many of whom were likewife members of the Philofo-
fo that the prefent as well as future ages may be enabled phical Society, and warmly attached to its interefts,. a
to put a mark on errors which have been ftrengthened fcheme was propofed by the Rev. Dr Robertfon, prm-
by long prefcription ; to reftore truths that have been cipal of the univerfity, for the eftabh^ment of a new
neglefted ; to pufh thofe already known to more va-
rious ufes ; to make the way more paffable to what re-
mains unrevealed," &c. To this purpofe they have
made a great number of experiments and obfervatlons
fociety on a more extended plan, and after the model of
fome of the foreign academies. It appeared an expe-
dient meafure to folicit the royal patronage to an iniii-
tution of this nature, which promifed to be of nation-
maae a gieac numucr oi cxpcruucuta duu uuici vauiwuo ^^.1..^^.. ...... — , r -
on moft of the works of nature ; and alfo numbers of al Importance, and to requell an ellabhihment by char
n . 1 'n • r . ^ _ r_ rL ..r„f..i *av. f>-nrr> /^rnu'ri TVif nlaH was annrnved and a
ter from the crown. The plan was approved and a-
dopted ; and the Philofophical Society, joining Its in-
fl\i'cnce as a body in feconding the application from the
univerfity, his majeily, as we have already obferved,
was moft gracioufly pleafcd to incorporate The Royai
lliort hiftories of nature, arts, manufaftures, ufeful en
glues, contrivances, &c. The fervices which they have
rendered to the public are ver,y great. They have im-
proved naval, civil, and military architecture ; advanced
the fecurity and perfeftlon of navigation ; improved „ / ^
ad-ricuUure ; and put not only this kingdom, but alfo Society of Edinburgh by charter.
Ireland, the plantations, &c. upon planting. Tliey This fociety confiils of ordinary and honorary mem-
have reglftered experiments, hiftories, relations, obfer- bers ; and the honorary places are reftnfted to per-
vations, &c. and reduced them into one common ftock; fons refidlng out of Great Britain and Ireland. Ihe
and have, from time to time, publiftied thofe which they eleftlon of new members is appointed to be made at
reckoned moft ufeful, under the title of Philofophical two ftated general meetings, which are tg be held oa
Trmifaaions, Sec. and laid the reft up in public regifters, the fourth Monday of January and the fourth Mon-
to be nakedly tranfmltted to pofterity, as a folld g round- day of June. A candidate for the place of an ordi-
workfor future fyftems. nary member rouft hgnify by a letter, addreffed to one
They have a library adapted to their inftltution ; to- of the members, his wiih to be received into the fo-
wards which Mr Plenry Howard, afterwards duke of ciety. He muft then be publicly propofed at leaft a
Norfolk, contributed the Norfolcian library, and which month before the day of eledion. If the propofal be
is, at this time, greatly increafed by a continual feries of feconded by two of the members prelent, his name is to
benefadtions. The mufeum or repofitory of natural be inferted in the lift of candidates, and hung up in the
and artificial rarities, given them by Daniel Colv/al,
Efq; and fince enriched by many others, is now remo-
ved to the Britifti mufeum, and makes a part of that
jrreat repofitory. 'I'heir motto is Nullius in verba; and
their place of affem.bling is Soinerfet-houfe in the Strand.
Sir Godfrey Copley, baronet, left tive guineas to be
given annually to the perfon who fhould write the beft
paper in the year, under the head of experimental phi
lofophy. This reward, which is now changed to a
gold medal, is the hightft honour the fociety can be-
ftow. It is conferred on ■'^t Andrew's day.
8. The Royai Society of Edinburgh, was incorporated
by royal charter on the 29th of March 1 783, and has
for its objcft the cultivation of every branch of fcitnce,
erudition, and tafte. Its rife and progrefs towards Its
ordinary place of meeting. The election is made by
ballot, and is determined in favour of a candidate, if he
(lull have the votes of two thirds of thofe prefent, in a
meefng confifting of at leaft 21 members. The gene-
ral bufmefs of the fociety is managed by a prefident,
two vice prefidents, with a council of 12, a general fe-
cretary, and a treafurer. Thefe ©fficers are chofen by
ballot annually on the laft Monday of November. All
public deeds, whether of a civil or of a literary nature,
are tranfafted by this board, and proceed in the name
of.the prefident or vice-prefident.
As it was thought that the members would have a
greater inducement to punftual attendance on the meet-
ings of the fociety, if they had fome general intimation
of the nature of the fubjefts which were to be confi-
crunuion, anu laiic. ils iiic <iiiu piugicis tuwdiua ii» >-i>'- w..^ — — ^-
prefent ftate was as follows : In the year 1718a literary dered, and made the topics of convcrfation, it was there-
4*
s o c
goclet;e''for fore refolved to divide the fociety into two clafles,
Scie^craifd^'^i'^^ ^2"^^? ^^'^^^ ^"'^ deliberate feparatdy. One of
C 584 ]
s o c
■Literature. ^^^^^ claffes is denominated the Pbyftcal Clafs, and has
t for its department the fciences of mathematics, natural
philofophy, chemiftry, medicine, natural hiftory, and
whatever relates to the mprovement of arts and manu-
faftures. The other is denominated the Literary Cbfsy
and has for its department literature, philology, hiftory,
antiquities, and fpeculative philofophy. Every member
is defired at his admiflion to intimate which of thofe
claffes he wifhes to be more particularly aflbciated with;
but he is at the fame time intitled to attend the me'et-
ing« of the other clafs, and to take part in all its pro-
■ceedings. Each of the claffes has four prelidents and
two fecretaries, who officiate by turns. The meetings
of the phyfical clafs are held on the firfl Mondays of
January, February, March, April, July, Auguft, No-
vember, and December; and the meetings or the Lite-
rary clafs are held on the third Mondays of January,
February, March, April, June, July, November, and
December, at 7 o'clock afternoon.
At thefe meetings the written effays and obfcrva-
tions of the members of the fociety, or their corre-
fpondents, are read publicly, and become the fubjefts
•of converfation, Tlie fubjecls of thefe effays and ob-
fervations are announced at a previous meeting, in or-
■der to engage the attendance of thofe members who
may be particularly interefted in them. The author of
€ach differtation is likewlfe delired to furnifh the fociety
with an abftraft of it, to be read at the next enfuino-
meeting, when the converfation is renewed with increa-
fed advantage, from the knowledge previoufly acquired
of the fubjeft. At the fame meetings are exhibited
fuch fpecimens of natural or artificial curiolities, fuch
remains of antiquity, and fuch experiments, as are
thought worthy of the attention of the fociety. All
objefts of natural hlflory prefented to the fociety, are
ordered by the charter of the inflitution to be depo-
iited, on receipt, in the mufeum of the univerfity of E-
dlnburgh ; and all rcmaiHS of antiquity, public records,
or ancient manufcripts, in the library belonging to the
faculty of advocates at Edinburgh.
The ordinary members, whofe ufual refidence is in
the city of Edinburgh or its immediate neighbourhood,
are expedled to attend regularly the monthly meetings ;
and are required to defray, by an annual contribution,
the current expences of the inftitution. The members
who relide at fuch a diftance from Edinburgh, that
4:hey cannot enjoy the advantages arifing from a regular
attendance on the meetings of the fociety, are not fub-
jefted to any contribution for defraying its expences,
but have a right to attend thofe meetings when occ:--
fionally in Edinburgh, and to take part in all their pro-
ceedings.
Three volumes of the Tranfaftions of the fociety have
been publifhed, which bear ample teflimony to the learn-
ing and acutenefs of their various authors.
3. Medical Society of London, inflituted in the year
J 752, on the plan recommended by Lord Bacon (De
^ugm. Scient. lib. iv. cap. 2.), to revive the Hippocra-
tic method of compofing narratives of particular cafes,
in which the nature of the difeafe, the manner of treat-
ing it, and the confequences, are to be fpecified ; to at-
tempt the cure of thofe difeafes which, in his opinion,
liave been too boldly pronounced incurable ; and, laft-
ly, to extend their Inquiries after the powers of par-
ticular medicines In the cure of particular cafes ; the
coUeftlons of this fociety have been already publlflied,
under the title of Medical Ohfervatlons and Inquiries,
in feveral volumes.
4. The Medical Ssciety of Edinburgh was Incorporated
by roval charter in 1778 ; but there appears to have
been in that city a voluntary affociatlon of the fame
name from the lirft e^abllfhment of a regidar fchool of
phyfic In the univerfity. To the voluntary foclety the
public k indebted for fix volumes of curious and ufe-
ful tflays, collefted principally by the fate Dr Monro
from June 1731 to June 1736; but in the year 17:59
that foclety was united to another, as we have already
obferved In a former article. The ordinary mem-
bers of the prefent medical foclety are elefted by bal-
lot, and three diffentlent exclude a candidate ; an or-
dinary member may alfo be eleifled an honorary mem-
ber, who enjoys the privileges of the others, and re-
ceives a diploma, but is freed from the obhgatlon of at-
tendance, delivering papers in rotation, &c. to which
the ordinary mcm.bers are fubjeft ; but in this cafe the
votes muft be unanimous. The meetings of this foclety
are held every Saturday evening in their own hall, du-
ring the winter feafon, when p ipers on medical fubjefts
are delivered by the feveral members in rotation ; and
four of thefe are annually elefted to fill the chair in ro-
tation, with the title of annual prefidents.
5. The Royal Medical Society of Paris was inftltuted in
I77<5- The members are divided into affociates ordi-
nary, llm.Ited to 30, honorary to 12, extraordinary to
60, and foreign to 60, and correfpondcnts. This fociety
has publifhed feveral volumes of Memoirs in 410.
6. Aftatic Society, an Inftitution planned by the late
illuftrious Sir William Jones, and actually formed at
Calcutta on the 15th of January 1784, for the purpofe
of tl-acing the hiftory, antiquities, arts, fciences, and li-
terature, of the immenfe continent of ^^fia. As it was
refolved to follow as nearly as pofTible the plan of the
RovAL Society of London, of which the king is pa-
iron, the patronage of the Afiatic Society was offered
to the governor-general and council, as the executive
power in the territories of the company. By their ac-
ceptance of this offer, Mr Haftings, as governor-gene-
ral, appeared among the patrons of the new foclety ;
" but he feemed In his private ftatlon as the firft Hberal
promoter of ufeful knowledge In Bengal, and efpeclally
as the great encourager of Perfian and Shanfcrit litera-
ture, to deferve a particular mark of diftinAIon he
was requefted, therefore, to accept the honoraiy title of
prefident. This was handfomely declined in a letter
from Mr Haftings, in which he requeflcd ''to yield his
pretenfions to the gentleman whofe genius planned the
inftitution, and was moft capable of condufting It to the
attainment of the great and fplendid purpofes of Its for-
mation." On the receipt of this letter, Sir William
Jones was nominated prefident of the fociety ; and we
cannot give the reader a view of the objed of the infti-
tution in clearer language than that which he employed
in his firft difcourfe from the chair.
** It is your defign, I conceive (fald the prefident),
to take an ample fpace for your learned inveftigatlons,
bounding them only by the geographical limits of Afia j
fo that, confidering HIndoftan as a centre, and turning
your eyes in idea to the north, you have on your right
3 many
Soci'eti
Literal
s o c
C 58
Itsformany important kingdo^na in the eaftern peninfula, the
p^ff ancient and wonderful empire of China with all her Tar-
''j.'"^"tarian dependencies, and that of Japan, with the clufter
of precious iflands, in which many fingular curiolities
have too long been concealed: before you lies that pro-
digious chain of mountains, which formerly perhaps
were a barrier againft the violence of the fea, and be-
yond them the very interefting^ country of Tibet, and
the vaft regions of Tartary, from which, as from the
Trojan horfe of the poets, have ifTued fo many confum-
mate warriors, whofe domain has extended at leaft from
the banks of the IlyfTus to the mouths of the Ganges :
«n your left are the beautiful and celebrated provinces
of Iran or Perfia, the unmeafured and perhaps unmea-
-furable deferts of Arabia, and the once flourifhing king-
dom of Yemen, with the pleafant ifles that the Arabs
have fubdued or colonized ; and farther weft ward, the
Afiatic dominions of the Turkifh fultans, whofe moon
feems approaching rapidly to its wane. By this great
circumference the field of your ufcful rcfearches will be
inclofed ; but fince Egypt had unqueftionably an old
cenneftion with this country, if not with China, fmce
the language and literature of the Abyffinians bear a
manifeft affinity to thofe of Afia, fince the Arabian
■arms prevailed along the African coall of the Mediter-
ranean, and even erefted a powerful dynafty on the
continent of Europe, you may not be difpleafed occa-
fionally to follow the ftreams of Afiatic learning a little
beyond its natural boundary ; and, if it be neceflary or
convenient that a fhort name or epithet be given to our
fociety, in order to diftinguifh it in the world, that of
Aftattc appears both claflical and proper, whether we
confider the place or the objeft of the inftitution, and
preferable to Oriental, which is in truth a word merely
relative, and though commonly ufed in Europe, con-
■veys no very diftinft idea.
"If now it be ailced. What arc the intended objefts
of our inquiries within thefe fpacious limits? we anfwer,
Man and Nature; whatever is performed by the otie
" or produced by the other. Human knowledge has been
elegantly analyfed according to the three great faculties
of the mind, memory, rea/on, and imagination, which we
conftantly find employed in arranging and retaining,
comparing and diftinguifhing, combining and diverfify-
,ing, the ideas, which we receive through our fenfes, or
acquire by refleftion : hence the three main branches of
learning are, hiftory, fcience, and art ; the firft compre-
hends either an account of natural produftions, or the
genuine records of empires and ftates ; the fecond em-
braces the whole circle of pure and mixed mathematics,
together with ethics and law, as far as they depend on
the reafoning faculty ; and the third includes all the
beauties of imagery and the charms of invention, dif-
played in modulated language, or reprefented by colour,
figure, or found.
" Agreeably to this analyfis, you will inveftigate
whatever is rare in the ftupendous fabric of nature, will
■correft the geography of Afia by new obfervations and
difcoveries ; will trace the annals and even traditions of
thofe nations who from time to time have peopled or
defolated it ; and will bring to light their various forms
of government, with their inttitutions civil and religious;
you will examine their improvements and methods in
arithmetic and geometry ; in trigonometry, menfura-
tion, mechanics, optics, aftronomy, and general phy-
Vol. XVII. Part II.
] s o c
fics; their fyftems of morality, grammar, rhetoric, and |:>cietiesfor
dialedic; their (lull in chirurgery and mediciile ; and J° J^'^J'^J^
their advancement, whatever it may be, in anatomy and L.iterature.
chemiif ry. To this you will add rcfearches into their
agriculture, manufadlures, trade; and whihl you in-
quire with pleafure into their mufic, architedure, paint-
ijig, and poetry, will not negle£t' thofe inferior arts by
which the comforts and even elegancies of focial life are
fupplied or improved. You may obferve, that I have
oinitted their languages, the diverfity and difficulty of
which are a fad obftacle to the progrefs of ufeful know-
ledge ; but I have ever confidered languages as the
mere inftruments of real learning, and think them im-
properly confounded with learning itfelf : the attain-
ment of them is, however, indifpenfably necelTary ; and
if to the Perfian, Armenian, Turkifh, and Arabic, coul4
be added not only the Shanfcrit, the treafures of which
we imy now hope to fee unlocked, but even the Chi-
nefd, Tartarian, Japanefe, and the various infular dia-
lers, an immenfe mine would then be open, in which
we might labour with equal delight and advantage."
Of this fociety three volumes of the Tranfaftions
have been publifhed, which are replete with informa-
tion in a high degree curious and important ; and we
hope that the European world lhall foon be favoured
with another. The much-to be lamented death of the
accomplifhed prefident may indeed damp the fpirit of
inveftigatlon among the members ; for to conquer diffi-
culties fo great as they muft meet with, a portion feems
to be neceflary of that cnthufiafm which accompanied
all the purfuits of Sir William Jones ; but his fucceflbr '
is a man of great worth and learning, and we truft will
ufe his utmoft endeavours to have the plan completed of
which Sir William gave the outlines.
5. The j4merican Philofophical Society, held at Phila-
delphia, was formed in January 1769 by the union of
two focieties which had formerly fubfifted in that city.
This fociety extends its attention to geography, ma-
thematics, natural philofophy, and aftronomy ; medi-
cine and anatomy ; natural hiftory and chemiftiy ; trade
and commerce ; mechanics and architefture ; hufbaiidry
and American improvements. Its officers are a |?atron,
prefident, three vice-prefidents, one treafurer, four fe-
cretaries, and three curators, who are annually chofen
by ballot. The duty of the prefident, vice-prefidents,
treafurer, and fecretaries, is the fame as in other focie-
ties. The bufinefs of the curators is to take the charge
of all fpecimens of natural produ6lions, whether of the
animal, vegetable, or foffil kingdom ; all models of
machines and inftruments ; and all other matters be-
longing to the fociety which fhall be intrufted to them.
The ordinary meetings are held on the firft and third
Fridays of every aionth from Odlober to May inclufive-
This fociety was incorporated by charter 15th March
1780 ; and has publifhed three volumes of its Tranfac-
tlons, containing many ingenious papers on general li-
terature and the fciences, as well as refpefling thofe
fubjefts peculiar to America. It is a deh'ghtful prof-
pedl to the philofopher to confider, that Afia, Eurppe,
and America, though far feparated and divided into a
variety of political ftates, are all three combined to
promote the caufe of knowledge and truth.
6. A Literary and Philofophical Society of cofiderabk
reputation has been lately eftabliftied at Manchefter,
under the diredion of two prefidents, four vice-prcfi-
4 £ dents,
S O C [
UncieT'tsfoi-ciefttg, a'n<3 two fecretaries. The camber oFmefnbers fs
*c'j'fence'a"!d^™'^^'^ *^ ?c ) Wfides whom there are feveral honorary
Lipei-atti're. '"^^^^"t'Sj all <J>f whom are cVefted by ballot ; and the
'oUccrs are chofen annually in April. Foiir volumes of
"♦aluable effays have been already publiffeed by this fociety.
Society for Promoting the I^yifcouery of the Interior
Parts of Africa, ThiB focfety or aflbciation for explo-
*ina :the internal diftrifts of Africa, of which fo little is
«"t prefent kiiotvn, was formed in London by fome opu-
hnt individuaiP ill 1788 ; 'who, ftrongly imprefTed with
a eonvi^ftion of the practicability and utility of thus en-
larging the fund of huRian knowledge, determined if
poifible to refcne the age from that ftigma which at-
-tache* to its ignorance of fo large and fo near a portion
of the globe. The founders of this fociety refolved to
admit no man a member fbr a fhorter period than three
years, during which he muft pay annually into the
public fund five guineas. After three years, any mera-
btY, upon giving a year's notice, may withdraw himfelf
from the affodation. During the firft 12 months each
of the members was allowed to recommend for the ap--
probation of the fociety fuch of his friends as he might
■think proper to be admitted into it ; but frnce that pe-
riod we believe all additional members have been elefted-
by a ballot of the aflbciation at large. A committee
was chofen by ballot to manage the funds of the fociety,
to choofe proper perfons to be fent on the difcovery of
■the interior parts of Africa, and to carry on the focie-
«ty's correfpondence, with 'exprefs injunftions to difclofe
teo intelligence received from their agents but to the fo-
x'iety at large. But a fuller account of the nature of
Ihis teftablifhment, and the tery happy efforts they have
madie, may be feen in the fuperb edition of their pro^
feedings printed in 1790, 4to, for their own ufe \ or in
*he 8vo edition fince made public. They foon found
•\wo gentleman, Mr Lucas and Mr Ledyard, who were
ilngularly well qualified for the importaRt miffion. The
informaition they bav^e acquired will be found in t^e
above work j with a new map by Mi- Rennel,. exhibit-
-jhg the geographical knowledge collefted by the Afri-
can alToeiation. Mr Ledyard very unfortunately died
during his refearcbes at Cai-1-o.
8. The Society of yintiqu/iries of London, was founded
«lbo«t the year 1572 by Archbifhop Parker, a munifi-
cent patron of learned men. For the fpaee of 20 years
it afl'embkd in the houfe of Sir Robert Cotton ; in
1589 they TCfolved to apply to Queen Ehzabeth for a
*iBhai-ter and a public building where they might hold
*lheit- ineerihgs ; but it is uneertam whether arty fuch
application was ever made. In the mean time, the re-
ptitation of the fociety gradually increafed, and at length
it excited the jealoufy of James L who was afraid left
it Ihould prefume to canvafs the fecret tranfaftions of
■his government. He accordingly diffolred it. But in
<he beginning of the prefent cenltiry, the Antiquarian
Society began to revive ; and a number of gentlemen,
MCminent for their afFefkion to this fcience, had weekly
meetings, in which they examined the antitjuities and
hiftory of Great Britain preceding the reign of James I.
but without exclading any other i-emarkabk antiquities
•that might be offered to tliem. From this time the
fociety grew in importance ; and in 1750 they unani-
inoufly refolved to petition the king for a charter of in-
eorporatioa. This they obtained the year following, by
5S6 1 s o c
tht inffutnrc of the celebrated earl of Hardwicke, then St»cfl
lord chancellor, and Martin Polkas, Efq; who was then P*"**"
theii- preiident. The king declared himftlf their foun- f "
der and patron, and empowered them to have a body of ^
ftatutes, and a common feal, and to hold in perpetuity
lands, &c. to th6 yearly value of L. idco.
The chief objeft of the inquiries and refearches of
the fociety are Brkifh antiquities and hillory ; not,
however, wholly excluding thofe of other countries. It
mnft be acknowledged, that the ftudy of antiquity of-
fers to the curious and inquifitive a large field for re-
fearch and amufement. The inquirer in this branch
furniihes the hiftoriah with his beft materials, while 1i€
difiinguilhes from truth the fiftions of a bold invention,
and afcertains the credibility of fails ; and to the philo-
f»pher he profents a fruitful fource of ingenious fpeett-
lation, while he points out to him the way of thinking,
'»nd the manners of men, under all the varieties of afpe£t
in which they have appeared.
An antiquarian ouwht to be a man of folid judirment, .
pofTelTed of learning and fcience, that he may not be an
enthnfiaftic admirer of every thing that is ancient mere-
ly becanfe it is ancient ; but be qualified to diftinguifli
between thofe refearches which are valuable and impor-
tant, and thofe which are trifling and ufelefs. It is.frora
the want of thefe qualifications that fome men have con-
tradled fuch a blind paflion for every thing that is an-
cient, that they have txpofed themfelves to ridicule,
av-d their ftudy to contempt. But if a regard to utili-
ty were always to regulate the purfuits of the antiqua-
rian, the fhafts of fatire would ho long-er b^ levelled at
him J but he would be refpefted as the man who labours
to reftore orto preferve fuch ancient productions as are
fuited to illuminate religion, philofophy, and hiftory, or
to improve the arts of life.
We by no means intend to apply thefe obfervationa
to any particular fociety of antiquarians ; but we throw
them out, becaufe we know that an alfiduous ftudy o£
antiquity is apt, like the ardent purfuit of money, to
lofe fight of its original objeft, and to degenerate into a
palfion which miftakes the mean for the end, and con-
fiders poffclfion without a regard to utility as enjoy-
ment.
An affociation fimilar to that of the Antiquarian So-
ciety of London was founded in Edinburgh in 1780,
and received the royal charter in 1783.
tiefides thefe literary ftxrieties here mentioned, there
are a great number more in diflvrent parts of Europe,
fome of which are noticed under the article Academy,
'i'hofe which are omitted are not omitted on account
of aay idea of their fsfevior importance ; but either be-
caufe we have had no accefs to authentic information,
or becaufe they refembk the focietres already defcribed
fo clofely, that we could have given nothing but their
names.
III. Societies iFOR EscoURAGiNG AND- Promotino
Arts, MANU^ACTyREs, iifr.
I. London Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Mam
nufoSuresy and Commerce ^ was inftituted iti the year
1754 by Lord Folkftone, Lord ROmney, Dr Stephen
Hales, and a few private gentlemen ; but the merit of
this inftitution chiefly belonged to Islx William Shipley,,
5 »
S O G
[ 5^7 ]
S O G
ura-
nd
wing c
fortune
wfor j9j i'n;geSM)Uf. SBCchajiic } vho, though darlving no ad.
vantP.ges from karning, by unwearied pet fonal attend-
ance found means to engage a few perfoaa of rank and
to meet at Peele's cofFethoufe in Fleetftreet,
Bces, and tQ adopt a plan for promoting arts and maiiufac*
tures.
The office-bearers of tbia, fociety are a prefidtnt, 12
vice-prefidents, a fecretairy, and regifter. Their pro-
ceedings are regulated by a body of rules and orders
eftabliOicd by the whole fociety, and printed for the ufe
pf the members. All queftions aad debates ate deternii-
»ed by the holding up of hands, or by ballot if required;
and no matter can be confirmed without the affcnt of a
'majority at two meetings. They invite all the world
to propofe fubjefts for encouragement ; and whatever is
deemed deferving attention, is referred to the confidei-a-
tioR of a committee, which, after due inquiry and de-
!-libeiation, make their reporl to the whole fociety,
vhere it is: approved, rejedled, or altered. A lift is
printed and piibhfhed every year of the matters for
' vhich they propofe to give premiums.; which premiums
are either fums of money, and thofe fometimes very
^onfijderable ones ; or the focicty's medal in gold or fil-
ver, which they confider as the greateft honour they
• can bcftow. All poffible care is taken to prevent par-
tiahty in the diftribution of their premiums, by deCrinij
the claimants names to be concealed, and by appoint-
ing committees (who when they ftnd occafion call t«
their afiillance Ihe moft flcilful artifts) for the ftrift ex-
amination of the real merit of all matters and thinsrs.
brought before them, in confequence of their pce-
Er.iums.
The chief objeAs of the attention of the Society for
tlie Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Com-
merce, in. the application of their rewards, are ingenuity
in the feveral branches of the polite and liberal arts,
ufeful ddfeoveries and improvements, in agriculture,, ma-
cufasftures, mechanics, and chemithy, or the laying open
qf any fuch to the public ; and, in general, all fuch ufe-
ful inventions, difcoveries, or improvements {though not
jnentioned in the book of premiums), as may appear to
cave a tendency to the advantage of trade and com^
Biercc. '
The following are fome of the moft important regu-
•lations of this fociety. Tt is required that the matters
ior which premiums are offered be dehvered in without
nameii, or any intimation to whom they belong ; that
each pafticulaj! thing be marked in what manner each
claimant thinks fit, fuch claimant fending with it a pa-,
per fealed up, having on the outfide a corrtfponding
maiik, and on the infide the claimant's name and ad-,
drefs ; and all candidates are to take notice, that no.
claim for a premium will be attended to, unlefs the con-
tlitions of tlie advertifemiint are> fully, complied with*
No papers ihall be opened but fuch as fliali gain pie-,
isiums, unlefs where it appears to the fociety abfdbute-
ly neccffary for the determination, of the claim : all the
reft fliall be returned unopened^ with the^ matters to
which they belong,, it inquired after by the mark,s with'-
in two years,; after which time, if not demanded, they
lhall.be publicly burnt unopened at fome meeting of the
fociety. All the premiums ol this fociety are defigntid
ior that part of Great Britain called England, the do-
minion, of Wales, and the town, of Berwick upon
Tweed* unlefs. e^c^refgly. uiCQtiQwd tQ the CQUt^ary*
No perfoo fhall receive any premium, bounty, or eneon- SocietJeffbr
raeement. from the foeiety for any matter for which ^"<='^"''*-
I 1 1 • « r 1 • VT Kin*!
he has obtained or propoles to obtam a patent, j;^, meting
member of this fociety fliall be a candidate for or in- Arrs, \4a«
titled to receive any premium, bounty, or reward what- nufadures,
foevcr, except the honoraiy medal of the fociety. ^X—
'i'he refpedlability of the members who compofe it '
may be feen by perufing the lift which generally accom-
panies their Tranfaftions. In the laft volume (vol. xii. )
it occupies no lefs than 43 pages. Some idea may be
formed of the wealth of this fociety, by obferving that
the hft of their premiums fills 96 pages, and amounts to
250 in number. Thefe confift of gold medal« worth From
30 to 50, and in a few inftances to 100, guineas ; and ,
filver medals valued at 10 guineas.
This fociety is one of the moft important in Greafc
Britain. Much money has been expended by it, and
many arc the valuable effects of which it has been pro-,
duftive. Among thefe we reckon not only the difco-
veries which it has excited, but the inftitutlon of other
focieties on the fame principles to which it has given
birth ; and we do not hefitate to conclude, that future
ages will eonfider the founding of this fociety aa one or
the moft remarkable epochs in the hiftory of the arts.
We contemplate with pleafure the beneficial efTefta
w hich muft refult to this nation and to mankind by the
diffufion of fuch inftitutions ; and rejoice in the hope
that the adlive minds of the people of Great Britaiuy
inftead of being employed as formerly in controverfies
about religion, which engender ftrife, or in ditcuffiona
concerning the theory of politics, which lead to the
adoption of Ichemes inconfiftent with the nature auij
condition of man, will foon be more generally united
into affociations for promoting ufeful knowledge andfolid
improvement, and for alleviating the diftreffes of their
fellow-creatures.
a. Society wjl'ttuted at Bath for the Encouragement of
yfgr ku/ture, ArtSf Manufadures, and Commerce^ It wag
founded in the year I777 by feveral gentlemen who met
at the city of Batli. This fcheme met with a very fa-,
vourable reception both from, the wealthy and learned.
The wealthy fubfcribed very, liberally, and the learned
communicated many important papers. On applicationi
to the London and provincial focieties inftitutcd for the
like piu-pofeg, they very politely offered their affiftance^
Seven: volumes of their tranfaftions have already beea
publiflied^ containing very valuable experiments and ob-
fcrvations, particularly refpefting agriculture, which well
deCerve the attention of all farmers in the kingdom.
We have confulted them with much fatlsfaftion on fen
vera! occafions, and have frequently referred to them ia
the courfe of tliis work ; and therefore, witli pleafure^
embrace the prefent opportunity of repeating our oblin
gations. We- owe the fame acknowledgments to the
Society for the Improvement of Arts, ^c. of London.
^. Society for IVorktng Minesi an affociation lately
formed on the continent of Europe. This inftitution
arofe from the accidental meeting of feveral mineralo-^
gifts at Skleno near Schemnitz in Hungary, who were
colleCled; in order to examine a new method of amalga-
mation. Struck with the (hackles impofed on minera-
logy, by monopolizers of new and ufeful proceffes, they
thought no method' fo. effedual to break them, as form-'
ing afociety, whofe common labours ftiould be diiefted to
fix mining oa its.ftir^lt principles; and whofe memoirs*
4E 2 fpread
Societies for
Encoura-
ging and
Promot ng
Airs, Ma-
nufa6lures,
&c.
S O G [588
fpread over all Europe, mi ^ht ofiFcr to every adventurer
the rcfult of the tefearches, of which they are the ob-
jeft. By thefe means they fuppofed, that there would
be a mafs of iniormation coUedled ; the intercfts of in-
dividuals would be loil in the general intereft ; and the
one would materially affill the other. Impofture and
quackery would, by the fame means, be baniflied from
a fcience, which muft be improved by phllofophy and
experience; and the fociety, they fuppofed, would find,
in the confidence which they infpired, the reward ^and
the encouragement of their labours. They defign, that
the memoirs which they publifli fnall be flrort and
clear ; truth mull be their bails, and every idle difcuf-
fion, every foreign digreffion, muft be bauifhed ; poli-
tics and finance muft be avoided, though tlie difierta-
tions may feem to lead towards them ; and they oblige
themfelves to oppofe the affcftation of brilHancies, and
s o c
to fee the Rudy of fcveral other fcienees piirfued in the
fame manner. Enco;
4. The Society for the hnproDemmt o f Naval /^rchitec- J'^^^ m
ture, was founded in 1791. The objo6l of it is to en-
courage every ufeful invention and difcavery relating to nufa*
n^val architefture as far as lhall be in their power, both
by honorary and pecuniary rewards. They have in
view particularly to improve the theories of floating bo-
dies and of the refiftance of fluids ; to procure draughts
and models of different vefTels, together with calcu-
lations of their capacity, centre of gravity, tonnage,
&c. ; to m.ake obfervations and experiments themfelves,
and to point out fuch obfervations and experiments as
appear beft calculated to further their defigns, and raoft
deferving thofe premiums which the fociety can be-
ftow. But though the improvement of naval architec-
ture in all its branches be certainly the principal objeft
the oftentation of empty fpeculation, when compared of this inftitution, yet the fociety do not by any means
with plain, fimple, and ufeful fafts. intend to confine themfelves merely to the form and
The objpft of the fociety is phyfical geography ; mi- ftrufture of vefftds. Every fubordinate and collateral
neralogy founded on chemiftry ; the management of ore purfuit will claim a fhare of the attention of the fociety
in the different operations which it undergoes ; fubter- in proportion to its merits ; and whatever may have
raneous geometry ; the hiftory of mining ; founderies, any tendency to render navigatioH more fafc, falutary,
and the proceffes for the extradtion of metals from the and even pleafant, will not be neglefted.
ores, either by fufion or amalgamation, in every inftance
apphed to pradlice. The end of this inftitution is to
colleft, in the moft extenfive fenfc, every thing that can
alfift the cperations of the miner, and to communicate
it to the different members, that they may employ it
for the public good, in their refpedtive countries. Each
member muft confider himfdf as bound to fend to the
fociety every thing which will contribute to the end of
its inftitution ; to point out, with precifion, the feveral
fafts and oblervations ; to communicate every experi-
ment which occurs, even the unfuccefsful ones, if the
relation may feem to be advantageous to the public ;
to communicate to the fociety their examination of
fchemes, and their opinions on queftions propofed by
it ; and to pay annually two ducats (about 18 s. 6 d.)
to the direftion every Eafter. The fociety, on the
other hand, is bound to publifh every novelty that fhall
be communicated to it ; to communicate to each mem-
ber, at the member's expence, the memoirs, defigns,
models, produftions, and every thing connefted with
the inftitution ; to anfwer all the neceffary demands
made, relating in any refpedt to mining ; and to give
its opinion on every plan or project communicated
through the medium of an honorary member.
The great centre of all intelligence is to be at Zel-
lerfield in Hartz, Brunfwick : but the fociety is not
fixed to any one fpot ; for every particular ftate fome
praftical mineralogift is nominated as direftor. A-
mong thefe are the names of Baron Born, M. Pallas,
M. Charpentier, M. Prebra, and M. Henkel. Their
office is to propofe the members ; to take care that the
views of the fociety are purfu^d in the different coun-
tries where they refide ; to anfwer the requefts of the
members of their country who are qualified to make
them ; in cafe of the death of a direftor, to choofe an-
other ; and the majority is to determine where the ar-
chives and the ftrong box is to be placed.
All the eminent rainera^oglfta in Europe are members
of this fociety. It is ereftcd on fo liberal and fo ex-
tenfive a plan, that we entertain the higheft hopes of
its fuccefs i and have only to add, that we wilh much
This inftitution owes its exiftence to the patriotic dlf-
pofition and extraordinary attention of Mr Sewel a
private citizen of London, who (though engaged in a
line of bufinefs totally oppofite to all concerns of this
kind) has been led, by mere accident, to take fuch occu-
lar notice of, and make fuch obfervations on, the adtual
ftate of naval architecture in this country, as naturally-
occurred to a man of plain underftanding, zealous for
the honour and intereft of his country, and willing to
bellow a portion of that time for the public good,
which men of a different defcription would rather have
devoted to their own private advantage. His attention
was the more ferioufly excited, by finding that it was
the opinion of fome private fhip-builders, who, in a de-
bate on the failure of one of our naval engagements,
pronounced, that fuch " would ever be the cafe while
that bufinefs (the conftruftion of our fhips of war) wa&
not ftudied as a fcience, but carried on merely by prece-
dent ; that there had not been one improvement in our
navy that did not originate with the French, who had
naval fchools and feminaries for the ftudy of it 5 and
that our fhips were not a match for thofe of that nation
either fingly or in a fleet, &c. &c."
In a lliort time the fociety were enabled to offer very
confiderable premiums for particular improvements in
the conftruAion of our ftilpping, &c. &c. and alfo to
encourage our philofophers, mathematicians, and me-
chanics, to make fatisfadtory experiments, tending to af-
certain the laws of refiftance of water to foHds of diffe-
rent forms, in all varieties of circumftance. On this-
head the reward is not lefs than L. 100 pounds or a
gold medal. Other premiums of 50, 30, and 20 gui-
neas, according to the importance or difficulty of the
particular fubjeft or point of inveftigation, are fikewife
offered, for different difcoveries, inventions, or improve-
ments. The terms of admiffion into the fociety are a
fubfcription of two guineas annually, or twenty guineas
for life.
5. Society of Artijls of Great Britain^ which confiftg
of direftors and fellows, was incorporated by charter in
J 765, ^nd empowered to pmchafe and hold lajids, not
exoeeding
S O G f 589 J BOG
The dlreaors of ihh fo, the cafh of the fociety fhall be lod.i?ed in the bank ofScrctn- fw
it'cf for exceeding L. leoo a year
;oura- ciety, annually ekfted, are to confiit of 24 perfons, in'
'^ot^n the preiident, vice-prefident, treafurer, and fe-
Ma^ cretary ; and it is rtquired that they be either painters,
fculptors, architefts, or engravers by profeffion.
6. Britjjh Society for Exttnding the Fifher'ics and Im-
proving the Sea-Coajis of this Kingdom, was inftituted in
1786. The end and defign of this fociety will beft
appear from their chatter, of which wc prefent an ab-
ttraa.
The preamble ftates, " the great want of improve-
ment in hfheries, agriculture, and manufadlures, in the
Highlands and iflands of North Britain ; the prevalence
of emigration from the want of employment in thofe
parts ; the profped of a new nurfery of feamen, by the
eftablilhment ot fifhing towns and villages in that quar-
ter. The aft therefore declares, that the perfons there-
in named, and eveiy other perfon or perfons who fhall
thereafter become proprietors of the joint ftock men-
tioned therein, {hall be a dillind and feparate body po-
litic and corporate, by the name of The Britijh Society
for Extending the Fijheries and Improving the Sea coafls
of this Kingdom : That the faid fociety may raife a ca-
pital joint flock not exceeding L. 1 50,000, to be ap-
plied to purchafing or otherwife acquiring lands and te-
nements in perpetuity, for the building thereon, and on
no other land whatever, free towns, villages, and fifhing
Rations : That the joint flock (hall be divided into
fhares of L. sO each : That no one perfon fhall in his
or her name poffels more than ten fhares, or L. 500 :
That the fociety fhall not borrow any fum or fums of
money whatfoever : That the fums to be advanced for
this undertaking, and the profits arifing therefrom, fhall
be divided proportionably to the fum fubfcribed ; and
that no perfon fhall be liable for a larger fum than he
or fhe fhall have refpedively iubicribed : That one or
two fhares fhall intitle to one vote and no more, in per-
fon or by proxy, at all meetings of proprietors; three
or four fhares to two votes ; five, fix, or feven fhares,
to three votes ; eight or nine fhares to four votes ; and
ten fhares to hve votes and no more : That more j-)er-
fons than one inchning to hold in their joint names one
or more fhares fhall be intitled to vote, by one of fuch
perfons, according to the priority of their names, or by
proxy : That bodies corporate fhall vote by proxy un-
der their feal : Thc^t all perfons holding proxies fhall be
proprietors, and that no one perfon fhall hold more than
five votes by proxy : That the affairs of the fociety fhall
be managed by a governor, deputy governor, and i -5
other direftors, to be eledled annually on the 25th of
March, irom among the proprietors of the fociety, hold-
ing at leaft one full fliare, by figned' lifls of their names
to be tranfmitted by the proprietors to the fecretary of
the fociety : that five proprietors, not being governor,
direftor, or other officer, ihall be in hke manner an-
nually elefted to audit the accounts of the foeiety ;
That there fhall be one general meeting of the proprie-
tors annually on the 25th of March : That occafional
general meetings fhall be called on the requeft of nine or
more proprietors : That the general meetings of the
proprietors fhall make all bye laws and conftitutions for
the government of the fociety, and for the good and
ordeily carrying on of the bufinefs of the lame : That
no transfer fhall be made of the ftock of the fociety
for three years from the loth of Augull 1786 i That
England, bank of Sco'tland, or the royal bank of Scot. ^^^^^^'^^
land ; That no direftor, proprietor, agent, or officer of pVo^ioting
the fociety, fhall retain any fum or fums of money in his Arts, Ma-
hands beyond the fpace of 30 days, on any accountnufadlures,
whatfoever : That all payments by the fociety fhall be
made by drafts on the faid banks, under the hands of,
the governor or deputy-governor, counterfigned by the
fecretary or his deputy, and two or more dueftors ;•
And that the books in \yhich the accounts of the fo-
ciety fliall be kept fliall be open to all the proprie-
tors."
The inftitution of this public- fpirited fociety was in
a great meafure owing to the exertions of the patriotic
John Knox; who, in the couife of 23 years, traverfed
and explored the Highlands of Scotland no lefs than 1 6
times, and expended feveral thoufand pounds of his own
fortune in purfuing his patriotic defigns.
']. Britijh Wool Society. See Britifh Wool Society.
SociETr IJles, a clufler of ifles, fo named by Captairi
Cook in 1769. They are fituated between the latitudes
of 16. 10. and 16- 55- fouth, and between the longi-
tudes of 150. 57. and 152. weft. They are eight iiv
number; namely, Otaheite, Huahine, Ulietea, Otaha,
Bolabola, Maurua, Toobouai, and Tabooyamanoo op
Saunders's Ifland. The foil, produ£lions, people, theis
language, religion, cuftoms, and manners, are fo nearly
the fame as "at Otaheite, that Httle need be added
here on that fubjeft. Nature has been equally bounti-
ful in uncultivated plenty, and the inhabitants are
luxurious and as indolent. A plantain branch is the
emblem of peace, and exchanging names the greateft to-
ken of friendlhip. Their dances are more elegant, their
dramatic entertainments have fomethlng of plot and
confiftency, and they exhibit temporary occurrences 33
the objefts of praife or fatlre ; fo that the origin ot an-
cient comedy may be already difcerned among them.
The people of Huahine are in general ftouter and fairer ,
than thofe of Otaheite, and this ifland is remarkable for
• its populoufnefs and feitillty. Thofe of Ulietea, on the
contrary, are fmaller and bladcer, and much lefs order-
ly. Captain Cook put on fhore a Cape ewe^t Bolabola,.
where a ram had been left by the Spaniards ; and alfo
an Enghfh boar and fow, with two goats, at Ulietea,
If the valuable animals which have been tranfported thi-
ther from Europe fhould be fuffered to multiply, no>
part of the world will equal thefe ill'ands in variety and-
abundance of refrefhments for future navigators*
SOCINIANS, in church-hiftory, a fed of Chriftian.
heretics, fo called from their founder Fauflus Soclnus
(fee SociNus). They maintain, " That Jefus Chrilt
was a mere man, who had no exiftence be'ore he
was conceived by the Virgin Maiy ; that the Holy
Gliolt is no diftinft perlon,. but that the Father is^
- truly and properly G^od. They own, that the name of
God is given in the Holy Scriptures' to Jefus Chrift ;.
but contend, that it is only a deputed title, which, how-
ever, inverts him with an abfolute fovereignty over all
created beings, and renders him an objedl of worfhip to
men and angels. They deny the doftrines of fatistap
tlon and imputed righteoufncfs ; and fay that Chrift
only preached the truth to mankind, fet before them
in himfelf an example of heroic virtue, and lealed his
dodrines with his blood. Original fm and abfolute pre-
deftinatioii they efteem fcholaftlc chimeras. They lika-
wife-'
S O C t 5(
wife maintain the lleep of tlie foul, which they fay be-
^jj^nus^ infcnfible at death, and raifed a^^aui with the
body at the refiirreftion, when the good fhull be efta-
biiihed in the poffeffion of eternal fchcity, while the
wicked fiiali be configned to a fire that will not torment
them eternally, but for a certain duration proportioned
to their demerits."
This fe£l has long been indip,nant at being ftyled So^
cirAans. They difclaim every human leader ; and pro-
feffing to be guided folely by the word of God and the
d;eduftion3 of reafon, they call themfelves Umtariansy
and affcdl to confider all other Chriftians, even their
friends the Arians, as Polytbeifts. Modern Unitaria-
nifm, as taught by Dr Prieftley, is, however, a very
different thing from Socinianifm, as we find it in the
Racovian catechifm and other ttandard works of the
feft. This far-famed philofopher has difcovered what
efcaped the fagacity oFall tlie fratres polani^ that Jefus
Chiift was the fon of Jofeph as well as Mary ; that the
evangcUfts rniftook the meaning of Ifaiah's prophecy,
that " a virgin ftiould conceive and bear a fon that the
applying of this pnophecy to the birth of our Saviour,
led them to conclude that his conception was miracu-
f lous ; and that we are not to wonder at this mittake, as
the apoftles were not always infpired, and were in ge-
neral inconclufive reafoners. The modefty of the wri-
ter in claiming the merit of fuch difcoveries will appear
in its proper colours to all our readers : the truth of
his doctrine fhail be confidcred in another place. See
Theology.
SQGINUS (Laslius), the firft author oFthe feft of the
Socinians, was born at Sienna in Tufcany in 1525. Be-
. ing defigiied by his father for the law, he began very early
to fearch for the foundation of that fcience in the Ward
of God ; and by that ftudy difcovered that the Romifh
religion taught many things contrary to revelation ; when,
being defirous of penetrating farther into the true fenfe
of the Scriptures, he ftudied Greek, Hebrew, and even
Arabic. Jn 1547 he left Italy, to go and converfe with
r the Proteftants ; and fpent four years in travelling thro'
France, England, the Netherlands, Germany, and Po-
■- land, aiwl at length fettled at Zurich. He by this
means became acquainted with the moll learned men of
his time, who teitified by their letters the efteem they
had for him : but as he difcovered to them his doubts,
he was greatly fufpefted of herefy. He, however, con-
duded himfclf with fuch addrefs, that he hved among
the capital enemies of his opinisns, without receiving
the leaft injury. He met with forae difciples, who
heard his inltruftions with refpe6l ; thefe were Itahaus
who left their native country on account of religion,
and wandered about in Germany and Poland, He
communicated Hkewife his fentiments to his relations by
his writings, which he ca^ifed tQ be conveyed to them
at Sienna. He died at Zurich in 1562. Thofe who
were of fentiments oppofite to his, and were perfo-
nally acquainted with hiai, confcfs that his outward
behaviour was blamelefs. Pic wrote a Paraphrafe on
the firft chapter of St John ; and other works are afcri-
bed to him.
SociNus (Fauftus), nephew of the. preceding, and
principal founder of tlie Socinlan fed, was born at Si-
en na in 1539. '^'^e letters which his uncle LsHus wrote
to his relations, and which infufed into them many feeds
©f herefy, made an imppeffion ypoa him \ £0 that.
10 ] S O G
knowing hitnJeif not innocetit, lie fled as well a» the Stvi,
reft when the inquilition began to perfecute that family. II
Pie was at Lyons when he heard of his uncle's death,
and departed immediately to take poffefGon of his wii-
tings. lie returned to Tufcany ; and made himfelf fo
agreeable to the grand duke, that the charms which he
found in that court, and the honourable pufts he filled
there, hindered him for twelve years from remembering
that he had been confidered as the perfon who was to
put the laft hand to the fyftem of famofatenian divinity,
of which his uncle Laelius bad made a rough draught.
At laft he went into Germany in 1574, and paid no
regard to the grand duke's advicea to return. He ftaid
three years at Bafil, and ftudied divinity there ; and
having adopted a fet of principles very diiferent from
the fyftem of Proteftants, he refolved to maintain and
propagate ihera ; for which purp«fe he wrote a treatifta
De lefu Chniflo Ssrvatore. In 1579 Soeinus retired
into Poland, and dcfired to be admitted into the com*
munion of the Unitarians ; but as he differed from them
in fome points, on which he refufed to be filent, ha
met with a repulfe. However, he did not ceafe to write
in diefence of their churches againft thofe who attacked
them. At length his book againft James Paleologua
furniftied hia enemies with a pretence to exafperate the
iing of Poland againft him j but though the mere read^
ing of it was fufficient to refute his accuCers, Socinua
thought proper to leave Cracow, after having refided
there four years. He then lived imder the protection
of feveral Poliih lerda, and married a lady of a good fa-'
roily : but her death, which happened in fo deep-
ly afflifted him as to injure his health; and to completa
hia forrow, he was deprived of his patrimony by th«
death of Francis de Medicis great duke of Florence.
The conlblation he found in feeing his fentiments at
laft approved by fcveral minifters, was greatly interrupt-,
ed in 1 598 ; for he met with a thoufand inlults at Cra-
cow, ajid was with great dif&culty faved from the hand«
of the raJjble. Plis houfe was plundered, and he loft
bis goods ; but this lofs was not fo uneafy to him as
that of fome manufcripts, which he extremely regretted*
To dehver himfelf from fuch dangers, he retired to a
village about nine miles diftant from Cracow, where h«
fpent the remainder of his days at the houfe of Abra-
ham BJonflti, a Pohfh gentleman, and died there ia
1 604. All Fauftus Socinufi'a works are contained iu
the two firft volumes of the Bibliotheca Frattucm Polo*
norurn^
SOCMANS, So KEMANs, or Socmen (Socviann't), are
fuch tenants as hold their lands and tenemeiita by focage
tenure. See Socage.
SOCOTORA, an ifland lying between Afia and A-
rabia Fehx ; about 50 miles in lenp^th, and 22 io
breadth. It is particularly noted for its fine aloes,
known by the name of Socotrine Alobs. The religion
of the natives ia a mixture of Mahometanifm and Pa-
ganifm ; but they are civil to ftrangers who call these
in their pafTage to the Eaft Indies- It abourids in fruit
and cattle ; and they have a king of their owe, who is
dependent on Arabia.
isOCRATES, the greateft of the ancient philofo-
phers, was born at Alopece, a village near Athens, in
the fourth year of the 77th olympiad. His parents
were of low rank ; hi« father Sophronifcus being a ft-a-
tuary, and; his mother Phaeuarcta a Eaidwife. Sophro-
nifcus
/
S O G
r I
S O C
uiiciTS bf-ougfit up his fon, contrary to h's inclination,
in his own manual enploymcnt j in which Socrates,
though his miiid was -continually afplring after higher
lobjcfts, was not unfuccefsful; forwhilli he was a young
man, he is faid to have formed ftatues of the habit-ed
^•races, which were allowed a pl?.ce in the citadel of A-
thens. Upon the drath of his father h-e was left in fuch
ftraitened circumftances as laid him under the necefuty
tof exiei'cifing (iiat art to procure the means of fubfifl-
ttice, thoug'h he devoted, at the fame tinre, all the Ici-
fure which he could commEmd to the ftudy of philofo-
phy. His diftrefs, however, was foo-n reheved by Crito,
a'wealthy A thenian ; who, rciiiiu-kinT his llrong pro-
pen fity to {liidy, and admiring hi;; ingenuous difpofition
'and diftinguifhed abilities, gencrouflv took hirn under
in\s patronage, and intrultcd him vviih the inftruttictn of
his children. The opportunities which Socrates by
this m^eans enjoyed of atte«ding the public leftures of
the mofl eminent philoiophers, fo fav increafed his thirft
after wifdom, that he determined to relinquifli his occu-
pation, and every profpeft of emolument which that
might afford, in order to devote himfelf ertirely to his
favourite purfuits. Under Anaxagoras and Archelaus
lie prolecuted the "ftudy of nature in the uiual manner
of the philofophers of the ag-e, and liecaTne well ac-
quainred with their doftrines. Prodicus the fophift
Ams his piiectptor in eloquence, Evenns ihpoetryy The-
odorus in geometry, and Darso in mtific. Afpafia, a
woman no fcfs reltbrated for her in-telleftual than her
perfonal accompliflimtnts, whofe houfe was frequented
by the molt celebrated charafterp, had alfo fome ftiare
in the education of Socrates. Undeir fuch preceptors
it cannot reafonably be doubted but that he became
matter of every kind of learning which tht; age in which
iie lived could afford ; and being blcffed with very un-
common talents by nature, he appeared in Athens, un-
der the refpe<3able charaitei'S of a good citizen and a
true philofopher Being called upon by his country to
take arms rn the long and Icvere ftruggle between A-
thens and Sparta, he fignahzed himfelf at the fiege of
Potidgea, both by his valour and by the hardinefs with
nvhich he endurtd fatigue. During the fevcrity of a
Thracian vvintei", whilft others were clad in furs, he
wore only his ufual clothing, and walked barefoot up-
on the ice. In an engagement in which he faw Ai,-
ciiBiADEs falling down wounded, he advanced to defend
hire, and faved both him and his aims : and though the
prize of valour was on this occofion unqutflionably due
to Socrates, he :|i;eneroufly gave his vote that it might
be btilowcd upon Alcibiadcs, to encourage his rifing
inerit. He ferved in other campaigns with diltinguiOi-
ed bravery, and had the happinefs on ove occafion to
fave the life of Xenophon, by bearing him, when co-
vered with wounds, out of the reach of the enemy.
It was not till Socrates was iip wards of 60 years of
aije that he undertottk to ferve his country in any civil
(jflice, when he was chofen to reprefent his own dil^iift,
in the fen ate of five hundred. In this office, though he
at ftrft expofed himfelf to fome degree of ridicule from
the want of experience in the forms of bulincfs, he foon
convinced his colleagues that he WPS fuperior to them
all in wifdom and integrity. WhiUt they, 'intimidated
by the clamours of the populace, paO'cd an unjuft fen-
tence of condemnation upon the commanders, who,
4ilter the engagement at the AigluiUiun ifiands, had
b'sen prevfnted by a i'^orm from paying funeral honoura ^'.aitei,
to the dead, Socrates Hood forth fingly In their defence, — \— ■
and to the kit reful'ed to give his fuffragt agalnll them,,
declaring that no force fnould corr pel him to aft con-
trary to- jiiftice and the laws. Under the lubfequent
tyranny he never ceafed to condem.n the oppreflive and
cruel proceedings of the thirty tyrants ; and when his
boldnels provoked their refentment, fo that his life was
in hazard, fearing neither treachery nor violence, he
ff ill coTitinued to fupport with undaunted firmuefs the -
rights of his fellow-citiiiiens.
Having given thefe proofs of public virtue both in 3
military and civil caD?.city, he wiPncd to c!o iK'l more
for his country. Obferving with re irtt how vvcch the
opinidhs of the Athenian youth were rr illed," and theii*
principles and tafte corrupted by philofophers who fpent
all their time in refined fpeculations upon nature and
the origin of things, and by fophifts who taught In
their fchools the arts of falfe eloquence and deceitful
reafoning ; Socrates form.ed ti^e wife and generous de-
fir>n of inllituting a n-ew and more ufeful method of in-
ftruftion. He juftly conceived the true end of philo-
fophy to be, not to make an olf entatious difplay of fu- -
perior learning and ability in fubtle difputations or in-
genious conjeAures, but to free mankind from the do-
minion ot pernicious prejudices ; to correct their vices j
to infpire them with the love of virtue ; and thus con-
duct them in the path of wifdom to true felicity. H6
therefore affumed the charader of a moral philofo^icr;
and, looking upon the whole city of Athens as his
fchool, and all who were difpofcd to lend him their
attention as his pupils, he feized every occafion of com-
mtmicating moral wiidom to- his fellow citizens. H6
paffed the greater part of his time in public ; and the me-
thod of inftrudlion of which he chiefly made ufc was, to
propofe a feriouS of quellions to the perfon with whom he
converfed, in order to lead him to fome unforefcm con-
clufion. He firfl gained the confeni of his refpondent
to fome obvious truths, and then obligfed ^lim to admit
others from their relation or refemblance to thofe to
which he had already affc.* ed. Without making ufe
of any direct argument or perfuafion, he choi'e to lead
the perfon he meant to inflruft, to deduce the truths of
which he vvilhed to convince him, as a necelTary confe- -
qu'ehce from his own concefiions. He con-unonly con-
du'fted thefe conferences with fuch addrefs, as to con-
ceal his defigu till the refp'ondent had advanced too far ~
to recede. On fome occafions he made ufe of ironical I
language, that vain men might be caught in their own ;
replies, and be obliged to confefs their ignorance. He '
never afTumcd the air of a moi ofe and rigid preceptor, -
but communicated ufeful inilruftioH with all the eafe •
and pleafantry of polite converfation. Though tmi- ■
nently furnilhed with every kind of learning, he prefer-
red moral to fpeculativc wifdom. Convinced that phi- -
loibphy is valuable, not as it furnifhes queftions for the
fchools, but as it provides men with a law of life, he
ccnfured his predeceffors for fpending all their time in
-abftrufe refearches into nature, and taking no pains to =
render themfelves ufeful to mankind. His favourite
ir.axim was. Whatever is above ns doth not concern us. .
He cttimated the value of knowledge by its utility, and. i
recommended tlie ftudy of geomtlry, aftronomy, and. -.
other fcieuces, only fo far as they admit of a pradlical !
application to the purpofes of human life. His great
obje£l :
S O C [59
Sofratep. objeft in all liia conferences and difcourfes was, to lead
^"-^ ' nien into an acquaintance with themfelves ; to convince
them oi their follies and vices; to infpire them with the
love of virtue ; and to furnilh them with ufeful moral
inflru£tions. Cicero might therefore very jnfUy fay of
Socrates, that he was the lirfl. who called down philo-
fophy from heaven to earth, and introduced her into the
public walks and domcftic retirements of men, that flie
might inftruft them concerning life and manners.
Through his whole life this good man difcovered a
mind fuperior to the attractions of wealth .and power.
Contrary to the general praftice of the preceptors of
liis time, he inftrufted his pupils without receiving from
them any gratuity. He frequently refufed rich pre-
ients, which were offered him by Alcibiades and ftthers,
though importunately urged to accept them by his
"wi^e. The chief men of Athens were his ftewards :
they fent him in provifions, as they apprehended he
wanted them; he took what his prefent wants required,
and returned the reft. Obferving the numerous articles
of luxury which were expofcd to fale in Athens, he ex-
claimed, " How many things are there which I do not
want !" With Socrates, moderation fupplied the place
of wealth. In his clothing and food, he confulted only
the demands of nature. He commonly appeared in a
neat but plain clock, with his feet uncovered. Though
his table was only fupplied with fimple fare, he did not
fcruple to invite men of fuperior rank to partake of his
meals ; and when his wife, upon fome fuch occafion,
cxprefled her diffatisfaftien on being no better pro-
vided, he defired her to give herfelf no concern ; for if
Jhis guefts were wife men, they would be contented with
whatever they found at his table ; if otherwife, they
were unworthy of notice. Whilil others, fays he, live
to eat, wife men eat to live.
Though Socrates was exceedingly unfortunate in his
domeftic connexion, he converted this infelicity into an
Dccafion of exercifing his virtues. Xantippe, concern-
ing whofc ill humour ancient writers relate many amu-
ling tales, was certainly a woman of a high and unma-
nageable fpirit. But Socrates, while he endeavoured
to curb the violence of her temper, improved his own.
When Alcibiades expreffed his furprife that his friend
could bear to live in the fame houfe with fo perverfe
and quarrelfomc a companion, Socrates replied, that be-
ing daily inured to ill humour at home, he was the
better prepared to encounter perverfenefs and injury
abroad.
In the midft of domeftic vexations and public difor-
ders, Socrates retained fuch an unruffled ferenity, that
he was never feen either to leave his own houfe or to
return home with a difturbed countenance. In acqui-
ring this entire dominion over his paflions and appetites,
he had the greater merit, ae it was not effefted without
a violent ftruggle againft his natural propenfities. Zo-
pyrus, an eminent phyfiognomift, declared, that he dif-
covered in the features of the philofopher evident traces
of many vicious inclinations. The friends of Socrates
who were prefent ridiculed the ignorance of this pre-
tender to extraordinary fagacity. But Socrates himfelf
ingenuoufly acknowledL'r:ed his penetration, and confefled
that he was in his natural difpofition prone to vice, but
that he had fubdued his inclinations by the power of
rcafon and philofophy.
Thrpugh the whole of his life Socrates gave himfelf
2 1 8 O G
up to the guidance of unblafled reafon, which U fuppo- ^ocn
fed by iome to be all that he meant by the genius or
(famon from which he profefftd to receive inftruftion.
But this opinion is inconfiftent with the accounts given
by his followers of that dsmon, and even with the lan-
guage in which he fpoke of it himfelf. Plato fome-
times calls it his guard'mtiy and Apuleius his god ; and as
Xenophon attefts that it was the belief of his mafter
that the- gods otcafionaily communicate to men the
knowledge of future events, it is by no means impro-
bable that Socrates admitted, with the generality of his
countrymen, the exiftence of thofe intermediate beings
called (lamom, of one of which he might fancy himfelf
the peculiar care.
It was one of the maxims of Socrates, " That a wife
man will worftiip the gods according to the inftitutioas
of the ftatc to which he belongs." Convinced of the
weaknefs of the human underftanding, and perceiving
that the pride of philofophy had led his predeceflbrs in-
to futile fpeculations on the nature and origin of things,
he judged it moft confiftent with true wifdom to fpeak
with caution and reverence concerning the divine na-
ture.
The wifdom and the virtues of this great man, whilft
they procured him many followers, created him alio
many enemies. 'I'he Sophifts ^, whofe knavery and ig-§ See I
norance he took every opportunity of expofing to ^uh't^'J^'
lie contempt, became inveterate in their enmity againft
fo bold a reformer, and devifed an expedient, by which
they hoped to check the current of his popularity.
They engaged Ariftophanes, the firft buffoon of the
age, to write a comedy, in which Socrates fhould be
the principal charafter. Ariftophanes, pleafed with fo
promifing an occafion of difplaying his low and malig-
nant wit, undertook the taflc, and produced the comedy
of The Clouds, ftill extant in his works. In this piece,
Socrates is introduced hanging in a baflcet in the air",
and thence pouring forth abfurdity and prophanenefs.
But the philofopher, fhowing in a crouded theatre that \
he was wholly unmoved by this ribaldry, the fatire
failed of its effedt ; and when Ariftophanes attempted
the year following to renew the piece with alterations
and additions, the reprefentation was fo much difcou-
raged, that he was obliged to difcontinue it.
From this time Socr ates continued for many years to
purfue without interruption his laudable defign of in-
ftru6ling and reforming his fellow-citizens. At lenssfth,
however, when the inflexible integrity with which he
had difcharged the duty of a fenator, and the firmnefs
with which he had oppofed every kind of political cor-
ruption and opprefTion, had greatly increased the num-
ber of his enemies, clandefline arts were employed to
raife a general prejudice againft him. The people were
induftrioufly reminded, that Critias, who had been one
of the moft cruel of the thirty tyrants, and Alcibiades,
who had infulted religion, by defacing the public fta-
tues of Mercury, and performing a mock reprefentation
of the Eleufinian myfteries, had in their youth been dif-
ciples of Socrates ; and the minds of the populace be-
ing thus prepared, a direft accufation was preferred
againft him before the fupreme court of judicature. His
accufers were Anytus a leather-dreffer, who had long
entertained a perfonal enmity againft Socrates, for re-
prehending his avarice, in depriving his fons of the be-
nefits of learning, that they might purfue the gains of
6 trade ;
1
S C) c
[ 593 1
s o c
tvac'e ; Melltus, a young rhetorician, wlio was caplible
of undertaking any thing fori the lake of gain ; and
Lycon, who was glad of any opportunity of difplayinfj
his talents. The accuiation, which was delivered to the
fenate under the name of iMelitus, was this : " Melitus,
fon of Melitus, of the tribe of Fythos, accafeth Socra-
tes, ion of Sophronifcus, of the tribe of Alopece. So-
crates violates the laws, in not acknowlcd?,ing the gods
which the ftate acknowledges, and by introducing new
divinities. He aUo violates the laws by corrupting the
youth. Be his punifhment death."
This charge was delivered upon oath to the fenate ;
and Crito a friend of Socrates became furety for his ap-
pearance on the day of trial. Anytus foon afterwards
lent a private meffage to Socrates, alTuring him that if
he would defift from cenfuring his conduift, he would
withdraw his accufation. But Socrates refufed to com-
ply with fo degrading a condition ; and with his ufual
fpirit repHed, " Whilfl; I live I will never difguife the
truth, nor fpeak otherwife than my duty requires."
The interval between the accufation and the trial he
fpent in philofophical converfations with his friends,
choofnig to difcourfe upon any other fubjed: rather than
his ovi/n fjtuation.
When the day of trial arrived, his ac-c-afers appeared
in the fenate, and attempted to fupport their charge in
three diftin(^l fpeeches, which ftrongly marked their re-
fpeclive characters. Plato, who was a young man, and
a zealous follower of Socrates, then tofe up to addrefs
the judges in defence of liis mafter ; but whilft he was
attempting to apologife for his youth, he was abruptly
commanded by the court to fit down. Socrates, how-
ever needed no advocate. Afcending the chair with all
tlie ferenity of confcious innocence, and with all tlie
dignity of fuperior merit, he delivered, in a firm and
manly toiTe, an unpremeditated defence of himfelf, which
iilenced his opponents, and ought to have convinced his
judges. After tracing the progrefs of the confpiracy
which had been raifed againft him to its true fource,
the jealoufy and refentment of men whofe ignorance he
had expoled, and whofe vices he had ridiculed and re-
proved, he dillindlly replied to the feveral charges
brought againU him by Melitus. To prove that he
had not been guilty of impiety towards the gods of his
country, he appealed to his frequent praftice of attend-
ing the public religious feftivals. The crime of intro-
ducing new divinities, with which he was charged, chief-
ly as it feems on the ground of the admonitions which
he profefTed to have received from an invifible power,
he difclaimed, by pleading that it was no new thing for
men to confult the gods and receive inflruttions from
them. To refute the charge of his having been a cor-
rupter of vouth, he urged the example which he had
'uniibrmly exhibited of juftice, moderation, and tempe-
rance ; the moral fpirit and tendency of his difcourfes ;
ancj the effefl which had a6tually been produced by his
doftrine upon the manners of the young. Then, dif-
daining. to folicit the mercy of liis judges, he called up-
on them for that juftice which their ofhce and their
oath obliged them to adminifter ; and profelfing his faith
and confidence in God, refigncd himfelf to their plea-
fuie.
The judges, whofe prejudices would aot ftifFer them
to pay d«e attention to this apology, or to examine
Vol.. XVIL Fart 11.
with impartiality the inerits of the caufe, immediately
declared him guilty of the crimes of which he flood ac-
cufed. Socrates, in this flage of the trial, had a right
to enter his plea againft the punifhment which the ac-
ciifers demanded, aiid inftead of the fentence of death,
to propofe fome pecuniary amercement. But he at fivfl
peremptorily l efufed to make any propofal of this kind>
imagining that it might be conflrued into an acknow-
ledgirient of guilt; and afferted, that his conduct merit-
ed from the ftate reward rather than puniflunent. At
length, however, he was prevailed upon by his friends
to offer upon their credit a fine of thirty tiirria. The
judges, notvC'ithftanding, flill remained inexorable : they
proceeded, without farther delay, to pronounce fentence
upon him*; and he was condemned to be put to death
by the poifon of hemlock.
I'he fentence being palTed, he was fent to prifon :
which, fays Seneca, he entered with the fame refolu-
tion and firmnefs with which he had oppofed the thirty
tyrants ; and took away all ignominy from the place,
which could not be a prifon while he was there. He
lay in fetters 30 days ; and was conPjantly vihted
by Ciito, Plato, and other friends, with whom he paf-
fed the time in difpute after his ufual manner. Anxious
to fave fo valuable a life, they urged him to attempt hia
efcape, or at leafl to permit them to convey him away;
and Crito went fo far, as to affure him that, by his in-
tereft with the jailor, it might be eafily accomplifhed,
and to offer him a retreat in Thefialy ; but Socrates
rejefted the propofal, as a criminal violation of the
laws ; and aflced them, whether there was any place
out of Attica which death could not reach.
At length the day arrived v/hen the officers to whofe
care he was committed delivered to Socrates early in
the morning the final order for his execution, and im«
mediately, according to the law, let him at liberty from
his bonds. His friends, who came thus early to the
prifon that they might have an opportunity of conver-
fing with their jnafler through the day, found his wife
fitting by him with a child in her arms. Socrates, that
the tranquillity of his laft moments might not be dif-
turbed by her unavailing lamentations, requefled that
fhe might be conduced home. With the mofl frantic
cxpreflions of grief flie left the prifon. A n intereding
converfation then paffed between Socn'tcs and his
friends, which chiefly turned upon the immortality , of
the foul. In the courfe of this converf^ion, he exp^^^^f-
fed his difapprobation of the praftice of fuicide, and af-
fured his friends that his chief fupport in his prefent fi-
tuation was an expeftation, though not unmixed with,
doubts, of a happy exiflence after death, " It would
be inexcufable in me (faid he) to defpife death, if!
were not perfuaded that it Avill conduft me into the
prefence of the gods, who are the mofl righteous go-
vernors, and into the fociety of jufl and good men :
but I derive confidence from the liope that fomething
of man remains after death, and that the condition of
good men will then be much better than that of the
bad." Crito afterwards afldng him, in what manner
he wifhed to be buried ? Socrates replied, with a fraile,
" As you pleafe, provided I do not efcape out of your
hands." Then, tuining to the refl of his friends, he
faid, " Is it not flrange, after all that I h^ve faid to
convince you that I am going to the fociety of the hap?
4 F py»
Socrates-
a O G [ 50
«ocru!f?. py^ (^ji't-f, ftiii thinks that this body, which will
""'"V"—' foQii ]-)£ a liFelcfs corpfe, is Socrates ? Let him difpole of
my body as he pleafes, but let him not at its interment
monru over it as it it were Socrates."
• Towards the clofe of the day he retired into an ad-
jpiiiin;^ apartment to bathe ; his friends, in the mean
time, expreffin^y to one another their grief at tlie prof-
pe£l of lofmg fo excellent a father, and being left to
pafs the reli of their davs in the folitary ilate of or-
phans. After a fliort interval, during which he gave
fome neceffavy inftruftions to hi^ domeitics, and took
his laft leave of his children, tlu' attendant of the pvifon
informed him, that the time for drinking the poifon
was come. The executioner, though accuftomed to
fuch fcenes, fhed tears as he prefented the fatal cup.
Socrates received it without change of countenance or
the leail appearance of perturbation : then offering up
a prayer to the gods that they would grant him a pr®f-
perous paffage into the invllible world, with perfei?h
compcfure he fwallowed the poifonous draught. His
friends around him burft into tears. Socrates alone re-
mained urmiovcd. He upbraided their pufiUanimity,
and entreated them to exercife a manly conftancy wor-
thy of the friends of virtue. He continued walking till
the chilling operation of the hemlock oblit^ed him to lie
down upon his bed. After remaining for a fliort time
lilent, he requelled Crito (probably in order to refute a
calumny which might prove injurious to his friends af-
ter his deceafe) not to negledl the offering of a cotk
which he had vowed to Efculapius. Then, covering
liimfelf with his cloak, he expired. Such was the fate
of the virtuous Socrates ! A ftory, fays Cicero, which
I never read without tears.
The friends and difciples of this illnflrious teacher
of wifdom were deeply afflifted by his death, and at-
tended his funeral with every expreffion of grief. Ap-
prehenfive, however, for their own fafety, they foon af-
terwards privately \Yithdrew from the city, and took up
their refldence in diltant places. Several of them viilt-
ed the philofopher Euclid of Megara, by whom they
/ were kindly received. No fooner was the unjufl con-
demnation of Socrates known through Greece, than a
general indignation was kindled in the mmds of good
men, who univerfally regretted that fo diftinguifhed an
advocate for virtue fhould have fallen a facritice to jea-
loufy and envy. The Athenians thenifelves, fo remark-
able for their caprice, who never knew the value of
their great men till after their death, foon became fen-
fible of the folly as well as criminality of putting to
death the man who had been the chief ornament ' of
their city and of the age, and turned their indignation
againft his accufers. Melitus was condemned to death;
and Anytus, to efcape a fimilar fate, went into volun-
tary exile. To give a farther proof of the fincerity of
their regret, the Athenians for a while interrupted pub-
lic bufmefs ; decreed a general mourning ; recalled the
exiled friends of Socrates ; and eredted a llatue to his
memory in one of the moft frequented parts of the city.
His death happened in the firft year of the 96th olym-
piad, and in the 70th .year of his age.
Socrates left behind him nothing in writing ; but
hia illuilrious pupils Xenopkon and Plato have in fome
meafure fupplied this defeft. The Menioiis of Socra-
tes, written by Xenophon, afford, kowever, a much.
L 1 SOD
more accurate idea of the opinions of Socrates, and of
his manner of teaching, than the Dialogues of l^lato,
who everywhere mixes his own conceptions and didlion
with the ideas and language of his mailer. It is rela-
ted, that when Socrates heard Plato recite his Lyfis,
he faid, " How much does this yonng man make me
fay which I never conceived !"
His diftinguifliing charadler was that of a moral phi-
lofopher; and his doft'.ine concerning God and religion
was rather pr^ricil than fpcculative. But he did not
neglcft to build the ftrufture of religious faith upon
the f rm foundation of an appeal to natural appearances;
He taught, that tlie Supreme Tieing, though invifible,
is clearly feen in his works ; which at once demoiiitrate
his cxiftence and his wite and benevolent providence. Pie
admitted, befides the one Supreme .Deity, the exiifence
of beings who poflefs a middle ftation between God
and man, to whofe immediate agency he afcribed the
ordinary phenomena ol nature, and whom he fuppofed
to be particularly concerned in the mana'^ement of hu-
man affairs. Hence he declared it to be the duty of
every__one, in the performance of religious rites, to fol-
low the cuftoras of his country. At the fame time, he
taught, that the merit of all religious offerings deoends
upon the charadler of the worfliipper, and that the gods
take pleafure in the facrifices of none but the truly pious-.
Concerning the human foul, the opinion of Socrates,
according to Xenophon, was, that it is allied to the Di-
vine Being, not by a participation of elTence, but bv 3
fimilarity of nature ; that man excels all other animals
in the faculty of reafon ; and that the exilfence of good
men will be continued after death in a ftate in which
they will receive the reward of their virtue. Althouah
it appears that on this latter topic he was not wholly
free from uncertainty, the confolation which lie profef-
fed to derive from this fource in the immediate profpeft
of death, leaves little room to doubt that he entertained
a real expectation of immortality : and there is reafon
to believe that he was the only philofopher of ancient
Greece whofe principles admitted of fuch an expedla.
tion (fee Metaphysics, Part IH. Chap iv.) Of his
moral fyflem, wlych was in a high degree pure, and
founded on the furell bafis, the reader will find a Ihort
view in our article Moral Philosophy, n° 4.
Socrates was alfo the name of an ecclefiaftical hif-
torian of the 5th century, born at Conltantinople in the
beginning of the reign of Theodofius : he profeffed the
law and pleaded at the bar, whence he obtained the
name of Scholajlicus. He wrote an ecclefiaftical hiftory
from the year 309, where Eufebius ended, down to
440 ; and wrote with great exaftnefs and judgment.
An edition of Eufebius and Socrates, in Greek and
Latin, with notes by Reading, was -publiflied at Lon-
don in 1720.
SODA, the name given by the French chcmifts to the
mineral alkali, which is found native in many parts of
the world : it is obtained alfo from common fait, and
from the alhes of the kali, a fpecies of falfola. See Al-
KALI, n° 7. and CnEMiSTRY-Zn^ea;.
Soda is alfo a name for a heat in the ilomach or
heart-burn. See Medicine, nf* 275.
SODOM, formerly a town of Palcftine in Afia, fa-
mous in Scripture for the wickednefs of its inhabitants,
and their dcftrudion by fire from heaven on account of'
that
SOD t 505 ] S O F
The place where it ftood Is now co- by an old Tflandic _writer, tranflated and enlar|red by
that wickednefs.
vered by the waters of the Dead Sea, or the Lake Af-
phaltites. See Asphaltites.
SODOMY, an unnatural crime, fo called from the
city of Sodom, which was deftroyed by fire for the
fame. The Levitical law adjudged thofe guilty of this
execrable crime to death ; and the civil law affigns the
fome punifhment to it. The law of England makes it
felony. There is no ftatute in Scotland againft Sodo-
my ; the libel of the crime is therefore founded on the
divine law, and practice makes its punifhment to be
burned alive.
SODOR, a name always conjoined with Man, in
mentioning the biihop of Man's diocefe. Concerning
the origin and application of this word, very different
opinions have been formed by the learned. Buchanan
(lib. i. cap. 34 ) fays, that before his time the name of
iWor was given to a town in the ifle of Man. In
Gough's edition of Camden's Britannia (vol. iii. p. 70 c.)
it is faid, that after the ifle of Man was annexed to the
crown of England, this appellation was given to afmall
ifland within mufliet-fhot of Man, in which the cathe-
dral ftands, called by the Norwegians the Holm^ and by
the inhabitants the Peel. In fupport of this opinion a
charter is quoted A. D. 1505, in which Thomas earl
of Derby and lord of Man confirms to Huan Hefketh
bifhop of Sodor all the lands, &c. anciently belonging
to the bifhops of Man. " Ecclefiam cathedralem fanfti
Germani in Holm Sodor vel Pele vocatam, ecclefiam
fanfti Patricli ibidem, et locum praefatum in quo eccle-
fia» praefatae fitee funt." The truth of either, or per-
haps of both, thefe accounts might be allowed ; but
neither of them are fufficient to account for the conftant
Conjun6lion of Sodor and Man, in charters, regifters,
and hiflories. If Sodor was a fmall town or illaad be-
longing to Man, it cannot be conceived why it is al-
ways mentioned before it, or rather why it fhould be
jnentioned at all in fpeaking of a bifhop's diocefe. To
fpeak of the bifhopric of Sodor and Man in this cafe
would be as improper as it would be to call the bi-
fhopric of Durham the bifhopric of Holy Ifland and
Durham, or the bifhopric of Darlington and Durham ;
the former being a fmall ifland and the latter a town
belonging to the county and diocefe of Durham. Nei-
ther of thefe accounts, therefore, give a fatisfaftory ac-
count of the original conjunftlon of Sodor and Man.
The ifland o' lona was the place where rhe bifhop of
the ifles refided, the cathedral church of which, it is
faid, was dedicated to our Saviour, in Greek Soter,
hence Sotorenfes, which might be corrupted into Sodo-
renfes, a name frequently given by Danifli writers to
the weftcrn ifles of Scotland. That we may be the
move difpofed to accede to this Grecian etymology,
the advocates for this opinion tell us, that the name
Jc»lumktll^ which is often applied to this ifland, is alfo
of Greek extratiion, being derived from ■^ -otumba, " a
pigeon ;" a meaning that exaftly conefponds to the
Celtic word ' alum and the Hebrew word lona. We
mult confefs, however, that we have very little faith in
the conjeftures of etymologifls, and think that upon no
occafion they alone can eltabllfli any J aft, though when
concurring with fafts they certainly tend to confirm
and explain them. It is only from hiftorical fafts that
■we can know to what Sodor was applied.
It appears from the hiiloiy of the Orljneys, compiled
Torfaeus, that the ^Ebudas or Wettern ifles of Scotland
were divided into two clufters, Nordureys and Sudereys. \^
The Nordureys, which were feparated from the Sude-
reys by the point of Ardnamurdaan, a promontory in
Argylefhire, confided of Muck, Egg, Rum, Canna,
Sky, Rafay, Barra, South Uifl, North Uift, Benbecu-
la, and Lewis, including Harris, with a great number of
fmall ifles. The Sudereys were, Man, Arran, Bute,
Cumra, Avon, Gid, Ila, Colonfay, Jura, Scarba, Mull,
lona, Tirec, Coll, Ulva, and other fmall iflands. All
thefe, when joined together, and fubjeft to the fame
prince, made up the kingdom of Man and the ifles. In
the Norwegian language Suder and Norder^ fignifying
fouthern and northern, and ey or ay an ifland. When
the .ffibudae were under one monarch, the feat of em-
pire was fixed in the Sudereys, and the Nordureys were
governed by deputies ; hence the former are much of-
tener mentioned in hlflory than the latter ; hence, too,
the Sudereys often comprehend the Nordureys, as in our
days Scotland is fometimes comprehended underEngland.
Sudereys, or Suder, when anglicifed, became Sodor ;
and all the weflern ifles of Scotland being included in
one diocefe under the Norwegian princes, the bifhop
appointed to fuperintend them was called the bifhop of
Man and the ifles, or the. blfliop of Sodor and Man.
Since Man was conquered by Edward III. it has been
feparated from the other ifles, and its bifhops have ex-
crcifed no jurifdiftion over them. Should it now be
aflced, why then is the bifhop of Man Hill called the bi-
fhop of Sodor and Man ? we reply, that we have been
able to difcover no reafon ; but fuppofe the appellation
to be continued in the fame way, as the title king of
France, has been kept up by the kings of Great Britain,
for feveral centuries after the Englifh were entirely ex-
pelled from France.
SOFA, in the eaft, a kind of alcove raifed half a
foot above the floor of a chamber or other apartment ;
and ufed as the place of flate, where vifitors of diflinc-
tion are received. Among the Turks the whole floor
of their flate-rooms is covered with a kind of tapeftry,
and on the window-fide is raifed a fofa or fopha, laid
with a I^ind of matrafs, covered with a carpet much
richer than the other. On this carpet the Turks are
feated, both men and women, like the taylors in Eng-
land, crofs-legged, leaning againft the wall, which is
bolftered with velvet, fattin, or other ftuff fuitable to
the feafon^ Here they eat their meals ; only laying a
flcin over the carpet to ferve as a table-cloth, and a
round wooden board over all, covered with plates, &c.
SOFALA, or Cefala, a kingdom of Africa, lying
on the coaft of Mofambique, near Zanguebar. It is
bounded on the north by Monomotapa ; on the eaft by
the Mofambique Sea ; on the fouth by the kingdom of
Sabia ; aijd on the weft by that of Manica. It con-
tains mines of gold and iron, and a great number of ele-
phants. It is governed by a king, tributary to the
Portuguefe, who built a fort at the principal town,
which is of the fame name, and, of great importance for
their trade to the Eaft Indies. It is feated in a fmall
ifland, near the mouth of a river. E. Long. 35. 40.
S. Lat. 20. 20.
SOFFITA, or Soffit, in architefture, any timber
ceiling formed of crofs beams of flying cornices, the
fquare compartiroents or pannels of which are enriched
4 F 2 with
Sodor
Soflita.
f offita
fi( ho.
SO H [ 596 ] SO
with fculpture, painting, or gilding ; fuch are thofe in fiulfhed medals and private coins
the palaces of Italy, and in the apartments of Luxem-
bourg at Paris.
SoFFiTA, or SoJJity is alio ufed for th(j underiide or
face of an architrave ; and more particularly for that of
the corona or hrmier, which the ancients called lacunar,
the French plafond, and we ufually the drip. It is en-
riched with compartments of rofes ; and in the Doric
order has 18 drops, difpofed in three ranks, fix in each,
placed to the right of the guttse, at the bottom of the
tri^lyphs.
SOFI, or SoPHi. See Sophi.
SOFTENING, in painting, the mixing and diluting
©f colours with the brufh or pencil.
SOHO, the name of a fet of works,- or manufaftory
•of a variety of hard- wares, belonging to Mr Boulton, fi-
tuated on the borders of Staffordfhire^ within two miles
of Birmingham now fo juftly celebrated as to deferve
a fhort hiftorical detail.
. About 30 years ago the premifes confifted of a fmall
mill and a few obfcure dwellings. Mr Boulton, in con-
janftien with Mr Fothergill, then his partner, at an ex-
pcnce of L. 9000, erefted a handfome and extenfive
edifice, with a view of manufadlurins*' metallic toys.
The firft produ£lions coniltled of buttons, buckles,
watch-chains, trinkets, and fuch other articles as were
peculiar to Birmingham. Novelty, talle, and vaiiety,
were, however, always confpicuous ; and plated wares,
Jcnown by the name of Shef&eld plate, compriling a
grtat variety of ufeful and ornamental articles, became
another permanent fubje6t of manufafture.
To open channels for the confumption of thefe com-
modities, all the northern part of Europe was explored
by the mercantile partner Mr Fothergill. A wi'de and
extenfive correfpondence was thus eftablifhed, the un-
dertaking, became well known, and the manufa&urer,
by becoming his own merchant, eventually enjoyed a
double profit.
Impelled by an ardent attachment to the arts, and
by the patriotic ambition of forming his favourite Soho
into a fruitful feminary of artlfts, the proprietor extend-
ed his views ; and men oi talle and talents were now
fought for, and liberally patronifed. A fuccefsful imi-
tation of the French or mouHe ornaments, confifting of
vafes, tripods, candelabra, &c. &c. extended the cele-
brity of the works. Services of plate and other works
in filver, both maflive and aii-y, were added, and an af-
fay office was eftablifhed in Birmingham.
Mr Watt, the ingenious .improver of the fteam-en-
gine, is now in partnerfhip with Mr Boulton ; and they
carry on at Soho a manufaftory of fteam-engines^ not
lefs beneficial to the public than lucrative to themfelves.
This valuable machine, the nature and excellences of
which are defcribed in another place (fee STBAM-Engine),
Mr Boulton propofed to apply to the operation of coin-
ing, and fuitable apparatus was crefted at a great ex-
pence, in the hope »f being employed by government
to make a new copper-coinage for the kingdom. Ar-
tifts of merit were engaged, and fpecimens of exquifite
delicacy were exhibited ; but as no national coinage
has taken place, the works are employed upon high
To enumerate all
the produdtions of this manufadlory would be tedious ( a ).
In a national view, Mr Boultoii's undertakings are
highly valuable and important. By coUefting around
him artifts ot various defcriptions, rival talents have
been called forth, and by.fucceffive competition have
been multiplied to an extent highly beneiicial to the
public. The manual arts partook of the benefit, and
became proportionably improved.
A barren heath has been covered with plenty and
population ; and Mr Boulton's works, which in their
infancy were little known and attended to, now cover
feveral acres, give employment to more than 600 pet-
fons, and are faid to be the firft of their kind in Europe.
SOIL, the mould covering the furface of the earth,
in which vegetables grow. It ferves as a fupport for
vegetables, and as a refervoir for receiving and commii-
nicatinp^ their nourishment.
Soils are commonly double or triple compounds of
the leveral reputed primitive earths, except the barytic
(fee Earths). The magnefian likewife fparinoly oc-
curs. The more fertile foils afford alfo a finall pro-
portion of coally fubltance arifing from putrcfaftion,
and fome traces of marine acid and gypfum. The vul-
gar divifion into clay, chalk, fand, and gravel, is well
underftood. Loam denotes any foil moderately adiie-
five ; and, according to the ingredient that predomi-
nates, it receives the epithets of clayey, chalky, fandy,
or gravelly. The intimate mixture of clay with the
oxydcs of iron is called ti/I, and is of a hard confiflence
and a dark reddifh colour. Soils are found by analyfis
to contain their earthy ingredients in very different pro-
portions. According lo M. Giobert, fertile mould in
the vicinity of Turin, where the fall of rain amounts
yearly to 40 inchea, affords for each 100 parts, from
77 to 79 of filex, from 8 to 14 of argill, and from 5
to 12 ot calx ; befides about one-half of carbonic mat-
ter, and nearly an equal weight of gas, partly carbonic ■
and partly hydrocarbonic. The fame experimenter re-
prefents the compofition of barren foils in fimilar fitua-
tions to be from 42 to 88 per cent, of filex, from 20 to
30 of argill, and from 4 to 20 of calx. The celebrated
Bergman found rich foils in the valleys of Sweden,
wlierc the annual quantity ©f rain is 24 inches, to con-
tain, for each 100 parts, 56 of filiceous fand, 14 of ar-
gill, and 30 of calx. In the climate of Paris, where the
average. fall of rain is 20 inches, fertile mixtures, ac-
cording to M. Tillet, vary from 46 to 52 per cent, of
filex, and from 11 to 17 of argill, with 37 of calx.
Hence it appears that in dry countries rich earths are of
a clofer texture, and contain more of the calcareous in-
gredient, with lefs of the filiceous. Mr Arthur Young
has difcovered, that the value of fertile lands is nearly '
proportioned to the quantities of gas which equal
weights of their foil afford by diltillation. See Agri-
culture, n^ 24. and 118.
SOISSONS, an ancient, large, and confiderable city
of France, in the department of Aifne and late province
of Soiflbnnois. It was the capital of a kingdom of the
fame name, under the firft i ace of the French monarchs.
It contains about 1 2,000 inhabitants, and isj a bifhop's
fee.
(a) It wras at this place, In the year i 772, that Mr Eginton invented his expeditious method of eopyinr
piftures in oil.
S O I.
r 507 1
SOL
fee. Th? environs arc charming, but the flreets are
narrow, and the houfes ill-bnilt. The fine cathedral
ha« one of the moil confiderable chapters in the king-
dom ; and the bifhop, when the ?^rchbiflioT^ of Rheims
was abfent, had a rwht to crown the king. The caftle,
though ancient, is not that in which, the kings of the
firil race redded. SoifTons is feated in a very pkafant
and fertile valley, on the river Aifne, 30 miles weft by
north of Rheims, and 60 north-eail of Paris. E. Long.
3. 24. N. Lat. 49. 23.
SOKE, or SoK. See Socage.
SOKEMANS. See Soc and Socage.
SOL, in mulh:, the fifth note of the gamut, ut, re,
nti, /h,/o/, la. See Gamut.
Sol, or Soti., a French coin made up of copper mix-
ed with a little filver, and is worth upwards of an Eng-
lifli halfpenny, or the 23d part of an Englifh {hilling.
The fol when firft ftruck was equal in value to 1 2 de-
niers Tournois, whence it was alfo called f^ouzai«, a name
it ftill retains, tho' its ancient value be changed ; the fol
having been fince augmented by three deniers, and ftruck
with a pimchcon of a fleur-de-lis, to make it current for
15 deniers. Soon after the old fols were coined over
again, and both old and new were indifferently made
current for (5 deniers. Li 1709, the value of the fame
fo!s was ralfcd to 18 deniers. Towards the latter end
of the reign of Louis XIV. the fol of 18 deniers was
again lowered to 15; and. by the late king it was i-e»
dnced to the original value of ii. What it is at pre-
fent pofterity may perhaps difcover.
The Dutch have alfo two kinds of fols : the one of
filver, called foh de gros, and likevvife fchell'tng; the other
of copper, called alfo the Jiuyver.
Sol, the Sun, in aftronomy, aftrology, &c. See
Astronomy, piiJJ'im .
Sol, in chcmiftry, is gold ; thus called from an opi-
nion that this metal is in a particular manner under the
influence of the fun.
Sol, in heraldry, denotes Or, the golden colour in
the arms of fovereign princes.
SOLtEUS, or SoLEus, in anatomy, one of the ex-
tenfor muides of the foot, rifing from the upper and
hinder parts of the tibia and fibula.
SOLAN-GOOSE, in ornithology. See Pelicanus.
SOLANDRA, in botany : A genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs of monodelphla, and to the order of
polyandr'ia ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the 38th order, "Tpincce/B. The calyx is funple ; the
capfule oblong, wreathed, and five-celled ; the feeds are
many, difpofed in cells in a double order. The valves
after maturity are divaricated, even to the bafe, and
winged inwards by the partition. The only fpecles is
the Lobata. This genus was firft named Solandra^ in
honour of Dr Solander, by Mun-ay in the 1 4th edition
of the Syjlema Vegetab'tlium.
SOLANUM, in botany : A genus of the monogynta
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 28th order,
Lur'tdx. The calyx is inferior ; the corolla is rotate,
and generally monophyllous; the fruit a berry, bilocu-
lar, and containing many fmall and fiat feeds. Of this
genus there are 66 fpecies, moft of them natives of the
Eaft and Weft Indies. The moft remarkable of which
are the following.
I. The Dulcamara, a native of Britain and of Africa
is a flclider climbing plant, rifing to fix or more feet in 5olanu»tj
height. The leaves are generally oval, pointed, and of '~*~"v~~
a deep green colour ; the flowers hang in loofe clufters,
of a. purple celour, and divided mto five pointed feg-
ments. The calyx is purple, perfiftent, and divided in-
to five. The five filaments are ftiort, black, and inferted
into the tube of the corolla. The anthers yellow, eret?!:,
and united in a point as ufual In this genus. The ftvle
is long, and terminates in an obtule ftigma. The berry,
when ripe, is red, and contains many flat yellowlfh feeds.
It gi-ows in hedges well fupplltd with water, and
flowers about the end of June. On chewing the roots,
we firft feci a bitter, then a fweet, tafte ; hence the
name. The berries are faid to be poifonous, and may
eafily be miftaken by children for cun-?.nts. The fiipites
or younger branches are direfted for ufe, and may be
employed either frefti or dried : they fhould be gather-
ed in the autumn. This plant is generally given in de-
co-^'ion or infufion. Razou direfts the following: Take
dried dulcamara, twigs half a dram, and pour upon it 16
ounces of fpring water, which muft be boiled down to
8 ounces ; then ftrain ilk Three or four ten fpoonfuls to
be taken every four hours, diluted with milk to prevent
its exciting a naufea. Several authors take notice, that
the dulcamara partakes of the milder powers of the '
nightfliade, joined to a refolvent and faponaceous quali-
ty ; hence it promotes the fecretions of urine, fweat,
the menfes, and lochia. It is recommended in a variety
of diforders ; but particularly in rheumatifms, obftruft-
ed menfes, and lochia, alfo in fome obftinate cutaneous
difeafes. r
2. The Nigrum, common in many places in Britam
about dunghills and wafte places. It rifes to about two .
feet in height. The ftalk herbaceous, the leaves alter-
nate, Irregularly oval, indented, and clothed with foft.
hairs. The flowers are white; the berries black and
fliining. It appears to poffefs the deleterious qualities
of the other nightfhadcs in a very hl:^h degree, and even
the fmell of the plant is faid to caufe flecp. 'I'he ber-
ries are equally poifonous with the leaves ; caufing car-
dia/gia, and deliriutny and violent diftortlons of the limbs -
in children. Mr Getnker In 1757 recommended its in-
ternal ufe in old forts, in fcrofnlous and cancerous nlcers, .
cutaneous eruptions, and In dropfies. He fays, that one
grain infufed in an ounce of w?ater fometimes produced a
confiderable efl'cft ; that in the dofe of two or three
grains it feldom failed to evacuate the firft pafiages, to in-
creafe very fenfibly the difcharges by - the fl{in and kid-
neys, and fometimes to occafion headach, drowfinefs, gid-.
dinefs, and dimnefs of fight. Mr Broomficld declares,
that ill cafes in which he tried this folanum, they were
much aggravated by it ; and that in one cafe in the
dofe of one grain it proved mortal to one of his pa-
tients ; therefore he contends its ufe is prejudicial. Thi*.
opinion feems tacitly to be confirmed, as it is now ne-
ver given internally. In ancient times It was employ-
ed exteraally as a difcutlent and anodyne in fome cuta- ^
neous affeftlons, tumefaftions of the glands, ulcers, and
diforders of the eyes. The folanum nigrum ? rubrum, a
native of the Weft Indies, is called guma by the ne-
groes. It Is fo far from having any deleterious qua-
lity, that it is daily ferved up at table as greens or fpin-
nage. It has an agreeable bitter tafte.
3. Lycoperficum, the love-apple, or tomato, cultivated
in gardens in the warmer parts of Europe and in all tro-
7 picst:
SOL
r 598 ]
SOL
Solarmm pical countries. The ftalk is herbaceous, the- leaves very nice works, inftead of tin, they fometimes ufe a
S .Ider. P'""ated, oval, pointed, and deeply divided. The flowers quantity of filver. Solder for tin is made of two-thirds
of tin and one oF lead, or of equal parts of each; but
where the work is any thing delicate, as in organ pipes,
where the junfture is fcarce dilcernible, it is made of
one part of bifmuth and three parts of pewter. I'he
pewterers ufe a kind of folder made with two parts of
tin and one of bifmuth ; .this compofition melts with the
leaft heat of any of the folders.
Silver folder is that which is made of two parts of
filver and one of brafs, and ufed in foldering thofe me-
tals. Spelter folder is made of one part of brafs and
two of fpelter or zinc, and is ufed by the braziers and
copperfmiths for foldering brafs, copper, and iron. This
folder is improved by adding to each ounce of it one
penny weight of filver ; but as it docs not melt without
a confiderable degree of heat, it cannot be ufed when
it is inconvenient to heat the work red-hot ; in which
cafe copper and brafs are foldered with filver.
Though fpelter folder be much cheaper than filver-
folder, yet workmen in many c^fes prefer the latter.
And Mr Boyle informs us, that he has found it to run
with fo moderate a heat, as not much to endanger the
melting of the dehcate parts of the work to be loldered ;
and if well made, this filver folder will he even upon the
ordinary kind itfelf ; and fo fill up thofe little cavities
that may chance to be left in the fir 11 operation, which
pinnated, oval, pointed, and deeply divided. The flowers
J are on fimple racemi : they are fmall and yellow. The
berry is of the fize of a plurn ; they are fmooth,
fhining, foft ; and are either of a yellow or reddifh co-
lour. The tomato is in daily ufe ; being either boiled
in foups or broths, or ferved up boiled as garnifhes to
flefh-meats.
4. Me/ofgena, the egg-plant, or vegetable egg. This
is alfo cultivated in gardens, particularly in Jamaica. It
feldom rifes above a foot in height. The ftalk is her-
baceous and fmooth ; the leaves oval and downy ; the
flowers are large and blue ; the fruit is as big, and very
like, the egg of a goofe. It is often ufed boiled as a
vegetable along with animal food or butter, and fuppo-
fed to be aphrodifiac and to cure fterility.
5. Longum. This plant is alfo herbaceous, but grows
much ranker than the foregoing. Hie flowers are blue ;
and the fruit is fix or eight inches long, and propor-
tionally thick. It is boiled and eaten at table as the
egg-plant.
6. Tuherofum, the common potato. See Potato.
SOLAR, fomething belonging to the Sun.
SoLAR-SpOtS. See AsTR0N0MY-/n^/i'A;.
SOLDAN. See Sultan.
SOLDANELLA, in botany : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of pentandrla^ and order of viono-
21ft order, Prm<f. The corolla is campanulated ; the
border being very finely cut into a ,;jreat many feg-
ments. The capfule is unilocular, and its apex poly-
dentate.
SOLDER, SoDDER, or Soder, a metallic or mineral
compofition ufed in foldering or joining together other
metals.
Solders are made of gold, filver, copper, tin, bifmuth,
and iead ; ufually obferving, that in the compofition
there be fome of the metal that is to be fold<jred mixed
Synia; and in the natural fyftem^ arranged under the is not eafily done without a folder more eafily fufible
'^^ * ' " ' than the firft made ufe oh As to iron, it is fufficient
that it be heated to a white heat, and the two extremities,
in this ftate, be hammered together ; by which means
they become incorporated one with the other.
SOLI )E RING, the joining and faftening together of
two pieces of the fame metal, or of two different metals,
by the fufion and application of fome metallic compofi-
tion on the extremities of the metals to be joined.
To folder upon filver, brafs, or iron : Take filver,
five pennyweights ; brafs, four pennyweights ; melt
with fome higher and finer metals. , Goldfmitha ufually them to ether tor foft folder, which runs Iboneft. Take
make four kinds of folder, viz. folder of eight, where filvei", five penny weii)hts ; copper, three pennyweights;
to feven parts of filver there is one of brafs or copper ; melt them together for hard folder. Beat the folder
folder o*^ fix, where only a fixth part is copper ; folder thin, and lay it on the place to be foldered, which muil
be firit fitted and bound together with wire as occafion
requires ; then take borax in powder, and temper it
lik^ pap, and lay it upon the folder, letting it dry ;
then cover it with live coals, and blow, and it will
run immediately 5 take it prefently out of the fire, and
it is done. It is to be obferved, that if any thing is to
be foldered in two places, which cannot well be done at
one time, you mull firfl folder with the harder folder,
and then with the foft ; for if it be firft done with the
foft, it will unfolder a|iain before the other is fallened.
of the two to one another, fo as to make the colour of Let it be obferved, that if you would not have your
of 'our, and folder of three. It is the mixture of cop-
per in the folder thc^t makes raifed plate come always
cheaper than flat.
As mixtures of gold .with a little copper are found
to melt with lefs heat than pure gold itfelf, thefe mix-
,tures ferve as folders for gold ; two pieces of fine gold
are foldered by gold that has a fmall admixture of cop-
per ; and gold alloyed with copper is foldered by fuch
as is alloyed with more copper : the workmen add a
little filver as well as copper, and vary the proportions
the folder correfpond as nearly as may be to that of the
piece. A mixture of gold and copper is alfo a folder
for fine copper as well as for fine gold. Gold being
particularly difpofed to unite with iron, proves an ex-
.cellent folder for the finer kinds of irfln and fl.eel infliru-
ments.
folder run about the piece that is to be foldered, you
mufl; rub fuch places over with chalk — In the foldering
either of gold, filver, copper, or either of the metals
above mentioned, there is generally ufed borax in pow-
der, and fometimes rofin. As to iron, it is fufficient
that it be heated red-hot, and the two extremities thus
The folder ufed by plumbers is made of two pounds hammered together, by which means they will become
of lead to one of block-tin. Its goodnefs is tried by
melting it, and pouring the bignefs of a crown piece on
a table ; for^ if good, there will arife httle bright fliining
ilars therein. The folder for copper is made like that
4Pf the plumbers j ' onlj with copper and tin ; and for
incorporated with each other. For the finer kinds of
iron and fteel inftruments, however, gold proves an ex-
cellent folder. This metal will diffolve twice or thrice
its weight of iron in a degree of heat very far lefs than
that in which iron itfelf melts ; hence if a fmall plate of
gold
sot
r .m 1
S O L
r goW 18 wrapped round the parts to joined, and af-
terwards melted by a blow- pipe, it ftrongly unites the
pieces together without any injury to the iiiilrument,
however deScate.
SOLDIER, a military man liiled to ferve a prince
or ftate in confidcration of a certain daily pay.
SoLDiER-Crab. See Cancer.
Fre/i> Mooter Sor.DiER. See Stratiotes.
SOLE, in the manege, a fort of horn under a horfe's
foot, which is much more tender than the other horn that
encompaffes the foot, and by reafon of its harclnefs is pro-
perly called the horn or hoof.
Sole, in ichthyology. See Pleuronectes.
SOLEA. See Sandal and Shoe.
SOLECISM, in grammar, a faUc manner of fpeak-
"jng, contrary to the rults of grammar, either in refpecl:
of declenfion, conjugation, or fvnf.x. — The word is
Greek, a-''>-'-'
derived from the Soli, a people of
Attica, who being tranfplanted to Cilicia,, loft the pu-
rity of their ancient tongue, and became^ ridiculous
to the Athenians for the improprieties into which they
fell.
SOLEMN, forrtething performed vvith much pomp,
ceremony, and expence. Thus we fay, folemn feafts,
folemn funerals, folemn games, &c. — In law, fo/emn fig-
nifies fomething authentic, or what is clothed in all its
formalit ies.
SOLEN, RAZOR-SHEATH, or Knife-handle Shell; a
penus belonging to the clafs of vermes, and order of
teflacea. The animal is an afcidia. The (hell is bivalve,
oblong, and openingf at both fides: the hinge has a tooth
fhaped like an awl, bent back, often double, not iniert-
ed into the oppofite fhell ; the rim at the fides fome-
what worn away, and has a horny cartilaginous hinge.
There are 23 fpecies. Three of them, viz. the filiqua,
■vagina, and enfis, are found on the Britifh coafts, and
lurk in the fand near the low-water mark in a perpen-
dicular diredtion. When in want of food they elevate
one end a little above the furface, and protrude their
bodies far out of the ftieli. On the approach of dan-
ger they dart deep into the fand, fometimes two feet at
leaft. Their place is known by a fmall dimple on the
furface. Sometimes they are dug o'.it with a fliovel ; at
other times they are taken by ftriking a barbed dart
fuddenly into them. When the fea is down, thefe fiih
iifually run deep into the fand ; and to bring them upi
the common cuftom is to throw a little fait into the
holes, on which the hfli raifes itfelf, and in a few mi-
nutes appears at the mouth of its hole. When half the
(hell is difcovered, the fiiherman has nothing more to
do than to take hold of it with his fingers and draw it
out : but he muft be cautious not to lofe the occafion,
for the creature does not continue a moment in that
ftate ; and if by any means the fiOierman has touched
it, and let it flip away, it is gone for ever ; for it will
not be decoyed again out of its hole by fait ; fo that
there is then no way of getting it but by digging un-
der it, and throwing it up with the fand. The filh has
two pipes, each compofed of four>)r five rings or por-
tions of a hollow cylinder, of unequal lengths, jeined
one to another ; and the places where they join arc
marked by a number of fine ftreaks or rays. Now the
reafon why the fait makes thefe creatures come up out
of their holes, is, that it gives them violent pain, and
even corrodes thefe pipes. This isfomewhat ftrange,
as the creature is nourifhed by means of fait- water; but
it is very evident, that if a little fait be itrewed upon
thefe pipes in a fiflr takeji out of its habitation, it will
corrode the joinings of the rings, ai'jd often make on^
or more joints drop off: the creature, to avoid this mif-
chief, arifcs out of its hole, and throws off the fait, and
then retires back again. The ufe of thefe pipes to the
animal is tlie fame with that of many other pipes of a
hke kind in other fhell- filh ; they all ferve to take in
water : they are only a continuation of the outer
membrane of the fifh, and ferve indifferently 'for taking
in and throwing out the water, one receivin,/-, and the
other difcharging it, and either anfwering equally well
to their purpofe. See Animal Motion.
This Hfli was ufed as food by the ancients; and
Athenasiis, from Sophron, fpeaks of it as a great de-
licacy, and particularly grateful to widows. It is often
ufed as food at prefent, and is brought up to table fried
in eggs.
SOLEURE, a canton of SwIfTerlahd, which holds
the I ith rank in the Helvetic confederacy, into whicii
it was admitted in the year 1481. It ftretches partly-
through the p'.ain, and partly along the chains oi the
Jura, and contains about jOjOoo inhabitants. It is 35
miles in length from north to fouth, and 35 in breadth-
from eatt to welL The foil for the moil part is exceed-
ingly feitile in corn ; and the diftrifts within the Jura
abound in excellent paflures. The trade both of the
town and canton is of little value, although they are
very commodioufly fituated for an extenfive commercti
It is divided into 1 1 bailiwicks, the inhabitants oi which ,
are all Roman Catholics except thofe of the bailiwick of
Buckegberg, who profefs the reformed rehgion.- The
fovereign power refides in the great council, which,
compiifing the fenate or little council of 36, confifts of
I o z members, chofen by the fenate in equal proportions
from the M tribes or companies into which the ancient
burghers are diftributed ; and, owing to the dittinftion
between the ancient and the new burghers (the former
confining of only 85 families) the government is a com-
plete ariftocracy.
SoLEURE, an ancient and extremely neat town of -
Swifferland, capital of the canton of the fame name. It-
contains about 4C00 inhabitants, and is pleafantly feat-
ed on the Aar, which here expands into a noble river;
Among the mofl remarkable objefts of curiofity In this
town is the new church of St Urs, which was begun
in 1762 and finiflied in 1772. It is, a noble edifice of
a whitifli grey ftone, drawn from the neighbouring quar-
ries, which admits a poliih, and is a fpecies of rude mar-
ble. The lower part of the building is of the Cor^in-
thian, the upper of the Compofite order. The fa9adc,
which confifts of a portico, furmounted by an elegant
tower, prefents itfelf finely at the extremity of the prin=
cipal ftreet. It cofl at leaft L. 80,000, a confiderable
fum for fuch a fmall republic, whofe revenue fcarcely
exceeds L. 12,000 a year. Soleure is furrounded by
regular ftone fortifications, and is 20 miles north north-
eaft of Bern, 27 fouth fouth-weft of Bafle, and 45 weft
of Zurich. E. Long. 7. 20. N. Lat. 47. 15.
SOLFAING, in mufic, the naming or pronouncing
the feveral notes of a fong by the fyllables ut, re, mi,fa^
fol, &c. in learning to fing it.
Of the feven notes in the French fcale ut, re, mi, fa^
fo/f la,/, only four are ufed among us in finging, as
8 JK'J
SOL
[ 600 ]
SOL
Solfaterr
» mi, fa, ful, la: their office is principally, in finging-,
^ that by applying them to every note of the fcale, it may
not only ht pronounced with more eafc, but chiefly
that by them the tones and femitones ot the natural
fcale may be better marked out and diftini^ullhed. This
deftgn is obtained by the four fyllables fa, fol, la, mi.
Thus from Ja to fol is a tone, alio from fo! to la, and
from la to rni, without dillinguifhing the greater or Icfs
tone ; but from /a to fn, alfo from mi to fi, is only a
femitone. If then thefe be applied in this order, fa, fo/,
la, fa, fol, la, mi, fa, &c. they exprefs the natural feries
from C ; and if that be repeated to a fecond or third
oftave, we fee by them how to exprefs all the different
orders of tones and lemitones in the diatonic Icale ; and
ftiU above mi will Hand fa, fol, la, and below it the fame
inverted lct,fvl, fa, and one mi is always diilant from
another an oftave ; which cannot be faid of any »f the
reft, becaufe after mi afcending come alwaj's fa, fol, la,
which ate repeated invertcdly defcending.
To conceive the ufe of this, it is to be remembered,
that the firll thing in learning to fing, is to make one
raife a fcale of notes by tones and femitones to an oc-
tave, and defcend again by the iame ; and then to rife
and fall by greater intervals at a leap, as thirds and
fourths, &c. and to do all this by beginning at notes of
different pitch. Then thofe notes are reprefented by
lines and fpaces, to which thefe fyllables are applied,
and the learners taught to name each line and fpace
thereby, which makes what we call folfaing ; the ufe
whereof is, that while they are learning to tune the de-
grees and intervals of found exprefiedby notes on a line
or fpace, or learning a fong to which no words are ap-
plied, they may not only do it the better by means of
articulate foimds, but chiefly that by knowing the
degrees and intervals expreffed by thoie fyllables, they
may more readily know the places of the femitones, and
the true diftaiice of the notes. See the artick Sing-
ing.
SOLFATERR A, a mountain of Italy in the king,
dom of Naples, and Terra di Lavoro. This mountain
appears evidently to have been a volcairo in ancient
times ; and the foil Is yet fo hot, that the workmen em-
ployed there in making alum need nothing elfe befides
the heat of the ground for evaporating their liquids.
Of this mountain we "have the following account by Sir
William Hamilton. " Near Aftruni (another moun-
tain, formerly a volcano likewife) rifes the Solfaterra,
which not only retains its cone and crater, but much
of its fornaer heat. In the plain within the crater,
fmoke iffues from many parts, as alfo from its fides ;
hej'e, by means of ftones and tiles heaped over the cre-
vices, through which the fmoke paffes, they colleft in
an aukward manner what they call fale armoniaco ;
and from the fand of the plain they extract iulphurand
alum. This fpot, well attended to, might certainly
produce a good revenue, wbereas 1 doubt it they have
hitherto ever cleared L. 200 a-year by it. The hollow
found produced "by throwing a heavy ftone on the phiin
ot the crater of the Solfaterra, fcems to indicate that it
is fupported by a fort of arched natural vault and one
is induced to think tliat there-is a pool of water be-
neath this vault (which boils by the heat of a lubtcr-
raneous fre Hill deeper), by the very moift fleain. that
iffues from the cracks in tlie plain of the Sollaterra,
^v]l!cll, like that of boiling water, runs ofi" a fw^rd or
knite, prcfented to it, in great drops. On the outfide,
and at the foot of the cone of the Solfaterra, towards
the lake of Agnano, water rufhe* out of the^ rocks fo
hot as to raife the quickhlver in Fahrenheit's thermo-
meter to the degree of boiling water (a); a factor
which I was myfelf an eye-witnefs. This place, well
worthy the obfcrvation of the curious, has been taken
little notice of ; it -is called the PifaureJIi. The com-
mon people of Naples have great faith in" the efficacy of
this water ; and make much of it in all cutaneous dii-
orders, as well as for another diforder that prevails here.
It feems to be impregnated chiefly with fulphur and
alum. When jow approach your ear to the rocks of
the Pifciarelli, from wfience this water ouzes, you hear
a horrid boiling noife, which feems to proceed from
the huge cauldron that may be fuppofed to be under -
the plain of the Solfaterra. On the other tide ©f the
Solfaterra, next the fea, there is a lock which has com-
municated with the fea, till part of it was cut away to
make the road to Puzzole; this v/as undoubtedly a con-
fidcrable lava, that ran from the Solfaterra when it was
an adlive volcano. Under this rock of -lava, which is
m.ore than 70 feet high, there is a flratum of pumice
and afKes. This ancient lava is about a quarter of a
mile broad; you meet with it abruptly before you come
in fight of Puzzole, and it finiflies as abruptly within
about 100 paces of the town. The ancient name of
the Solfaterra was Forum P'^ulcani ; a ftrong proof of its'
origin from fubterraneous fire. The degree of heat
that the Solfaterra has preferved for fo many ages,
feems to have calcined the ftones upon its cone and in
its crater, as they are very white and crumble eafily in
the hotteft parts. See Chemistry, n' 656.
SOLICITOR, a perfon employed to take care of
and manage fuits depending in the courts of law or
equity. Solicitors are within the ftatute to be fworn,
and admitted by the judges, before they are allowed
to pradlife in our courts, in like manner as attorneys.
There is alfo a great officer of the law, next to the
attorney-general, who is ftyled the king's folicitor-ge-
neral ; who holds his office by patent during the king's
plealure, has the care and concern of managing the
king's affairs, ai^d has fees for pleading, befides other
fees arifing by patents, Sec. He attends on the privy-
council; and the attorney-general and he were anciently
reckoned among the officers of the exchequer ; they
have their audience, and come within the bar in ali
other courts.
SOLID, in philofophy, a body whpfe parts ate fo
firmly
(a) " I have remarked, that after a great fall of rain, the degree of heat in this water is mueh lefs ;
which will account for what Padie lone fays (in his book, intitled Hijioire et Phenomenes du Vejuve), that
when he tried it in company with 'Monfieur de la Condamine, the degree of heat, upon Reaumur's thermo-
oieter, was 68^.
SOL
[ 6oi ]
SOL
di'trily <!Otmea;ed together, as not ca% to ^ve way or
flip frotn each other; in which fenfc folid ftands oppofed
tofuld.
Geometricians define a folid to be the third Tpecics
of magnitude, or that which has three dimeniions, viz.
'length, breadth, and thicknefs or depth.
SoUds are commonly divided into re?,ular and irregu-
lar. The regular folids are thofe terminated by regular
^ and equal planes, and are only five in number, viz. the
-tetrahedron, which confifts of four equal triangles ; the
-cube or hexahedron, of fix equal fquares ; the oftahc-
dron, of eight equal triangles ; the dodecahedron, ot
twelve ; and the icofihedron, of twenty equal triangles.
The irregular folids are almoft infinite, comprehend-
ing all fuch as do not come under the. definition ot re-
gular folids; as the fphere, cylinder, cone, parallelo-
gram, prifm, parallelopiped, &c.
Solids, in anatomy, are the bones, ligaments, mem-
branes, mufcles, nerves and veflels, &c.
The folid parts of the body, though equally compo-
fed of veflels, arc different with regard to their confid-
ence ; fome being hard and others foft. The hard, as
the bones and cartilages, give firmnefs and attitude to
■ the body, and fuftain the other parts : the foft parts,
neither alone or together with the hard, ferve to execute
the animal funftlons. See Anatomy.
SOLID AGO, in botany : A genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs of fyngenejia, and to the order of
folygamia fuperjlua ; and in the natural fyftem ranging
under the 49th order, Compoftta. The receptacle is na-
'ked ; the pappus fimple ; the radii are commonly five ;
the fcales of the calyx are imbricated and curved inward.
. There are 14 fpecles ; fempervirens, canadenfis, altiffi-
Ttna, lateriflora, bicolor, lanceolata, ccefia, mexicana, flex-
icaulis, latlfolia, virgaurea, minuta, riglda, noveboracen-
fi8. Among thefe there is only one fpecies, which is a
native of Britain, the virgaurea, or golden rod, which
grows frequently in rough mountainous paftures and
woods. The ftems are branched, and vary from fix
•inches to five feet high, but their common height is
about a yard. The leaves are a little haid and rough
to the touch; the lower ones oval-lanceolate, generally
» little ferrated and fupported on footftalks ; thofe on
the flalks are elliptical ; the flowers are yellow, and
grow in fpikes from the alai of the leases ; the fcales of
the calyx arc lanceolate, of unequal length, and of a
pale green colour ; the female florets in the rays are
from five to eight in number; the hermaphrodite flowers
in the difc from ten to twelve. There is a variety of
this fpecies called cambrka to be found on rocks from
fix inches to a foot high.
SOLIDITY, that property of matter, or body, by
■which it excludes all other bodies firom the place which
itfelf poffefles ; and as it would be abfurd to fuppofe
that two bodies could poffefs one and the fame place at
the fame time, it follows, that the fofteft bodies arc
equally fohd with the hardcft. See Metaphysics,
11° 44. 173. &c.
Among geometricians, the folldity of a body denotes
the quantity or fpace contained in it, and is called alfo
its folid content.
The folidity of a cube, prlfm, cylinder, or parallelo-
piped, is had by multiplying its bafis Into its height.
The folidity of a pyramid or cene is had by mul-
VoL. XVIL Part II.
tiplying «ithcf -the whole bafe into a third part of SoU^oqujS
the \\d-^U or the whole height into a third part of the .
bafe.
SOLILOQUY, a reafoning or diicourfe which a
man holds with himfelf ; or, more properly, according
to Fapias, it is a difcourfe by ./ay of anfwer to a quel-
tion that a man propofes to himfelf.
Soliloquies are become very common on the mo-
dern ftage ; yet nothing can be more inartificial, or
more unnatural, than an a6lor*s making long fpeechea
to himfelf, to convey his intentions to the audience.
Where fuch difcoverles are neceflary to be made, the
poet fliould rather take care to give the dramatic per-
fons fuch confidants as may neceflarily fliare their iu-
mofi; thoughts ; by which means they will be more na-
turally conveyed to the audience ; yet even this is %
flilft which an accurate poet would not have occafion
for. The following lines of the duke of Buckingham
concerning the ufe and abufe of foliloqules deferve at-
tention :
Soliloquies had need be very few,
Extremely fhort, and fpoke In paffioa too.
Our lovers talking to themfelves, for want
Of others, make the pit their confidant :
Nor is the matter mended yet, if thus
They trufl: a friend, only to tell it us.
SOLIMAN It. emperor of the Turks, furnamed
the Magnificent, was the only fon of Selim I. whom he
fucceeded in 1520. He was educated in a manner ve-
ry different from the Ottoman princes iu general; for he
was inftrufted in the maxims of politics and the fecrets
of government. He began his reign by refl;oring thofe
perfons their poffefTions whom his father had unjuftly
plundered. He re-eftabUfhed the authority of the tri-
bunals, which was almoft annihilated, and bellowed the
government of provinces upon none but perfons of
wealth and probity : " I would have my viceroys (he
ufed to fay) refemble thofe rivers that fertihze the
fields through which they pafs, not thofe torrents which
fweep every thing before them."
After concluding a' truce with Ifmacl Sophy of Per.
fia, and fubduing Gozeli Bey, who had raifed a rebel-
lion in Syria, he turned his arms againft Europe. Bel-
grade was taken in 1521, and Rhodes fell Into his
hands the year following, after an obftlnate and enthu"
fiaftic defence. In 1 5 26 he defeated and flew the king
of Hungary in the famous battle of Mohatz. Three
years atter he conquered Buda, and immediately laid
fiege to Vienna Itfelf. But after continuing 20 days
before that city, and affaulting it 20 times, he was obli-
ged to retreat with the lofs of 8o,oco men. Some time
after he was defeated by the Pcrfians, and difappointed
in his hopes of taking Malta. He fucceeded, however,
in dlfpoffclTing the Genoefe of Chio^ an ifland which
had belonged to that republic for more than 200
years.
He died at the age of 76, while he was befieging Si-
geth, a town in Hungary, on the 30th Au«[uft 1566.
He was a prince of the ftrifteft probity, a lover of jut
tice, and vigorous in the execution of It ; but he tar-
nlfhed all his glory by the cruelty of his difpofitlon.
After the battle of Mohatz he ordered 1 500 prifoners,
moft of them gentlemen, to be rancred In a circle, and
beheaded in prefence of his whole army.
4 G SolimaE
SoHpuga
So'omon
SOL [ 602
Sollman thought nothing irapoffible which he com-
manded : A general having received orders to throw a
_ bridu,e over the Drave, wrote him, that it was impof-
fible. The fultan fent him a long band of linen with
thefe words written on it : " The emperor Soliman,
thy matter, orders thee txo build a bridi^e over the Drave
in fpite of the difficulties thou mayeft meet with. He
informs thee at the fame time, that if the bridge be not
finilhed upon his arrival, he will hang thee with the
very linen which informs thee of his will."
SOLIPUGA, or SoLiFUGA, in natural hiftory, th«
name given by the Romans to a fmall venomous infedl
of the fpider-kind, called by the Greeks helmentros ;
both words lignifymg an animal which ftings moft In
the country, and feafons where the fun is moft hot.
Solinus m.akes this creature peculiar to Sardinia ; but
this is contrary to all the accounts given us by the an-
cients. It is common in Africa and fome parts of Eu-
rope. Alnioft all the hot countries produce this veno-
mous little creature. It lies under the fand to feize
other infe£ts as they go by ; and if it meet with any
uncovered part of a man, produces a wound which
proves very painful: it is faid that the bite is abfolutely
mortal, but probably this is not true. Solinus writes
the word fol'ifuga^ and fo do many others, erroneoufly
deriving the name from the notion that this animal flies
from the fun's rays, and buries itfelf in the fand.
SOLIS (Antonio de), an Ingenious Spanifh writer,
of an ancient and illuftrious family, born at Placenza
m Old Caftile, in 16 10. He was intended for the
law ; but his inclination toward poetiy prevailed, and
he cultivated it with great fuccefs. Philip IV. of Spain
made him one of his fecretaries ; and after his death
the queen- regent appointed him hiftoriographer of the
Indies, a place of great profit and honour : his Hiftory
of the Conqueft of Mexico fhows tliat (he could not
have named a fitter perfon. He is better known by this
hiftory at Icaft abroad, than by his poetry and dramatic
writings, tliough in thefe he was alfo diftinguiftied. He
turned pricft at 57 years of age, and died in 1686.
SOLIT RY, that wliich is remote from the com-
pany or commerce of others of the fame fpecies.
SOLlT RIES, a denomination of nuns of St Peter
of Icnntara, i:.ftituted in 1676, the defign of which
was to imitate the fevere penitent life of that faint.
Thus they are to keep a continual filencc, never to
©pen their mouthw to a ftranger ; to employ their time
wholly in fpiritual exercifes, and leave their tempo-
ral concerns to a number of maids, who have a particu.
lar luperioi in a feparate part of the monaftery ; they
always go bare- footed, without fandals ; gird themfelves
with a thick cord, and wear no linen.
SOLO in the Italian mufic, is frequently ufcd in
pieces confifting o\ fcveral parts, to mark thofe that are
to perform alone ; zs> fiauto fofo, vio/'nto folo. It is alfo
ufed for fenatas compofed for one violin, one German
jiute, or other inftrument, and a bafs ; thus we fay,
Corelli's foloi, Gcm'iniani's Iclos, &c. When two or three
.parts play or fino^ feparately from the grand chorus,
they are called a doi folt^ a tre joliy &c. Solo is fome-
iimes denoted bv S.
SOLOMON, the fon of David kin- of Ifrael, re-
nowned in Scripture for his wiidom, riches, and magni-
ficent temple and other buildings. Towards the end
of his life he fullied ail his former glory by his apollacy.
] SOL
from God ; from which caufe vengeance wa» dcnoun- Sol
ced againft his houfe and nation. He died about 975 .
B. C.
Solomon's Seal, in botany; a fpecies of Convalla-
RIA.
SOLON, one of the feven wife men of Greece, was
born at Salamis, of Athenian parents, who were de.
fcended from Codrus. His father leaving little patri-
mony, he had recourfe to merchandife for his fubfill-
ence. He had, however, a greater thirft after know-
ledge and fame than after riches, and made his mercan-
tile voyages fubfervlent to the increafe of his intellec-
tual treafures. He very early cultivated the art of poe-
try, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of moral and civil
wifdom. When the Athenians, tired out with a long
and troublefome war with the Megarenfians, for the re-
cover)- of the ifle of Salamis, prohibited any one, under
pain of death, to propofe the renewal of their claim to
that ifland, Solon thinking the prohibition dilhonourable
to the ftate, and finding many of the younger citizens de-
firous to revive the war, feigned himfelf mad, and took
care to have the report of his infanity fpread thro' the
city. In the mean time he compofed an elegy adapted
to the ftate of public affairs, which he committed to
memory. Every thing being thus prepared, he fallied
forth into the market-place with the kind of cap on his
head which was commonly worn by fick perfons, and,
afcending the herald's ftand, he delivered, to a nume-
rous crowd, his lamentation for the defertion of Sala-
mis. The verfes were heard with general applaufe ;
and Pififtratus feconded his advice, and urged the
people to renew the war. The decree was immediately
repealed ; the claim to Salamis was refumed ; and the
conducSt of the war was committed to Solon and Pifif-
tratus, who, by means of a ftratagem, defeated the Me-
garenfians, and recovered Salamis.
His popularity was extended through Greece in con-
fequence of a fuccefsful alliance which he formed among
the ftates in defence of the temple at Delphos againft the
Cirrhasans. When diflenfions had arifen at Athens be-
tween the rich creditors and their poor debtors, Soloa
was created archon, with the united powers of fuprem.e
legiflator and iriaglftrate. He foon reftorcd harmony
between the rich and poor: He cancelled the debts
which had proved the occafion of fo m.uch oppieflion ;
and ordained that in future no creditor ftiould be allow-
ed to feize the body of the debtor for his fecurity : He
made a new diftribution of the people, inftituted new
courts of judicature, and framed a judicious code of
laws, which afterwards became the bafis of the laws of
the twelve tables in Rome. Among his criminal law«
are many wife and excellent regulations ; but the code
is neceflarily defeflive with refpe<5l to thofe principles
which muft be derived from the knowledge of the true
God, and of pure morahty, as the certain foundations of
national happinefs. Two of them in particular were
very exceptionable; the permiflion of a voluntary exile
to perfons that had been guilty of premeditated mur-
der, and the appointment of a lefs fevere puniftieient
for a rape than for fedudtion. Thofe who wifli to iee
accurately ftated the comparative excellence of the laws
oi Mofes, of Lycurgus, and Solon, may eonfult Prize
Difiertations relative to Natural and Revealed Religion
by Teyler's Theological Society, Vol. IX.
The interview which Solon is faid to have had with
Crcefus-
S O M
I 603 ]
S O M
ic« Croefus king of Lydia, the folid remarks of the fage
after furveying the monarch's wealth, the recolleftion of
thofe remarks by Crcefus when doomed to die, and the
noble conduA of Cyrus on that occafion, are known to
every fcho©lboy» Solon died in the ifland of Cyprus,
about the 80th year of his age. Statues were erefted
to his memory both at Athens and Salamls. His thirft
after knowledge continued to the laft : " I grow old
(faid he) learning many things." Among the apo-
thegms and precepts which have been afcribed to So-
los, are the following : Laws are like cobwebs, that
entan gle the weak, but are broken through by the
ftrong. He who has learned to obey, will know how to
command. In all things let reafon be your guide. Di-
ligently contemplate excellent things. In every thing
that you do, confider the end.
SOLSTICE, in aftronomy, that time when the fun
is in one of the folftitial points ; that is, when he is at
his greateft diftance from the equator ; thus called be-
caufe he then appears to ftand ftill, and not to change
his diftance from the equator for fome time; an appear-
ance owing to the obliquity of our fphere, and which
thofe living under the equator are ftrangers to.
The folftices are two in each year ; the seftival or
fummer folllice, and the hyemal or winter folftice. The
fummer folftice is when the fun feems to defcribe the
tropic of cancer, which is on June 22. when he makes
the longeft day ; the winter folftice is when the fun en-
ters the firft degree, or feems to defcribe tke tropic of
Capricorn, which is on December 22. when he makes
the fkorteft day. This is to be underftood as in our
northern hemifphere ; for in the fouthern, the fun's en-
trance into Capricorn makes the fummer folftice, and
that into cancer the winter folftice. The two points
of the ecliptic, wherein the fun's greateft afcent above
the equator, and his defcent below it, are terminated,
are called the foljlitial points ; and a circle, fuppofed to
pafs through the poles of the world and thefe points, is
caUed the fol/litial colure. The fummer folftitial point is
in the beginning of the firft degree of cancer, and is
called the afttval or fummer point ; and the winter fol-
ftitial point is in the beginning of the firft degree of Ca-
pricorn, and is called the ivinter point. Thefe two
points are diametrically oppofite to each other.
SOLUTION, in chemiftry, denotes an intimate
union of folid with fluid bodies, fo as to form a tranf-
parent liquor. See Dissolution, and Index to Che-
mistry.
Solution of Metals. See Metals (Solution of).
SOLVENT, that which diflblves a folid body into a
tranfparent fluid.
SOLWAY MOSS. See Moving Moss.
SOMBRERO, the name of an uninhabited ifland
in the Weft Indies in the form of ,an hat, whence the
name is derived. It is alfo the name of one of the
Nicobar iflands in the Eaft Indies.
Wonderful Plant of Sombrero, is a ftran^e kind of
fenfitive plant growing in the Eaft Indies, in fandy bays
and in (hallow water. It appears like a flender ftraight
ftick ; but when you attempt to touch it, immediately
withdraws itfelf into the fand. Mr Miller gives an ac-
Jr/i/fa/count of it in his dtfcription of Sumatra. He fays,
ruaionsthe Malays call it lalan lout^ that is, fea grafe He nc-
ver could obferve any tentacula ; but, afUM- many upfuc-
cefbtul attempts, drew out a broken piece about a foot
long. It was perfectly ftraight and uniform, and rc- Somer*.
fembled a worm drawn over a knitting needle. When ^^^^^^1^^'
dry it appears like a coral. ■ , ' j
SOMERS (John), lord high chancellor of England,
was born at Worcefter in 1652. He was educated at
Oxford, and afterwards entered himfelf at the Middle-
Temple, where he ftudied the law with great vigour. In
1688 he was one of the counfel for the feven bifliops at
their trial, and argued with great learning and eloquence
againft the difpenfmg power. In the convention which
met by the prince of Orange's fummons, January 22.
1689, he reprefented Worcefter ; and was one of the
managers for the Houfe of Commons, at a conference
with the Houfe of Lords upon the word abdicated.
Soon after the acceffion of King William and Queen
Mary to the throne, he was appointed foUcitor-general,
and received the honour of knighthood. In 1692 he
was made attorney general, and in 1693 advanced to
the poft of lord keeper of the great feal of England. In
1695 he propofed an expedient to prevent the pradlice
of clipping the coin. In 1697 he was created lord
Somers, baron of Evefliam, and made lord high chan-
cellor of England. In the beginning of 1 700 he was
removed from his poft of lord chancellor, and the year
after was impeached of high crimes and mifdemeanors
by the Houfe of Commons, of which he was acquitted
upon trial by the Houfe of Lords. He then retired
to a ftudious courfe of life, and was chofen prefident of
the Royal Society. In 1 706 he propofed a bill for the
regulation of the law ; and the fame year was one of
the principal managers for the union betw^een England
and Scotland. In 1708 he was made lord prefident of
the council; from which poft he was removed in 1710,
upon the change of the minittry. In the latter end of
Queen Anne's reign his lordChip grew very infirm in
his health ; which is fuppofed to be the reafon that he
held no other poft than a feat at the council-tP.ble, after
the acceflion of King George I. He died of an apo-
pleftic fit in 17 16. Mr Addifon has drawn his cha-
rafter very beautifully in the Freeholder.
SOMERSETSHIRE, a county of England, taking
its name from Somerton, once the capital, between 50"*
and 51° 27' north latitude, and between i°25'and2'' S9'
weft longitude. It is bounded on the weft by Devon-
ftiire, on the foutlf by Dorfetftiii-e, on the north by
Briftol Channel or the Severn Sea, on the north-eaft by
a fmall part of Gloucefterftiire, and on the eaft by Wilt-
ftiire. It is one of the largeft counties in England, ex-
tending in length from eaft to weft about 68 miles ; ia
breadth, where broadeft, from fouth to north, about
47 ; and 240 in circumference. It is divided into 42-
hundreds, in which are 3 cities, 32 market towns, 1700
villages, 385 parifhes of which 1 32 arc vicarages, contain-
ing more than i,ooo,ooQ of acres, and about 300,000
fouls. It fends 18 members to Parhament, viz. two for
the county, two for Briftol, two for Bath, two for Wells,
two for Taunton, two for Bridge water, two for llchefter,
two for Milbourn-port, and two for Minehead.
The air of this county is very mild aad wholefome,
efpeclally that of the hilly part. The foil in general is
CKceeding fich, fo that Angle acres very commonly
produce forty or fifty bufliels ot wheat, and there have
been inftances of fome producing fixty of barley. As
there is very fine pafturc both for (heep and black cat-
tle, it abounds in both, which arc as large as thofe of
4 G 2 Lia-
SON [6 c
Sdtn«rftt- LincolnHirrc, and tdreir fiefli of a finer frrainr. In eonfe-
^'''^ quence of this abundance of black cattle, great quanti-
Sc,i>ata,. ^^^^ cheeic are made in it, of which that of Cheddar
U— y-— 18 thought eq-uai to Parmefan. In the hilly parts are
immd coal, lead, copper, and lapis calaminaris. Wood
thrives in it as well as ia any county of the kingdom.
It aboimda alio in peafe, beans, beer, cyder, fruit, wild-
fowl, and falmon ; and its mineral waters are celebrated
all over the world.
The riches of this county, both natural and acqui-
jred, exceed thofe of &ny other in the kingdom, Middle-
fex and Yorkfhire excepted. The woollen manufac-
torc in all its branches is carried on to a very great ex-
tent; and in fomc parts of the county great quantities
of linen arc made. If to thefe the produce of various
©ther commodities in which it abounds is added, the
amount of the whole muft undoubtedly be very great.
Its foreign trade mud alfo be allowed to be very extcn-
five, when it is confidered that it has a large trade for
fea coal, -and poiTelfes, befides other ports, that of Brif-
tol, a town of the greateft trade in England, next to
London.
Befides fmall ftreams, it is well watered and fupplied
with firti by the rivers Severn, Avon, Parrel, Froome,
Ax, Torre, and Tone. Its greateft hills are Mendip,
Pouldi3n, and Quantock, of which the firfl abounds in
coal, lead, &c. The rivers Severn and Parrel breed ve-
ry fine falmon. The chief town is Briftol.
SOMERFON, an ancient town in Somerfetfhire,
from whence the county derives its name. It is 125
miles from London ; it has five ftreets, containing 2 vi
houfes, which are moftly built of the blue ftone from
the quarries in the neighbourhood. It is governed by
conftables, and has a hall for petty felTions. The mar-
ket for corn is conliderable, and it has feveral fairs for
cattle. 1 he church has what is not very frequent, an
odangular tower with fix bells. N. Lat. 51.4. W. Long.
SOMNAMBULI, perfons who walk in their fleep.
See Sleepwalkers.
SOMNER (William), an eminent Englifh antiquary,
was born at Canterbury in 1606. His lirft treatife was
The Antiquities of Canterbury, which he dedicated to
, Archblfhop Laud. He then applied hiralelr to the ftu-
dy of the Saxon language ; and having made himfelf
jnafter of it, he perceived that the old gloffary prefixed
to Sir Roger Twiiden's edition of the laws of King
Henry I. printed in 1644, was faulty in many places;
he therefore added t© that edition notes and obferva-
tions valuablt for their learning, with a very uCeful
gloffary. His Treatife of Gavelkind was finifhed a-
bout 1648, though not publifhed till 1660. Our
author was zealbufly attached to King Charles I. and
in 1648 he publifhed a poem on hia fufferings and
death. His ficill in the Saxon tongue led him to in-
quire into moft of the European languages ancient and
modern. He affifted Dugdale and Dodlworth in com-
piling the Monajlkon Anglkanum. His Saxon Dic-
tionary was printed at Oxford in 1659. ^^^^ ^"
1669.
SON, an appellation given to a male chiW confidered
in the relation he bears to his parents. See Parent
and Filial Piety,
SONATA, ia mufic, a. piece or Gompofition, intend-
4 ] SON
ed to be performed by inftruraents only; in which fenfe
it ftaads oppofed to cantata, or a piece defigned for the
voice. See Cantata.
The fonata then, is properly a grand,, free, humo-
rous compohtion, diverfilied with a great variety of m©.
tions and expreffions, extraordinary and bold ffrokes, fi-
gures, &c. And all this purely according to the fancy
of the compofer ; who, without confining himfelf to
any general rules of counterpoint, or to any fixed num-
ber or meafure, gives a loote to his genius, and runa
from one mode, meafure, &c. to another, as he thinks
fit. I'his fpccies of compolition had its rife about the
middle of the 17th century ; thofe who have moft ex-
celled in it were Bafiani and Corelli. We have fonatas
of !, 2, 5, 4, 5, 6, 7,. and even 8 parts, but ufually
they are performed by a fingle violin, or with two vio-
lins, and a thorough bafs for the harpfichord ; and fre-
quently a more figured bafs for the bafs viol, &c.
There are a thoufand different fpecies of fonatas j
but the Italians ulually reduce them to two kinds. Su-
onate de chiefa, that is, fonatas proper for church mufic,
which ufually begin with a grave folemn motion, fuit-
able to the dignity and fandity of the place and the
fervice, after which they ftrike into a briflcer, gayer,
and richer manner. i hefe are what they mbre pecu-
liarly call fonatas. Suonate de camera, or fonatas for the
chaniber, are properly feriefes of feveral little pieces, for
dancing, only compofed to the lame tune, 'i'hey ufually
begin with a prelude or little fonata, fcrving as an in-
troduftiop to all the reft : afterwards come the allemand,
pavane, courant, and other ferious dances ; then jigs,
gavots, minuets, chacons, psffecailles, and other gayer
airs : the whole compofed in the fame tune or mode.
SONCHUS, SOW-THISTLE, in botany: A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of fyngenefia, and to the or-
der oi polygamia aquai'ts ; and in the natural fyftem ran-
ged under the 49th order, Compojita. The receptacle
is naked; the calyx is imbricated, bellying and conical;
the down of the feed is fimple, felfile, and very foft ;
the feed is oval and pointed. There are 1 3 fpecies ;
the maritimus, paluftris, fruticofus, arvenfis, oleraceus,
tenerrimus, plumieri, alpinus, floridanus, fibiricus, tata-
ricus, tuberofus, and canadenfis. Four of thefe are na-.
tives 01 Britain.— I. Palujiru, marfh fow-thiftle. The
ftem is ereft, from fix to ten feet high, branched and
hairy towards the top : the leaves arc firm, broad, half
pinnated, ferrated, and fharp.pointed ; the lower ones
fagittate at the bafe : the flowers are of a deep yellowj,
large, and dtfperfed on the tops of the branches : the
calyx is rough. It is frequent in marflies, and flowers
in Julyor Auguft. — 2. Arvenju, corn fow-thiftle. Tlve
leaves are alternate, runcinate, and heait-fhaped at the
bafe ; the root creeps under ground ; the ftem is three
or four feet high, and branched at the top. It grows
in corn fields, and flowers in Auguft.— 3. OleraceuSy
common fow-thiftle. The ftalk is fucculent, piftular,
and a cubit high or more ; the leaves are broad, embra-
cing the flrem, generally deeply finuatcd, fmooth or
prickly at the edges ; the flowers are of a pale yellow,
numerous, in a kind of umbel, and terminal ; the calyx;
is fmooth. It is frequent in wafte places and cultivated
grounds. — 4. yf/^i«aj^, blue-flowered fow-thiftle. The
ftem is ereft, purplifh, branched, or fimple, from three
to fix feet high ; the leaves are large>, fmooth, and finu-
ated f
SON [ <5c
ated ; tlae txtreme fegment large *nd IrlaTigular : the
flowers are blue, and grow on hairy vlfcid pedicles, in
Ions? fpikes : the calyx is brown. This fpecies is found
in Northumberland.
SONG, in poetry, a little compofition, confifting of
eafy and natural verfes,. Ux to a tune in order to be fung.
See Poetry, n'= 120.
Sqn9, i« mufic, is applied in general to a fingle piece
qf mufic, whether contrived for the voice or an inftru-
xnent. See A^r. .
Sons of Birds, is defined by the honourable Dames
Harrington to be a fucceflion ©f three or more different
notes, which are continued without interruption, during
the fame interval, with a mufical bar of four crotchets
in an adagio movement, or whillt a pendulum fwings
four feconds.
It is affirmed, that the notes of birds are no more m-
pate than language in man, and that they depend upon
imitation, as far as their organs will enable them to imi-
tate the founds which they have frequent opportunities
of hearing : and their adhering fo fteadily, even in a
wild ftate, to the fame fong, is owing to the neftlings
attending only to the initruAion of the parent bird,
whilll they difregard the notes ©f all others that may
perha]^ be fmging round them.
Birds in a wild ftate do not commonly ling above i o
weeks in the year, whereas birds that have plenty of
food in a cage fmg the greateft part of the year : and
we may add, that the female of no fpecies of birds ever
fings. This is a wife provifion of nature, becaufe her
fong would difcover her neft. In the fame manner, we
may rationally account for her inferiority in plumage.
The faculty of finging is confined to the cock bird^ ;
and accordingly Mr Hunter, in diffeaing birds of fe-
veral fpecies, found the mufcles of the larynx to be
ftronger in the nightingale than hi any other bird of
the fame fize ; and in all thofe inftances, where he dif-
feded both cock and hen, the fame mufcles were ftrong-
er in the cock. To the fame purpoCe, it is an obferva-
tion as ancient as the time of Pliny, that a capon does
not crow. . .
Some have afcrlbed the finging of the cock-bird m
the fpring folely to the motive ot pleafmg his mate during
incubation ; others, who allow that it is partly for this
end, believe it is partly owing alio to another caufe, viz.
the jrrcat abundance of plants and infefts in the fpring,
which, as well as feeds, are the proper food of finging
birds at that time of the year.
Mr Barrington remarks, that there is no inftance of
any finging bird which exceeds our blackbird in fize;
and this, he fuppofes, may arlfe from the difficulty of
its concealing itfelf, if it called the attention of its ene-
mies, not only by its bulk, but by the proportionable
loudnefs of its notes. This writer farther obferves, that
fome paffages^ of the fong in a few kinds of birds eorre-
fpond with the intervals of our mufical fcale, of which
the cuckoo is a ftriking and known inftance; but
the greater part of their fong cannot be reduced to a
mulical fcale ; partly, becaufe. the rapidity, is often fo
S J SON
great, and it is alfo fo uncertain when they may flop, Sonpr
that we cannot reduce the paffages to form a mufical
bar in any time whatfoever ; partly alfo, becaufe the
pitch oF 'moil birds is confiderably higher than the
moft fhrill notes of thofe inftruments which have the
greateft compafs ; and principally, becaufe the inter-
vals ufed by birds are commonly fo minute, that
we cannct judge pf thenji from the more grofs inter-
vals into which we divide our mufical oftave. Thi*-
writer apprehends, that all birds fing in the fame key ;
and in order to difcover this key, he informs us, that
the following notes have been obferved in di{feient birds,
A, B fiat, C, D, F, and G ; and therefoie E only iir
wantifig to complete the fcale : now thefe intervals, he
fays, can only be found in the key of F with a ftiarp
third, or that of G with a flat third ; and he fuppofes-
it to be the latter, becaufe, admitting that the firft mu-
fical notes were learned from birds, thofe of the cuckoo,-
which have been moft attended to, form a fiat third,
and moft of our compofitions are in a flat third, where
mufic is fimple, and confifts merely of melody. As a
farther evidence that birds fing always in the fame key,
it has been found by attending to a nightingale, as well
as a robin which was educated under him, that the notes
reducible to our intervals of the oftave were always pre-
clfely the fame.
Moft people, who have not attended to the notes of
birds, fuppofe, that every fpecies fing exaftly the fame
notes and paffages: but this is by no means true; though it
is admitted that there is a general refemblance. Thus the
London bird-catchers prefer the fongof the Kentilh gold-
finches, and Eflex chaffinches ; and fome of the nightin-
gale-fanciers prefer a Surry bird to thofe of Middlefex.
Of all finging birds, the fong of the nightingale has •
been moft univerfally admired : and its fuperiority (de-
duced from a caged bird) confifts in the following
particulars ; its tone is much more mellow than that of
any other bird, though at the fame time, by a proper
exertion of its mufical powers, it can be very brilliant.
Another point of fuperiority is its continuance of fong
without a paufe, which is fometimes no lefs than 20 fe-
conds; and when refpiration becomes neceflary, it takes
it with as much judgment as an opera-finger. The flcy-
lark in this particular, as well as in compafs and variety,
is only fecond to the nightingale. The nightingale alfo •
fings (if the expreffion may be allowed) with fuperior
judgment aad tafte. Mr Barrington has obferved, that
his nightingale, which was a very capital bird, began
foftly like the ancient orators ; referving its breath to
fwell certain notes, which by thefe means had a moft
aftonifliing effeft. This writer adds, that the notes of
birds, which are annually imported from Afia, Africa,
and America, both fingly and in concert, are not to be
compared to thofe of European birds.
The following table, formed by Mr Barrington, a-
greeably to the idea of M. de Piles in eftimating the
merits of painters, is defigned to exhibit the compara-
tive merit of the Britifh finging birds ; in which 20 is
fupppljed to be the point of abfolute perfeftion.
Nightingale
Mellownefs
of tone.
Sprightly
n itee.
Plaintive
notes.
n
0
3
Execution,
19
19
19
4
19
4
18
18
18
4
17
12
8
1 2
1 2
12
12
12
i 2
10
12
16
18
4
19
4
12
12
4
12
4
8
8
/I
4
4
4
0
6
0
6
4
4
2
4
0
4
4
0
4
0
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
0
2
2
6
16
12
I 2
12
0
12
0
4
4
0
4
0
2
2
14
12
12
14
14
SOP
Philofophical
TranfaSiions
Nightingale -
iSky-lafk
Wood-lark
Tlt-lark
Linnet
Goldfinch
Chaffinch
Greenfinch
Hedge-fparrow
Aberdavine or fiflcin
Red-poll
Thrufii
Blackbird
Robin
Wren
Reed fparrow
Black-cap, or Norfolk
mock nightingale
SONNA, a book of Mahometan traditions, which all
the orthodox mulTlilmen are required to believe.
SONNE RATI A, in botany ; a genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of kofandria, and to the order of
tnonogynia. The calyx ir. cut into fix fegments ; the pe-
tals are fix.; the capfule is multilocular and fucculent ;
and the cells contain many feeds. The only ipecies is
the oc'tda.
SONNET, in poetry, a compofition contained in 14
verfcs, viz. two llanzas or meafurcs of four verles each,
and two of three, the eight firft verfes being all in three
rhlmes.
SONNITES, amon^ the Mahometans, an appella-
tion given to the orthodox muffulmen or true believers ;
in oppofitioD to the feveral heretical feds, particularly
the Shiites or followers of AH.
SOOJU, or SoY. See Dolichos.
SOONTABURDAR, in the Eaft Indies ; an at-
tendant, who carries a filver bludgeon in his hand
' about two or thr^e feet long, and runs before the pa-
lanquin. He is inferior to the Chubdar ; the propriety
of an Indian newaury requiring two Soontaburdars for
every Chubdar in the train. The Chubdar proclaims the
approach of vifitors, &c. He generally carries a large
filver ftafF about five feet long in his hands: and
among the Nabobs he proclaims their praifes aloud as
he runs before their palanquins.
SOOT, a volatile matter arifing from wood and other
fuel along with the fmoke ; or rather, it is th» Imokc
itfelf condenfed and gathered to the fides of the chlm-
ney. Tho' once volatile, however, foot cannot be again
reiolved into_ vapour ; but, if diftilled by a ftrong fire,
yields a volatile alkali and empyreumatic oil, a confider-
able quantity of fixed matter remaining at the bottom
of the diftilling vefTel. If burnt in an open fire, it
flames with a thick fmoke, whence other foot is pro-
duced. It is ufed as a material for Hjaking fal am-
moniac, and as a manure. See Chemistry, n'' 796.;
and Agriculture, n^ 20.
Soor-Black. See Coioun-Making.
SOPHJ, or Sof I, a title given to the emperor of
r 606 1 SOP
Perfia ; importing as much as wife, fage, or phllofo-
pher.
The title is by fome fald to have taken its rife from
a young fhepherd named Sophi, who attained to the
crown of Perfia in 1370 ; others derive it from the/o-
phoi or fages anciently called magi Voffius gives a dif-
ferent account of the word : fophi in Arabic, he ob-
ferves, fignifies wooi ; and he adds, that it was applied
by the Turks out of derifion to the kings of Perfia
ever fince Iflimael's time; becaufe, according to their
fcheme of religion, he Is to wear no other covering on
his head but an ordinary red woollen Huff; whence the
Perfians are alfo called he%elbafchs, q. d. red-heads. But
Bochart affures us, that fophi in the original Perfian
language, fignifies one that is pure in his religion, and
who prefers the fervlce of God in all things : and de-
rives it from an order of religious called by the fame
name. The fophis value themfelves on their illuftrious
cxtraaion. They arc defcended In a right line from
Houffein, fecond fon of AH, Mahomet's coufin, and Fa-
tima, Mahomet's daughter.
SoPHis, or Sofees, a kind of order of religious among
the Mahometans in Perfia, anfwering to what are other-
wife called derv'ifes, and among the Arabs and Indians
faquirs. Some will have them called fophis from a kind
of coarfe camblet which they wear called >«/, from the
city Souf in Syria, where it is principally manufaftured.
The more eminent of thofe fophis are complimented
with the title fchiek, that is, reverend, much as in Ro-
mifh countries the religious are called reverend fathers.
Schick fophi, who laid the foundation of the gran,
deur of the royal houfe of Perfia, was the founder, or
rather the reftorer of this order: Iflimael, who conquer-
ed Perfia, was himfelf a fophi, and greatly valued him-
felf on his being fo. He chofe all the guards of his
perfon from among the religious of this order; and would
have all the great lords of his court fophis. The king
of Perfia Is lUll grandmafter of the order; and the lords
continue to enter into it, though it be now fallen under
fome contempt.
SOPHISM, in logic, a fpecious ariTument having
the appearance of truth, but leading to falfehood. So-
phifms are reduced by Arlftotle Into eight claffes, an ar-
rangement fo juft and comprehenfive, that it is equally
proper in prefent as in former times, i . Ignoratio elenchi,
in which the fophlft feems to determine the queftion,
while he only does it In appearance. Thus the queftion,
" Whether excels of wine be hurtful?" feems to be de-
termined by proving, that wine revives the fpirits and
gives a man courage: but the principal point is here kept
out of light; for Itill it may be hurtful to health, to for-
tune, and reputation. 2. Petltio principii, a begging of
the quelllon, or taking for granted that which remains
to be proved, as if any one fliould undertake to prove
that the foul is extended through all the parts of the
body, becaufe It refides in every member. This is af-
firming the fame thing in different words. 3. Reafon-
ing in a circle ; as when the Roman Catholics prove the
Scriptures to be the word of God by the authority of
the church, and the authority of the church from the
Scriptures. 4. Non caufa pro caufa, ®r the afligning of
a falfe caufe to any effea. Thus the fuppofed prin-
ciple, that nature abhors a vacuum, was applied to ex.
plain the rifing of water in a pump before Galileo
difcovered that it was owing to the preffure of the
atmo--
Soph*
Sophil"
SOP
[ 607 1
SOP
ifttt atmofphere In this way the vulgar afcribe accidents
to divine venge^.tice, and the herefiea and infidch'ty
"* of modern times are faid to be owing to learning.
5. Fallacia accidenlh^ in which the fophift reprefents
what is merely accidental as efiential to the nature of
the fubjeft. This is nearly allied to the former, and is
committed by the Mahometans and Roman Catholics.
The Mahometans forbid wine, becaufe it is fometlmes
the occafion of drunkennefs and quarrels ; and the Ro-
man Catholics prohibit the reading of the Bible, be-
caufe it has fometimes promoted herefies. 6. By dedu-
cing an univerfal affertion-from what is true only in par-
ticular circumftances, and the reverfe ; thiis fome men
argue, *' tranfcribers have committed many errors in
copying the Scriptures, therefore they are not to be de-
pended on." 7. By afferting anything in a compound
fenie which is only true in a divided fenfe; fo when ^hc
Scriptifres affure us, that the worft of finners may be
faved, it does not mean that they fhall be faved while
they remain finners, but that if they repent they may be
faved. 8. By an abufe of the ambiguity of w^ords.
Thus Mr Hume reafons in his Efiay on Mu acles :
*' Experience is our only guide in reafoning concerning
matters of fa£l ; now we know from experience, that
the laws of nature are fixed and invariable. On the
other hand, teftimony is variable and often falfe; there-
fore fince our evidence for the reality of miracles refts
folely on teftimony which is variable, and our evidence
for the uniformity of the laws of nature is invariable,
miracles are not to be believed." The fophiftry of this
reafoning depends on the ambiguity of the word expe-
riencci which in the firft propofition fignifies the ma-
xims which we form from our own obfervation and re-
flexion ; in the fecond it is confounded with teftimo-
ny ; for it is by the teftimony of others, as well as our
own obfervation, that we learn whether the laws of na-
ture are variable or invariable. The EfTay on Miracles
may be recommended to thofe who wifh to fee more
- examples of fophiftry ; as we believe moft of the eight
fpecies of fophifms which we have mentioned are well
iiluftrated by examples in that effay.
SOPHIST, an appellation affumed in the early pe-
• riods of Grecian hiftory by thofe who devoted their
time to the ftudy of fcience. This appellation appear-
ing too arroi^ant to Pythagoras, he decHned it, and
wifhed to be called a pbilofopher ; declarirrg that, though
he could not confider himfelf as a wife man, he was indeed
a lover of wifdom. True wifdom and modefty are ge-
nerally united. The example of Pythagoras was fol-
lowed by every man of eminence ; while the name So-
phijl was retained only by thofe who witha pomp of words
made a magnificent difplay of wifdom upon a very flight
foundation of knowledge. Thofe men taught an arti-
ficial ftrufture of language, and a falfe method of rea-
foning, by which, in argument, the worfe might be made
to appear the better reafon (fee Sophism). In Athens
they were long held in high repute, and fupported, not
only by contributiotis from their pupils, but by a regu-
lar falary from the ftate. They were among the bit-
tereft enemies of the illuftrious Socrates,, becaufe he em-
braced every opportunity of expofing to contempt and
ridicule their vain pretenfions to fuperior knowledge,
and the pernicious influence of their dodliines upon the
tafte and morals of the Athenian youth.
SOrHISTlCATJQN, the mixing of any thing
with what is not genuine ; a praftice too comiBon m SopTiocIe^-
the making up of medicines for fale ; as alfo among
vintners, diftiUers, and others, who are accufed of fo-
phifticating their wines, fpirits, oils, &c. by mixing
with them cheaper and coarfer materials ; and in many
cafes the cheat i& carried on fo artfully as to deceive the
beft judges. , .
SOPHOCLES, the celebrated Greek tragic poet,
the fon of Sophilus an Athenian, was born at Co-
lonn, and educated with great attention. Superior vi-
gour and addrefs in the exercifes of the paleftra, and
fl?;ill in mufic, were the great accoraplifhments of young,
men in the ftates of Greece. In thefc, Sophocles ex-
celled ; nor was he lefs diftinguifhed by the beauty of
his perfon. He was alfo inftruAed in the nobleft of all
fciences, civi^ polity and religion i from the firft of
thefe he derived an unfhaken love of his country, which
he ferved in fome embaflies, and in high military com-
mand with Pericles from the latter he was impreffed
with a pious reverence for the gods, manifefted by the
inviolable integrity of his life. But hi's ftudies were
early devoted to the ti-agic mufe ; the fpirit of Efchy-
lus lent a fire to his genius, and excited that noble emu-
lation which led him to contend with, and fometimes to
bear away the prize from, his great mafter. He wrote
43 tragedies, of which 7 only have efcaped the ravages
of time : and having teftified his love of his country by
refufing to leave it, though invited by many kings ;
and having enjoyed the uninterrupted efteem and affec-
tion ©f his fellow-citizens, which neither the gallant ac-
tions and fubllme genius of Efchylus, nor the tender
fpirit and philofophic virtue of Euripides, could fecure
to them, he died in the 9 f ft year of his age, about ^ 06
years before Chrift. 'I'he burial-place of his anceftora
was at Decelia, which the Lacedemonians had at that
time feized and fortified ; but Lyfander, the Spartan
chief, permitted the Athenians to inter their deceafed
poet ; and they paid him all the honours due to his love
of his country, integrity of life, and high poetic excel-
lence. Efchylus had at once feized the bigheff poft of
honour in the field of poetry, the true fublime ; to that
eminence his claim could not be difputed. Sophocles
had a noble elevatioi] of mind, but tempered with fo
fine a tafte, and fo chaftened a judgment, that he never
paiTed the bounds of propriety. Under his condudi
the tragic mufe appeared with the chafte dignity of fome
noble matron at a religious folemnity ; harmony is ia
her voice, and grace in all her motions. From him the
theatre received fome additional embellifhments ; and-
the drama the introduftion of a third fpcaker, which
made it more adliveand more intcrefting: but his diftin-
guifhed excellence is in the judicious difpofition of the
fable, and fo nice a c©nne£lion and dependence of the
parts on each other, that they all agree to make the
event not only probable, but even neceffary. This is pc-
cuhaily admirable in his^ " CEdipus F iTig of Thebes ;**
and in this important point he is far fuperior to every
other dramatic writer.
The ingratitude of the children of Sophocles is well
known. They wifhed to become immediate mafters of
their father's poffelGons.; and. therefore tired of his
long lile, they accuisd him before the Areopagus of
infanity. The only defence the poet made was to read
his tragedy of CEdipus at Colonos, which he had lately
finiftied J and then he.alked hisjudges, whether the au-
3. thor
S O R
[ 608 ]
S O R
Sorbus
Sop!i^>ra thor of fuch a ;performatice could tie taxed with infa-
iiity ? The father upon this was acquitted, and the chil-
J dren returned hoAie covered with fhame and conlu-
fiort. The feven tragedies of Sophocles which ftill re-
main, together with the Greek Scholia which accom-
pany them, have been tranflated into Latin by Johnfon,
ard into Ena;lifh by Dr Franklin and Mr Potter.
SOPHORA, in botany : A genus of plants belong-
ing to the clafs of decandrioy and to the order of mono-
^jinla f and In the natural fyftem arranged under the
3 2d order, PapUtonaceie. The calyx is quinquedentate
;and gibbous above : the corolla is papilionaceous ; the
wings being of the fame length with the vexillum: the
feed is contained in a legumen. 't'here are 1 6 fpecies ;
the tetraptera, microphylla, flavefcens, alopecur®idc8, to-
jr.entofa, occidentalis, capenfis, aurea, japonica, geniftoi-
des, auflralis, tindoria, alba, lupinoides, biflora, andhir-
futa.
SOPORIFIC, or Soporiferous, a medicine that
produces ileep. Such are opium, laudanum, the feed
of poppies, &c. The word is formed from the Latin
fopor " fleep." The Greeks in place of it ufe the word
'hypnotic.
SORBONNE, or SoRBON, the houfe or college of
the faculty of theology eftabllfhed in the univerfity of
Paris. It was founded in 1 2 5: 2 by St Louis, or rather
by Pyobert de Sorben his confefTor and almoner, ftrfl ca-
non of Cambray, and afterwards of the church of Paris;
who gave his own name to it, which he bimfelf took
from the village of Sorbon or Serbon, near Sens, where
he was born. The foundation was laid in 1250 ; queen
Blanche, in the abfence of her hufband, furnifhing him
with a houfe which had formerly been the palace of
Julian the apoflate, of which fome remains are ftill
feen. Afterwards the king gave him all the houfes he
had in the fame place, in exchange For ibme others.
The college has been fince magnificehtly rebuilt by the
cardinal de Richelieu. The defign of its inftitution was
for the ufe of poor ftudents in divinity. There are
lodgings in it for 36 dodlors, who are faid to be of the
fociety of the Sorbonne ; thofe admitted into it without
being doftors, are faid to be of the hofpitality «f the Sor-
hnnne. Six regent doftors formerly held leftures every
<iay for an hour and a half each ; three in the morning,
and three in the afternoon.
Sorbonne, is alfo ufed in general for the whole fa-
culty of theology at Paris ; as the affemblies ©f the
whole body are held in the houfe of the Sorbonne ;
and the bachelors of the other houfes of the facul-
ty, as the houfe of Navarre, &c. come hither to hold
their forbonnique, or aft for being admitted doftor in
divinity.
SORBUS, SERVICE-TREE, in botany; a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of icqfandria, and to the
order of trigynia. The calyx is quinquefid ; the petals
are five ; the berry is below the flower, foft and con-
taining three feeds. There are three fpecies ; the au-
cuparia, domellica, and hebrida.
1. The aucuparia, mountain-afh, quicken-tree, quick-
beam, or roan-tree, rifes with a ftraight upright ftem
and regular branching head, twrenty or thirty feet high
©r more, covered with a fmooth greyifli brown bark;
pinnated leaves of eight or ten pair of long, narrow, fer-
rated folioles, and an odd one, fmooth on both fides ;
djid large umbellate cliifters of white flowers at the fides
and ends of the branches, fucceeded by clufttrfe ©f fine
red berries, ripe in autumn and winter. There is a va- ^"^^
ricty "with yellow ftriped leaves. This fpecies grows wild
in many parts of this ifland in mountainous places,
woods, and hedge-rows, often growing to the fize of tim-
ber; and is admitted into moft ornamental plantations, for
the beauty of its growth, foliage, flowers, and fruit ; the
latter, in particular, being produced in numerous red
large bunches all over the tree, exhibit a fine appear-
ance in autumn and winter, till devoured by the birds,
efpecially the blackbird and thrufh, which are fo allured
by this fruit as to flock from all parts and feed on
it voracioufly. — kn the ifland of Jura the juice of
the berries is employed as an acid for punch. It is pro-
bable that this tree was in high efteem with the Druids;
for it is more abundant than any other tree in the neigh-
bourhood of thofe Druidical circles of ftones, fo com-
mon in North Britain. It is ftill believed by fbme per-
fons, that a branch of this tree can defend them from
enchantment or witchcraft. Even the cattle are fuppo-
fed to be preferved by it from danger. The dairy- maid
drives them to the fummer paftures with a rod of the
roan -tree, and drives them home again with the fame.
In Strathfpey, we are told, a hoop is made of the wood
of this tree on the i ft of May, and all the fheep and
lambs are made to pafs through it.
2. The domejlica, or cultivated fervice-tree, with cat-
able fruit, grows with an upright ftem, branching 30
or 40 feet high or more, having a brownifh bark, and
the young fhoots in fummer covered with a mealy down ;
pinnated leaves of eight or ten pair of broadifh deeply
ferrated lobes and an odd one, downy underneath, ahd
large umbellate clufters of white flowers at the fides and
ends «f the branches, fucceeded by bunches of large,
flefhy, edible red fruit, of various fhapes and fizes.
This tree is a native of the fouthcrn warm parts of
Europe, where its fruit is ufed at table as a defert, and
it is cultivated here in many of our gardens, both as a
fruit-tree and as an ornament to diverfify hardy planta-
tions.
3. The hebrida, or mongrel fervice tree of Gothland,
grows twenty or thirty feet high ; it has half-pinnated
leaves, very downy underneath ; and clutters of white
flowers, fucceeded by bmnches of round reddifh berries
in autumn,
SORCERY, or Magic ; the power which fome
perfons were formerly fuppofed to poflefs of command-
ing the devil and the infernal fpirits by flclll in charms
and invocations, and of foothing them by fumigations.
Sorcery is therefore to be diftinguifhed from witchci-aft ;
an art which was fuppofed to be praftifed, not by com-
manding evil fpirits, but by compaft with the devil.
As an inftance of the power of bad fmells over demons
or evil fpirits, We may mention the flight of the evil
fpirit mentioned in Tobit into the remote parts of E-
gypt, produced, it is faid, by the fmell of the burnt
liver of a fifh. Lilly informs us, that one Evans ha-
ving railed a fpirit at the requeft of Lord Bothwell and
Sir Kenelm Digby, and forgetting a fumigation, the
fpiiit, vexed at the difappointment, pulled him with-
out the circle, and carried him from his houfe in the
MInories into a Held near Batterfea Caufeway.
King James, in his D^monologia, has given a very
full account of the art of forcery. Two principal
things (^lays he) canhoc well in that errand be wanted:
J holy
S O R [
\io\f water (whereby the devill mockes the papifts), and
fome prefent of a living thing unto him. There are
likewife certaine daies andhoures that they obferve in this
purpofe. Thefe things being all ready and prepared,
circles are made, triangular, quadrangular, roun(^, dou-
ble, or lingle, according to the forme of the apparition
they crave. When the conjured fpirit appeares, which
will not be while after many circumftances, long prayers,
and much muttering and murmurings of the conjurors,
like a papift prieft difpatching a hunting mafle — how
foone, I fay, he appeares, if they have miffed one jote of
all their rites ; or if any of their feete once flyd over
the circle, through terror of his fearful! apparition, he
paits himfelf at that time, in his owne hand, of that due
debt which they ought him, and otherwife would have
delaied longer to have paied him : I mean, he carries
them with him, body and foule." How the conjurors
made triangular or quadrangular circles, his majefty has
not informed us, nor docs he feem to imagine there was
any difficulty in the matter. We are therefore led to
fuppofe, that he learned his mathematics from the fame
fyftem as Dr Sacheverell, who, in one of his fpeeches
or fermons, made ufe of the following fimlle : " They
concur like parallel lines, meeting in one common cen-
tre."
Another mode of confulting fplrits was by the beryl,
by means of a fpeculator or feer ; who, to have a com-
plete fight, ought to be a pure virgin, a youth who had
not known woman, or at leaft a perfon of irreproach-
able life and purity of manners. The method of fuch
confultation is this : The conjuror having repeated the
ueceffary charms and adjurations, with the litany or in-
vocation peculiar to the fpirits or angels he wlflies to
call (for everyone has his particular form), the feer
looks into a cryllal or beryl, wherein he will fee the
anfwei, reprefented either by types or figures ; and
fometimes, though very rarely, will hear the angels or
fpirits fpeak articulately. Their pronunciation is, as
Lilly fays, like the Irifh, much in the throat. Lilly
defciibes one of thefe beryls or cryllals. It was, he
fays, as large as an orange, fet in filver, with a crofs at
the top, and round about erigraved the names of the
angels Raphael, Gabriel, and Uriel. A delineation of
another is engraved in the frontifpiece to Aubery's
Mifcellanles.
Thefe forcerers or magicians do not always employ
their art to do mifchief; but, on the contrary, frequent-
ly exert it to cure difeafes inflifted by witches ; to dil-
cover thieves ; recover ftolen goods ; to foretel future
events, and the ftate of abfent friends. On this account
they are frequently called white iv'ttcbes. Sec Magic,
Witchcraft, &c.
Our forefathers were ftrong believers when they
enaded, by ftatute 33 Hen. VIII. c. 8- all witchcraft
and forcery to be felony without benefit of clergy ; and
again, by Ilatute i Jac. I. c. 12. that all pcrfons invo-
king any evil fpirit, or confulting, covenanting with,
entertaining, empbying, feeding, or rewarding arfy evil
fpirit; or taking up dead bodies from their graves to
be ufed in any witchcraft, forcecy, charm, or inchant-
rnent j or kilKng or otherwife hurting any perfon by
fuch infernal arts ; fhould be guilty of felony without
benefit of clergy, and fufifer death. And if any perfon
fhoidd attempt by forcery to difcover hidden treafurcj
Vol. XVII. Part II.
609 ] S O R
or to reftore Aolen goods, or to provoke iinlawrul lof e,
or to hurt any man or beaft, though the fame were not
effected, he or flie fhould fuffer imprifonment and pil-
lory f(;r the firft offence, and death for the fecond.
Thefe afls continued in force till lately, to the terror
of all ancient females in the kingdom ; and many poor
wretches were facrificed thereby to the prejudice of their
neighbours and their own illufions, not a few having
by fome means or other confeffed the fadt at the. gal-
lows. But all executions for this dubious crime are now
at an end ; our legiflature having at length followed
the wife example of Louis XIV. in France, who
thought proper by an edift to rettrain the tribunals of
juftice from receiving informations of withcraft. And
accordingly it is with us enaftcd, by ftatute 9 Geo. II.
c. 5. that no profecution fhall for the future be carried
on againft any perfon for conjuration, witchcraft, for-
cery, or inchantment : But the mifdemeanor of perfons
pretending to ufe. witchcraft, tell fortanes, or difcover
ftolen goods, by fliill in the occult fciences, is ftlU dc-
fervedly punifhed with a year's imprifonment, and ftand»
ing four times in the pillory.
SOREX, the Shrew, In natural hlftory ; a genus
of animals belonging to the clafs of mammalia, and or-
der of /er^. It has two long fore-teeth in the upper
jaw, which are divided into two points ; In the lower
jaw are two er four fore-teeth, the two middle ones, in
the latter cafe, being fhorter than the others : On each
fide in both jaws are two or more tuflcs : The grinders
are knobbed. The animals of this genus have. In general
thick clumfy bodies, and five toes on each of their feet }
the head refembles that of the mole, being thick at the
fore-head, much elongated, and ending in a conical
fnout, and having very fmall eyes ; in other circumftan-
ces of general figure they refemble the murine tribe of
quadrupeds. They burrow in the ground, fome fpe-
cies Hving moftly about the fides of waters ; and moft
of them feeding on worms and infedls. There are 16
fpecies ; of which the moft remarkable are,
1 . The araneus, or field ftirew-moufe, with Hiort
rounded ears ; eyes fmall, and almoft hid in the fur ;
nofe long and llender, upper part the longcft; head and
upper part of the body of a brownlfh red ; belly of a
dirty white ; length from nofe to tail, two inches and a
half ; tail one and a half. Inhabits Europe: lives in old
walls and heaps of ftones, or holes in the earth ; is fre-
quently near hay-ricks, dung-hills, and neceffary-houfes;
lives on corn, infefts, and any filth ; is often obferved
rooting in ordure like a hog ; from its food, or the.
places it frequents, has a difagreeable fmell ; cats will
kill, but not eat it : it brings four or five young at a
time. The ancients believed it was injurious to cattle;
an error now detedted. There feems to be an annual
mortality of thefe animals in Auguif, numbers being
then found dead in the paths.
2. The fodienSf or water-fhrew, has a long flender
nofe 'f very minute ears ; very fmall eyes, hid in the
fur ; colour of the head and upper part of the body
black ; throat, breaft and belly, of a lii^ht aflvcolour;
beneath the tail, a triangular dulky fpot ; much larger
than the laft ; length, from nofe to tail, three inches
three quarters ; tail, two inches. Inhabits Europe :
long fince known In England, but loft till May 1768,
when it was difcovered in the fens near Revejfley Ab-
4 H key,
Soret.
S O R
3oi ites
(I ,
Sorrel.
[ 6
bey, Lincolnflilre ; barrows in the banks near the wa^
tcr 5 is called by the fenmen the bl'ind-mouje.
^ 3. The minutusf or minute ihrew, has a head near as
tig as the body : very /lender nofe ; broad fhort naked
^ars ; whifters reaching to the eyes ; eyes fmall, and
«;apable of btini^ drawn In ; hair very fine and fhining ;
grey above, white beneath ; no tail ; the lead of qua-
liriipeds, accordincT to Linnxus. Inhabits Siberia; lives
in a neft made of lichens, in fome moift place beneath
the roots of trees ; feeds on feeds, digs, runs fvviftly,
and has the voice of a bat.
4. The tucon, or Mexican flirew, has a (harp nofe ;
fmall round ears ; without fij^ht ; two long fore-teeth
above and below ; thick, fat, and flefhy body ; fhort
legs, fo that the belly almoll touches the ground; long
(p-ooked claws ; tawny hair ; (hort tail ; length, front
nofe to tail, nine inches. lubabits Mexico ; burrows,
and makes fuch a number of cavities, that travellers can
fcarce tread with fafety ; if it gets out oF its hole, does
not know how to return, but bcqins to dig another ;
grows very fat, and is eatable ; feeds on roots, kidney-
beans, and other feeds, M. de Buffon thinks it a mole;
fcut it feems more properly to belong to the genus of
forex.
SORITES, in logic, a fpecies of reafoning in which
a great number of propofitions are fo linked together,
that the predicate of the one becomes continually the
fubjedl of the next following, till at laft a conclufion is
formed by bringing together the fubjeft of the firft pro-
portion and the predicate of the laft. Such was that
merry argument of Themiftocles, to prove that his little
fcn under ten years old governed the whole world.
Thus: My /on governs his mother ; //is mother me ; I the
Athenians ; the Athenians the Greeks ; Greece commands
Europe ; Europe the whole 'world : therefore my fon com-
mands the whole "VJorld. See Logic, 96, 97.
SORNING, in Scots law. See Law, N° clxxxvi.
SOR REL, in botany, a fpecies of the rumex, which
grows in paftures and meadows, and is well known. The
natives of Lapland boil large quantities of the leaves in
water, and mix the juice when cold with the milk of
their rein-deers which they eftcem an agreeable and
wholefome food. The Dutch are faid to cultivate this
plant for its ufefulnefs in the dyeing of woollen cloths
black ; and we know that by means of the common
broad-leaved forrel an excellent black colour is, in
many places of Scotland, given to woollen ftufFs with-
out the aid of copperas. As this mode of dyeing
does not in the fmalleft degree injure the texture
■of the cloth, which continues to the laft foft and filky,
without that hardnefs to the touch which ^t acquires
■when dyed black by means of copperas, our rfeaders will
probably thank us for the following receipt, with which
we have been favoured by a learned phyfician:
Let the ftuff to be dyed be well waflied with foap
and water, and afterwards completely dried. I'hen ©f
the common broad-leaved forrel boil as much as fhall make
an acid decoftion of fufficieat quantity to let the ftuff
to be dyed lie in it open and eafy to be ftirred. The
greater quantity of forrel that is ufed, the better will
the colour be ; and therefore if the pot or cauldron will
^ot hold enough at once, when part has been fufficient-
Jy boiled, it mull be taken oui and wrung, and a fieih
10 ] s o a
quantity be boiled in the fame juice or decoafon. When
the liquor is made fufficiently acid, ftrain it from the
forrel through a fieve, put the cloth or yarn into it, and
let It boil for two hours, ftirring it frequently. If ftock-
ings be among the ftuff to be dyed, it will be expe.
dient, after they have been an hour in the boiling li.
quor, to turn them inftde out, and at the end of" the
fecond hour let the whole be poured into a tub or any
other vefTel. The pot or cauldron muft then be wafti-
ed, and water put into it, with half a pound of log.
wood chips for every pound of dry yarn or cloth. I'hc
logwood and water fliould boil ilowly for four houra ;
and then the cloth or yarn being wrimg from the four
llqiior, and put into the logwood decoaion, the
whole muft be fuffered to boil flowly for (our hours,
Ilockings, if there be any, being turned infide out at
the end of two hours. Of this hdt decodion there muil
as of the former be enough to let the cL:th lis open and
eafy to be ftirred while boiling. At the end of die four
hours the cloth muft be taken out, and among the boil-
ing liquor, firft removed from the fire, muft be poured a
Scotch pint or Englilli gallon of ftale urine for every
pound of dry cloth or other ftuff to be dyed. When
this compound liquor has been ftirred and become cold»
the cloth muft be put into it and fuffered to remain well
covered for 12 hours, and then dried in the fhade; after
which, to diveft it of imell or ?.ny other impurity, it may
be wafhed in cold water, and dried for ufe.
IVood-SoFRELy in botany. See Ox A lis.
SoRkF.L.Colour, in the manege, is a reddlfh colour
generally thought to be a iign of a good horfe. '
SORRENTO, a fea-port town of the kingdom of
Naples, with an archbifhop's fee. It is feated in a pe-
nlnfula, on the bay of Naples, at the f oot of a moun-
tain of the fame name, 1 7 miles fouth-eaft of Naples.
It is the birth-place of Torquato TafTo. E. Long. 14
24. N. Lat. 40. 36.
SORTILEGE (Sortilegium), a fpecies of divination
performed by means of fortes or lots.
The fortes Prenejlinx, famous in antiquity, confifted
in putting a number of letters, or even whole words,
into an urn ; and then, after fhaking them together,
they were thrown on the ground ; and whatever fen-
tences could be made out from them, conftituted the
anfwer of the oracle. To this method of divination,
fucceeded that which has been called the fortes Home-
rian.t ^ad fortes Virgilian^, a mode of inquirino- into fu-
turity, which undoubtedly took its rife from a general^
cuftom of the oracular priefts of delivering their anfwers
in verfe ; it fubfifted a long time among the Greeks and
Romans ; and being from them adopted by the Chri-
ftians, it was not till af ter a long fucceffion of centuries
that it became exploded. Among the Romans it con-
fifted in opening fome celebrated poet at random, and
among the CKriftians the Scriptures, and drawing, from
the firft pafTage which prefented itfelf to the eye, a
prognoftic of what would befal ©ne's felf or others,
or direfiion for condu£l when under any exigency.
There is good evidence that this was none of the vulgar
errors ; the greateft perfons, philofophers of the beft:
repute, admitted this fuperftition. Socrates, when ia
prifon, hearing this line of Homer,
Within tliree days I Phthla's fhore fhall fee,
immediate^
S O W t 6
lc|e. itnirtcdlately faJd, within three days I ftiall be out of the
— world ; gathering it from the double meaning of the
word Pkhia, which In Greek is both the name of a
country and fignifies corruption or death. This pre-
diaion, addreffed to jEfchinus, was not eafily forgotten,
as it was verified.
When this fuperftition pafled from Pagarifm into
Chiiftianity, the Chriftians ha^ two methods of confult-
ing the divine will from the Scriptures ; the one, ca-
fuaily, to open the divine writings, and take their di-
reaion, as above-mentioned; the other, to go to church
with a purpofe of receiving, as a declaration of the will
ot- heaven, the words of the Scripture, which were fing-
ing at the inftant of one's entrance.
""This unwarrantable praaice of inquiring^ into futuri-
ty prevailed very generally in England till the begin-
ning of the prefent century ; and fometimes the books
of Scripture, and fometimes the poems of Virgil, were
confuked for oracular refponfes. One remarkable in-
ftance is that of King Charles I. who being at Oxford
during the civil wars, went one day to fee the jlublic
library, where he was fhowed, among other books, a
Virgil nobly printed and exquifitely bound. The lord
^ Falkland, to divert the king, would have his majefty
make a trial of his fortune by the Sortes Virgiliante.
Whereupon the king opening the book, the period
which happened to come up was this :
bello audacis populi vexatuSt et armitf
Finibus e^ctorris, complexu.avulfus luH^
j4uxUium implaret ; wdeaique indigna fuorum
Funera\ aec, cum fe fub leges pads inigua
T radideraf, regno out optata luce Jrmtur ;
Sed cadat ante diem, mediaque inhumatus arena.
-iEneid. lib. Iv.
Yet let a race, untamed and haughty foes,
His peaceful entrance with dire arms oppofe;
Opprcflcd with numbers in the unequal field,
His men difcouraged, and liimfelf expelled.
Let men for fucconr fue from place to place,
'j'orn from his fubjeas, and his fon's embrace :
Firft let him fee his friends in battle flain,
And their untimely fate lament in vain ;
And when at length the cruel war (hall ceafe,
On hard conditions may he buy his peace.
Nor let him then enjoy fupreme command, T
But fall untimely by fome hoftile hand, >
And lie unburied on the barren fand. J
Lord Falkland obferving that the king^ was concern-
4pd at this accident, would hkewife try his own fortune
in the fame manner, hoping he might fall upon fome
paffai'c that would have no relation to his cafe, and
thereby divert tlie king's thoughts from any imprefiion
which the other might have upon him ; but tlie place
lie Humbled upon was as much fuited to his deftiny as
the other had been to the king's ; being the lamenta-
tion of Evander for the untimely death of his fon Pal-
Enti ! las * : for this lord's tldeft fon, a young man of an
, Ki, amiable charaaer, had been flain in the firil battle of
Newbury.
1 We have ourfelves known feveral whofc devotion has
not alwaj'S been regulated by judgment pijrfue this me-
thod of divination ; and have generally obfeived, that
the confequcnce has been defpair or prefumption. To
fueh we beg leave to recommend one paflage in Serip-
3
I ] SOU
ture which' will never difappoint them : Thonjhah wsf S^eri*
itmpt the Lord thy God. Sound.
SOTERIA, in antiquity, facrlfices offered to the . \
gods for delivering a perfon from danger ; as alfo poe-
tical pieces compofed for the fame purpofe.
SOUBISE, a town of France, in the department of
Lower Charente, and late territory of Sainton'i^e. lt»
feated on the river Charente, 2 2 miles fouth of RSchelle,
in W. Long. 1.2. N. Lat. 45. 57.
SOUGH, among miners, denotes a paffage dug un-
der ground, to convey off waters from mines. Sec.
Mine.
SOVEREIGN, in matters of government, is applied
to the fupreme magiftrate or magiftrates of an indepen-
dent government or ftate ; becaufe their authority is only
bounded by the laws of God aad the laws of the ftate :
fuch are kings, princes, 5cc. See Prerogative, &c.
SoyERF.roN- Poiver, or Sovereignty, is the power of
making laws ; for wherever that power refides, all
others muft conform to it, and be direfted by it,
whatever appearance the outward form and admini-
ftration of the government may put on. For it is at
any time in the option of the legiflature to alter that
form and adminiftration by a new edid or rule, and
to put the executibn of the laws into whatever hands
It pleafes : and all the other powers of the ftate muft
obey the legiflative power In the execution of their fe-
veral funaions, or elfe the conftltution Is at an end.
In our conftltution the law afcribes to the king the at- Bladp.
tribute of fovereignty : but that is to be underftood iu Commtnt,
a qualified fenfe, i. e. as fupreme maglftrate, not as fole
legiflator ; as the legiflative power Is vetted in the king,
lords, and commons, not in any of the three ettates
alone.
SOU. See Sol.
SOUL, the principle of perception, memory. Intel-
ligence, and volition, in man ; which, fince the earlieft
era of philofophy, has furniflied queftionsof difficult In.
veftigation, and materials of keen and important con*
troverfy (fee Metaphysics, Part III. chap. 11. ill. Iv,
v. ; and Resurrection, n'' 42 — 48.) In the fourth
volume of the Memoirs of the Literary and Philofophl-
cal Society of Manchefter, the reader will find a very
valuable paper by Dr Farrier, proving, by evidence ap-
parently complete, that every part of the brain has beeri
injured without affeaing the aa of thought. An
abridgment of that memoir would weaken Its reafon*
ing ; which, built on matters of faa and experience*
appears to us to have fliaken the modern theory of the
Matcrlalifts from Its very foundation.
Soul of Brutes. See Brutes.
SOUND, in phyfics. Is a term of wliich It would b^
prepofterous to offer any definition, as it may almoft be
faid to exprefs a fimple Idea : But when we confider it
as a sensation, and ftill more when we confider it as
a perception, It may not be improper to give a de-
fcription of It ; becaufe this muft involve certain rela-
tions of external things, and certain trains of events in
the material world, v/hlch make it a proper objea of
philofophical difcuflion. Sound Is that primary infor-
mation which we ^«t of external things by means of
the fenfe of hearing. This, however, does not explain
it : for were we In like manner to defcribe our fenfe of
hearing-, we ftiould find ourfelvee obliged to fay, that it
is the faculty by which we perceive found. Languages
4 H a are
BoiiTid.
SOU t 6ia 1
are ml the invention ot philofophers ; and we muit not ponderous volumes
SOU
expc'fi: precilion, even in the fimpleft cafes. Our me-
thods of expreffing the information jriven us by our
different fenfes are not fimilar, as a philofopher, cau-
tionfly contriving language, would make them. We
have no word to cxprefs tlie primary or generic objeA
of our feiife of feeing ; for we believe, that even the
vulgar'confider light as the medium, but not the objeft.
This is certainly the cafe (how juftly we do not fay)
with the philofopher. On the other hand, the words
fmell, found, and perhaps tafte, are conceived by moft
perfonsas expreffing the immediate objefts of the fenfes
oF fmelling, hearing, and tailing. Smell and found are
haftily conceived as feparate exiftences, and as mediums
of inform?tion and of intercourfe with the odoriferous
and founding bodies; and it is only the very cautious
philofopher who diftinguiflies between the fmell which
he feels and the perfume which fills the room. Thofe
©f the ancients, therefore, who taught that founds were
beings wafted throuiih the air, and felt by our ears,
fhould not, even at this day, be confidered as aukward
obfervers of nature. It has required the long, patient,
and fagacious confiderat'on of the moft penetrating ge-
nlufes, from Zeno the ftcic to Sir Ifaac Newton, to
difcoverthat what we call found, the immediate external
objeft of the fenfe ot hearing, is nothing but a particu-
lar agitation of the parts of furrounding bodies, ading
by mechanical in.pulfe on our organs; and that it is not
any feparate being, nor even a fpccific quality inherent
in any particular thing, by which it can affed the or-
gan, as w« fuppofe with refpeft to a perfume, but
merely a mode of exiftence competent to every atom of
matter. And thus the defcription which we propofed
to give of found mull be a defcription of that ftate of
external contiguous matter which is the caufe of found.
It is not therefore prefatory to any theory or fet of
dodrincs on this fubjeft ; but, on the contrary, is the
fum or refult of them all.
To difcover this ftate of external body by which,
without any farther intermedium of iubftance or of ope-
ration, it affcfts our fenfitive faculties, muft be confi-
dered as a great ftep in fcience. It will fhow us at
leaft one way by which mind and body may be con-
nefted It is fuppofed that we have attained this know-
ledge with rt fpedt to found. Our fuccefs, therefore, is
a very pleafmg gratification to the philofophic mind. It
is ftill more important in another view : it has encou-
raged us to make fimilar attempts Ih other cafes, and
has fupplied us with a fad to which an ingenious mind
can eafily fancy fomething analooous in many abftrufe
operations of nature, and thus it enables us to give fon:e
fort of explanation of them. Accordingly this ufe has
been moft liberally made of the mechanical theory of
found ; and there is now fcarcely any phenomenon, ei-
ther of matter or mind, that has not been explained in
a manner fomewhat fimilar. But we are forry to fay
that tliefe explanations have done no credit to philofo-
pby. They are, for the moft part, ftron -ly marked
with that precipitate and felf-conceited im.patience
which has always charafterifed the inveftigations con-
duced folely by ingenious fancy. The confequences
of this procedure have been no lefs fatal to the progrefs
of true knowledge in modern times than in the fchools
©f ancient Greece ; and the ethereal philofophcrs of this
with nonienfe and error. Jt It
ftrange, however, that this fhould be the effeft of a
great and a fuccefsful ftep in philofophy; But the fault
is in the pliilofophers, not in the fcience. Nothing can
be more certain than the account which Nevvton has
given of the propagation of a certain clafs of undula.
tions in an elaftic fluid. But this procedure of nature
cannot be I'een with diftinftnefs and precifion by any>
but well-informed mathematicians. They alone can
reft with unfhakcn confidence on the conclulions legiti-
mately deduced from the Newtonian theorems ; and
even they can infure fuccefs only by treading with the
moft fcrupulous caution the fteps of this patient philo.
fopher. But few have done this ; and we may ven.
ture to fay, that not one in ten of thofe who employ
the Newtonian doftrines of elaftic undulations for the
explanation of other phenomena have taken the troubU?,
or indeed were able, to go through the fteps of the fun-
damental propofition (Prin. II. 50, &c.) But the ,^<?-
neral refults ate fo plain, and admit of fuch impreffive
illuftratlon, that they draw the aflent of the moft care-
lefs reader ; and all imagine that they underftatid the
explanation, and perceive the whole procedure of na-
ture. Emboldened therefore by this fuccefsful ftep in
philofophy, they, without hefitation,/fl«fy fimilar inter*
mediums in other cafes; and as air has been found to
be a vehicle for found, they have fuppofed that fome-.
thing which they call e'ther, fomehow refemblino air, is
the vehicle of vifion. Others have proceeded farther,
and have held that ether, or another fomething like air,
is the vehicle of fenfation in general, from the organ to
the brain : nay, we have got a great volume called A
Theory of Man, where all our fenfations, emotions,
affeftions, thoughts, and purpofes or volitions, are faid
to be fo many vibrations of another fomething equally
unfecn, (gratuitous, and incompetent ; and, to crown all,
this exalted dodlrine, when logically profecuted, mall
terminate in the difcovery of thofe vibrations wliich
pervade all others, and which conftitute what we have
been accuftomed to venerate by the name Deity. Such
mujl be the termination of this philofophy ; and a truly
philoiophical diflertation on the att-ibutes of the Divine
Being um be nothing e/fe than an accurate defcription of
thefe vibrations I
This is not a needlefs and declamatory rhapfody. If
the explanation of found can be legitimately transferred
to thofe other clafTts of phenomena, thefe are certaia
refults ; and if fo, all the difcoveries made by Newtoa
are but the glimmerings of the morning, when compa-
red with this meridian fplendor. But if, on the other
hand, found logic forbids us to make this transference
of explanation, we muft continue to believe, for a little
while longer, that mind is fomething differert from vi-
brating matter, and that no kind of ofcillations will con-
ftitute infinite wifdom.
It is of immenfe importance therefore to underftand
thoroughly this- doflrine of found, that we may fee
clearly and precifely in what it confifts, what are the
phenomena of found that are fully explained, what are
the data and the afifumptions on which the explanations
proceed, and what is the precife mechanical Ja3 in which
it terminates. For this, or a faft perfeftly fimilar, muit
terminate every explanation which we derive from thiV
by analogy, however perfeft the analogy may be. This
flge, like the foUgwers ©f AriftoUe of old, have liiled prevmf knowledge muil be completely poffeffed by eve
4 ry
sou f 6
ud. ry perfon who pretendii to explain otlier phenomena in a
fimilar manner. Then, and not till then, he is able to
fay what cUfies of phenomena will admit of the c*x'pla-
ration : and, when all this is done, his explanation is
(lill an hypotheftsy till he is able to prove, from other in-
difputable fources, the exiftence and agency oF the fame
thing analogous to the elaftic fluid, from which all is
borrowed.
Such confiderations would jullify us for confidering
with great attention the nature ol found. But a work
like this will not give room for a full difcuflion ; and
we mull refer our readers to the writers who treat it
more ^t lari>e. Much curious information may be got
from the pains-talcing authors of the lall centuiy ;
fuch as Lord Bacon; Kircher; Merfennus ; Cairerius iu
his great work De Voce, et 4uditu; Perrault in his Dif-
Jertation .-/« Iruit ; Mufienbroek in hi? great Syftem of
Natural Philofophy, in 3 vols 4to ; and in his Effah de
Phyjiquf ; and the writings of the celebrated phyfiolo-
^ifis of the prefent age. We alfo refer to what has
been faid by us in the article Acoustics.
At prefent therefore we mud content ourfelves with
giving a (horthiitory of the fpeculations of philofophers
on this fubjeft, tracing out the ilcps by which we have
arrived at the knowledge which we have ot it. We ap-
prehend this to be of great importance ; becaufe it
fliows us what kind of evidence we have for its truth,
and the paths which we muft fhun if we wi(h to pro-
ceed farther : and we trull that the progrefs vvh'ch we
have made will appear to be fo real, and the objeft to
be attained fo alluring to a truly philofophical mind,
that men of genius will be incited to exert their utmoll
efforts to pafs the prelent boundaries of our real pro-
grefs.
In the infancy of philofophy, found was held to be a
feparate exiftence, fomething which would be, although
no hearing animal exifted. This was conceived as waft-
ed through the air to our organ of hearing, which it
was fuppofed to aflFecl in a manner refembline that in
which our noftrils are affedled when they give us the
fenlation of fmell. It was one of the Platonic species,
fitted for exciting the intelleftual fpecies, which is the
immediate objeA of the ioul's contemplation.
Yet, even iu thofe early years of fcicnce, there were
fome, and, in particular, the celebrated founder of the
ftoic fchool, who held that found, that is, the caufe of
found, was only the particular motion of external grofs
matter, propagated to the ear, and there producing that
agitation of the organ by which the foul is immediate-
ly affe£led with the fenfation of found. Zeno, as quo-
vii. ted by Diogenes Laertlus*, fays, " Hearing is produced
by the air which intervenes between the thing founding
and the ear. The air is agitated in a fpherical form,
and moves off in waves, and lalls on the ear, in the fame
manner as the water in a ciilern undulates in circles when
a ftone has been thrown into it." The ancients were not
remarkable for precifion, either of conception or argu-
ment in their difcuffions, and they were contented with
a general and vague view of things. Some followed the
Platonic notions, and many the opinion o* Zeno, but
without any farther attempts to give a diftmd conception
of the explanation, or to compare it with experiment.
But in later times, during the ardent refeaiches in
the laft century into the phenomena of nature, this be.
,3 ] sou
came an jntereftiug fubjeil of inquiry. The invention S^nd.
of the air-pump gave the firft opportunity oF deciding
by experiment whether the elaitic undiilations of air
were the caules of lound; and the trial fully eftabUlhcd
this point } for a bell rung In vacuo gave no found, and
one rung in condenfed air gave a very loud one. It
was therefore received as a doftrine in general phyfics
that air was the vehicle of found.
The celebrated Galileo, tlie parent of mathematical
philolophy, difcovered the nature of that connedion be-,
tween the lengths of mufical cords and the notes which
they produced, which had been obferved by P\ thago-
ras, or learned by him in his travels in the eait, and
which he made the foundation of a refine^^nd beauti-
ful fcience, the theory oF mufic. Galileo fhowed, that
the real conneftion fubfilled between the tones and the
vibrations of thefe cords, and that their different degrees
of acuteaefs correfponded to the different frequency of
their vibrations The very elementary and tamihar de-
monftration which he gave of this connexion did not
fatisfy the curious mathematicians of that inquifitive
age, and the mechanical theory of mufical cords was
prolecuted to a great degree of refinement. In the
courfe of this inveiligation, it appeared that the cord
vibrated in a manner preclfely fimilar to a pendulum vi-
brating in a cycloid. It tr.uft therefore agitate the air
contii^uous to it in the fame manner ; and thus there Is
a particular kind of agitation which the air can receive
and maintain, which is very intcrelting.
Sir Ifaac Newton took up this queftlon as worthy of
his notice ; and endeavoured to afcertain with mathe-
matical preciiion the mechanifm of this particular clafs
of undulations, and gave us the fundamental theorems
concerning the undulations of elaftic fluids,, which make
the 47, &c. propofitions.of Book II. of his Principles
of Natural Philolophy. They have been (perhaps haf-
tily) confidered as giving the fundamental do6lrinesc«n-
cerning the propagation of found. They are therefore
given in this work in the article Acoustics ; and a
variety of Fadls are narrated in the article Fneu matics,
to (how that fuch undulations aSualiy ohtaht in the air
of our atmofpherc, and are accompanied by a fet of
phenomena oF found which precifely tally or correfpond
to all the mechanical circumftances of thefe undulations*
In the mean time, the anatomifts and phyfiologifts were
bufily employed in examining the ftrudture oF our or-
gans of hearing. Imprefied with the validity of this
doftrine of aerial undulations being the caufes of found,
their refearches were always diredled with a view to dif-
cover thofe circumftances in the ftruclure of the ear
which rendered it an organ fufceptible of agitations
from this caufe ; and they difcovered many which ap-
peared as contrivances f^r making it a drum, on which,
the aerial undulations from without muft make very for-
cible impulfes, Fo as to produce very fonorous undula-
tions in the air contained in it. Thefe therefore they
confidered as the Immediate obje£ls of fenfation, or the
immediate caufes of found.
But fome anatomifts faw that this would not be a full
account of the matter : for after a drum is agitated, it
has done all that it can do ; it has produced a n >ife.
But a farther procefs goi s on in our tar : i here is
behind the -membrane, which i;^ the hea 1 or this di um
a curious mechanifm, which conmuinicates the agitations
-,■ of
Some!.
SOU [6
tlw Tnembra-ne (the only thing afted on by the un-
dHlatiniy air) to another chamber of moft fingular con-
ftruftion, wliere the auditory nerve Is greatly expanded.
Tfiey conceive, therefore, that the organ called the
drum does not aft as a drum, but in feme other way. In-
deed it feems bad logic to luppofe that it afts as a drum
merely by producing a noife. This is in no reipeft dif-
ferent from the noiic preduced out of the ear; and if it
IS to be heard as a noife, we muft have another ear by
i(vhich it may be heard, and this ear muft be another
Juch drum ; and this mult have another, and fo on for
■ever. I It is like the inaccurate notion that vifion is the
contemplation of the pifture on the retina. Thefe ana-
tomifts atteMed therefore to the ftnifture. Here they
obferved a prodigious unfolding of the auditory nerve
of the car, which is curioufly diftributed through every
part of this cavity, lining Its fides, hung acrofs' it like a
-curtain, and fending off fibres in every direftion, fo as
to leave hardly a point of It unoccupied. They thought
the machinery contained in the drum peculiarly fitted
for producing undulations of the air contained in this
labyrinth, and that by thefe agitations of the air the
conti-ruous fibres of the auditory nerve are impelled,
and that thus we get the fenfation of found.
The cavity intei-vening between the external air and
this inner chamber appeared to thefe anatomifts to have
no other ufe than to allow a very free motion to the
Japes or little pifton that is employed to agitate the air
in the labyrinth. This^pifton condenfes on a very fmall
furfece the impulfe vhich it receives from a much lar-
ger fiirface, ftrained by thc-malleus on the entry of the
tympanum, an purpofe to receive the gentle agitations
of the external air in the outer canal, 'i'his membra-
nous furface could not be agitated,, unlefs completely
detached from every thing ro-md it ; therefore all ani-
Tnals which have this mechanlfm have it in a cavity
-containing only air. But they held, that nature had
even taken precautlens to prevent this cavity from aft-
ing as a drum, by making It of fueh an Irregular ram-
bling form ; for it Is by no means a cavity of a fymme-
ti icai fhape, like a vcffel, but rather refembles the ram-
bling holes and blebs which are often feen In a piece of
bread, fcattered through the fubftance of the cranium,
and communicating with each other by fmall paffages.
The whole of thele cavernulae are lined with a foftifh
membrane, which Itill farther unfits this cavity for pro-
ducing found. This reafonlng Is fpecious, but not very
conclufiye. We might even affert, that this anfraduous
form, with narrow paffages, is well fitted for producing
.r.oife. If we place the ear clofe to the fmall hole In
iht fide of a military drum, we fhall hear the fmalleft
tap of the drumftick like a violent blow. The lining
of the cavernulas is nervous, and m»y therefore be ftrong-
ly afFefted in the numerous narrow paffages between the
cells.
While thefe fpeculations were going on with refpedl
to the ear of the breathing animals, obfcrvations were
occafionally made on other animals, fuch as reptiles,
ferpents, and fifties, which give undoubted indications
of hearing; and many very familiar fafts were obferved
or recolieaed, where founds are communicated through
or by means of folid bodies, -or by water ; therefore,
without inquiring how or by what kind of mechanlfm
It is brought about, It became a very general belief
among phjfiologiits,, that all filhes, and perhaps all ani.
14 ] SOU
■ mals hear, and that water In particular Is a vehicle of
found. In 1767 or 1768 the writer of this article, at
the fuggeflion of the late profefTor of aftronomy In the
univerlity of Glafgow, made an experiment in a lake in
that neI,s«hbourhood, by ftrlking a large hand-bell under
water, and heard It very diltlnftly and ftrongly when
his head was plunged in the water at the diftance of
more than 1 200 feet. Many experiments are mention-
ed by Kircher and others on the communication of
found through folid bodies, fuch as mafts, yards, and
other long beams of dry fir, with fimilar refults. Dr
Monro has publifhed a particular account of very cu-
rious experiments on the propa?ratIon of found through
water in his DifTertatlon on the Phyfiolooy of Fifties ;
fo that it now appears that air is by no means the only
vehicle of found.
In 1 760 CotunnI publiftied his important difcovery,
that the labyrmth or inmoft cavity of the ear In animals
is completely filled with water. This, after fome con-
teft, has been completely demonilrated (fee In parti-
cular Meckel Junior de Labyrltithi Juris Contentts, Ar-
gentor, 1777), and it feems now to be admitted by
all.
This being the cafe, our notions of the immediate
caufe of found muft undergo a great revolution, and a
new refearch mufl: be made into the way in which
the nerve is affefted : for It is not enough that we
fubftltute the undulations of water for thofe of air In
the labyrinth. The well informed mechanician will fee
at ohce, that the vivacity of the agitations of the nerve
will be greatly increafed by this fubftitution ; for if wa-
ter be perfeaiy elaftic through the whole extent of the
undulatory agitation which it receives, its eft'ed will be
greater In proportion to Its fpecific gravity: and this I3
confirmed by an experiment very eafily made. Immerfe
a table-bell in water contained in a large thin glafs vef-
fel. Strike It with a hammer. The found will be
heard as if the bell had been Immediately ftruck on the
fides of the veftel. The filling of the labyrinth of the
ear with water Is therefore an additional mark of the
wifdom of the Great Artlft. But this is not enough for
informing us concerning the ultimate mechanical event
in the procefs of hearing. The manner in which the
nerve Is expofed to thefe undulations mull be totally
different from what was formerly imagined. The fila-
ments and membranes, which have been defcrlbed by
former anatomifts, muft have been found by them in a
llate quite unlike to their fituatlon and condition In the
living animal. Accordingly the moft eminent anato-
mifts of Europe feem at prefent In great uncertainty aa
to the Ibte of the nerve, and are keenly occupied In
obfervatlons to this purpofe. The defcriptions given by
Monro, Scarpa, Camper, Comparetti, and others, are
full of moft curious difcoveries, which make almoft a to-
tal change in our notions of this fubjed, and will, we
hope, be produftlve of moft valuable information.
Scarpa has difcovered that the folid cavity called the
lalyrinth contains a threefold expanfion of the auditory
nerve. One part of it, the cochlea, contains it in a fi-
bi-ftlous ftate, ramified In a moft fymmetrlcal manner
thi-ough the whole of the %ona mollis oi tht lamina fpi-
ralisy where It anaftomofea with another produdion of
it diiFufed over the general lining of that cavity. An-
other department of the nei-ve^ alfo In a fibrous llate, 13
fpread over the external furface of a membranaceous
bag.
sou [I
, which nearly fills that part of the rcftibule into
which the femicircular canals open, and alfo that orifice
which receives the impreflions of the ftapes. 'I'his bag
fends off tubular membranaceous dufts, which, in like
manner, nearly fill thefe femicircular canals. A third
department of the nerve is fpread over the external fnr-
face of another membranaceous bag, which lies between
the one jtill now mentioned and the cochlea, but ha-
ving; no communication with either, almoft completely
hlh'ng the remainder of the veftibule. Thus the veftibule
and canals fcem only a cafe for protecting this fenfitive
membranaceous veffel, which is almoft, but not altoire-
ther, in contaft with the offeous cafe, being feparated
by a delicate and almoft fluid cellular fubftance. The
f brillous expanlion of the nerve is not iiidifcriminately
^iffufcd over the furface oF thefe facculi,' but evidently
direfted to certain foci, where the fibres are conftipated.
And this is the laft appearance of the fibrous ftate of
the nerve; for when the infideof thefe facculi is infpeft-
cd, no fibres appear, but a pulp (judged to be nervous
from its fimilarity to other pulpy produfticms of the
brain) adhering to the membranaceous coat, and not fe-
parable from it by gently wafhing it. It is more abun-
dant, that is, of greater thicknefs, oppofite to the ex-
ternal fibrous foci. No organical ftrudlure could be
d-ifcovered in this pulp, but it probably is organifed ;
for, befides this adhering pulp, the water in the facculi
was obferved to be clammy or mucous ; fo that in all
probability the vafcular or fibrous ftate of the nerve is
fucceeded by an uninterrupted prodii^lion (perhaps
columnar like bafalt, though not cohering); and this at
laft ends in fimple diffeminaticn, fymmetrical however,
where water and nerve are alternate in every dIre(5\ion.
To thefe obfervations of Scarpa, Comparetti adds
the curious circumftances of another and regular tym-
panum in the foramen rotundum, the cyhndric cavity
of which is inclofed at both ends by a fine membrane.
The membrane wliich feparates it from the cochlea ap-
pears to be in a ftate of variable tenfion, being drawn
up to an umbo by a cartilaginous fpeck in its middle,
which he thinks adheres to the lamina fpiralis, and thus
ferves to ftrain the drumhead, as the rnalleus ftrains the
great membrane known to all.
Thefe are moft important obfervations, and muft
greatly excite the curiofity of a truly philofophical
mind, and deferve the moft careful inquiry into their
juftncfs. If thefe are accurate defcriptions of the or-
gan, they feera to condufi: us farther into the fecrets of
nature than any th'm;^ yet known.
We think that they promife to give us the greateft
ftep yet made in phyfioiogy, viz. to fhow vis the laft
mechanical faft which occurs in the long train inter-
pofed between the external body and the incitement of
©ur fenfitive fyftem. But there is, as yet, great and
effential dift"crence8 in the defcription given by thofe
celebrated naturalifts. It cannot be otherwife. The
containing labyrinth can be laid open to our view in
no other way thau by deftroying it ; and its moft deli-
cate contents are the fiHt fufferers in the fearch. Tliey
are found in very different fituations- and conditions by
different anatonvifts, according to their addrefs or their
good fortune. Add to this, that the natural varieties
aire very confiderable. Faithful defcriptions muft there-
fore give very differeot notions of the ultimate aftion
)i5 1 SOU
and reaftion between the unorganifed matter fn the fa- SountR
byrinth and the ultimate expanfton of the auditory ^— *v—
nerve.
We muft therefore wait with patience. Since this
Work of ours was begun, the progrefs which has been
made in many parts of natural fcience has been great
and wonderful ; and perhaps before it be completed,
we m.ay be furnifhed with fuch a colleftlon of fads re-
fpefting the ftrudure and the contents of the organ of
hearing, as might enable us to give a jufter theory of
found than is yet to be found in the writings of philo-
fophers. There fcems to be no abatement of ardour in the
refearchesof the phyfiologifts; and they will not remain
long ignoj-ant of the truth or miftake in the accounts
given by Scarpa and Comparetti. Should the refult of •
their inquiries be what we expedt, we fhould be glad of
a proper opportunity of laying it before our readers^
together with fome difquifition on the nature of hear-
ing. A coUeftion of accurate obfervations on the ftruc-
ture of the ear would give us principles on which to
proceed in explaining the various methods ©f produ-
cing external founds. The nature of cotitinued foundi
mijrht then be treated of, and would appear, we be-
lieve, very different from what it is commonly fup-
pofed. Under this head animal voices might be par»
ticularly confidered, and the elements of human fpeech.
properly afcertained. When the produftion of conti-
nued founds is once fliown to be a thing regulated^
by principle, it may be fyftematically treated, and this
principle may be confidered as combined with every
mechanical ftate of body that may be pointed out.
This wili fuggeft to us mctliods of producing found
which have not yet been thought of, and may there-
fore give us founds with which we are unacquainted.
Such an acqv.ifition is not to be dcfplfcd nor rejedled^
The bountiful Author of our being and of all our fa-
culties has made it an objeft of moft enchantino- re-
lifh to the human mind- The Greeks, the moft culti-
vated people who have ever figured on the ftage of hfe,
enjoyed the pleafures of uiufic with rapture. Even the
poor negro, after tolling a whole day beneath the tro-
pical fun, will go ten miles in the dark to dance alfc
night to the fimple mufic of the balafoe, and return-
without fleep to his, next day's toil. The penettatlno-
eye of the anatomlft has difcovered in the human larynx,
an apparatus evidently contrivtd for tempering the great
movements of the glottis, fo as to enable us to produce
the intended note with the utmoft preclfion. There is
no doubt therefore that the confummate Artift has not-
thought it unworthy of his attention. We ought there-
fore to receive with thankfulnefs this prefent from our
Maker — this laborum duke kn 'men; and it is farely worthy
the attention of the philofopher to add to this innocent
elegance of life. This, however, is not the time to en-
ter upon the fubjeil. From the jarring obfervations-
which have yet been made,, we could only amufe the
curious reader by holding up to his view a fpecious
theory ; and we are not fo deiirous of filling our Work
with what is called original matter, as to attempt the
attainment of that end by fubftituting ficlion for fadl
and hypotliefis for fcience.
Sound, in geography, denotes in general' any Itrait
or inlet of the fea between two headlands. It is given
by way of eminence to the ftrait between Sweden and.
Denmark,
sou
[ 6i5 ]
SOU
Soand'ng. IDenmark, joining the German ocean to the Baltic, be-
V ing about three miles over. See Denmark, n° 32. and
Elsinore.
SOUNDING, the operation of trying the'depth of
the fea, and the nature of the bottom, by means of a
plummet funk from a fliip to the bottom.
There are two plummets ufed for this purpofe in na-
vigation ; one of which is called the hand-lead^ weigh-
ing about 8 or 9 pounds ; and the other the deep fea-
lead, which weighs from 25 to 30 pounds ; and both
are fliaped like the fruflum of a cone or pyramid. The
former is ufed in fiiallow waters, and the latter at a
great diftance from the (hore ; particularly on approach-
ing the land after a fea- voyage. Accordingly the lines
employed for this purpofe are called the deep-fea lead'
iine.) and the hand lead-l'me.
The hand lead-line, which is "iifually 20 fathoms in
length, is marked at every two or three fathoms ; fo
that the depth of the water may be afcertained either in
the day or night. At the depth of two and three fa-
thoms, there are marks of black leather ; at 5 fathoms,
there is a white rag; at 7, a red rag ; at 10, black
leather; at 1 3, black leather ; at 15, a white rag; and
at 17, a red ditto.
Sounding with the hand lead, which is called heavhig
the lead by feamen, is generally performed by a man who
ftands in the main chains to windward. Having the
line quite ready to run out without interruption, he holds
it neai-ly at the diftance of a fathom from the plummet;
and having fwung the latter backwards and forwards
three or four times, in order to acquire the greater ve-
locity, he fwings it round his head, and thence as far
forward as is neceffary ; fo that, by the lead's finking
whilft the (hip advances, the line may be almoft perpen-
dicular when it reaches the bottom. The perfon found-
ing then proclaims the depth of the water in a kind of
fong refembling the cries of hawkers in a city. Thus
if the mark of five fathoms is clofe to the furface of the
water, he calls, ' By the mark five !' and as there is no
mark at four, fix, eight, &c. he eftimates thofe num-
bers, and calls, * By the dip four,' &c. If he judges it
to be a quarter ©r an half more than any particular
number, he calls, * And a quarter five! and a half four,'
&c.. If he conceives the depth to be three quarters
more than a particular number, he calls it a quarter lefs
than the next : thus, at four fathoms and three fourths
he calls ' A quarter lefs five !' and fo on.
The deep fea-lead is marked with two knots at 20
fathoms, three at 30, four at 40, and fo on to the end.
It is alfo mavked with a fingle knot in the middle of
each interval, as at 25, :^5, 45 fathoms, &c- To ufe
this lead more effeftually at fea, or in deep water on
the feac-coaft, it is ufual previoufly to bring to the fliip,
in order to retard her courfe : the lead is then thrown
as far as poflible from, the fliip on the line or her drift,
fo that, as it finks, the fhip drives more perpendicularly
over it. The pilot, feeling the lead ftrike the bottom,
readily difcovers the depth of the water by the mark on
the line neareft its furface. The bottom of the lead
being alfo well rubbed over with tallow, retains the dillin-
guilhin r marks of the bottom, as fliells, ooze, gi-avel,
&c. which naturally adhere to it.
The depth of the water, and the nature of the ground,
•which is called the foundings, are carefully marked in the
log-book, as well to determine the diftance of the place
So lip
II
South,
from the fhore, as to corredl the ebfervatlans of former
pilots.
SOUP, a ft:rong decoftion of flefh or other fub-
ftanccs. J,
Portable or dry foup is a kind of cake formed ]:iy Chaftil''t
boiling the gelatinous parts of animal fubftances till the
watery parts are evaporated. This fpecies of foup is
chiefly ufed at fea, and has been found of great ad-
vantage. The following receipt will (how how it is
prepared.
Of calves feet take 4 ; leg of beef t 2 lbs. ; knuckle
of veal 3 lbs. ; and leg of mutton i o lbs. Thcfe are
to be boiled in a fufficient quantity of water, and the
fcum taken off as ufual ; after which the foup is to be
feparated from the meat by ftraining and preffure. The
meat is then to be boiled a fecond time in other water ;
and the two decoftions, being added together, muft be
left to cool, in order that the fat may be exacHlly fepa-
rated. The foup muft then be clarified with five or fix
whites of eggs, and a fuf&cient quantity of common fait
added. The liquor is then ftrained through flannel,
and evaporated on the w»ter bath to tlie confiftence of
a very thick pafte ; after which it is fpread rather thin
upon a fmooth ftone, then cut into cakes, and laftly
dried in a ftove until it becomes brittle: thefe cakes are
kept in well clofed bottles. The fame procefs may be
ufed to make a portable foup of the flcfii of poultry }
and aromatic herbs may be ufed as a feafoning, if
thought proper.
Thefe tablets or cakes may be kept four or five
years. When intended to be ufed, the quantity of
half an ounce is put into a large glafs of boihng water,
which is to be covered, and fet upon hot aflies for a
quarter of an hour, or until the whole is entirely dif-
folved. It forms an excellent foup, and requires no ad-
dition but a fmall quantity of fait.
SOUR-CROUTE. See Croutk.
SovR'Gourdy or African Calahajh-tree. See Adan-
SONIA.
SOUTH (Dr Robert), an eminent divine, was the
fon of Mr William South a merchant of London, and
was born at Hackney near that city in 1633. He iiu-
died at Weftminfter fchool, and afterwards in Chrift-
church college, Oxford. In 1654, he wrote a copy of
Latin verfesto congratulate Cromwell upon the peace
concluded with the Dutch ; and the next year a Latin
poem, intitled Mufica Incantans. In J 660 he was elect-
ed pubhc orator of the univerfity ; and the next year
became domeftic chaplain to Edward eailof Clarendon,
lord-high- chancellor of England. In 1663 he was in-
ftalled prebendary of Weftminfter, admitted to the dc-
j^ree of dodtor of divinity, and had a finecure beftowed
on him in Wales by his patron the earl of Clarendon ;
after whofe retirement into France in 1667 he became
chaplain to the duke of York. In 1670 he was inftal-
led canon of Chrift-church in Oxford ; and in 1676 at-
tended as chaplain to I^aurence Hyde, Efq; ambaffador
extraordinary to the king of Poland. In 1678 he was
prefented to the reftory of Iflip in Oxfordftiire ; and
in 16S0 rebuilt the chancel of that church, as he after-
wards did the redtory-houfe belonging to it. After the
revolution he took, the oath of allegiance to king Wil-
liam and queen Mary, though he excufcd hirafelf from
accepting a great dignity in the church, vacated by the
petfonal refufal of that oath. His health began to de-
cliae
sou [ 6
South, cjine fmral years before his death, which happened in
17 1.6. He was interred in Weftminfter Abbey, where
a monument is ere£led to his memory. He publiflied,
I. Animadverfions on Dr Sherlock's Vindication of the
Holy and Ever BlefTed Trinity, 2. A Defence of his
Animadverfions. 3. Sermons, 8 vols 8vo. And after
his deceafe were publilh-ed his Opera Pojlhuma Lntinay
and his pofthumous £nglilh works. Dr South was re-
markable for his wir, which abounds in all his writings,
and particularly in his ferraons ; but at the fame time
they equally abound in ill-humour, fpleen, and fatire.
He was remarkable for being a time-ferver. During
the life of Cromwell he was a ftaunch Prefbyterian, and
then railed agalnft the Independents : at the Reftora-
don he exerted his pulpit- eloquence againft the Prefljy-
terians ; and in the reign of Qu^een Anne, was a warm
advocate for Sacheverel.
South, one of the four cardinal points from which
the winds blow.
South Sea, or Pacific Ocean, is that vaft body of
water interpofed between Ada and America. It does
not howeyer, ftriftly fpeaking, reach quite to the con-
tinent of Afia, excepting to the northward of the pe-
ninfula of Malacca : for the water interpofed between
the eaftern coaft of Africa and the peninfula jufl men-
tioned has the name of the Indian Ocean. The South
Sea then is bounded on one fide by the weftern coaft of
America, through its whole extent, from the unknown
feglons in the north to the ftraits of Magellan and
Terra del Fuego, where it communicates with the fou-
them part of the Atlantic. On the other fide, it is
bounded by the coaft of Afia, from the northern promon-
tory of Tfchukotflcoi Nofs, to the- peninfula of Malacca
already mentioned. Thence it is bounded to the fouth-
ward by the northern coafts of Borneo, Celebes, Ma-
cafTar, New Guinea, New Holland, and the other iflands
in that quarter, which divide it from the Indian Ocean.
Then, wafiiing the eaftern coaft of the great ifland of
New Holland, it communicatee with that vaft body of
water encompafling the whole fouthern part of the
globe, and which has the general name of the Southern
Ocean all round. Thus does this vaft ocean occupy al-
moft the femicircumference of the globe, extending al-
moft from one pole to the other, arid about the equato-
'tial parts extending almoft 180° in longitude, or 1 2,500
of our miles.
The northern parts of the Pacific Ocean are entirely
deftitute of land ; not a fingle ifland having yet been
difcovered in it from the latitude of 40" north and up.
wards, excepting fuch as are very near the coaft either
of Afia or America ; but in the fouthern part there
are a great number.
Till very lately the South Sea was in a great mea-
lure unknown. From the great extent of ice which
coTcrs the fouthern part of the globe, , it was imagined
that much more land exifted there than in the northern
regions : but that this could not be juftly inferred mere-
ly from that circumftance, is plain from what has been
advanced under the article America, n^ 3 — 24; and
the fouthern continent, long known by the name of
%trra ^ujlralis, has eluded the fearch of the moft ex-
pert navigators fent out from Britain and France by
toyal authority. See Terra Australis,
South Sea Company. See Companv.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
7 1 S O Z
SOUTHAMPTON, a fea-port town of Hampfhlre Somhamp-
in England. It is commodioufly feated on an arm of '"jj"
the fea ; is "a place of good trade, and well inhabited. Sozomenns.
It is furrounded by walls and feveral watch-towers, and — — y— -*
had a ftrong caftle to defend the harbour, now in ruins.
It is a corporation and a county of itfeif, with the title
of an earldom, and fends two members to parliameiit.
W. Long. I, 26. N. Lat. 50. 55.
SOUTHERN (Thomas), an eminent dramatic wri-
ter, was born at Dublin in 1660, and received his edu-
cation in the univerfity there. He came young to
London to ftudy law; but inftead of that devoted himfelf
to poetry and the writing of plays. His Perfian Prince,
or Loyal Brother, was introduced in 1682, when the
Tory intereft was triumphant in England ; and the cha-
rafter of the loyal brother being intended to compli-
ment James duke of York, he rewarded the author
when he came to the throne with a commiflion in the
army. On the Revolution taking place, he retired to
his ftudies, and wrote feveral plays, from which he is
fuppofed to have derived a very handfome fubfiftence,
being the firft who raifed the advantage of play-writing
to a fecond and third night. The moft finiftied of all
his plays is Oroonoko, or the Royal Slave, which is
built on a true ftory related in one of Mrs Behn'a no-
vels. Mr Southern died in 1746, in the 86th year of
his age; the latter part of which he fpent in a peaceful
ferenity, having, by his commiflion as a foldier, and the
profits of his dramatic works, acquired a handfome for-
tune ; and being an exaft economift, he improved what
fortune he gained to the beft advantas:^e. He enjoyed
the longeft life of all our poets ; and died th^ richeft of
them, a very few excepted. His plays are printed in -
two vols i2mo.
Southern Continent. See America, n°3 — 24. and
Terra Avjlralis.
SOUTHERNWOOD, in botany. See Artemi-
sia.
SOU THWARK, a town of Surry, and a fuburb
of the city of London, being feparated from that me-
tropolis only by the Thames. Sec London, n° 96.
SOW, in zoology. See 5us.
Sow, in the iron works, the name of the block or
lump of metal they work at once in the iron furnace.
Sow-Thijlle. See Sonchus.
SOWING, in agriculture and gardening, the depo-
fiting any kind of feed in the earth for a future crop.
See Agriculture.
Drill-SoffiNG. See DRiLL-Soiv'mg.
SOY. "See Dolichos.
^ SOZOMENUS (Hermias), an ecclefiaftical hifto-
rian of the 5th century, was bom in Bethelia, a town
of Paleftine. He was educated for the law, and be-
came a pleader at Conftantinople. He wrote an A-
bridgment of Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, in two books, from
the afcenfion of our Saviour to. the year 323. This
compendium is loft ; but a continuation of it in nine
books, written at greater length, down to the year
440, is ftill extant. He feems to have copied Socrates,
who wrote a hiftory of the fame period. The ftyle of
Sozomenus is perhaps more elegant ; but in other re-
fpefts he falls far ftiort of that writer, difplaying through-
out his whole book an amazing credulity and a fuper-
ilitious attachment to monks and the raonaftic life. The
4^ beft
S 1^ A [ 6i
^r^' beft edition of Sozomcnus is that of Robert Stephea in
"""^f*'^ I ?44- He \vAs been tranflated and publiflied by Vale-
fills, atid-republifhed with additional notes by Reading
at London, 1726, in 3 vols folio.
SPA, a town of Germany, in the circle ef Weftpha-
Iia and bifhopric of Liege, famous for its mineral wa-
ters, lies in E. Long. 5. qo. N. Lat. 50. 30. about 21
miles fouth-ead from Liege, and 7 fouth-weft from
Lomburg. It is fituated at one end of a deep valley
oh the banks of a fmall rivulet, and is furroanded on all
fides by high mountains. The fides of thefe mountains
ilext to Spa are rude and uncultivated, prefenting a
rugged appearance as if fliattered by the convulfions of
earthquakes ; but as they are ftreWed with tall oaks and
abuhdance of fhrubs, t/'ic country around forms a wild,
i-omantic, and beauti 'iil landfcape. The aCCefs to the
town is very beautifuL The road winds over the
mountains till it defcends to their bottom, when it runs
along a fmooth valley for a mile or a mile artd a half.
The town confifls of four ftreets in form of a Crofs,
and contains about 400 inhabitants. Spa has no wealth
to'boall of. Ircan fcarcely furnifh the necelTaries of
life to its owh inhabitants during the winter, and almoft
all the luxuries which are requifite for the great con-
courfe of affluent vifitors dvlring the fummer are carried
from Liege b^ women. Its only fource of wealth is its
ihineral waters. No fooner does the warm feafon com-
mence, than crowds of valetudinarians arrive, as well as
Inany other perfons who are attraded folely by the love
tif amufement, and fome from lefs honourable motives.
*rhe inhabitants, who fpend feven or eight months of
the year without feeing the face of a ftrattger, wait for
the return of this period with impatience. The wel-
come found of the carriages brings multitudes from the
town, either to gratify their curibfify, or to offer their
fervices in the hopes of fecuring your employment while
you remain at Spa. Immediately after your arrival your
name and defignation is added to the printed lift of the
annual vifitors ; for which you pay a ftated fum to the
bookfeller, who has a patent for this purpofe from the
prince bidiop of Liege. This lift not only enables one
to know at a gjlance whether any friends or acquaint-
abce are refiding there, but alfo to diftinguifh perfons
of rank and fafhion from adventurers, who fcldom have
the effrontery to infert their names.
There are two different ways of accommodating the
vifitors at Spa with lodging and neceffaries. People
may either lodge at an hotel, where every thing is fur-
mrtied them in a fplendid and expenfive ftyle ; or they
g ] SPA
may take up their refidence in private lodgings, from
which they may fend for provifions to a cook's ihop.
Among the people who vifit Spa, there are many
perfons of the firft rank and fafliion in Europe. Per-
haps indeed there is no place in Europe to whicli fo
many kings and princes refort ; but it is alfo vifited by
many felf-created nobility, who, under the titles of
counts, barons, marquifes, and knights, contrive by
their addrefs and artifices, to prey upon the rich and
unexperienced.
T'he manners eftablifhed at Spa are conducive both to
health and amufement. Every body rifes early in the
morning, at fix o'clock or before it, when a great
many horfes ftand ready faddled for thofe who choofe
to drink the Sauveniere or Geronftere waters at a little
diftance from Spa. After this healthy exercife a part
of the company generally breakfaft together at Vaux-
liall, a magnificent and fpacious building. At this
place a number of card-tables are opened every fore-
noon, round which many perfons aflemble and play for
ftakes to a very confiderable amount. A ball too is gene-
rally held once a week at Vauxhall, befides two balls at
the affembly rooms near the Pouhon in the middle of
the town.
The moft remarkable waters at Spa are, i. The Pou-
hon, fituated in the middle of the town ; 2. The Sau-
veniere, a mile and a half eaft from it ; 3. Groifbeck,
iiear to the Sauveniere; 4. Tonnclet, fituated a little to
the left of the road which leads to the Sauveniere j
5. Geronftere, two miles fouth from Spa; 6. War-
troz, near to the Tonnclet; 7. Sarts or Nivefet, in the
diftrift of Sarts ; 8. Chevron or Bru, in the principahty
of Slavelot ; 9. CoiIVe ; 10. Beverfe ; n. Sige ; 12.
Geremont. Thefe four laft are hear Malmedy.
Dr Brownrigg was the firft perfon who difcovered
that fixed air, or, as it is now generally called, carbonic
acid gas, forms a principal ingredient in the compofition
of the Spa waters, and aftually feparated a quantity of
this elaftic fluid, by expofing it to different degrees of
heat from 110° to 170® of Fahrenheit. From 20 oun-
ces 7 drams and 14 grains apothecaries weight of the
Pouhon water, he obtained 8 ounces 2 drams and 50
grains. Since June 1765, when Dr Brownrigg read a
paper on this fubjeft before the Royal Society of Lon-
don, the waters of Spa have been often analyfed, but
perhaps by none with more accuracy than by Dr Afti,
who pubhfhed a book on the chemical and medicinal pro-
pertlcs of thefe watere in 1788. We fliall prefent his ana-
lyfis of the five principal fprings in the following table.
i'ountain?.
Quantity
of Wa-
ter.
Oiirce
meafures
of Gas.
Solid
contents.
Aerated
Lime.
Aerated
Magne-
fia.
Aerated
Mineral
Alkali.
Aerated
Iron.
Selenlte.
Aerated
Vegefab,
Alkali.
Ounces.
Grains.
J*ouhon
33
35-75
16.25
2.75
9.5G
2.25
1.75
Geronftere
32.75
24.75.
5-50
2.50
1.75
0.75
0.50
Sauveniere
32.50
33-50
3-75
1.50
0-75
0.50
I.
Groifceck -
32-25
35-50
5-25
1.50
I.
0.75
2
Tonnelct
32.
40.75
2.00
0.25
0.75-
i.
The
SPA [ <5
The Pouhon fpring rifes from the hlll.to the north
of Spa, which confifts oF argillaceous fchiftus and fer-
rugineous flate. The other fountains rife from the fur-
rounding hills to the fouth-eaft, fouth, weft, and north-
well of the town; and this ridge of mountains is form-
ed of calcareous earths mixed with filiceous fubftances.
The furface of the mountains is covered with woods,
interfperfed with large boggy fwamps filled with mud
and water. The'Vouhon is confidcred as the principal
fpring at Spa, being impregnated with a greater quan-
tity of iron than any of the reft, and containing more
fixed air than any except the Tonnelet. _ It is frpm this
fpring that the Spa water for exportation is bottled ;
for which the demand is fo great, that, according to
the beft information which Mr Thickneffe could obtain,
the quantity exported amounts to 200,000 or 250,000
Inejfe's bottles annually. This exported water is inferior in its
""'y virtue to that which is drunk on the fpot ; for the vef-
"^bIs fe^s into which it is colkaed are injudicioufly expofed to
the fun, rain, wind, and duft, for feveral hours before
they are corked, by which means a confiderable part of
its volatile ingredients muft be evaporated ; foi* it has
been found by experiment, that by expofmg it to a gen- ■
tie heat, air-bubbles afcend in great numbers. It is in
its greateft perfeftion when coUeaed in cold dry wea-
ther ; it is then pellucid, colourlefs, and without fmell,
and almoft as Hght as diftilled water. It varies in its
heat from 52° or 53° to 67" of Fahrenheit's thermome-
ter.
The Geronftere is a much weaker chalybeate water
than the Pouhon ; and as it is exceedingly naufeous,
and taftes and fmells hke rotten eggs, it certainly con-
tains fome hepatic gas. This is a circumftance which
Dr Aftv feems not to have attended to fufficiently. The
Sauveniere water alfo, when newly taken from the well,
fmells a little of fulphur. The Groifbeck contains more
alkali, and ahnoft as much gas as the Pouhon, and has
been celebrated for its good effeds in the cafe of calcu-
lous concretions. The Tonnelet contains more gas
than any of the reft. So fmall is the quantity of any
foffil body held in fufpenfion by the aerial acid in it,
and fo volatile is the gas, that it begins to pafs ofF very
rapidly the moment it is taken out of the well, and in a
fhort time is entirely gone. Dr Afh informs us, that
in the neighbourhood" of this well, the cellars, on any
approaching chafige of weather, are found to contain
much fixed air ; and the beft prognoftic which they
have of rain is the averfion which cats fliow to be car-
ried into thefe cellars.
The Spa waters are diuretic, and fometimes purga-
tive. They exhilarate the fpirits with an influence much
more benign than wine or fpirituous liquors, and they
are more cooling, and allay thirft more effeftually than
common water. They arc found beneficial in cafes
of weaknefs and relaxation, either partial or univerfal ;
in nervous diforders ; in obftruftions of the liver and
fpleen ; In cafes where the blood Is too thin an<l pu-
trefcent; in cafes of exccffive difcharges proceeding
from weaknefs ; in the graveLand ftone ; and in moft
cafes where a ttrengthening remedy is wanted. But they
are hurtful in confii-med obftruftions attended with fe-
ver, where there is no free outlet to the matter, as in ul-
cerations of the lungs. They are alfo injurious to bi-
lious and plethoric conftitutions, when ufed before the
body is cooled by- proper evacuations.
Space
II
S ain.
,9 ] SPA
SPACE. See Metaphysics, Part II. Chap. iv.
Space, in geometry, denotes the area of any figure,
or that which fills the interval or diftance between the
lines that terminate it.
SPADIX, in botany, anciently figpified the recep-
tacle of the palms. It is now ufed to exprefs every
flower-ftalk that is protruded out of a fpatha or (heath.
The fpadix of the palms is branched ; that of all
other plants fimple. This laft cafe admits of fome va-
riety : in calla, dracontium, and pothos, the florets co-
ver it on all fides ; in arum, they are djfpofed on the
lower part only ; and in zoftera on one fide.
SBAGIRIC ART, a name given by authors to that
fpecies of chcmiftry which works on metals, and is em-
ployed in the fearch of the philofopher's ftone.
SPAHIS, horfemen in the Ottoman army, chiefly
i-aifed in Afia. The great ftrength of the grafid feig-
nior's army confifts in the janifanes, who are the foot $
and the fpahis, who are the horfe.
SPAIN, a country of Europe, famous both in an-
cient and modern hlftor)--, fituated in that large penin-
fula which forms the fouth- weft:erit part of Europe. It
is bounded on the fouth and eaft by the Mediterranean
fea and ftralts of Gibraltar, on the north and weft by
the Bay of Bifcay and Atlantic Ocean, on the fouth-
weft by Portugal, and on the north-eafl by the Pyre-
nees, r J ^
The moft ancient name of Spain •w?^ Iberia, fuppofed Different
by fome to be derived from the Iberians, a people "iha-^^'JJ^*
biting Mount Caucafus, a colony of whom fettled in
this country. Others derive it from the Pheniclan word
Ebra or Ibra, fignifying a pafl^ige or hmit. By the
Romans it was called Spania or Htfpania, fiom the Phe-
niclan name Sphanija ; and this again fi om yZ>a/>/jfl«, a
Pheniclan word fignifying a rabbit, bccaufe the weftern
part of Spain aboimded with thofe animals.
Spain, as well as the reft of Europe, was probably
peopled by the Cekes ; but the Spanifh hlftorians de-
rive the origin of their nation from Tubal the fifth fon
of Japhet, aflerting that Spain had been a monarchy
for 2226 years before the coming of the Celtes into it.^^^q*^^
Till the coming of the Cattbaginians Into Spain, how- ^^,^6 Gar^
ever, nothing certain can be affirmed of the Spaniards ; rhaginiana
and this happened not long before the commencementin Spain,
of the firft Punic war. Their fuccefs in reducing the
country, and their final expulfion by the Romans, has
already been related under the article* Rome and Car-
thage ; we have here therefore only to take notice of
the ftate of Spain under the Roman government, until
the Romans were in their turn expelled by the northern
barbarians. _ 3
At the time of the Roman conqueft, Spain, ^"^^'^'^^'^^'^^^^
prodigious quantities of filver had been carried out of^f ^j^^
it by the Carthaginians and 'I'yrians, was yet a very country,
rich country. In the moft ancient limes. Indeed, Its
riehes are faid to have exceeded what is related of the
moft wealthy countr}- In America. Arlftotle afiures us,
that when the Phenicians firft arrived in Spain, they
exchanped their naval commodities for fuch immenfe
quantities of filver, that their fiilps could neither con-
tain nor fuftain its load, though they ufed It for ballaft,
and made their anchois and other implements of filver.
"When the Carthaginians firft came to Spain, they found
the qMantity of filver nothing leffened, fince the Inha-i
bitants at that time mc.de all their utenfils; and even
4X2 mraigers,
Spain.
SPA
4
V:nathi;s
mangers, of that precious metal In the time of the
Romans this amazing plenty was very much dlminilh-
cd ; however, their gleanings were by no means defpi-
cable, fmce in the fpace of nine years they carried off
1 1 1,542 pounds of filver, and 4095 of gold, befides an
imraenfe quantity of coin and other things of value.
The Spaniards were always remarkable for their brave-
ry, and fome of Hannibal's beft troops were brought
from thence. But as the Romans penetrated farther
into the country than the Carthaginians had done, they
met with nations whofe love of liberty was equal to
their valour, and whom the whole ftrength of their em-
pire was fcarce able to fubdue. Of thefe the moft for-
inidable were the Numantines, Cantabrians, and Aftu-
rians.
oppofes the / " ^'"^^ ^^'^^ war, one Virlathus, a
Roman celebrated hunter, and afterwards the captain of a gang
power with of banditti, took upon him the command of fome na-
fuccefg. tions who had been in alliance with Carthage, and ven-
tured to oppofe the Roman power in that part of Spain
called Lufilama, now Portugal. The prator, named
Vdilius^ who commanded in thofe parts, marched againft
him with 10,000 men; but was defeated and killed,
with the lofs of 4000 of his troops The Romans im-
mediately difpatchtjd another prastor with io,c oo foot
and 1300 horfe: but Viriathus having firft cut off a de-
tachment of 4000 of them, engaged the reft in a pitch-
ed battle ; and having entirely defeated them, reduced
great part of the country. Another prator, who was
fent with a new army, met with the fame fate ; fo that,
atter the deftrudion of Carthage, the Romans thought
proper to fend a conful named ^intus Falius, who de-
feated the Lufitanians in feveral battles, and regained
two important places which had long been in the hands
of the rebels. After the expiration of Fabius's confu-
late, Viriathus continued the war with his ufual fuccefs,
till the fenate thought proper to fend againft him the*
Gonful Q^Csecilius Metellus, an officer of great valour
and experience. With him Viriathus did not choofe to
venture a pitched battle, but contented himfelf with
adting on the defenfive ; in confequence of which the
Romans recovered a great many cities, and^ the whole
of Tarraconian Spain was obliged to fubmit to their
yoke. The other conful, named Servilianus, did not
meet with the fame fuccefs ; his array was defeated in
the field and his camp was neai-ly taken by Viriathus.
Notwithftanding the good fortune of Metellus, how-
ever, he could not withftand the intrigues of his coun-
trymen againft him, and he was not allowed to finiili
the war he had begun with fo much fuccefs. In re-
fentment for this he took all imaginable pains to weak-
en the army iirider his command: he d'i£banded the
flower of his troops, exhaufted the magazines, let the
elephants die, broke in pieces the arrows which had
been provided for the Cretan archers, and threw them
into a river. Yet, after all, the army which he gave
up to his fucceffor Pompeius, confifting of 30,003
foot and 2000 horfe, was fufficient to have crufhed Vi.
riathus if tfie general had known how to ufe it. But,
inftead of oppofing Viriathus with fuccefs, the impru-
dent conful procured much more formidable enemies.
The Termantians and Numantines, who had hitherto
kept themfelves independent, offered very advantageous
terms of peace and alliance with Rome ; but Pompeius
inli&ed on their delivtusg up their arms. Upon this,
E <^2o 1 SPA
war was immediately commenced, Th'
Is reduced
to great
ftraits by
MttcJlus.
6
War be-
tween the
Romans
and Nu-
XDantincj.
■ ^ conful with Spgff?;
great confidence invefted Nuraantia; but being repulfed "V-*
with confiderable lofs, he fat down before Termantia,
where he was attended with ftill worfe fuccefs. The
very firft day, the Termantines killed 700 of his le- '
gionaries; took a great convoy which was coming to ii
the Roman camp ; and having defeated a confiderable \
body of their horfe, puftied them from poft to poft till I
they came to the edge of a precipice, where they all - i-
tumbled down, and were dafhed to pieces. In the mean The Ro* \
time Servilian, who had been continued in his com.*"^"* fi""* |'
mand with the title of proconful, managed matters fo ill, "n"/'^^^
that Viriathus furrounded him on all fides, and obliged al,d fo^rceJ
himtofue for peace. The terms offered to the Ro-to cunclud
mans were very moderate; being only that Viriathus ^P-^"^^^^''
ftiould keep the country he at that time polfefled, and Viriathus.
the Romans remain matters' of aU the reft. This^ peace
the proconful was very glad to fign, and afterwards got
it figned by the fenate and people of Rome.
The next year Pompeius was continued in hia
command againft the Numantines in Farther Spain,
while Servilius Csepio, the new conful, had for his
province Hither Spain, where Viriathus had eftabhfiied
his new ftate. Pompeius undertook to reduce Numan-
tia by turning afide the ftream of the Durius, now the
Dour©, by which it was fupplicd with water ; but, iu
attempting this, fuch numbers of his men were cut off,
that, landing himfelf unable to contend with the enemy,
he was glad to make peace with them on much worfa
terms than they had offered of their own accord. The
peace, however, was ratified at Rome; but in the mean
time Caepio, defirous of ftiowing his prowefs againft the
renowned Viriathus, prevailed upon the Romans to de-
clare war againft him without any provocation. As
Caspio commanded an army greatly fuperior to the Lu*
fitanians, Viriathus thought proper to fue for peace ;
but finding that Csepio would be fatisfied with nothing
lefs than a furrender at difcretion, he refolved to ftand
his ground. In the mean time, the latter having
bribed fome of the intimate companions of Viriathus to
murder him in his fleep, he by that infamous "^^^thod ^^.^^
put an end to a war which had lafted 14 years, very rodly riiur
little to the honour of the republic. dtrcd.
After the death of Viriathus, the Romans with like 8
treachery ordered their new conful Po^ilius to break the
treaty with the Numantines. His infamous condu6l fJatTd hy
met with the reward it deferved -y the Numantines fal- the Num?w„
lying out, put the'whole Roman army to flight with^in"
fuch flaughter, that they were in no condition to aft
during the whole campaign. Mancinus, who fucceeded
Popilius, met with ftill worfe fuccefs ; his great army,
confifting of 30,000 men, was utterly defeated by 4000
Numantines, and 20,000 of them killed in the purfuit.
The remaining r 0,000, with their general, were pent
up by the Numantines in fuch a manner that they could
neither advance nor retreat, and would certainly have
been all put to the fwOrd or made prifoners, had not
the Numantines, with a generofity which their enemies
never poflefled, offered to let them depart upon condition
that a treaty ftiould be concluded with them upon very-
moderate terms. This the conful very willingly pro^
mifed, but found himfelf unable to perform. On the
contrary, the people, not fatisfied with declaring his
treaty null and void, ordered him to be dehvered up to
the Numantinea. The latter refufed to accept him, uiv
Viriathus
Spain.
cipio
lilianus
SPA , [62
left be had along with him the 10,000 men whom they
had relieved as above related. At laft, after the conful
had remained a whole day before the city, his fuccefibr
Furins, thinking this a fuf&cient recompenfe to the Nu-
mantines for breaking the treaty, ordered him to be re-
ceived a-rain into the camp. However, Furius did not
choofe to engage with fuch a defperate and refolute
enemy as the Numantines had fhowed themfelves ; and
the war with them was difcontinued till the year 133
B. C. when Scipio ^milianus, the deftroyer of Car-
nt againft thage, was fent againft them. Againft this renowned
iem, commander the Numantines with all their vajour were
not able to cope. Scipio, having with the utmofl care
introduced ftridl difcipline among his troops, and re-
formed the abufes which his predeceffors had fylFered in
their armies, by degrees brought the Romans to face
their enemies, which at his arrival they had abfolutely
refufed to do. Having then ravaged all the country
round about the town, it was foon blocked up on all
fides, and the inhabitants began to feel the want of pro-
vifions. At laft they refolved to make one defperate at-
tempt for their liberty, and either to break through
their enemies, or periih in the attempt. With this view
they marched out In good order by two gates, and fell
upon the works of the Romans with the utmoft fury.
The Romans, unable to ftand this defperate fhock, were
on the point of yielding ; but Scipio, haftening to the
places attacked, with no fewer than 20,000 men, the
unhappy Numantines were at laft driven into the city,
where they fuftatned for a httle longer the miferies of
famine. Finding at laft, however, that it was altoge-
ther impoflible to hold out, it was refolved by the ma-
jority to fubmit to the pleafure of the Roman comman-
der. But this refolutlon was not univerfally approved.
Many fhut themfelves up in their houfes> and died of
hunger, while even thofe who had agreed to furrender
repented their offer, and fetting hre to their houfes,
perifhed in the flames with their wives and children, fo
that not a fmgle Numancine was left alive to grace the
triumph of the conqueror of Carthage.
After the deftru£lion ot Numantia the whole of Spain
fubmitted to the Roman yoke; and nothing remarkable
happened till the times of the Cimbri, when aprsetorian
army was cut off in Spain by the Lufitanians. From
this time nothing remarkable occurs in the hiftory of
Spain till the civil war between Marius and Sylla. 'i'he
latter having crufhed the Marian faftion, as related un-
der the article Rom£, profcribed all thofe that had fided
againft him whom he could not immediately dcftroy.
Among thefe was Sertorius, a man of confummate va-
lour and experience in war. He had by Marius been
i^PP^J^'j^^^ appointed praetor oF Spain ; and upon the overthrow of
Marius, retired to that province. Sylla no fooner
heard of his arrival in that country, than he fent thi^
ther one Caius Annius with a powerful army to drive
him out.. As Sertorius had but few troops along- with
him, he difpatched one Julius Salinator with a body
of 6000 men to gitard the paffes of the Pyrenees, and
to prevent Annius from entering the country. But Sali-
nator having been treacheroufly murdered by affaffins
hired by Annius for that purpofe, he no longer met
with any obftacle ; and Sertorius was- obliged , to em-
bark for the coaft of Africa with 3000 men, being all
nan haid remaining. With thefe he landed in Mau-
ki^l *' ' ricaaia i but as his men were ftraggling carclefsly about,
10
rtlferable
Tidnf the
icople.
II
Jertorlus
"bpp
VI ai
:ion in
» driven
)ut, and
mderzoes
r ] SPA
great numbers of them were cut off by the Barbarians.-^ ^'^^^"1 ' '»-
This new misfortune obliged Sertorius to re-embark for "'
Spain ; but finding the whole c«aft Jined with the
troops of Annius, he put to fea again, not knowing
what courfe to fteer. In this new voyage he met with
a fmall fleet of Ciliclan pirates ; and having prevailed
with them to join him, he made a defcent on the coaft-
of Yvica, overpowered the garrifon left there by An-
nius, and gained a confiderable booty. On the news-
of this viftory Annius fet fail for Yvica, with a conft-
derable fquadion, having 5000 land forces on board.
Sertorius, not intimidated by the fuperiority of the
enemy, prepared to give them battle. But a violent
ftorm arifmg, moft of the Ihips were driven on fliore
and dafhed to pieces, Sertorius himfelf with great diffi*
culty efcaping with the Imall remains of his fleet. For-
fomc time he continued in great danger, being prevent-
ed from putting to fea by the fury of the waves, and
from landing by the enemy ; at laft, the ftorm abating^
he paffed theftraits of Gades, now Gibraltar, and land-
ed near the mouth of the liver Bseotis. Here he met
with fome feamen newly arrived from the Atlantic or For-
tunate Iflands; and was fo taken with the account which
they gave him of thofe happy regions, that he refolved"
to retire thither to fpend the reft of his life in quiet andv
hapj)inefs. But having communicated this defign to
the Ciliclan pirates, they immediately abandoned him,
and fet fail for Africa, with an intention to aflift one of
the barbarous kings againft his fubjedls who had rebel- ,^
led. Upon this Sertorius failed thither alfo,: but took Lands in
the oppofite fide; and having defeated the kiuj, named -"^f".^'^*
^fcahsy obliged him to (hut himfelf up in the city of^^^^gf^f^j" ^
Tingis, now Tangier, which he clofely befieged. But^^ar in that)
In the mean time Paoianusj who- had been fent by Sylla country,
to aflift the king, advanced with a- confiderable- army
againft Sertorius. Upon this the latter, leaving part
of his forces before the city, marched with the reft to
meet Pacianus, whofe army, though greatly fuperior to
his own in number, he entirely defeated ; killed the ge- i*.
neral, and took', all his forces prifoners. — The fame of Returns tf»
this vi£i;ory foon reached Spain ; and the Lufitanians, ^['fg^^j.^^'j^g.
being threatened: with a new war from Annius, invltcdj^jj^a^^
Sertorius to head their armies. With this r>jue(t he there,
very readily complied, and foon became very formidable
to the Romans. Titus Didlus, governor of that part
of Spain called Batko, firft entered the lifts with him ;
but he being defeated, Sylla next difpatched Mctclins,
reckoned one of the beft commairders in P.ome, to Hop
the progrefs of this new enemy. Biit Meilllus, not-
withftanding all his experience, knew not how to aft
againft Sertorius, who was continually changing his lia-
tion, putting his army into new forms, and contriving'
new ftratagems. On his fiift arrival he fent for L. Do-
mitius, then, praetor of Hither Spain, to, his affiftance }
but Sertorius being informed of his march, detached
Hirtulelus, or Herquleius, hisquaeftor, againll him, who
gave him a. total overthrow. Metellus then difpatched
Lucius LoUius prsetor of Narbonne Gaul againft Hir-
tulelus ; but he. met with no better fuccefs, being ut-
terly defeated, and his lieutenant-general killed.
The. fame of thefe viftories brought to tlrj camp of rVedls Lu-
Sertorlus fuch a number of illuftrious Reman citizens fitania inco'
of the Marian faftion, that he form.ed a defign of ereft-^ reipublic.
Ing Lufitania into a republic in oppofitron to that of
Rome. Sylla was continually fending frelh fupplies to
Mttellusi.
SPA
r 622 ]
S P A
16
Metellus to retrieve
raife the
fiege of L
cobriga.
Spain. Metellua ; but Strtorius with an handful of men, ac-
"-—v"-^ cuftomed to range about the mountains, to endure hun-
ger and thirft, and hve expofed to the inclemencies of
the weather, fo harafled the Roman army, that Metel- ^
lus liimfelf began to be quite difcouraged. At laft,
Sertorius, hearing that Metellus had fpoken difrefpc£l-
fuUy of his courage, challenged his antagonift to end
the war by fingJe combat ; but Metellus very pru-
dently declined the combat, as being advanced in years;
yet this refufal brought upon him the contempt of the
unthinking m.ultitude, upon which Metellus refolved to
retrieve his reputation by fome fignal exploit, and
therefore laid ficge to Lacobriga, a confiderable city in
thofe parts. 'J.'his he hoped to reduce in two 6zys, as
there was but one well in the place ; but Sertorius, ha-
ving previoufly removed all thofe who could be of no
fei-vice during the iiege, and conveyed 6000 fliins full of
water into the city, Metellus continued a long time be-
• fore it without making any impteffion. At laft, his
provifions being almolt fpent, he fent out Aquinus at
the head of 6coo men to procure a new fupply; but
Sertorius falling unexpcftedly upon them, cut in pieces
or took the whole detachment ; the commander himfelf
being the only man who efcaped to carry the news of
the difafter ; upon which Metellus was obliged to raife
^17 the fiege v^th difgrace.
LuQtifn^^tr "^"^ Sertorius, having gained fome intervals of
*eafe in confequence of the many advantages he had ob-
tained over the Romans, began to civilize his new fnb-
jedls. Their favage and furious manner of fighting he
changed for the regular order and difclplinc of a well-
formed army ; he bellowed liberally upon them gold and
filver to adorn their arms, and by converfuig familiarly
with them, prevailed upon them to lay afide their own
drefs for the Roman toga. He fent for all the children
of the principal people, and placed them in the great
city of Ofca, now Herefca, in the kingdom of Arra-
gon, where he appointed them mailers to inftruft them
in the Roman and Greek learning, that they might, as
he pretended, be capable of Iharing with him the go-
vernment of the republic. Thus he made them really
hoftages for the good behaviour of their parents ; how-
ever, the latter were greatly pleafed with the care he
took of their children, and all Lufitania were in the
higheft degree attached to their new fovereign. This
attachment he took care to heighten by the power of
fuperftition ; for having procured a young hind of a
milk-white colour, he made it fo tame that it followed
him wherever he went ; and Sertorius gave out to the
ignorant multitude, that this hind was infpired by Dia-
na, and revealed to hini the defigns of his enemies, of
which he always took care to be well informed by the
great 1: umbers of fpies he employed.
While Sertorius was thus employed in eftablifhing his
authority, the republic of Rome, alarmed at his fuccefs,
refolved to crufli him at all events. Sylla was uoW dead,
and all the eminent generals in Rome folicited this ho-
nourable though dangerous employment. After much
fent a ' (1 '^"^^''^''^ ^ decree was palTed in favour of Pompey the
fckn.^^^'" Great, but without recalling Metellus. In the mean
time, the troops of one Perpenna, or Perperna, had,
in fpite of all that their general could do, abandoned
him and taken the . oath of allegiance to Sertorius.
This was a moft fignal advantage to Scttorius; for Per-
perna cou-unandud an army of .33,000 men, and had
Spain,
Tompey
the Great
come into Spain with a defign to fettle there as Serto-
rius had done ; but as he was deft ended from one of
the firft famiUes in Rome, he thought it below his dig-
nity to ferve under any general, however eminent he
might be. But the troops of Perperna were of a dif-
ferent opinion ; and therefore declaring that they would
ferve none but a general who could defend himfelf, they
to a man joined Sertorius ; upon which Perperna him-
felf, finding he could do no better, coufented to ferve
alfo as a fub^tern.
On the arrival of Pompey in Spain, fcveral of the
cities which had hitherto continued faithful to Serto-
rius began to ^waver ; upon which the latter refolved,
by fome fie;nal exploit, to convince them that Pompey
could no more fcreen them from his I'efentment than Me- ^
tellus. With this view he laid fiege to Lauron, nowsertonu,
Lirias, a place of confidei-able ftrength. Pompey, notbefie^res
doubting butheftiould be able to raife the fiege, march- JLaurou.
ed quite up to the enemy's lines, and found means to
inform the garrifon that thofe who befieged them were
themfelves befieged, and would foon be obliged to re-
tire with lofs and difgrace. On hearing this meffage,
" I will teach Sylla's difciple (faid Sertorius), that it^is
the duty of a general to look behind as well as before
him." Having thus fpoken, he fent orders to a detach-
ment of 6000 men, who lay concealed among the moun-
tains, to (tome down and fall upon his rear if he fhould
oflfer to force the lines. Pompey, furprifed at their fud- jjo
den appearance, durfl not ftir out of his camp ; and in Takes an
the mean time the befieged, defpairing of relief, fur- ^'"'"^ '
rendered at difcretion ; upon which Sertorius granted p^j^f^^^'
them their lives and liberty, but reduced their city to
alhes.
While Sertorius was thus fuccefsfuUy contending
with Pompey, his quseftor Hirtuleius was entirely de-
feated by Metellus, with the lofs of 20,000 men ; upon
which Sertorius advanced with the utmoft expedition to
the banks of the Sucro in Tarraconian Spain, with a Defeats
defign to attack Pompey before he could be joined byi'ompcy*,
Metellus. Pompey, on his part, did not decline the'^''^^*"*^'
combat ; but, fearing that Metellus might (hare theJucro.
glory of the viftory, advanced with the greateft expe-
dition. Sertorius put off the battle till towards the
evening; Pompey, though he knew that the night v/ould
prove difadvantageous to him, whether vanqniflicd or
viftorious, becaufe his troops were unacquainted with,
the country, refolved to venture an engagement, efpe-
cially as he feared that Metellus might arrive in the
mean time, and rob him of part of the glory of con-
quering fo great a commander. Pompey, who com-
manded his own rij^Iit wing, foon obliged Perperna,
who commanded Sertorius's left, to give way. Here-
upon Sertorius himfelf taking upon him the command
ot that wing, brought back the fugitives to the charge,
and obliged Pompey to fly in his turn. In his flirht
he was overtaken by a gigantic African, who had^al-
ready hfted up his hand to difcharge a blow at him
^vith his broad fword ; but Pompey prevented him by
cutting off his right hand at one blow. As he flill
continued his flight, he was wounded and thrown from
his horfe ; fd that he would certainly have been taken
prifouer, had not the Africans who purfued him quar-
relled about the rich furniture of his horfc. This gave
an opportunity to the general to make his efcape ; fo
.that at lengtli he reached his camp with much diffcul-
5 ty.
them fo clofe that he entered the camp, alcn:^ with
them. Sertorius, returning fuddenly, found the Romans
bafy in plundering the tents ; when, taking advantage
of their iitiiation,"he drove them out with great Hauqh-
ter, and retook his camp. Next day he offered battle
a fecond time to Pompey ; but Metellus then coming
up with all his forces, he thought proper to decline an
engagement with both conjmanders. In a few days,
however, Pompey and Metellus agreed to attack the
camp of Sertorius. Metellus attacked Perperna, and
npeyde-Pomuey fell upon Sertorius. The event v/as fimllar to
ted a fe. ^^i^it of the former batrle ; Metellus defeated Perperna,
M £ia>e. Sertorius routed Pompey. Being then informed of
Perperna's misfortune, he haftened to his relief ; rallied
the fugitives, and repulfed Metellus in his turn, wound-
ed him' with his lance, and would certainly have killed
him, had not the. Romans, afhamed to leave their gene-
ral in dilb-efs, haftened to his affiftance, and renewed the
fight with great fury. At laft Sertorius was obliged to
quit the field, and retire to the mountains. Pompey
and Metellus haftened to befiege him ; but while they
were forming their camp, Sertorius broke through their
lines, and efcaped into Lulitania. Here he foon raifed
fuch a powerful army, that the P..oman generals, with
their unitt-d forces, did not think proper to venture an
fcmpey enga??ement with hira. They could not, however, re-
d.Metcl-fift the perpetual attacks of Sertorius, who now drove
i driven ^^^^^ fj.^^^ pla^-g to place, till he obliged them to fepa-
*si^r'""^^' thf one went iuto Gaul, and the other to the foot
,s/ of the Pyrenees.
Thus did this celebrated commander triumph over all
the power of the Romans ; and there is little doubt
but he would have continued to make head agaiuft all
the other (reiierals whom the repubUc could have fent ;
luid he not been affafllnated at an entertainment by
the iufamoiis treachery of Perperna, in 73 B. C. after
be had made liead again ft the Roman forces for almoft
ten years. Pompey was no fooner informed of his death,
than, without waiting for any new fuccours, he march
»3
'Z4
irtonus
etcher-
lily mur^
26
zed hy
the Romans made one effort more to recover their barbarous
power in this part of the v/orld ; but being utterly de- nations on
feated by the Suevlans, the latter eftablilheda kingdom ^^^^^^"^^'"^
there which laftcd till the year 584, when it was "tter-j^jngj^ipij-g^
ly overthrown by the Vifisoths under Leovigildc. The
Gothic princes continued to reign over a confiderable
part of Spain till the beginning of the 8th century,
when their empire was entirely overthrown by the Sa-
racens. During this period, they had entirely expelled
the eailern emperors from what they poffeffed in Spain,
and even made confiderable conquefts in Baibary ; but The Gothic
towards the end of the 7th century the Saracens over- kingdom
ran all that part of the world with a rapidity which no-'^^^^^jj^^g*^^^"
thing could refift ; and having foon poffeffed themfelveSggj^g^
of the Gothic dominions in Barbary, they made a de-
fcent upon Spain about the year 711 or 712. The
king of the Goths it that time was called RoJerk, and
by his bad conduft had occafioned great difaffeilion
among his fubjefls. Pie therefore determined to put
all to the Iffue of a battle, knowing that he could not
depend upon the fidelity of his own people if he allow-
ed the enemy time to tamper with them. The two ar-
mies met in a plain near Xeres in Andalufia. The
Goths began the attack with great fury ; but though,
they fought like men in defpair, they were at laft de-
feated with excelTive {laughter, and their king himfelf
was fuppofed to have perillTiedin the battle, being never
more heard of.
By this battle the Moors in a fhort time rendered
themfelvcs mafteVs of almofl: all Spain. The poor re-
mains of the Goths were obliged to retire into the
mountainous parts of Allurins, Burgos, and Bifcay:
the inhabitants of Arragon, Catalonia, and Navarre,
though they might have made a confiderable ftand a-
gainft the enemy, chof<; for the moil part to retire into 28
France. In 718, however, the power of the Goths be- The power
of the
Goths re-
gan again to revive under Don Pelagio or Pelayo, a
prince of the royal blood, who headed thofe that had ,1.^,55 unde?
retired to the mountains after the fatal battle of Xeres. Pelagio.
€d againft the traitor,' whom he eafJy defeated and took The place where he firft laid the foundation of lus go-
prifoncr • aud having caufed him to be executed, thus vernment was in the Aftunas, in the province of Lie-
put an end, with very little glory, to a molt dangerous bana, about nine leagues In length and four in breadth,
^^j. This is the moft inland part of the country, full of
Many of the Spanifli nations, however, ffill continued mountains enormoufly high, and fo much fortified' by
bear the Roman yoke with great impatience ; and as nature, that Its inhabitants are capable of icfifting al-
>ain en-
ely re-
iced by
Ro-
to . _ ^ - .
tire civil wars which took place firll between Julius Cas
far and Pompey, and afterwards between Oftavlarms
and Antony, diverted the attention of the republic
from Spain, by the time that Auguftus had become
fole mafter of the Roman empire, they were again In a
condition to affert their liberty. The Cantjibrians
and AsTURiANS were the moft powerful and vahant na-
tions at that time in Spain; but, after incredible efforts.
moft any number of invaders. Alakor the Saracen go-
vernor was no fooner informed ol this revival of the Go-
ihifh kingdom, than he fent a powerful army, under the
command of one Alchaman, to crufli Don Pelagio be-
fore he had time to eltablifh his power. The king, 59
though his forces were fufficicntly numerous (every one He givts
of his fubiedls arrived at man's eftate being a foldier), ^'^^ ^^''a-
^^^^^ ^ did not think proper to venture a general engagement jj.g^^f,j,
they weVr obliged t^lay down their arms, or rather in the open field; but taking poft with part of them overthrow,
were almoft exterminated, by Agrippa, as is related un- himfelf in a cavern in a very high mountain, he con-
der thefe articles. From this time the Spaniards con-
tinued in quiet fubjeftlon to the Romans ; but on the
decline of the empire they were attacked by the north-
ern nations, who put an end to the Roman name in the
weft. As the inhabitants had by that time entirely loft
their ancient valour, the barbarians met with no refift-
ance but from one another. In the reign of the em-
cealed the reft among precipices, giving orders to them
to fall upon the enemy as foon as they fhould perceive
bim attacked by them. Thefe orders were punftually
eixecuted, though indeed Don Pelagio himfelr had re-
pulfed his enemies, but not without a miracle, as the
Spanlfti hittorlans pretend. The (laughter was dread-
ful } for the troops who lay la ambufeade joining the
reft-j
SPA
SPA
^P*'"- ^ reft, and rolllno^ down huge Hones from the mountains
, ^ upon the Moors (the name by which the Saracens were
known in Spain), no fewer than 124,000 of thefe un-
happy people perifhed in one day. The remainder fled
tin they were rtopped by a river, and beginning to
coafl it, part of a mountain fuddenly fell down, ftopped
up the channel of the river, and either crufhed or
drowned, by the fuMen riling of the water, almoft
every one of that vaft army.
The Moors were not fo much difheartened by this
30 difafter, but that they Jiiade a fccond attempt againft
Another ^ Don Pelagio. Their fuccefs was as bad as ever, the
army cut ingj,^^j.g{^ part of their army being cut in pieces or
takeiu'*'" taken; in confequence of which, they loft all the
Afturias, and never dared to enter the lifts with Pelagio
afterwards. Indeed, their bad fuccefs had in a great
meafure taken from them the defire of conquering a
country where little or nothing was to be got ; and
therefore they rather direfted their force againft France,
J, J where' they hoped for more plunder. Into this coun-
The Sara- try they poured in prodigious multitudes ; but were
.y>iis utterly utterly defeated, in 732, by Charles Martel, with the
CharlM*^ -^^^^ .^00,000 men, as the hiftorians of thofe times
Martel.
Mans.
^^'lofs of 300,000 men,
pretend.
Don Pekgio died in 737, and Toon after his death
• fuch inteftine divifions broke out among the Moors, as
greatly favoured the increafe of the Chrlftian power.
In 745 Don Alonfo the Catholic, fon-in law to Pela-
gio, in Gonjunftion with his brother Froila, pafled the
mountains, and fell upon the northern part of Galicia ;
?ind meeting with little rcfiftance, he recovered almoft'
Conquefts the whole of that province in a fingle campaign. Next
< the Chri- year he invaded the plains of Leon and Caftile ; and
before the Moors could aflemble any force to oppefe
him, he reduced Aftorgas, Leon, Saldagna, Montes de
Oca, Amaya, Alava, and all the country at the foot of
the mountains. The year following he puftied his con-
quefts as far as the borders of Portugal, and the next
campaign ravaged the country as far as Caftile. Being
fenfible, however, that he was yet unable to defend the
flat country which he had conquered, he laid the whole
of it wafte, obliged the Chriftians to retire to the
mountains, and carried off all the Moors for flaves.
Thus fecured by a defert frontier, he met with ne in-
terruption for fome years ; during which time, as his
kingdom advanced in ftrength, he allowed his fubjefts
gradually to occupy part of the flat country, and to re-
build Leon and Aftorgas, which he had demoliflied.
He died In 7 57, and was fucceeded by his fon Don
Froila. In his time Abdelrahman, the khalifPs vlce-
cens in j-oy in Spain, threw off the yoke, and rendered him-
cff the'^ oke ^'^^^ independent, fixing the feat of his government at
of the kha- Cordova. Thus the inteftine divifions among the
iiff. Moors were compofed,; yet their fuccefs feems to have
been little better than before ; for, foon after, Froila
encountered the Moors with fuch fuccefs, that 54,000
of them were killed on the fpot, and their general ta-
ken prifoner. Soon after he built the city of Oviedo,
which he made the capital of his dominions, in order to
be in a better condition to defend the ilat country,
which he now determined to people.
In the year 758 the power of the Saracens received
another blow by the rife of the kingdom of Navarre,
di mof Na-This kingdom, we are told, took its origin from an ac-
cidentai meeting of gentlemen, to the number of 600,
33
The Sara
H
B-idory of
the: kin^-
at the tomb of an hermit named ^oh, who had died 3p»i
among the Pyrenees. At this place, where they had ^~~V
met on account of the fuppofed fahftity of the decea-
fed, they took occafion to converfe on the cruelty of
the Moors, the miferles to which the country was ex-
pofed, and the glory that would refult from throwing
off" their yoke ; which, they fuppofed, might eaiily be
done, by reafon of the ftrength of their country. On
mature deliberation, the project was approved; one Don
*GarcIa Ximenes was appointed king, as being of iUu-
ftrious birth, and looked upon as a perfon of great abi-
lities. He recovered Ainfa, one of the principal towns
of the country, out -of the hands of the infidels, and his
fucceffor Don Garcia Inigas extended his territories as
far as BIfcay ; however, the Moors ftill pofieffed Por-
tugal, Murcia, Andalufia, Valentia, Granada, Tortofa,
with the interior part of the cotmtry as far as the moun-
tains of Caftile and Saragofla. , Their internal dlffen-
fions, which revived after the death of Abdelrahman,
contributed greatly to reduce the power of the infidels
in general. In 778, Charles the Great being invited Conque
by fome difcontented Moorifti governors, entered Spain of Char
with two great armies ; one palling through Catalonia, the Grci
and the other through Navarre, where he pufhed his
conquefts as far as the Ebro. On his return he was at-
tacked and defeated by the Moors ; though this did
not hinder him from keeping pofleflion of all thofe
places he had already reduced. At this time he feems
to have been mafter of Navarre: however, in 831 count
Azner, revolting from Pepin fon to Ihe emperor Louis,
again revived the independency of Navarre ; but the
■fovereigns did not affume the title of kings till the time
of Don Garcia, who began to reign in 857.
In the mean time, the kingdom founded by Don Pe-
lagio, now called the kingdom of Leon and Oviedo, con-
tinued to increafe rapidly in ftrength, and many advan-
tages were gained over the Moors, who having two ene-
mies to contend with, loft ground every day. In 921,
however, they gained a great vidtory over the united
forces of Navarre and Leon, by which the whole force
of the Chriftians in Spain muft have been entirely bro-
ken, had not the vidors conducted their affairs fo
wretchedly, that they fuffered themfelves to be almoft
entirely cut in pieces by the remains of the Chrlftian
army. In ftiort, the Chriftians became at length fo ter-
rible to the Moors, that it is probable they could not ^6
long have kept their footing in Spain, had not a great Exploits
general, named Mohammed Ehn Amir Alman<z.or, ap- Aimanzi
peared, in 979, to fupport their finking caufe. This ^ ^^'"^^
man was vilir to the king of Cordova, and being ex- ^^"^"^
ceedingly provoked agajnft the Chriftians on account
of what his countrymen had fuffered from them, made
-war with the tnoft implacable fury. He took the city
■of Leon, murdered the inhabitants, and reduced the
houfes to affies. Barcelona (hared the fame fate ; Caf-
tile was reduced to a defert ; Galicia and Portugal ra-
vaged J and he is faid t© have overcome the Chriftians
in fifty different engagements. At laft, having taken
and demoliftied the city of Compoftella, and carried off
in triumph the gates of the church of St James, a flux
happened to break out among his troops, which the fu-
perftitious Chriftians fuppofed to be a divine judge-
ment on account ot his facrilege. Taking it for
granted, therefore, that the Moors were now entirely
deftitttte of all heavenly aid, they fell upon them with
6 fuch
S P A
B P A
fufch fary in the next engagement, that all the valour
and conduft of Almanzor coiild not prevent a defeat.
Overcome with (hame and defpair af this misfortune,
d he defircd his followers" to fhift for themfelves, while he
-himfelf retired to Medina Coeli, and put an end to his
life by abftinence in the year 998.
During this period a new Chriftlan principality ap-
of peared in Spain, namely that of Cailile, which is now
- divided into the Old and New Caftile. The Old
Calb'le was recovered long before that called the Nc-iv,
It was feparated from the kinodom of I^ebn on one fide
by fome little rivers ; on the other, it was hounded by
the Afturias, Bifcay, and the province of Rioja. On
the fouth it had the mountains of Segovia and Avila ;
thus lying in the middle between the Chriftian king-
dom of Leon and Ov^iedo, and the Moorifh kingdom of
Cordova. Hence thisditlrift foon became an object of
contention between the kings of Leon and thofe of
Cordova ; and as the former were generally victorious,
fome of the princip4 Callilian nobility " retained their
independency imder the prote<ftion of the Chriftian
• kings, even when the power of the Moors was at its
' greateft height. In 884 we firtt hear of Don Rodri-
guez afTuming the title of count of Cajlile, though it
does not appear that either his territory or title were
given him by the king of Leon. Nevepthelefs, this
" monarch having taken upon him to punifh fome of the
Caftilian lords as rebels, the inhabitants made a formal
renunciation of their allegiance, and fet up a new kind
of government. The fupreme power was now vefted-
in two perfons of quahty ftyled judges ; however, this
method did not long continue to give fatisf^adlion, and
the fovereignty was once more veiled in afingle perfon.
IJy dej^rees Caftile fell e-itircly under the power of the
kings of Leon and Oviedo ; and, in '035, Don San-
chez beftowed it on his eldcft fon Don Ferdinand, with
.the title of king ; and thus the territories of Caftile
were firft firmly united to thofe of Leon and Oviedo,
and the fovereigns were thenceforth ftyled kings of Leon
and Caftile.
of ■ Befides all thefe, another Chriftian kingdom was fet
. up in Spain about the beginning of the i ith century.
This was the kingdom of Arragon. The inhabitants
were very brave, and lovers of liberty, fo that it is pro-
1 bable they had in fome degree nmintained their inde-
pendency, even when the power of the Moors was
'greateft.' The hiftory of Arragon, however, during
its infancy, is much lefs known than that of any of
the others hitherto mentioned. We are only alTured,
the that about the year 1035, Don Sanchez, furnamed the
Great, king of Navarre, erecied Arragon into a^ king-
dom in favour of his fon Don Ramira, and afterwards
it became very powerful. At this time, then, we may
imagine the ccmtinent of Spain divided into two unequal
part* l^y a ftraight line drawn from 6aft to weft, from
tha^oafts of Valentia to a little below the mouth of the
Duro. The country north of this belonged to the
Ghriftians, who, as yet, had the fmalleft and leaft valu-
able (hare, and a'll'the reft to the Moors. In point of
wealth and real power, both by land and fea, the
Moors were greatly fuperior'; but their continual dif-
fenfions greatly weakened them, and every day facili-
tated the progrefs of the Chriftians. Indeed, had either
©f the' parties been united, the other muft foon have
yielded ; for though the Chriftians did not make war
Vol. XVIL Part II.
th
upon each other eonftantly as the Moors did, their mu- Si\«!flr
tual feuds were yet fuflicient to have ruined them, had ^"'^^ '*
their adverfan'es made the leaft ufe of the advantages
thus afforded thena,. But among the Moors almoft eve-
ry city was a kingdom ; and as thefe petty fovereign-
ties fupported one another very indifferently, they fell
a prey one after another to their enemies. In 1080,
the king of Toledo was engaged in a war with the kin ^
of Seville, another Moorifli potentate ; which being ob-_
ferved by Alphonfo king of Caftile, he alfo invaded his
territories; and in four years made . himfelf m:aher of T.>ledo and
the city of Toledo, witli all the places of importance in Madrid ta-
its neighbourhood; from thenceforth making Toledo ^f^^.^^^^^
the capital of his dominions. In a (hort time the whole ^
province of New Caftile fubmitted ; and Madrid, the
prefent capital of Spain, fell into the hands of the
Chriftians, being at that time but a fmall place.
The Moors were fo much alarmed at thefe conquefts,
that they not only entered into a general confederacy
ajalnft the Chriftiass, but invited to their afiiftaace
Mahomet Ben Jofeph the fovereign of Barbary. He ^ fi^nal
accordingly came, attended by an incredible multitude ; vidory
but was utterly defeated by the Chriftians in the defiles trained over
of the Black Mountain, or Sierra Morena, on the bor-^^^ Moor*,
ders of Andalufia. This vidlory happened on the 1 6th
of July 1212, and the anniverfary is ftill celebrated at
Toledo. This vi6tory was not improved ; the Chrif-
tian army immediately difperfed themfelves, while the
Moors of Andalufia were ftrengthened by the remains
of the African army ; yet, inftead of being taught, by
their paft misfortunes, to unite among themfelves, their
diffenfions became worfe than ever, and the conquefts of
the Chriftians became daily more rapid. In 1236, Don
Ferdinand of Caftile and Leon took fhe celebrated city
of Cordova, tlxe refidence of the firft Moorifh kings ; at
the lame time that James I. of Arragon difpoffefTed
them of the ifland of Majorca, and drove them out of
Valentia. Two yeai*s after, Ferdinand made himfelf
mafter of Murcia, and took the city of Seville ; and in
1303 Ferdinand IV. reduced Gibraltar.
In the time of Edward. HI. we find England, for the Enp'and in*
firft time, interfering in the aflairs of Spain, on the fol- terferes in
lowing occafion. In the year 1 284 the kingdom of Na- ^^j^j
varre had been united to that of France by the mar-
riage of Donna Joanna queen of Navarre with Philip
the Fair of France, in 1328, however, the kingdoms
were again feparated, thougii the fovereigns of Navarre
were ftill related to thofe of France. In 1350, Charles,
furnamed the IVickedy afcended the throne of Navarre,
and married the daughter of John king of France.
Notwithftanding this alliance, and that he himfelf was.
related to the royal family of France, he fecretly enter-
ed into a negociation with England againft the French
monarch, and even drew into his fchemes the dauphin i
Charles, afterwards furnamed /Z^e IV fe. The young
prince, however, was foon after made fully fenfible of
the danger and folly of the connections into which he
had entered; and, by way of atonement, promifed to
facrrfice-his alfociates. Accordingly he invited the king
of Navarre, and fome of the principal nobility of the
fame party, to a feaft at Rouen, where he betrayed
them to his father. ' The moft obnaxious were execu-
ted, and the king of Navarre was thrown into prifon. Navarreim-
In this extremity, the party of the king of Navarre had prifoned by
recourfe to England. The prince of Wales, furnamed J "'^^ '^'"S
4K
44 i
rhe king of
SPA
[ 626 ]
SPA
Spain.
malecon-
tents
fhe Blaci Prince^ invaded France, defeated king John at
fSe°f ^.^^Poji^^^s, and took him prifonerf ; which unfortunate
D° 4^^ '^'"*'^' event produced the moft violent diftiirbances in that
kingdom. The dauphin, now about 19 years of aire,
naturally afiiimed the royal power during his father's
captivity : but poflefled neither experience nor autho-
rity fuflicient to remedy the prevailing evils. In order
to obtain fupplies, he affembled- the ilates of the king-
dom : but that affembly, inftead of fupporting his ad-
miniftration, laid hold of thepiefent opportunity to de-
mand limitations of the prince's power, the punifhment
of part: malverfations, and the liberty of the king of Na-
varre. Marcel, provoft of the merchants of Paris, and
firft magiftrate of that city, put himfelf at the head of
the unruly populace, and puihed them to commit the
mod criminal outrages againft the royal authority. They
detained the dauphin in a kuid of captivity, murdei'ed
in his prefence Robert de Clermont and John de Cou-
flans, marefchals of France ; threatened all the odier
jnlnifters with the like fate ; and when Charles, who
had been obliged to temporly-e and diffemble, made his
efcape from their hands, they levied war againft him,
and openly rebelled. The other cities of the kingdom,
in imitation of the capital, fliook off the dauphin's au-
thority, took the government into their own hands, and
fpread the contagion into every province.
Efcapes, Amidil thefe diforders, the king of Navarre made his
and heads efcape from prifon, and prefented a danirerous leader
furious malecontents. He revived his pretenfions
to the crown of France : but in all his operations he
afted more hke a leader of banditti than one who afpl-
red to be tlie head of a regular government, and who
was engaged by hisftation to endeavour the re-eftablifli-
ment of order in the community. All the French,
therefore, who wifhed to reftore peace to their country,
turned their eyes towards the dauphin ; who, though
not remarkable for his military talents, daily gained by
his prudence and vigilance the afcendant over his ene-
mies. Marcel, the feditious provoft of Paris, was flain
in attempting to deliver that city to the king of Na-
varre. The capital immediately returned to its duty :
t^he moft confiderable bodies of the mutinous pcafants
■were difperfed or put to the fword ; forae bands of mi-
litary robbers underwent the fame fate ; and France
began once more to affume the appearance of civil go-
vernment.
John was fucceeded in the throne of France by his
fon Charles V. a prince educated in the fchool of adver-
fity, and well quahfied, by his prudence and experience,
to repair the loffes which -the kingdom had fuftained
from the errors of his predeceflbrs. Contrary to the
practice of all the great princes of thofe times, who
held nothing in eftimation but military courage, he
feems to have laid it down as a maxim, never to appear
at the head of his armies ; and he was the firft Euro-
pean monarch that fliowed the advantage of policy and
forefight over a raih and precipitate valour.
Before Charles could think of counterbalancing fo
great a power as England, it was neceffary for him to
^6 remedy the many diforders to which his own kingdom
I< defeated was expofed. He accordingly turned his arms againft
lofubm^to^'^^ king of Navarre, the great difturber of France du-
the terms ^^^^ > defeated that prince, and redu-
prefcrihed ced him to terms, by the valour and conduft of Ber-
by Char. V trand du Guefclin, one a£ the moft accompliflied cap-
cf France.
tains of thofe times, whom Charles had the difc<!i'nmcnt
to choofe as the jnftrument of his viftorics. He aU'o
fettled the affairs of Brittany, by acknovi"ledging the
title of Mountfort, and receiving homage for his do-
minions. But much was yet to be done. On the conclu-
fion of the peace of Bretigni, the many military adveu..
turecs who had followed the fortunes of Edward, being
difperfed into the ftveral province^ and poffelTed of
ftirongholds, refufed to lay down their arms, or reliii-
quifh a courfe of life to which they were now accuf-
tomed, and by which alone they could earn a fubfift-
ence. They aflbciated themfelves with the banditti, Accoii
who were already inured to the habits of rapine and ^'
violence; and, under the name o{ companies and cc'W/>^7-"^'f^
nkns, became a terror to all the peaceable inhabltants.^,,,.,^^,
Some EnglHh and Gafcon gentlemen of chara6ler were
not aftiamed to take the command of thefe ruffians,
whofe number amounted to near 40,000^ and who bore
the appearance of regular armies rather than bands ot^
robbers. As Charles was not able by power to redrefs
fo enormous a grievance, he was led by neccflity, as well
as by the turn of his chara<fter, to correct it by policy;
to difcover fome method of difcharging into foi-eign
countries this dangerous and inteftine evil ; and an oc-
cafion now offered.
Alphonfo XI. king of Caftile, who took the city ofRci^
Algezira from the Moors, after a famous fiege of two^^'«'.
years, during which artillery are faid fiift to have heen ^^-"^^^^^
ufed by the befieged, had been fucceeded by his fon° ^
Peter I. furnamed the Cruel 5 a prince equally perfidi-
ous, debauched, and bloody. He began his reign with
the murder of his father's miftrefs Leonora de Gufman:
his nobles fell every day the vlftlms of his feverlty : he
put to death his coufin and one of his natural brothers,
from gronndlefs jealoufy ; and he caufed his queen
Blanche de Bourbon, of the blood of France, to be
thrown into prifon, and afterwards poifoned, that he
might enjoy in quiet the embraces of Mary de Padella,
with whom he was violently enamoured.
Henry count of I'raftamara, the king's natural bro-
ther, alarmed at the fate of his family, and dreading his
owH, took arms againft the tyrant ; but having failed
in the attempt, he fled to France, where he found the
minds of men much inflamed againft Peter, on account
of the murder of the French princefs. He aflced per-The^^
miflion of Charles to enllft the companies in his fervice, panics
and to lead them into Caftile againft his brother^ The
French king, charmed with the projed, employed da^^'°'
Guefclin in negociating with the leaders of thefe ban-
ditti. The treaty was foon concluded ; and du Guef-
clin having completed his levies, led the army firft to
Avignon, where the Pope then refided, and demanded,
fword in hand, abfolution for his ruffian foldiers, who
had been excommunicated, and the fum of 200,000
livres for their fubfiftence. The firft was readily pro-
mifed him ; bilit fome difficulty being made with reg^d
to the fecond, du Guefclin replied, " My fellows, I
believe, may make a fhlft to do without your abfolu-
tion, but the money is abfolutely neceffary." His Ho-
linefs then extorted from the inhabitants of the city and
its neighbourhood the fura of 100,000 livres. and of-
fered it to du Guefclin: " It is not my purpofe (cried
that generous warrior) to opprefs the innocent people."
The pope and his cardinals can fpare me double the
fum from their own pockets. I therefore infift, that
8 thia
45
SPA
SPA
Jack
e.
this meney be reftored to the owners ; and if I hear
they are defrauded of it, I will myfelf return from
the other fide of tlie Pyrenees, and oblige you to make
them reftitution." The pope found the neceffity of
fubmitting, and paid from his own treafury the fum
demanded.
Iriven A body of experienced and hardy foldiers, conduced
»ut af- {jy fo able a general, eafily prevailed over the king of
Caftile, whole fubjefts were ready to join the enemy
againft their oppreflbr. Peter fled from his dominions,
took flielter in Guienne, and craved the proteftion of
the prince of Wales, whom his father had invefted with
the fovereignty of the ceded provinces, under the title
of the ^principality of ^quitaine. The prince promifed
his afliftance to the dethroned monarch ; and haying
obtained hia father's confent, he levied an army, and
fet out on his enterprife.
The firfl: lofs which Henry of Traftamara fufFered
from the interpofition of the prince of Wales, was the
recalling of the companies from his fervice; and fo much
reverence did they pay to the name of Edward, that
great numbers of them immediately withdrew from
Spain, and inlifted under his ftandard. Henry, how-
ever, beloved by his new fubjcAs, and fupported by the
king of Arragon, was able to meet the enemy with an
army of ico,ooo men, three times the number of thofe
commanded by the Black Prince : yet du Guefclin, and
all his experienced ofiiccrs, advifed him to delay a deci-
five aftion ; fo high was their opinion of the valour and
condud of the Englifh hero ! But Henry, trufting to
his numbers, ventured to give Edward battle on the
banks of the Ebro, between Najara and Navarette ;
Spa- where the French and Spaniards were defeated, with
U dc- the lofs of above 20,000 men, and du Guefclin and
^ other officers of diftindlion taken prifoners. All Caftile
^""^ fubmitted to the viAor ; Peter was reftored to the
thYone, and Edward returned to Guienne with his ufual
glory ; having not only overcome the greateft general
of his age, but reftrained the moft blood-thirfty tyrant
from executing vengeance on his prifoners.
This gallant warrior had foon reafon to repent of his
connexions with a man like Peter, loft to all fenfe of
virtue and honour. The ungrateful monfter refufed the
flipulated pay to the Englifli forces. Edward abandon-
ed him : he treated his fubjeds with the utmoft barba-
rity ; their animofity vvas roufed againft him ; and du
Guefclin having obtained his ranfom, returned to Caftile
with the count of Traftamara, and fome forces levied
anew in France. They were joined by the Spanifh
malecontents ; and having no longer the Black Prince to
arndri-encouater, they gained a complete victory over Peter in
out, de- the neighbourhood of Toledo. The tyranf now took
ed, and refuge in a caftle, where he was foon after befieged by
the viclors, and taken prifoner in endeavouring to make
his efcape. He was conduced to his brother Henry ;
again^ whom he is faid to have ruftied in a tranfport of
rage, difarmed as he was. Henry flew him with his
own hand, in refentment of his cruelties ; and, though
a baftard, was placed on the throne of Caftile, which he
trantinitted to his pofterity.
After the death of Peter the Cruel, nothing remark-
able,happencd in Spain for almoft a whole century ; but
the debaucheries of Henry IV. of Caftile roufed the re-
fentment of his nobles, and produced a moft fmgular in-
fmreftion, which led to the aggrandizement of the Spa- 5pain,
nilh monarchy. ^ * ^'
This prince, farnamed the Impotent, though conti-Rgij/jfof
nually fun'ounded with women, began his unhappy reign Henty the
in 1454. He was totally enervated by his pleafures ; ir"po'C'^^*
and every thing in his court confpired to fet the Cafti-
lians an example of the moft abjeft flattery and moft
abandoned licentioufnefs. The queen, a daughter of -
Portugal, lived as openly with her parafites and her gal-
lants as the king did with his minions and his miftrefles.
Pleafure was the only objeft, and effeminacy the only
recommendation to favour : the aflFairs of the ftate went
every day into diforder ; till the nobility, with the
archblftiop of Tol<j^o at their head, combining againft
the weak and flagitious adminiftration of Henry, arro-
gated to themfelves, as one of the privileges of their or-
der, the right of trying and pafling fentence on their
fovereign, which they executed in a manner unprece-
dented in hiftory.
All the malecontent nobility were fummoned to meet Me is for;
at Avila : a fpacious theatre was erefted in a plainmally de-
withbut the walls of the town : an image, reprefentingP"^'^^*
the king, was feated on a throne, clad in royal robes,
with a crovvn on its head, a fceptre in its hand, and the
fword of juftice by its fide. The accufation againft
Henry was read, and the fentence of depofitioo pro-
nounced, in prefence of a numerous aflembly. At the
clofe of the firft article of the charge, the archbilhop of
Toledo advanced, and tore the^crown from the head of
the image ; at the clofe of the fecond, the Conde dc
Placentia fnatched the fvrord of jullice from its fide; at
the clofe of the third, the Conde de Benavente wrefted
the fceptre from its hand ; and at the clofe of the laft,
Don Diego Lopez de Stuniga tumbled it headlong
from the throne. At the fame iuftant, Don Alphon-
fo, Henry's brother, a boy of about twelve years of
age, was proclaimed king of Caftile and Leon. in his
ftead.
This extraordinary proceeding was followed by a ci-
vil "war, which did not ceafe till fome time after the
death of the young prince, on whom the nobles had
beftowed the kingdom. The archblfliop and his party
then continued to carry on war in the name of Ifabella
the king's fitter, to whom they gave the title of In/an-
ta ; and Henry could not extricate himfelf out of thefels ob iged
troubles, nor remain quiet upon his throne till he had|°j^<^'^-''o"***
figned one of the moft humiliating treaties ever ^xtort-^^^^^jl?^'*
ed from a fovereign ; he acknowledged his fitter Ifabel-i,eiia to bo
la the only lawful heirefs of his kingdom, in prejudice heirefs to
to the rights of his reputed daughter Joan, whom the'*** king-
maleconttnts affirmed to be the offspring of an adulter-*^""*
ous commerce between the queen and Don la Cueva.
The grand objedt of the malecontent party now was the
marriage of the princefs Ifabella, upon which, it was
evident, the fecurity of the crown and the happinefs of
the people muft.in a great meafure depend. The al-
liance was fought by feveral princes ; the king of Por-
tugal off"ered her his hand ; the king of France de-
manded her for his brother, and the king of Arragon
for his fon Ferdinand. The malecontents very wifely riel ta Per
preferred the Arragonian prir.ce, and Ifabella prudent- ^'"^"'^ °^
ly made the fame choice; articles weie drawn up ; and
they were privately married by the archbi/hop of To-
ledo.
4 K 2 Henry ,
5«
e iii mar-
SPA
.17
Union of
the kin.!-
^0018 of
Arrapon
and Sicily
wiih 1 eon
and Cadile.
58
Admin
Spair'. Tlenry was enraged at tljiis alliance, which he fore-
faw would utterly rtiln his authority, by furnifhing his
rebellious fubjcfts with the fuppert of a powerful neigh-
bouring prince. He difinherited his fifter, and efta-
blifhed the rijrhta of his daughter. A furi©us civil war
defolated the kingdom. T»"he names of Joan and Ifa-
belk refounded from every quarter, and were every-
where the fummons to arms- But peace was at length
brought about. Henry was reconciled to his fifter and
Ferdinand ; though it does not appear that he ever re-
newed Ifabella's right to the fucceflion : for he afijrmt'd
in his laft moments, that he believed Joan to be his own
daughter. The queen fwore to the fame effeft ; and
He nry left a teflamentary deed, traiifmitting the crown
to this princefs, who was proclaimed queen of Caftile at
Placentia. But the fuperior fortune and fuperior arms
of Ferdinand and Ifabella prevailed : the king of Por-
tugal was obliged to abandon his niece and intended
bride, after many inefFeftual ftruggles, and feveral years
of war. Joan retired into a convent ; and the death of
Ferdinand's father, which happened about this time,
added the kingdoms of Arragon and Sicily to thofe of
Leon and Caftile.
Ferdinand and Ifabella were perfons of great pru-
dence, and, as'fovereigns, highly worthy of imitation:
but they do not feem to have merited all the praifes
ftration of beftovved upon them by the Spanifh hiftorians. THey
I'erdinand did not Jive hke man ard wife, having all things in
ariGlfabella.^^^jj^^j^ mider the diredfion of the hnfband ; but like
two princes in clofe alliance ; they neither loved nor
hated each other; were feldom in company together;
had each a feparate council ; and were frequently jea-
lous of one another in the adminiftration. But they
were infeparably united in their common interefts ; al-
ways aAing upon the fame principles, and forwarding
the fame ends. Their firft objed was the regulation
of tliftr government, which the civil wars had thrown
into the greateft diforder. Rapine, outrage, and mur-
der, were become fo common, as not only to interrupt
commerce, but in a great meafure to fufpend all inter-
courfe between one place and another. Thefe evils the
join£ fovereigns fupprelTed by their wife policy, at the
fame time that they extended the royal prerogative,
of the Holy -^^out the middle of the 13th century, the cities in
Brother. kingdom of Arragon, and after their example thofe
in Caftile, had formed themfelves into an aflbciation,
diftinguiflied by the name of the Ho/y Brviherhocd.
They exafted a certain contribution from each of the
aiTociated towns ; they levied a confderable body of
troops, in order to prcteft travellers and purfue crimi-
nals ; and they appointed judges, who opened courts
in various parts of the kingdom. "Whoever was guilty
of murder, robbery, or any a6t that violated the pubhc
peace, and was feizcd by the troops of the Brother-
hood, was carried before their judges ; who, without
paying any regard to the exclufive jurifdiftiun which
the lord of the place might claim, who was generally
the author or abettor of the injuftice, tried and con-
demned the criminals. The nobles often murmured
againft this falutary inftitution ; they complained of it
as an encroachment on one of their moft valuable pri-
vileges, and endeavoured to get it abolifhed. But Fer-
dinand and Isabella, fenfible of the beneficial effefts of
the Brotherhood, not only in regard to the poHce of
their kingdom, but in its tendency to abridge, and by de-
[ 628 1
S 1? A
/9
trftitution
grecs annihilate, the territorial jurifdiftion of the nohl.
lity, countenanced the inftitution upon every occafion,
and fnpported it w ith the whole force' of royal autho-
rity ; by which means the prompt and impartial admi-
nifttatioa of juftice was reftored, and with it traiiquillity
and order returned.
But at the fame time that their Catholic majeflies
(for fuch was the title they now bore) were giving vi-
gour to their civil government, and fecuring their fub-
jefts from violence and opprefiion, an intemperate zeal ^
led them to eftabhfh an ecclefiaftical tribunal, equally f^^q^y
contrary to the natural rights of humanity and the mild '
fpirit of the gofpel. This was the court of inquifition;
which decides upon the honour, fortune, and even the
li e, of the unhappy wretch" who happens to fall under
the fufpicion of herefy, or a contempt of anything
prefcribed by the church, without his knowing, being
confronted with his accufers, or permitted either de-
fence or appeal. Six thoufand perfons were burnt by
order of this fanguinary tribunal within four years af-
ter the appointment of Torquemada, the firft inqui-
fitor-general ; and upwards of ico,ooo felt its fury.
The fame furious and bhnded zeal which led to the
depopulation of Spain, led alfo to its aggrandize-
ment.
The kingdom of Granada now alone remained of allCcnntt
the Mahometan pofleflions in Spain. Princes equally ^^ Gra
zealous and ambitious were naturally difpofed to turn
their eyes to that fertile territory, and to think of in-
creafing their hereditary domiiiions, by expelling the
enemies of Chrittianity, and extending its doftrines.
Ever^' thing confpired to favour their projedl : the
Moorifh kingdom was a prey to civil wars ; when Fer-
dinand, having obtained the bull of Sixtus IV. autho-
rizing a crufade, put himfelf at' the head of his troops,
and entered Granada. He continued the war with ra-
pid fuccefs: Ifabella attended him in feveral expedi-
tions ; and they were both in great danger at the fiege
of Malaga; an important city, which was di-fend'ed
with great courage, and taken in 1487. Baza was re-
duced in 1489, after the lofs of 20,oco men. Guadix
and Almeria were delivered up to them by the Moorifh
king Alzagel, who had firft dethroned his brother Al-
boacen, and afterwards been chafed from his capital by
his nephew Abdah. That prince engaged in the fer-
vice ot Ferdinand and Ifabella; who, after reducing
every other place of eminence, undertook the fiege of
Granada. Abdali made a gallant defence ; but all com-
mon cation with the country being cut eft', and all hopes
of relief at an end, he capitulated, after a fiege of ejght
months, on condition that he fi;ould enjoy the revenue
of certain places in the fertile mountains of Alpujarros;
that the inhabitants fliould retain the undilturbed pof-
feflion of their houfes, goods, and inheritances; the ufe
of their laws, and the free exercife of their religion.
Thus ended the empire of the Arabs in Spain, after it
had continued about 8c o years. They introduced the
arts and fciences into Europe at a time when it was
loft' in darknefs ; they poffefled many of the luxui ics of
life, wherf they were not even known among the neigh-
bouring nations ; and they feem to have given birth to
that romantic gallantry which fo eminently prevailed in
the ages of chivalry, and which, blending itfelf with the
venei-ation of the northern nations for the fofter fex,
ftill particularly diftinguifhes aiicieat from modern maT>.
iiers.
SPA
[ 62
Bpa5r>.
6i
W8 expel
1 from
ners. But the Moors, notwlthflandlhjj thefe* advanta.
ges, and the eulogies befto wed upon them by fome wri-
ters, appear always to have been deftitute of the cflen-
tial qualities of a polifhed people, humanily, generofity,
and mutual fympathy.
The conqiieil of Granada was followed by the expul-
fi«n, or rather the pillage and banifhraent, of the Jews,
who had engrofied all the wealth and commerce of Spain.
The inqiiifition exhaufted its rajre agaiiul thefe unhappy
people, many of whom pretended to embrace Chriltia-
nity, in order 'to preferve their property. About the
fame time their Catholic majefties concladed ail alliance
with the emperor Maximilian, and a trC-aty marriage
for their daughter Joan with his fon PhUip, avchdukeof
Ifc^very Aultria and fovereign of the Netherlands. About this
America, time alfo the contrad was concluded with Chriftopher
Calumbus for the-difcovery of new countries ; and the
counties of Rovtflillon and Cerdagne were agreed to be
reftored by Charles VIII. of France, before his expe-
dition into' Italv. The difco very of America was foon
. followed by extenlive' conquells in that quarter, as i^? re-
lated under the articled Mexico, Peru, Chili,' 'Sec.
which tended to raifc the Spanlft monarchy above any
*4 other in Europe. ' ■
UcefiSon cf q,^ ^y^^ Ac^th. of Ifabella, which happened in i 506,
^harlcs V p|^-|-p aichduke of Auftria came to Callile in order to
take pofTefiion of that kin-rdom as heir to his mother-
in law; but he dying in a ihort time after, his fon
i Charles V, afterwards emperor_ Germany, became
heir to the crown of Spain. Mis father at his death
left the king of France' governor to the young ptince,
and Ferdinand at his death left cardinal Ximenes fole re-
■t(ent 0: t.;a';lile, till the arrival of his grandfon. This
man, whofc charafter is no lefs fingular than iiluftrioas,
wlio united the abilities of a great ftatefman with the
abjeA devotion of- a fuperftitious monk, and the magni-
■ficen<:€ of a prime minitfer with the feverity of a mendi-
cant, maintained order and tranquiliity in Spain, not-
withllanding the difcontents of a turbulent and high-
Spirited nobihty. When they difputed his right to the
regency, he coolly fliowed them the teftam-;nt of Ferdi-
nand, and the ratification of that deed by Charles ; but
thefe not fatisfying them, and argument proving inef-
fcAual, he led them infenfibly towai ds a balcony, whence
they had a view of a large body of troops under arras,
and a formidable train of artillery, *• Behold (faid the
cardmal) the powers which I have received from his
Catholic majefty : by thefe I govern Caitile ; and will
^govern it, till the king, your mafter and mine, {hall
come to take poU'efTion of his kingdom." A declara-
tion fobold and determined fdenced alfopTt-jfition ; and
-Ximenes maintained his authority till the arrival of
^Charles in i 5 17.
The young king was received with univerfal acclama-
j»nd death tions of joy ; but Ximenes found Uttle caufe to rejoice,
'^f cardinal pjg fsized with a violent diforder, fuppofed to be
the efFedt of poifon ; and when he recovered, Charles,
prejudiced againft him by the Spani(h grandees and his
Flemifh courtiers, flighted his advice, and allowed him
every day to fink into negleft. The cardinal did not
bear this treatment with his ufual fortitude of fplrit.
He expefted a more grateful return from a prince to
whom he delivered a kingdom more flout ifliing than it
had been in any former age, and authority more exten-
ifive and better eftabliilicd than the moil illuftrious of hia
65
Difjrrsce
9 ] SPA / ^
anceftors had ever poffefled. Confcious of Hi's own I'n* Sp»ih, ^
tegrity and merit, he could not therefore refrain from '
giving veht, at times, to indignation and complaint.
He lamented the fate of his country, and foretold the
calamities to which it would be expofed from the info-
lencc, the rapacioufnefs, and the ignorance of ftrangers.
But in the mean time he received a letter from the king,
difmifling him from his councils, under pretence of ea-
fing his age of that burden which he had fo long and
fo ably fuftained. This letter proved fatal to the mini-
fter ; for he expired in a few hours after reading it. 65
V/hile Charles was taking pojTefTion of the throne ofMaximilia*
Spain, in eonfequence of the death of one grandfather, ^"^^^P^*^,^^^
another was endeavouring to obtain for him the ™pc-gie(acd ch'--
rial crown. With this view Maximilian affembled a'dietpcror.-
at Augfijurg, where he cultivated the favour of the
eleAors by many aftsof beneficence, in order to engage
them to choofe that young prince as his fuccefTor. But
Maximilian himfelf never having been crowned by the
pope, a ceremony deemed effential in that age, as well
as m the -preceding, he was confidered only as king of
■the Romans, or emperor eleft ; and no example occur-
ring in hiifojy of any perfon being chofen fucceffoi to a
king of the Romans, the Germans, always tenacious of
their forms, obllinately lefufed to confer upon Charles a
dignity for which their coniUtution knew no name.
But though Maximilian could not prevail upon the
German electors to choofe his grandfon of Spain king
of the Romans, he had difpofed their minds in favour
of that prince ; and other circumftances, on the death
of the emperor, coiifpired to the exaltation of Chailes.
The imperial crown had fo long continued in the Au-
ftrian line, that it began to be confidered as hereditary
in that family ; and Germany, torn by religious dif-
putes-, ftood in need of a po\Verful emperor, not only to
preferve its own internal tranquillity, but alfo to proteft
it againii: the vidlorious arms of the Turks, who under
Selim I. threatened fhe hberties of Europe. This fierce-
and rapid conqueror had already fubdued the Mama-
lukts, and made himfelf mafler of Egypt and Syria.
The power of Charles appeared neceflary to oppofe
that of .Selim. The extenfive dominions of the houfe
of Auftria, which gave him an interelt in the preferva-
tion of Germany ; the rich fovereignty of the Nether-
lands and Franche Compte ; the entire polfeflion of the
great and warlike kingdom of Spain, together with that
of Naples and Sicily, all united to hold him up to the
firft dienity among Chriftian princes ; and the new
world feemed only to be called into exiftence that its
treafures might enable him to defend Chriftendom
againlt the infidels. 8uch was the language of his par-
tifans. gy-
Francis I. however, no fooner received intelligence of F' ancis I*
the death of Maximilian, than he declared himfelf a can- afijires to .
didate for the empire ; and with no lefs confidence of'^* ^^"^
fuccefs than Charles. He trufted to his fuperior years
and experience ; his great reputation in arms ; and it
was farther urged in his favour, that the impetuoCty of
the French cavalry, 'added to the firnmets of the Ger-
man infantry, would prove irrefiftible, and not only be
fufficient, under a warlike emperor, to fct limits to the
ambitien of Selim, but to break entirely the Ottoman
power, and prevent it from, ever becoming dangerous
again to Germany.
Both claims ware plaufible. The dominions of Fran.
SPA
Spain. CIS wtrz lefs extenfive, but more united than thofe of
Charles, His fubjefts were numerous, a£live, brave, lo-
vers t>f glory, and lovers of their king. Thefe were
ftrong arguments in favour of his power, fo ncceflary at
this junQure : but he had no natural intereft in the Ger-
manic body ; and the eleAors, hearing fo much of mili-
tary force on each fide, became more alarmed for their
own privileges than the common fafety. They deter-
inincd to rejc<3; both candidates, and offered the impe-
rial crown to Frederic, furnamed the fVife, duke of
Saxony. But he, undazzlcd by the fplendour of an
objedl courted with fo much eagernefs by two mighty
monarchs, rejefted it with a magnanimity no lefs Angu-
lar than great.
" In times of tranquillity (faid Frederic), we wifh
for an emperor who has no power to invade our liber-
ties ; times of danger demand one who is able to fccure
our fafety. The Turkifh armies, led by a warlike and
viAorious monarch, are now affembling: they are ready
to pour in upon Germany with a violence unknown in
former ages. New conjundures call for new expedients.
The imperial fceptre muft. be committed to feme hand
more powerful than mine or that of any other German
prince. We pofTefs neither dominions, nor revenues,
nor authority, which enable us to encounter fuch a for-
midable enemy, Recourfe muft be had, in this exigen-
cy, to one of the rival monarchs. Each of them can
bring into the field forces fufficient for our defence.
13ut as the king of Spain is of German extraftion, a?
he is a member and prince of the empire by the terri-
tories which defcend to him from his grandfather, and
as his dominions flretch along that frontier which lies
moft expofcd to the enemy, his claim, in my opinion, is
69 preferable to that of a ftranger to our language, to our
t1 J 1 A. ^ __ . %y y^l 1 ^ r\ t *
I J
SPA
68
S^jcech of
Frederic
duke of
Saxony in'
favour of
£3hariet.
ed^in^^ nft country." Charles was 'elefted in
*^*^j.g°"£^"confequence of this fpeech in the year 1520.
this fpeech. The two candidates had hitherto conduced their ri-
-valfliip with emulation,, but without enmity. They had
even mingled in their competition many expreflions of
frieudfliip and regard. Francis in particular declared
with his ufual vivacity, that his brother .Charles and he
were fairly and openly fuitors to the fame miftrefs :
" The moft afliduous and fortunate (added he) will win
her ; and the other muft reft contented." But the pre-
ference was no fooner given to his rival, than Francis
difcovered all the paflions natural to difappointed ambi-
tion. He could not fupprefs his chagrin and indigna-
tion at being baulked in his favourite purfuit, and re-
jeded, in the face of all Europe, for a youth yet un-
A mutual known to fame. The fpirit of Charles refcnted fuch
iatredtakescontempt ; and from this jealoufy, ^s much as from op-
twewi'^^" P'^^itio" interefts, arofe that emulation between thofe
CharJesand^^o S^^^^ monarchs which involved them in almoft
Francis. perpetual 4ioftilities, and kept their whole age in move-
ment.
Charles and Francis had many interfering claims in
Italy ; and the latter thought himfelf bound in honour
to reftore the king of Navarre to his dominions, unjuftly
y , feized by the crown of Spain. They immediately be-
Both court gan to negotiate ; and as Henry VIII. of England was
the friend- the third prince of the age in power and in dignity, his
j^'^j^j^^^l'friendfhip was eagerly courted by each of the rivals.
England. He was the natural guardian of the liberties of Europe.
Senfible of the confequence which his fituation gave
him, and proud of his pre. eminence, Henry knew it to
be his int€rcft to keep the balance even between the Spain,
contending powers, and to reftrain both, by not joining nr-
entirely with either ; but he was feldom able to reduce
his ideas to pradice. Vanity and refentment were the
great fprings of^ all his undertakings ; and his neigh-
bours, by touching thefe, found an eafy way to draw
him into their meafures, and force him upon many rafh
and inconfiderate enterprifes, ' '
All the impolitic fteps in Henry's government muft
not, however, be imputed to himfelf ; many of them
were occafioned by the ambition and avarice of his
prime minifter and favourite cardinal Wolfey. This
man, who, by his talents and accomplifliments, bad rifen
from one of the loweft conditions in life to the higheft
employments both in church and ftate, enjoyed a greater
degree of power and dignity than any Englifh fubjedl
ever poffeffed, and governed the haughty, prefumptu-
ous, and untradable fpirit of Henry, ,with abfolute au-
thority. Francis was equally well acquainted with the
charader of Henry and of his minifter. He had fuc-
cefsfully flattered Wolfey's pride, by honouring him with
particular marks of his confidence, and beftowing upon
him the appellation of Father, Tutor, and Governor;
and he had obtained the reftitution of Tournay, by ad-
ding a penfion to thofe refpeftful titles. He now fo-
liated an interview with the king of England neat Ca-
lais; in hopes of being able, by familiar converfation, to An inter-
attach hitn to his friendfliip and intereft, while he gra- view prou
tified the cardinal's vanity, by affording him an oppor-^^'^^'*
tunity of difplaying his magnificence in the prefence of pran"ig
two courts, and of difcovering to the two nations his in- Henry,
fiuence over their monarchs. Charles dreaded the ef-
feds of this projeded interview between two gallant
princes, whofe hearts were no lefs fufceptible of f riend-
ftiip than their manners were of infpiring it. Finding
it impoflible, however, to prevcjit a vifit, in which the
vanity of all parties was fo much concerned, he endea-
voured to defeat its purpofe, and to pre-occupy the fa-
vour of the Englifli monarch, and of his minifter, by
an adl of complaifance ftill more flattering and more un- 73
common. Relying wholly upon Henry's generofity for?'^^!'^*"
his fafety, he landed at Dover, in his way from Spain f„' £0X11'
to the Low Countries. The king of England, who
was on his way to France, charmed with fuch an in-
ftance of confidence, haftened to receive his royal gueft;
and Charles, during his fliort ftay, had the addrefs not
only to give Henry favourable impreffions of his fcha-
radler and intentions, but to detach Wolfey entirely
from the intereft of Francis. The tiara had attraded
the eye of that ambitious prelate ; and as the emperor
knew that the papacy was the fole point of elevation,
beyond his prefent greatnefs, at which he could afpire,
he made him an offer of his intereft on the firft va-
cancy.
The, day of Charles's departure, Henry went over to Henry vifiti
Calais with his whole court, in order to meet Francis. ^''I'ancis ig
Their interview was in an open plain between Guifnes^*'*'^"
and Ardres ; where the two kings and their attendants
difplayed their magnificence with fuch emulation and
profufe expence, as procured it the name of the Field of
the Cloth of Gold. Here Henry erefted a fpacious
houfe of w^ood and canvas, framed in London, or
which, under the figure of an Englifh archer, was the
following motto : " He prevails whom I favour ;" al-
lading to his own political fitugttion, as holding in his
hands
Spain.
SPA [63
hands the balance of power timontr the potentates of
Europe. Feats of chivalry however, parties of gallan-
try, and fuch exerciles as were in that age reckoned
manly or elegant, rather than ferious bufinefs, occupied
the two courts durin.^^ the time that they continued to-
gether, which was 18 days.
After taking leave of this fccne of diflipation, the king
of England paid a vlfit to the emperor and Margaret_of
Savoy at Gravtlines, and engaged them to go along
with him to Calais; where the artful and politic Charles
completed the impreffion which he had begun to make
on Henry and his favourite, and effaced all the friend-
fliip to which the frank and generous nature of Francis
had given birth. He renewed his affurances of alTifting
Wolfey in obtaining the papacy ; and he put him in
prefent pofTefiion of the revenues belonging to the fees
of Badajox and Palencia in Spain, He flattered Hen-
ry's pride, by convincing him of his own importance,
and of the juilnefs of the motto which he had chofen ;
offering to fubmit to his fole arbitration any difference
that n\\{\ht arife between him and Francis.
ChaHes in- Thislmportant point being fecured, Charles repaired
vefted with to Aix-la-Chapelle, where he was fokmnly invelled with
the impc- the crown and fceptre of Charlemagne, in prefence of a
more fplendid and numerous affcmbly than had appear-
ed on any former inauguration. , About the fame time
Solyman the Magnificent, one of the moll accomphfhed,
enterprifmg, and vIAorious of the Turkilh princes, and
a conflant and formidable rival to the emperor, afcended
the Ottoman throne.
The lirft aft of Charles's adminiftration was to ap-
point a diet of the empire, to be held at Worms, in or-
der to concert with the princes proper meafures for
checking the progrefs of " thofe new and dangerous
opinions which threatened to diilurb the peace of Ger-
many, and to overturn the religion of their anceflors."
The opinions propagated by Luther and his followers
were here meant. But ajl his efforts for that purpoie
were infiifficient, as is related under the articles Lu-
ther and Reformation,
In 1521, the Spaniards, diffatisfied with the depar-
]
SPA
rial crown
at Aix-la-
Chapelle.
?6
War be
tweenFran-ture of their fovereign, whofe eletlion to the empire
CIS and
, Charles.
they forefaw would interfere with the adminiftration of
his own kingdom, and inccnfed at the avarice of the
Flemings, to whom the direftlon of public affairs had
been committed fince the death of cardinal Ximencs, fc-
\eral grandees, in order to fhake off this oppreflion, en-
tered into an alTociation, to which they gave the name
of the SanSa Junaa ; and the fword was appealed to
as the means of redrefs. This feemed to Francis a fa-
vourable junfture for reinftating the family of John
d' Albert in the kingdom of Navarre. Charles was at
a dillance from that part of his dominions, and the
troops ufually flationed there had been called away to
quell the comniotions in Spain. A French army, un-
der Andrew de Foix, fpeedily conquered Navarre ; but
that young and inexperienced nobleman, pufhed on by
military ardour, ventured to enter Caflile. ^The Spa-
niards, though divided among themfelves, unfted againft
a foreign enemy, routed his forces, took him prifoner,
and recovered Navarre in a fhorter time than he had
Ipent in fubduing it.
HoftiKtles thus begun in one quarter, between the
vival monarchs, foon fpread to another. The king of
FraBce encouraged the-duke of Bouillon t© make war
againll the emperor, and to invg^de Luxembourg. Charles, . -^P"" .
after humbling the duke, attempted to enter France j ^ "' '
but was repelled and worfled before Mezleres by the fa-
mous chevalier Bayard, dUlInguiflied among his cotenr-
poraries by the appellation of The Knight ivtthout fear
and ivithout reproach ; and who united the talents of a
great general to the punftilious honotir and romantic
gallantry of the heroes of chivalry.^ Francis broke into
the Low Countries, where, by an excefs of cautl(5n, an:
error not natural to him, he loft an oppm-tunity of cut-
ting off the whole Imperial army; and, what was of flilV
more confequerice, he difgufted the conftable Bourbon,-
by giving the comrtiand of the van to the duke of Alen-
9on.
During thefe operations in the field, an unfuccefsful
congrefs was held at Calais, under the mediation of
Henry VHL It ferved only to exafperate the parties
which it was intended to reconcile. A league was-
foon after concluded, by the intrigues of Wolfey, be-
tween the pope, Henry, and Charles, againft France.
Leo had already entered into afeparate league with the
emperor, and the French were fait lofmg ground in
Italy.
The infolence and exaftions of Marefhal'de Lautrec,
governor of Milan, had totally alienated the affeftions
of the Milanefe from France.. They refolved to expel
the troops of that nation, and put themfelves under the
government of Francis Sforza, brother to Maximihan
their late duke. In this refolution, they were encou-
raged by the pope, who excommunicated Lautrec, ai^'i f/com
took into his pay a confiderable body of Swifs. Theq^gj^g
papal army,' commanded by Profper Colonna, an expe- charies.
rienced general, was joined by fupphes from Germany
and Naples ; while Lautrec, negletied by his court, and
deferred by the Swifs in its pay, was unable to make
head againft the enemy. The city of Milan was be-
trayed by the inhabitants to the confederates ; Parma-
and Placentia were united to the ecclefiaftieal ftate ; and
of their conquefts in Lombardy, only the town of Cre-
mona, the cafllc of Milan, and a few inconfiderable-
forts, remained in the hands of the French.
I^eo X. received the accounts of this rapid fuccefs
with fuch tranfports of joy, as are faid to have brought
on a fever, which occafioned his death. The fpirit of
the confederacy was broken, and its operations fufpend-
ed by this accident. The Swifs were recalled; fome
other mercenaries difbanded for want of pay ; and only
the Spaniards, and a few Germans in the emperor's fer- '
vice, remained to defend the duchy of Milan. But
Lautrec, who with the remnant of his army had taken
flicker in the Venetian territories, deftitute both ofmen^
and money, was unable to improve this favourable op-
portimity as he wifhed. All his efforts were rendered'
ineffeft ual by the vigilance and abihty of Colonna and'
his affociates.
Meantime much difcord prevailed in the conclave,-
Wolfey's name, notwithftanding all the emperor's mag-
nificent promlfes, was fcarcely mentioned there. Julio
de Medici, liCo's nephew, thought himfelf fure of the-
cleftlon ; when, by an unexpefted turn of fortune,
cardinal Adrian of Utr€cht, Charles's preceptor, who
at that time governed Spain in the emperor's name,-
was unanimoufly raifed to the papacy, to the aftonifh-
mentofall Europe and the great difguft of the Ita-
lians,
Franeisj
I
S P A
^"P^''^^ , FranciSj roufed by tli$ riling confcqucnce of his rival,
^'"''"''""^^'"^ refolved to exert kirn jn order to
Francis in- ^'^'^^^ ^im his late conquefts in I.ombardJ^ I^aur
-wade* Italy, tree received a fupply of money, and a reinforcement of
1 0,000 Swifs. With this reinforcement he was enabled
Qlice more to ad ofFenfively, and even to advance within
a fevi^ miles of the eity of Milan ; w^hen money again
failing him, and the ,Swifs growing- mutinous, he was
obliged to attack the imperialills in their camp at Bi-
cocca, where he was repulfed with great flaughter, ha-
ving loft his bravell officer* and beft troops. Such of
the Swifs as furvived fet out immediately for their own
country; and Lautrec, defpairing of being able to keep
the field, retired into France. Genoa, which Ml re-
niained fubjed to Francis, and made if eafy to execute
any fcheme for the recovery of Milan, was foon after
taken by Colonna : the authority of the emperor and
his fadion was everywhere ellabli/hed in Italy, The
citadel of Cremona was the fole fortrefs which remained
in the hands of the French.
The afflidion of Francis for fuch a fucceffion of mifi
fortunes was augmented by the unexpeded arrival of an
Englifli herald, who in the name of his fovereign de-
Glared war againft France. The courage of this excel-
lent prince, however, did not forfake him ; thouph his
treafury was exhaufted by txpenfive pleafures, no lels
than by hoftile enterprifes, he alTembled a confiderable
army, and put his kingdom in a pofture of defence for
refilling this new enemy, without "abandoning any of
the fcheraes which he was forming againft the empe-
ror. He was furprifed, but not alarmed, at fuch a de-
79 nunciation.
ElT'lI'd Charles, willing to draw as much advan-
a fecofd^" poffible from fo powerful an ally, paid a iecond
time. V'^it to the court of England in his way to Spain,
where his prtfence was become neceffary. His fuccefs
exceeded his moll fanguine expedations. He not only
gained the entire friendfliip of Henry, who pubhcly ra- ■
tified the treaty of Bruges ; but difarmed the refent-
ment of Wolfey, by alluring him of the papacy on A-
drian's death ; an event feeftiingly not diftant, by rea-
fon of his age and infirmities. In confequence of thefe
negociations an Englifh army invaded France, under
the com.mand of the earl of Surrey ; who, at the end
of the campaign, was obliged to retire, with his forces
greatly reduced, without bein^r able to make himfelf
mafter of one place within the French frontier. Charles
was more fortunate in Spain : he foon quelled the tu-
mults which had there arifen in his abfence.
While the Chrittian princes were thus wafting each
other's ftrength, Solyman the Magnificent entered Hun-
gary, and made himfelf mafter of Belgrade, reckoned
the chief barrier of that kingdom againft the Turkifh
power. Encouraged by. this fuccefs, he turned his
vidorious arms againft the ifland of Rhodes, at that
80 time the feat of, the knights of St John of Jerufalem ;
Rhodes ta. and though every prince in that age acknowledged"
iyZaJ ^.hodes to be the great bulwark of Chriftendom in the
ea't, fo violent was their animofity againft each other,
that they fuff^ered Solyman without difturbance to carry
on his operations againft. that city and ifland. Lifle
Adain, the grandmafter, made a gallant defence ; but,
after incredible efforts of courage, patience,1;.nd military
condud, during a fiege of fix moaths, he was obliged to
furrender the place, having obtained an honourable ca-
pitulation from 'the f«ltan, who admired ' and refpfd^d Spaia
his heroic qualities (fee Rhodes and Malta). Charles
and Francis were equally alhamed of having occafioned
fuch a lofs to Chriftendom by their contetts ; and the
emperor, by way of reparation, granted to the kJiightj '
of St John the fmall illand of Maka, where they fixed
their refidence, and continued long to retain their an-
cient fpirit, though much diminifhed in power and fplen-
dour.
Adrian VI. though the creature of the emperor, and-
devoted to his intereft, endeavoured to afiume the in^..
partiality which became the common father of Chriften-,
dom, and laboured to reconcile the contending princes,
that they might unite in a league againft Solyman,
whofe conqueft of Rhodes rendered him more formi,
dable than ever to Europe. The Italian ftates were lio,
lefs defirous of peace than the pope : and fo much re-
gard was paid by the hoftile powers to the exhortation*,
of his holinefs, and to a bull which he iffued, rcquiriusj-
all Chiiftian princes to conftiit to a truce for three,
years, that the imperial, the French, and the Englifh-
ambaffadors at Rome, were empowered to treat of that
matter ; but while they wafted their time in fruitlefs
negociations, their mafters were continuing their pre-
parations for war ; apd other negociations foon took 81
place. Thtv confederacy againft France became more A powe
tormidable than ever. ci-nfeiera
The Venetians, who had hitherto adhered to the.p^*'"'^
French intereft, formed engagements with the emperor
for fecuring Francis Sforza .in the poffefiion of the
duchy of Milan ; and the pope, from a perfuafion that
the ambition of the French monarch was the onlv ob-
ftacle to peace, acceded to the fame alliance. The
Florentines, the dukes of Ferrara and Mantua, and all
the Itahan powers, followed this example. Francis was.
left without a fingle ally, to refift the eff"ortB of a mul-
titude of enemies, whofe armies everywhere threatened,
' and whofe territories encompafled his dominions. I'he
emperor in perfon menaced France with an invafion on
the fide of Guienne ; the forces of England, and the
Netherlands hovered over Picardy, and a numerous bo-
dy of Germans was preparing to ravage Burgundy.
The dread of fo many and fuch powerful adverfaries,
it was thought, would have obliged Francis to keep
wholly on the deienfive, or at leaft have prevented him
from entertaining any thoughts of marching intd Italy.
But before his enemies were able to ftrike a blow,
Francis had affembled a great army, with which he ho-
ped to difconcert all the emperor's fchemes, by march-
ing it in perfon into Italy : and this bold mealure, the Fraiic?8
more formidable becaufe unexpeded, could fcarcely have marches t
failed of the defired effed, had it been immediately car- ^^^^^ Italj
ried into execution. But the difcovery of a doraeftic ''"j
confpiracy, which threatened the deftrudion of his ^rn'^by 1"
kingdom, obliged Francis to ftop Ihort at Lyons. domeftic
Charles duke of Bourbon, lord high conftable of "^o^fp'^^y'
France, was a prince of the moft fliining merit : his
great talents equally fitted him tor the council or the
field, whilc: his eminent fervices. to the crown intitled
him to its firft favour. But . unhappily Louifa duchefs
of, Angouleme, the king's mother, had coiitraded a
violent averfion againft the houfe of Bourbon, and had
taught her fon, over whom file had acquired an abfolute
afcendant, to vie.w all the conftable's adions with a jea-
lous eye. After repeated affronta he retired from court,.
7 and
SPA [
»ml began t« Kften to the advances of the emperor's
minifters. Meanrlme the duchefs of- Bourbon died ; and
as the conftable was no lefs amiable than accomplifhed,
.4.he duchefs of Angouleme, ftill fufceptible of the tender
paffions, formed the fcheme of marrying him. But
Bourbon, who might have expefted every thing to
which an ambitious mind can afpire, from the doating
fondnefs of a vimrnan vyho governed her fon and the
kingdom, incapable of imitating Louifa in her fudden
tranfition from hate to love, or of meanly counterfeit-
ing a pafRon for one w^ho had fo long purfued kirn with
unprovoked malice, rejefted the match with difdain, and
turned the propofal into ridicule. At once defpifed and
infulted by the man whom love only could have made
her ceafe to perfecute, Louifa was filled with all the
rage of difappoiated woman ; fhe refolved to ruin, fince
fhe could not marry, Bourbon. For this purpofe fhe
commenced an iniquitous fuit againft him ; and by the
chicanery of chancellor du Prat, the conftable was ftrip-
ped of his whole family-eftate. Priven to defpair by
i"o many injuries, he entered into a fecret correfponi
dence with the emperor and the king of England ; and
he propofed, as foon as Francis fhould have crofied the
Alps, to raife an infurreftlon among his numerous vaf-
fals, and introduce foreign enemies into the heart of
France.
Happily Francis got intimation of this confpiracy
before he left the kingdom ; but not being fufficiently
convinced of the Conftable's guilt, he fuffered fo dan-
gerous a foe to efcape ; and Bourbon entering into the
emperor's fervice, employed all the force of his enter-
prifmg genius, and his great talents for war, to the
prejudice of his prince and his native country.
In confequence of the difcovery of this plot, and the
efcape of the powerful confpirator, Francis relinquifhed
his intention of leading his army in perfon into Italy.
He was ignorant how far the infeftion had fpread
among his fubjefts, and afraid that his abfence might
encourage them to make fome defperate attempt in fa-
vour of a man fo much beloved. He did not, however,
my enters abandon his defign on the Milanefe, but fent forward
an army of 30,000 men, under the command of admi-
ral Bonnivet. Colonna, who was entrufted with the
defence of that duchy, was in no condition to refift
fuch a force ; and the city of Milan, on which the
whole territory depends, muft have fallen into the
hands of the French, had not Bonnivet, who pofTeffed
none of the talents of a general, wafted his time in
frivolous enterprifes, till the inhabitants recovered from
their confternation. The imperial army was reinforced.
Cblonna died ; and I.annoy, viceroy of Naples, fuc-
ceeded him in the command : but the chief direftion
of mihtary operations was committed to Be>urbon and
the marquis de Pefcara, the greateft generals of their
age. Bonnivet, deftitute of troops to oppofe this new-
army, and ftill more of the talents which could render
him a match for its leaders, after various movements
and encounters, was reduced to the neceffity of attempt-
efeated at ing a retreat into France. He was followed by the im-
agraffa. perial generals, and routed' at Biagrafl'a, where the fa-
mous chevalier Bayard was killed.
The emperor and his allies were lefs fuccefsful in
their attempts upon France. They were baffled in
every quarter : and Francis, though ftripped of his
Italian dominions, might ftill have enjoyed in fafety
Vol. XVII. Part II.
633 1 SPA
the glorj' of having" defended his native kingdom asfainl^
one half of Europe, and have bid defiance to all his
enemies ; but underftanding that the king of England,
difcouraged by his former fruitlefs enterprifes, and dif-
gufted with the emperor, was making no preparations Francis de-.
for any attempt on Picardy, his ancient ardour feizcd ''^'"'""los
Spain
85
S3
French
ay.
84
him for the conqueft of Milan, and he determined, not-j^ f"?^''
withftanding the advanced feafon, to march into Italy. [i^^J^^^^^"
The French army no fooner appeared in Piedmont,
than t\-\e whole Milanefe was thrown into confternation.
The capital opened its gates. The forces of the empe«
ror and Sforza retired to Lodi : • and had Francis been
fo fortunate as to purfue them, they muft have aban-
doned that poft, and been totally difperfed ; but his
evil genius led him to befiege Pavia, a tou'n of confi-
derable ftrength, well garrifoned, and defended by An-
tonio de Leyva, one of the braveft officers in the Spa- §(>
nifh fervice; before which place he was defeate4 and (s defeated
taken prifoner on the twenty-fourth day of February ^"^l'^'^'^"
' ' priioner at
^^'4- . . , . . Favia.
The captivity of Francis filled all Europe with alarm.
Almoft the whole French army was cut off; Milan was
immediately abandoned; and in a few weeks not a
Frenchman was left in Italy. The power of the em-
peror, and ftill more his ambition, became an objeft of
univerfal terror; and refolutions were everywhere taken
to fet bounds to it. Meanwhile Francis, deeply iin-
preffed with a fenfe of his misfortune, wrote to his mo-
ther Louifa, whona he had left regent of the kingdom,
the following fhort but expreffive letter : All, Ma-
dam, is loft but honour." The fame courier that car-
ried this letter, carried alfo difpatchcs to Charles ; who HypocricU-
received the news of the fignal and unexpe6led fuccefs*^^^ '^""'''"'^^
which had crowned his arms with the moft hypocritical*^^ Charles, j
moderation. He would not fuffer any public rejoicings
to be made on account of it ; and faid, he only valued
it, as it would prove the occafion of reftoring peace to
Chriftendom. Louifa, however, did not truft to thofe
appearances ; if ftie could not preferve what was yet
left, fhe determined at leaft that nothing Ihould be loft
through her negligence or wcaknefs. Inftead of giving
herfelf up to fuch lamentations as were natural to a wo-
man fo remarkable for maternal tendernefs, ftie difco-
vered all the forefight, and exerted all the adlivity, of a
confummate politician. She took every poflible mea-
fure for putting the kingdom in a pofture of defence,
while fhe employed all her addrefs to appeafe the refent-
ment and to gain the friendfhip of England ; and a ray
of comfort from that quarter foon broke in upon the
French afiairs.
Though Henry VIII. had not entered into the war
againft France from any concerted political views, he
had always retained fome imperfeft idea of that balance
of power which it was neceffary to maintain between
Charles and Francis ; and the prefervation of which he
boafted to be his peculiar office. By his alliance with
the emperor, he hoped to recover lome part of thofe
territories on the continent which had belonged to his
anceftors ; and therefore willingly contributed to give
him the afc^ndency above his rival ; but having never
dreamt of any event fo decifive and fatal as the vi6tory
at Pavia, which feemed not only to have broken, but to
have annihilated the power of Francis, he now became
fenfible of his own danger, as well as that of all Europe,
from the lofs of a proper counterpoife to the power of
4 L Charles.
SPA
r 634 1
SPA
Ftance af-
8$
l^ranci^ fe-
"by his con
queror.
Spain. Charles. Inftead of takinir advantage of the diftreffed
"""^C^ condition of France, Henry therefore determined to
aflift her in her prefent calamities. Some dif?ufls alfo
had taken place between him and Charles, and ftill more
HeuryV, II, between Charlen and Wolfey, The elevation of the
cardinal of Medici to St Peter's chair, on the death of
Adrian, under the name of Clement VII. had made the
Enghfh minifter fenfible of the infincerity of the empe-
ror's promifes, while it extinguilhed all his hopes of the
papacy ; and he refolved on revenge. Charles, too,
had fo ill fiipported the appearance of moderation which
he affumed, when firft informed of his good fortune,
that he had already changed his ufual ftyle to Henry ;
and inftead of writing to him with his own hand, and
fubfcribing himfelf " your affeftionate fon and coufin,"
he dictated his letters to a fecretary, and limply fub-
' fcribed himfelf " Charles." Influenced by all thefe
motives, together with the glory of raifing a fallen ene-
my, Henry liftened to the flattering fubmiffions of Loui-
fa ; entered into a defenfive alliance with her as regent
of France, and engaged to ufe his,beft of&ces in order
to procure the deliverance of her fon from a ftate of
captivity.
Meanwhile Francis was rigoroufly confined ; and fe-
yerely ufed ^^^^ conditions beinof propofed to him as the price of
his liberty, he drew his dagger, and, pomtmg it at his
breaft, cried, " 'Twere better that a king fhould die
thus !" His hand was with-held : and flattering him-
felf, when he grew cool, that fuch proportions could
not come 'diredtly from Charles, he defired that he
might be removed to Spaia, where the emperor then
refided. His requeft was complied with ; but he lan-
guilhed long before he obtained a fight of his conque-
ror. At laft he was favoured with a vifit ; and the em-
peror dreading a general combination againfl: him, or
that Francis, as he threatened, might, in the obftinacy
of his heart, refign his crown to the dauphin, agreed to
abate fomewhat of his former demands. A treaty was
accordingly concluded at Madrid ; in confequence of
which Francis obtained his liberty. The chief article
in this treaty vras, that Burgundy fhould be reftored to
Charles as the rightful inheritance of his anceftors, and
that Francis's two eldell fons fhould be immediately de-
livered up as hoftages for the performance of the con-
ditions ftipulated. The exchange of the captive mo-
narch for his children was made on the borders between
France and Spain. The moment that Francis entered
his own dominions, he mounted a Turkifh horfe, and
putting it to its fpeed, waved his hand, and cried aloud
^ feveral times, " 1 am yet a king! I am yet a king!"
Refufes to Francis never meant to execute the treaty of Ma-
exectite tho ^^jj . ]^^^ tvcn left a proteit in the hands of nota-
ries before he figned it, that his confent fliould be con-
fidered as an involuntary deed, and be deemed null and
void. Accordingly, as foon as he arrived in France,
he affembled the ilates of Burgundy, who pretefted
againft the article relative to their province ; and Fran-
cis coldly replied to the imperial ambaffadors, who
urged the immediate execution of the treaty, that he
would retigioully perform the articles relative to him-
felf, but in thofe affeding the Frenchmonarchy^ he
muft be direfted by the fenfe of the nation. He made
the hlgheft acknowledgments to the king of England
for his friendly interpofition, and offered to be entirely
|;uided by hia counfels. Charles and his jninifters law
Spain
90
Is at laft
xeleafcd.
conditions
tif his re-
kafe.
that they were over-reached in thofe very arts of nego-
ciation in which they fo much excelled, while the Ita-
lian Itates obferved with pleafure, that Francis was re-
folved not to execute a treaty which they confidered as
dangerous to the liberties of Europe. Clement abfol-
ved him from the oath v^hich he had taken at Madrid ;
and the kings of France and England, the Pope, the
Swifs, the Venetians, the Florentines, and the duke of
Milan, entered into aj? alliance, to which they gave the
name of the Holy League, becaufe his Holinefs was at
the head of it, in oider to oblige the emperor to deliver
up Francis's two fons on the payment of a reafonahle
ranfom, and to re-eftablifli Sforza in the quiet pofleflion
of the Milanefe.
In confequence of this league, the confederate army
took the field, and Italy once more became the fcene
of war. But Francis, who it was thought would have
infufed fpirit and vigour into the whole jjody, had gone
through fuch a fcene of diflrefs, that he was become
diffident of himfelf, diftruilfiil of his fortune, and de-
firous of tranquillity. He flattered himfelf, that the
dread alone of fuch a confederacy would induce Charles
to liflen to what was equitable, and therefore neglefted
to fend due reinforcements to his allies in Italy. Mean-
time the duke of Bourbon, who commanded the Impe-
rialifls, had made himfelf mailer of the whole Milanefe,
of which the emperor had promifed him the inveftiture;
and his troops beginning to mutiny for want of pay, Rorne ta
he led them to Rome, and promifed to enrich them ken by t
with the fpoils of that city. He was as good as his^'"P^'^^^
word ; for though he himfelf was flain in planting a
fcaling ladder againfl the walls, his foldiers, rather en-
raged than difcouraged by his death, mounted to the
aflault with the utmofl ardour, animated by the great-
nefs of the prize, and, entering the city fword in hand,
plundered it for feveral days.
Never did Rome in any age fuffer fo many calami- And mc
ties, not even from the Barbarians, by vvhom fhe was ^'■"^^'y
®ften fubdued, the Huns, Vandals, or Goths, asnow^""^' "
from the fubjefls of a Chriflian and Catholic monarch.
Whatever was refpeftablc in modefly, or facred in reli-
gion, feeraed only the more to provoke the rage of the
foldiery. Virgins fuffered violation in the arms of their
parents, and upon thofe altars to which they had fled
for fafety. Venerable prelates, after enduring every in-
dignity and every torture, were thrown into dungeons,
and menaced with the moft cruel death, in order to
make them reveal their fecret treafures. Clement him-
felf, who had negleftcd to make his efcape in time, was
taken prifoner, and found that the facrednefs of his cha-
radler could neither procure him liberty nor refpedi.
He was confined till he fhould pay an enormous ranfom pj^g^pJ
impofed by the vi&orious army, and furrender to the confjne<
emperor ^all the places of ftrength belonging to the
church.
Charles received the news of this extraordinary event shami
with eqi^al furprife and pleafure ; but in order to con-hypoci
ceal his joy from his Spanifh fubjefb, who were filled
with horror at the infult offered to the fovereign pon-
tiff, and to leffen the indignation of the reft of Europe,
he expreffed the moft profound forrow for the fuccefs
of his arms. He put himfelf and his court into mourn-
ing; ftopped the rejoicings for the birth of his fon Phi-
lip, and ordered prayers to be put up in all the church-
es of Spaia for the recovery of the pope's liberty^
Z ' ' vriiicfc.
pain.
96
French
ny enter
ly, but
utterly
SPA [ 63J: ] SPA
which he could immediately have procured by a letter the hereditary domjnlons of the^houfe of Auftna, and , Sp^'"
to his generals.
The concern expreffed by Henry and Francis for the
calamity of their ally was more fmcere. Alarmed at
the progrefs of the imperial arms, they had, even before
the taking of Rome, entered into a clofer alliance, and
agreed to invade the Low Countries with a powerful
army ; but no fooner did they he^ of the Pope's cap-
tivity, than they changed, by a new treaty, the fcene of
the projected war from the Netherlands to Italy, and re-
folved to take the moft vigorous meafures for rettoring
him to liberty. Henry, however, contributed only mo-
ney. A French army entered Italy, under the com-
mand of Marlhal Lautrec ; Clement obtained his free-
dom ; and war was for a time carried on by the confede-
rates with fuccefs ; but the death of Lautrec, and the
revolt of Andrew Doria, a Genoefe admiral in the fer-
vlce of France, entirely changed the face of affairs.
97
•ace con.
uded at
ambray.
u 98
ha'les
)es into
ermany.
The French army was utterly ruined ; and Francis, dif-
couraged and almoft exhaufted by io many unfuccefsful
enterprifes, began to think of peace, and of obtaining
the releafe of his fons by conceffions, not by the terror
of hk arms.
At the fame time Charles, notwithftanding the ad-
vantages he had gained, had many reafons to wifh for
an accommodation. Sultan Solyman having over-run
Hungary, was ready to break In upon the Auftrian ter-
ritories with the whole force of the Eaft ; and the pro-
grefs of the Reformation in Germany threatened the
tranquiUIty of the empire. In confequence of this fi-
tuatlon of affairs, though pride made both parties con-
ceal or dilTemble their real fentlments, two ladies were
permitted to reftore peace to Europe. Margaret of
Auftria, Charles's aunt, and Loulfa, Francis's mother,
met in 1 529 at Cambray, and fettled the terms of ac-
commodation between the French king and the empe-
ror. Francis agreed to pay two millions of crowns as
the ranfom of his two fons, to refign the foverelgnty of
Flanders and Artols, and t© forego all his Itahan claims;
and Charles ceafed to demand the reftitution of Bur-
gundy.
All the fteps of this negoclation had been communi-
cated to the king of England ; and Henry was, on that
occafion, fo generous to his friend and ally Francis, that
he fent him an acquittal of near fix hundred thoufand
crowns, in order t® enable him to fulfil his agreement
with Charles. But Francis's Italian confederates were
lefs fatlsfied with the treaty of Cambray. They were
almoft wholly abandoned to the will of the emperor ;
•and feemed to have no other means o!: fecurlty left but
his equity and moderation. Of thefe, from his paft con-
dud, they had not formed the moft advantageous idea.
But Charles's prefent circumttances, more efpecially in
regard to the Turks, obliged him to behave with a ge-
nerofity inconfiftent with his charafter. The Floren-
tines alone, whom he reduced under the dominion of
the family of Medici, had reafon to complain of his fe-
verlty. Sforza obtained the inveftiture of Milan and
his pardon ; and every other power experienced the le-
nity -of the conqueror.
Atter having received the Imperial crown from the
hands of the Pope at Bologna, Charles proceeded on
his journey to Germany, where his prefence was become
highly neceffary ; for although the conduA and valour
of his brother Ferdinand, on whom he had conferred
who had been elefted king of Hungary, had obliged
Solyman to retire with infamy and lofs, his return was
to be feared, and the diforders of religion were daily in-
creafing ; an account of vi^hich, and of the emperor's
traufaftions with the ProteftantS; is given under the ar-
ticle Reformation. 99
Charles having exerted hirafelf as much as he could ^^^^ under-,
agalnfl the reformers, undertook his firft expedition ^^^^^j^^"
againll the piratical ftates of Africa. Barbary, or that .ainft the
part of the African continent lying along the coaft of ftate of
the Mediterranean fca, was then nearly in the fame con - Barbary.
dition which it Is at prefent. Morocco, Algiers, and
Tunis, were its principal ftates ; and the two laft were
nefts of pirates. Barbaroffa, a famous Corfair, had fuc-
ceeded his brother in the kingdom of Algiers, which
he had formerly afiifted him to ufurp. He regulated
with much prudence the interior police of his kingdom,
carried on his piracies with great vigour, and extended
his conquefts on the continent of Africa ; but percei-
ving that the natives fubmltted to his government with
impatience, and fearing that his continual depredations
would one day draw upon him a general combination of
the Chriftlan powers, he put his dominions under the
protection of the grand feignior. Solyman, flattered by
fuch an aft of fubmiflion, and charmed with the bold-
nefs of the man, offered him the command of the Turk-
i/h fleet. Proud of this diftinftion, Barbaroffa repaired
to Conftantinople, and made ufe of his influence with
the fultan to extend his own dominion. Partly by
force, partly by treachery, he ufurped the kingdom of
Tunis ; and being now pofTeffcd of greater power, he
carried on his depredations againft the Chtiftian ftates
with more deftrudtive violence than ever.
Daily complaints of the piracies and ravages com-
mitted by the galleys of Barbaroffa were brought to
the emperor by his fubjedts, both In Spain and Italy ;
and all Chriftendom feemed to look up to him, as its
greateft and moft fortunate prince, for relief from this
new and odious fpecles of oppreffion. At the fame
lime Muley-Hafcen, the exiled king of Tunis, finding
none of the African princes able or wilh'ng to fuppoi-t
him in recovering his throne, applied to Charles lor af-
fiftance againft the ufurper. Equally defirous of deli-
vering his doniinlons fi-om the dangerous neighbourhood
of Barbaroffa, of appearing as the protestor of an un-
fortunate prince, and of acquiring the glory annexed in
that age to every expedition againft the Mahometans,
the emperor readily concluded a treaty with Muley Haf-
cen, and fet fail for Tunis with a formidable armament.
The Goletta, a fca port town, fortified with 300 pieces
of cannon, was taken, together with all Bai-barofl'a's
fleet : he was defeated in a pitched battle, and 10,000
Chriftlan flavcs,' having knocked off their fetters, andpunjgta-
made themfelves maiters of the citadel, Tunis was pre ken, and
paring to fuirender. But while Charles was deliberating '^e inlia:bU
on the conditions, his troops fearing that they would ff^^i^^^
be deprived of the booty which they had expefted,
broke fuddenly into the town, and pillaged and maf-
facred without diftindllon. Thirty thoufand perfons
perifhed by the fword, and 10,000 wer-e made prifo-
ners. The fceptrc was reftored to Muley Hafcen, 011
condition that he fliould acknowledge himfelf a vaffal of
the crown of Spain, put into the emperor's hands all
the fortified fea-ports in the kingdom of- Tunis, and
4 L i pay
SPA
I 636 ]
SPA
Spain, pa^r annually t 2,000 crowns for the fubfiftence of the
* ' Spanlfh garrifoii in the Goletta. Thefe points beisg
fettled, and 2';,ooo ChrKtian {laves freed from bondage
either by amis or by treaty, Charles returned to Eu.
rope, where his prefence was become neceffaty ; while
Barbarofla, who had retired to Bona, recovered new
ftrenpfth, and again became the tyrant of the ocean.
Francis at The king of France took advantage of the emperor's
tempts in abfence to revive his pretenfions in Italy. The treaty
va;n to re- Qambrav had covered up but not extinguifhed the
Vive nis - - _ ^ . . o. . .
j)vefei'fions
to Italy ,
flames of difcord. Francis in particular, who waited
only for a favourable opportunity of recovering the ter-
ritories and reputation which he had loft, continued to
negotiate againil his rival with different courts. But
all his negotiations were difconcerted by unforefeen ac-
cidents, llie death- of Clement VII. (whom he had
gained by marrying his fon the duke of Orleans, after-
wards Henry II. to Catharine of Medici, the niece of
that pontift"), deprived him of all the fupport which he
hoped to receive from the court of Rome. The king
of England, occupied with domettic cares and projects,
declined engaging in the aft'airs of the continent ; and
the Proteftant princes, affociated by the league of Smal-
kalde, to whom Francis had alio applied, and who
feemed difpofed at hrft to liften to him, filled with in-
dignation and retentment at the cruelty with which
fome of their reformed brethren had been treated in
France, rerufed to have any connexion with the enemy
their religion.
Francis was neither cruel nor bigotted : he was too
indolent to concern himfelf about religious difputes ;
but his principles becoming fufpeded, at a time when
the emperor was gaining immortal glory by his expedl-
tlon againft the Infidels, he found it necefiary to vindi-
loz cate himfelf by fome extraordinary demonftration of re-
Hisharbari- verence for the eftablifhed faith. 'I'he indifcreet zeal of
Proleftams ^^^^ Proteftant converts furniflied hinx with the occa-
fion. They had affixed to the gates of the Louvre and
other public places papers containing indecent reflec-
tions on the rites of the Romifh church. Six of the
perfons concerned in this lalh aAion were ftized ; and
the king, pretending to be firuck with horror at their
blafphcmies, appointed a folemn proctffion, in order to
avert the wrath of heaven. The holy facrament was
■carried throtigh the city of Paris in great pom.p: Fran-
cis walked uncovered before it, bearing a torch in his
hand ; the princes of the blood fupported the canopy
over it ; the nobles walked behind, in prefence of this
numerous alTembly, the king declared, that if one of
his hands^ were infefted with herefy, he would cut it
©fF with the other " and T would facrifice (added he)
even my own children. If found guilty of that crime."
A s an awful proof of his hncerity, the fix unhappy per-
fons who had been feized were publicly burnt, before
the proceffion was finlfiied, and in the moil cruel man-
^ ncr. They were fixed upon a machine which defcend-
ed into the flames, and retired alternately, until they
expired.- No wonder that the Proteftant princes were
incenfed at fuch barbarity !
But Francis, though unfupported by any ally, com-
manded his army to advance towards the frontiers of
wards Italy. ^t^^y» under pretence of chaftiling the duke of Milan
for a breach of the law of nations, in putting to death
his ambaffador. The operailons of war, however, foon
took a new diredion, Inftead of marching direttly to.
Causes an
army
-inarch to
1G4
the Milanefe, Francis commenced hoftUItiea againft the Spajo
duke of Savoy, with whom he had caufe to be dlflatis-
fied, and on whom he had fome claims ; and before the
end of the campaign, that feeble prince faw himfelf ftrip-
ped of aU his dominions, except the province of Pied-
mont. To complete his misforcunes, the city of Ge- Gene
neva, the fovereignty of which he claimed, and where rhrow-s 0
the reformed opinions had already got footing, threw
off his yoke ; and its revolt drew along with it the lofsg^^g
of the adjacent territory. Geneva was then an impe>
rial city, and has ever fince remained eatirely free.
In this extremity the duke of Savoy faw no refource
but in the emperor's prote£tion ; and as his misfortunes
were chiefly occafioned by his attachment to the impe-
rial intereft, he had a title to immediate afliftance. But
Charles, who was juft returned from his /\.frican expe-
dition, was not able to lend him the neceflary^ fupport.
His treafury was entirely drained, and he was obliged
to dift)and his army till he oould raife new fupplies.
Mean time the death of Sforza duke of Milan entirely
changed the nature of the war, and afforded the empe-
ror full leifure to prepare for aftion. The French rao-
narch's pretext for taking up arms was at once cut off;
but as the duke died without iffue, all Francis's rights
to the duchy of Milan, which he had yielded only to
Sforza and his defcendants, returned to him in full
force. He inftantly renewed his claim to it ; and if
he had ordered his army immediately to advance, he 10..
might have made himfelf maft;cr of it. But he unfer- Charles ,
tunately waft:ed his time in fruitlefs negotiations, while ''"^
his more politic rival took polTeffion of the duchy as a ^{^^^
vacant fief of the empire ; and though Charles feemed
ftill to admit the equity of Francis's claim, he delayed
granting the inveftiture under various pretences, and
was fecretly taking every poflible mealute to prevent him
from regaining footing in Italy.
During the time gained in this manner Charles had
recruited his finances, and of courfe his armies ; and
finding himfelt in a condition for war, he at laft threw
olf the-mali< under which he had fo long concealed his
defigns from the coiu't of France. Entering Rome with
great pomp, he pronounced before the pope and cardi-
nals, aflembled in. full confiiiory, a violent invedlive
againft Francis, by way of reply to his propofitlons.con-
cerning the inveftiture of Milan. Yet Francis, by am Weak
unaccountable fatality, continued to negotiate, as If itof Franq
had been ftill poffible to termin,ate their differences in
an amicable manner; and Charles, finding him fo eager
to run into the fnare, favoured the deception, and, by
feemlng to liften to his propofals, gained yet more time
for the execution of his ambitious projefts.
If misfortunes had rendered Francis too diffident, Char?e's
fuccefs had made Charles too fanguine. He prefumed icmpts 1
on nothirg lefs than the fubverfion of the French mo-^"'^^^'"'^
narchy ; nay, he confidered it as an infallible event, ^miarci
Having chaled the forces of his rival out of Piedmont
and Savoy, he pufhcd forward at tlie head of 50,000
men, contrary to the advice of his moft experienced
minifters and generals, to invade the fouthern provinces
of France while other two armies were ordered to en-
ter It, the one on the fide of Picardy, the: other on the
fide of Champagne. He tliought it impoffiblc that
Francis could refift fo many unexpefted attacks on fuch
different quarters ; but he found himfelf miilaken.
The Freixchi inouarch fixed upon the moil efFedual
plan
SPA
r. 637 ]
SPA
plan for defeating the invafion of a powerful enemy ;
and he prudently perfevered in following it, though
contrary to his own natural temper and to the genius
of his people. He determined to remain altogether
upon the ' defenfive, and to deprive the enemy of fub-
fiftence by laying wafte the country before them. The
execution of this plan was committed to the marefchal
Montmorency its author, a man happily fitted for fuch
a truft by the inflexible feverity of his difpofition. He
made choice of a Itrongcamp, under the walls of Avig-
non, at the confluence of the Rhone and Durance,
where he affembled a confiderable army ; vfhile the
king, with another body of troops, encamped at Va-
lence, higher up the Rhone. Marfeilles and Aries
were the only towns he thought it neceffary to defend ;
and each of thefe he furnifhed with a numerous garri-
fon of his beft troops. The inhabitants of the other
towns were compelled to abandon their habitations :
the fortifications of fuch places as might have afforded
fhelter to the enemy were thrown down ; corn, forage,
and provifions of every kind, were carried off or de-
ftroyed ; the mills and ovens were ruined, and the wells
filled up or rendered ufelefs.
This devaftation extended from the Alps to Mar-
feilles, and from the fea to the confines of Dauphiny ;
fo tliat the emperor, when he arrived with the van of
his army on the confines of Provence, inftead of that
rich and populous country which he expeded to enter,
beheld nothing but one vaft and defert folitude. He
did not, however, defpair of fuccefs, though he faw
that he would have many difficulties to encounter; and
as an encouragement to his officers, he made them libe-
ral promifes of lands and honours in France. But all
the land which any of them obtained was a grave, and
their matter loE much honour by this lafla and pte-
fumptuous enterprize. After unfuccefsfully in veiling
Marfeilles and Aries, after attempting in vain to draw
Montmorency from his camp at Avignon, and not da-
ling to attack it, Charles having fpent two inglorious
months in Provence, and loll one half of his troops by
difeafe or by famine, was under the neceffity of ordering
a retreat ; and though he was fome time in motion be-
fore the enemy fufpeded his intention, it was conduc-
ed with fo much precipitation and diforder, as to de-
ferve the name of a flight, fince the light troops of
France turned it into a perfeft rout. The invafion oi Pi-
cardy was not more fuccefsful: the imperial forces were
obliged to retire without effefting any conqueft of im»
portance.
Charles had no fooner condufted the fhattercd re-
mains of his army to the frontiers of Milan, than he fet
out for Genoa ; and unwilling to expofe himftlf to the
fcorn of the Italians after fuch a reveife of fortune, he
embarked direftly for Spain.
Meanwhile Francis gave himfelf up to that vain re-
fentment which had formerly difgraced the profperity of
his rival. They had frequently, in the courfe of their
quarrels, given each other the lie, and mutual challenges
had been fent ; which, though produ&ive of no ferious
confequences between the parties, had a powerful ten-
dency to encourage the pernicious praftlce of duelling.
Charles, in his inveAive pronounced at Rome, had pub-
licly accufed Francis of perfidy and breach of failh ;
Francis now exceeded Charles in the indecency of his
accufdtions. The Dauphin dying fuddenly, his death
was imputed to polfon : Montecuculi his cup-bearer was Spairr.
put; to the rack ; and that unhappy nobleman, in the »
agonies of torture, accufed the emperor's generals Gon-
zaga and de Leyva, of inftigating him to the deteftdhle
adt. The emperor himfelf was fufpefted; nay, this ex-
torted confeflion, and fome obfcure hints, were confi-
dered as incontcftable proofs of his guilt ; though it
was evident to all mankind, that neither Charles nor his
generals could have any inducement to perpetrate fuch
a crime, as Francis was ftill in the vigour of life him-
felf, and had two fons befides the dauphin, grown up
to a good age.
But the Incenfed monarch's refentment did not flop
here. Francis was not fatisfied with endeavouTlng to
blacken the charadler of his rival by an ambiguous tef-
tlmony which led to the moll injurious fufpicions, and
upon which the moil cruel conftruftions had been put;
he was willing to add rebellion to murder. For this
purpofe he went to the parliament of Paris ; where be-
ing feated with the ufual folemnitles, the advocate-ge-
neral appeared, and accufed Charles of Auftria (fo he
affc£led to call the emperor) of having violated the trea*
ty of Cambray, by v/hich he was freed from the ho-
mage due to the crown of France for the counties of
Artols and Flanders ; adding, that thig treaty being
now void, he was ftlU to be confidered as a vaffal of
France, and confequently had been guilty of rebellion
in taking arms againil his fovereign. The change W'ls^j^ ^^"^
fuftained, and Charles was fummoned to appear before ^-^^.^^^^^j^g^j
the parliament of Paris at a day fixed. The term ex- to appear
pired; and no perfon appearing in the emperor's name, at Paris,
the parliament gave judgment, that Charles of Auftria
had forfeited, by rebellion and contumacy, the counties
of Flanders and Artois, and declared thefe fiefs reunited
to the crown of France.
Francis, foon after this vain difplay of his animoilty,
marched into the Low Countries, as If he had intended
to execute the Icntence pronounced by his parliament ;
-but a fufpenfion of arms look place, through the inter-
pofition of the queens of France and Hungary, before
any thing of confequence was effefted : and this celfa-
tlon of hoflllities was followed by a truce, concluded at
Nice, through the mediation of the reigning pontiff
Paul III. of the family of Farnefe, a man of a venerable
charadler and pacific difpofition.
Each of thefe rival orinces had flrong reafons to in-
cline them to peace, l he finances of both were exhauit- j^j.
ed ; and the emperor, the moll powerful of the tvyo, Frp.ncis-
was deeply impreffed with the dread of the Turkifli leagues
arms, which Francis had drawn upon him by a league '^^1^^^'^®^
with Solyman. In confequence of this league, Barba- '
rofla with a great fleet appeared on the coaft of Naples ;
filled that kingdom with conilernation ; landed without
refiftance near Taranto ; obliged Cailro, a place of
fome ftreni'fth, to furrender ; plundered the adjacent
country ; and was taking meafures for fecuring and ex-
tending his conquefts, when the unexpefted arrival of
Doria, the iamous Genoeie admiral, together with the
pope's galleys and a fquadron of the Venetian fleet,
made It prudent for him to retire. l he fultan's forces
alfo invaded Hungary, where Mahmet the Turkifli ge-
neral, after gaining feveral inferior advantages, defeated
the Germans In a great battle at Efl'ek on the Drave.
Happily for Charles and Europe it was not in Francis's,
power av this jund are either to join the Turks or at
femble'
S P A
Spair,
114
A truce
femble an army ftrona^ enough to penetrate into the
Milanefe. The emperor, however, was fenfible that he
could not lonjy refift the efforts of two fuch powerful
confederates, nor expeft that the fame fortunate cir-
cumftancea would concur a fecond time in his favour ;
he therefore thought it necefiary, both for his fafety
and reputation, to give his^confent to a truce : and
Francis chofe rather to run fne rifle of difobliging his
concluded, new ally the fultan, than to draw on his head the indig-
nation, and perhaps the arms, of all Chriftendom, by
•obftinately obftrufting the re-eftabllftiment of tranquil-
lity, and contributing to the aggrandizement of the In-
fidels.
Thefe confiderations inclined the contending mo-
narchs to liften to the arguments of the holy father ;
but he found it impoflible to bring about a final accom-
modation between them, each inflexibly perfifting in af-
ferting his own claims. Nor could he prevail on them
to fee one another, though both came to the place of
rendezvous : fo great was the remains of diftruft and
113 rancour, or fuch the difficulty of adjuftlng the ceremo-
^""■^I'v'^w xiial ! Yet, improbable as it may feem, a few days after
etween flrrnifig the trucc, the emperor, in his palTasre to Bar-
Francis and V u • J • a c -n T
Charles. celona, being driven on the coatt or rrovence, rrancis
invited him to come afliore ; frankly vifited him on
board his galley, and was received and entertained with
the warmeft demonftrations of efteem and affe£lion.
Charles, with an equal degree of confidence, paid the
king next day a vifit at Aigues-mortes ; where thefe
two hoftile rivals and vindiftlve enemies, who had accu-
fed each other of every kind of bafenefs, converfing to-
gether with all the cordiality of brothers, feemed to vie
with each other in expreffions of refpedl and friend-
114 fl""p.
Advantage ^ Befides the glory of having reftored tranquillity to
gained by Europe, the pope gained a point of much confequence
to his family. He obtained for his grandfon, Marga-
ret of Auftria, the emperor's natural daughter, former-
ly wife of Alexander de Medici, whom Charles had
raifed to the fupreme power in Florence. Lorenzo de
Medici, the kinfman and intimate companion of Alex-
ander, had affaffiri^ted him by one of the blackeft trea-
fons recorded in hiftory. Under 'pretence of having fe-
cured him an affignation with a lady of the higheft rank
and great beauty, he drew him into a fecret apartment
of his houfe, and there {tabbed him as he lay carelefsly
on a couch, expefting the embrace of the lovely fair,
whom he had often folicited in vain, Lorenzo, how-
ever, did not reap the fruits of his crime ; for though
fomc of his countrymen extolled him as a third Brutus,
and endeavoured to feize this occafion for recovering
their liberties, the government of Florence pafled into
the hands of Cofmo IL another kinfman of Alexander.
Cofmo was defirous of marrying the widow of his pre-
decelTor ; but the emperor chofe rather to oblige the
pope, by bellowing his daughter upon Oflavio Farnefe,
fon of the duke of Parma.
Charles had foon farther caufe to be fenfible of his
obligations to the holy father for bringing about the
treaty of Nice. His troops everywhere mutinied for
want of pay, and the ability of his generals only could
have prevented a total revolt. He had depended, as his
chief refource for difcharging the arrears due to his fol-
diers, upon the fubfidies which he expefted from his
Callilian fubje^fs. For this purpofe he affembled the
[ 638 ]
SPA
the pope
from this
pacifica-
tion.
i»5
Gfaarles
^relTed
fift hina
with ni
117
Cortes of Caftlle at Toledo ; and having reprefent^d to Spaii
them the great expence of his miUtary operations, he
propofed to levy fuch fupplles as the prefent exigency
of affairs demanded, by a general excife on commodi-
ties ; but the Spaniards, who already felt themfelves op- Tlie Sj
prelTed by "a load of taxes unknown to their anceftors, niards
and who had often complained that their country^ was ^^^^ [°
drained of its wealth and inhabitants, in order to profe-
cute quarrels in which they had no intereft, determined ney.
not to add voluntarily to their own burdens. The no-
bles, in particular, inveighed with great vehemence
againft the impofitlon propofed, as an encroachment on
the valuable and diftinguiihing privilege of their order,
that of being exempted from the payment of any tax.
After employing arguments and promifes in vain,
Charles difmiffed the alTembly with indij^natlon ; and
from that period neither the nobles nor the prelates
have been called to the Cortes, on pretence that fuch
as pay no part of the public taxes Ihould not claim a
vote in laying them on. Thefe afTerablies have fince
confided merely of the procurators or reprefentarives of
18 cities, two from each ; in all 36 members, who are
abfolutely at the devotion of the crown.
The citizens of Ghent, ftill more bold, broke out not Inhabits
long after into open rebellion againft the emperor's go- of G^iei
vernment, on account of a tax which they judged con- ^ '
trary to their ancient privileges, and a decifion of the
council of Mechlin in favour of the imperial authority.
Enraged at an unjuft impofitlon, and rendered defperate
on feeing their rights betrayed by that very court which
was bound to proteft them, they flew to arms, feized
feveral of the emperor's officers, and drove fuch of the
nobility as refided among them out of the city. Sen-
fible, however, of their inability to fupport what their
zeal had prompted them to undertake, and defirous of
fecuring a proteftor againft the formidable forces with
which they might expeft foon to be attacked, they of-
fered to acknowledge the king of France as th-eir fove-
reign, to put him into immediate poffeffion of their ci-
ty, and to affift him in recovering thofe provinces in
the Netherlands which had anciently belonged to his
crown. True policy direfted Francis to comply with
this propofal. The counties of Flanders and Artois
were more valuable than the duchy of Milan, for which
he had fo long contended ; and theii' fituation in regard
to France made it more eafy to conquer or to defend
them. But Fiancis over-rated the Milanefe. He had Extremt
lived in friendftiip with the emperor ever fince their in- credulit
terview at Aigues-mortes, and Charles had premifed him of f^^'^nc
the inveftiture of that dychy. Forgetting, therefore,
all his paft injuries, and the deceitful promifes by which
he had been fo often duped, the credulous, generous
Francis, not only rejedted the propofitions of the citi-
zens of Ghent, but communicated to the emperor his
whole negociation with the malecontents.
Judging of Charles's heart by his own, Francis hoped
by this fecmingly difinterefted proceeding to obtain at
once the inveftiture of Milan ; and the emperor, well
acquainted with the weaknefs of his rival, flattered him
in this apprehenfion, for his own felfifh purpofes. His
prefence being necefiary in the Netherlands, he demand- up
ed a paflage through France. It was immediately grant- He alio'
ed him ; and Charles, to whom every moment was pre- Charles
cious, fet out, notwithftanding the remonftrances of his
council and the fears of hia Spaniffi fubjedls, with a uiong
fmall
110
ricy of
rles to
cicy of
(snt.
SPA
fmall but fplendld train of loo perfons.
on the frontiers of France by the dauphin and the duke
of Orleans, who offered to go into Spain, and remain
there as hoftages, till he {hould reach his own domi-
nions ; but Charles replied, that the king's honour was
fufficientfor his fafety, and profecuted his journey with-
out any other fecurity. The king entertained him with
the utmoft mac;nlricence at Paris, and the two young
princes did not take leave of him till he entered the
I^ow Countries ; yet he ftill found means to evade his
promife, and Francis continued to believe him fincere.
The citizens of Ghent, alarmed at the approach of
the emperor, who was joined by three armies, fent am-
and offered to throw
in
;8 bafe
iatment
Francis.
baffadors to implore his mercy,
open their gates. Charles only condefcended to reply,
<' That he would appear among them as a fovereign
and a judge, with the fceptre and the fword." He ac-
cordingly entered the plaee of his nativity on the anni-
verfary of his birth ; and iaftead of that lemty which
might have been expe£led, exhibited an awful example
of his feverity. Twenty-fix of the principal citizens
were put to death ; a greater number were baniihed ;
the city was declared to have forfeited its privileges ; a
new fyftem of laws and political adminiftration was pre-
fcribed ; and a large fine was impofed on the inhabi-
tants, in order to defray the expence of ere£ling a cita-
del, together with an annual tax for the fupport of a
garrifon. They were not only defpoiled of their an-
cient immunities, but made to pay, like conquered peo-
ple, for the means of perpetuating their own ilavery.
Having thus re-eftablifhed his authority in the Low
Countries, and being now under no neceffity of conti-
nuing that fcene of falfehood and diffimulation with
which he had amufed the French monarch, Charles be-
gan gradually to throw afide the veil under which he
had concealed his intentions with refped to the Mila-
nefe, and at lafl; peremptorily refufed to give up a terri-
tory of fuch value, or voluntarily to make fuch a liberal
addition to the ftrength of an enemy by diminlfhing his
own power. He even denied that he had ever made
any promife which could bind him to an aflion fo fool-
ifh, and fo contrary to his own intereft.
This tranfaftion expofed the king of France to as
much fcorn as it did the emperor to cenfure. The cre-
dulous fimplicity of Francis feeraed to merit no other
return, after experiencing fo often the duplicity and ar-
tifices of his rival. He remonft rated, however, and ex-
claimed as if this had been the firft circumftance in
which the emperor had deceived him. The infult of-
fered to his underftanding affefted him even more fen-
fibly than the injury done to his intereft ; and he dif-
eovered fuch refentment as made it obvious that he
would feize on the firft opportunity of revenge, and
that a new war would foon defolate the European con-
tinent.
Meanwhile Charles was obliged to turn his attention
^7o make towards the aA'aira of Germany. The Proteftants har-
jiicfflicr.' yfng in vain demanded a general council,, prefled him
^■he. Pro- g^rneftly to appoint a conference between a feleft num-
ber of divines of each party, m order to examine the
points in difpute. For this purpofe a diet was affem-
bled at Ratifbon : and fuch a. conferenc e, notwithftand-
ing the oppofition of the pope, was held with great fo-
lemnlty in the prefence of the emperor. But the di-
vines chofento manage the controverfy, though men of
111
[ 639 ] SPA
He was met learning and moderation, were only able to fettle a few Sp
fpeculative opinions, all points relative to worfhip and
jurifdiftion ferving to inflame the minds of the difpu-
tants. Charles, therefore, finding his endeavours to
bring about an accommodation ineffeftual, and being
impatient to clofe the diet, prevailed on a majority of
the members to approve of the following edift of recefs ;
viz. that the articles coneepning which the divines had
aorreed, fhould be held as points decided ; that thofe
about which they had diffeicd, fhould be referred to the
determination of a general council, or If that could not
be obtained, to a national fynod ; and Hiould it prove
imprafticable alfo to affemble a fynod of Germany, that
a general diet of the empire fliould be called v/ithin 1 8
months. In order to give final judgment on the whole
controverfy ; that, in the mean time, no Innovations
fhould be attempted, nor any endeavours employed to
gain profelytes.
This diet gave great offence to the pope. The bare
mention of allowing a dlet^ compofed chiefly of laymen,
tp pafs judgment in regard to articles of faith, appeared
ta him no lefs criminal and profane than the worft of
thofe herefies which the emperor feemed fo zealous to
fupprefs. 'I'he Proteflants alfo were dlflTatlsfied with it,
as it confiderably abridged the liberty which they at
that time enjoyed. They murmured loudly againft it ;
and Charles, unwilling to leave any feeds of difcontent
in the empire, granted them a private declaration, ex-
empting them from nvhatever they thought injurious or
opprefiive in the recefs, and afcertaining to them the full
pofTeflion of all their former privileges.
The fituatlon of the emperor's affairs at this junfture
made thefe extraordinary conceflions neceffary. He
forefaw a rupture with France to be unavoidable, and
he was alarmed at the rapid progrefs of the Turks in
Hungary. A great revolution had happened in that
kingdom. John Zapol Scaepus, by the afiiftance of
Solyman, had wrefted from the king of the Romans a
confiderable part of the country. John died, and left
an infant fon. Ferdinand attempted to take advantage
of the minority, in order to repoffefs himfelf of the
whole kingdom ; but his ambition was difappointed by
the aftlvity and addrefa of George Martinuzzi, bifhop
of Waradin, who fhared the regency with the queen.
Senfible that he was unable to oppofe the king of the
Romans in the field, Martinuzzi fatisfied himfelf with
holding out the fortified towns, all of which he provided
with every thing neceffary for defence; and at the fame
time he fent ambaffadors to Solyman, befeeching him to^
extend towards the fon that imperial protection which-
had fo generoufly malHtained. the father oa his throne.
Ferdinand ufed his utmolt endeavours to. thwart this
negotiation, and even meanly offered to hold the Hun-
garian crov/n on the fame Ignominious condition by
which John had held it, that of paying tribute to the
Porte. But the fultan faw fuch advantages from ef-
poufing the intereft of the young king, that he inftant-
ly marched into Hungary ; and the Germans, having
formed the fiege of Buda, were defeated with great
flaughter before that city. Solyman, however, inftead
of becoming the proteftor of the infant fovereign whom
he had relieved, made ufe of this fuccefs to extend his
own dominions : he fent the queen and her fon into
Tranfilvapia, which province he allotted them, and add-
ed Hungary to the Ottoman empire.
Happily
S P A
Si ain.
113
Undertakes
an u' fuc-
cefsful ex-
peditii^n
againft Al
giers.
124
War be-
tween
Francis and
Ciiarles.
Happily for the Proteftants, Charles received intelli
_^ence of this revolution foon after the diet at Ralifbon ;
and by the conceffions which he made them, he obtain-
ed fuch liberal fupplies, both of men and money, as left
him under little anxiety about the fecurity of Germany.
He therefore haftened to join his fleet and army in Ita-
ly, in oixier to carry into execution a great and favourite
enterprize which he had concerted againft Algiers ;
though it would certainly have been more confiftent
with his dignity to have conducled the whole force of
the empire againft Solyman, the common enemy of
Chriftendom, who was ready to enter his Auftrian do-
minions. But many reafons induced Charles to prefer
the African expedition : he wanted ftrength, or at leaft
money, to combat the Turks in fo diftant a country as
Hungaiy; and the glory which he had formerly ac-
quired in Barbary led him to hope for the like fuccefs,
while the cries of his Spanifti fubjefts roufed him to
take vengeance on their ravagers. But the nnfortunatc
event of this expedition has already been related under
the article Algiers, n° 14 — 20.
The lofs which the emperor fuffered in this calami-
tous expedition encouraged the king of France to begin
hoftilities, on which he had been for fome time refolved;
and an aftion diflionourable to civil fociety furnlflied
him with too good a pretext for taking arms. The
marquis del Guafto, governor of the Milanefe, having
got intelligence of the motions and deftination of two
ambafTadors, Rincon and Fergofo, whom Francis had
difpatched, the one to the Ottoman Porte, the other to
the republic of Venice ; knowing how much his mafter
wifhed to difcover the intentions of the French mo-
narch, and of v/hat confcquence it was to retard the ex-
ecution of his meafures, he employed fome foldiers be-
longing to the garrifon of Pavia to lie in wait for thefe
arnbafladors as they failed down the Po, who murdered
them and moft of their attendants, and feized their pa-
pers. Francis immediately demanded reparation for
this barbarous outrage ; and as Charles endeavoured to
put him off with an evafive anfwer, he appealed to all
the courts of Europe, fecting forth the helnoufnefs of
the injury, the iniquity of the emperor In difregarding
hisjuft requett, and the neceflity of vengeance. But
Charles, who was a more profound negotiator, defeated
in a great meafufe the effefts of thefe reprefentations :
he fecured the fidelity of the Proteftant princes in Ger-
many, by granting them new conceffions ; and he en-
gaged the king of England to efpoufe his caufe, under
pretence of defending Europe againft the Infidels ;
while Francis was only able to form an alliance with
the kings of Denmark and Sweden (who for the firft
time interefted themfelves in the quarrels of the more
potent monarchs of the fouth), and to renew his treaty
with Solyman, which drew on him the indignation of
Chriftendom.
_ But the aftivity of Francis fupplied all the defefts of
his negotiation. Five armies were foon ready to take
the field, under different generals, and with different
deftindtions. Nor was Charles wanting in his prepara-
tions. He and H^enry a fecond time made an ideal di-
vifion of the kingdom of France. But as the hoftilities
which followed terminated in nothing decifive, and were
diftinguifhed by no remarkable event, except the battle
of Cerifoles (gained by count d'Enguien over the im-
periaUfts, and in which 10,000 of the emperor^s beft
[ 640 ]
SPA
troops fell), at laft Francis and Charles, mtJtually %mi
of haraffing each other, concluded at Crefpy a treaty
of peace, in which tl>e king of England v^as^not men-
tioned ; and from being implacable enemies, becam.e ^^*f°.
J- T r ■ 1 I t eluded
once more, to appearance, cordial friends, and even al- Crtfpy
lies by the ties of blood.
The chief articles of this treaty were, that all the
conquefts which either party had made fince the truce of
Nice fhould be reftored ; that the emperor fhould give
in marriage to the duke of Orleans, either his own eld-
eft daughter, with the Low Countries, or the fecond
daughter of his brother Ferdinand, with the invefti-
ture of the Milanefe ; that Francis fliould renounce all
pretenfions to the kingdom of Naples, as well as to the
Sovereignty of Flanders and Artois, and Charles give
up his claim to the duchy of Burgundy ; and that
both fhould unite in making war againft the Turks.
The emperor was chiefly induced to grant condi-
tions fo advantageous to France, by a delire of hum-
bling the Proteftant princes in- Germany. With the
papal jurlfdiftion, he forefaw they would endeavour to
throw off the imperial authority ; and he determined
to make his zeal for the former a pretence for enfor-
cing and extending the latter. However, the death of
the duke of Orleans before the confummation of hia
marriage, difentangled the emperor from the moft trou-
blefome ftipulation in the treaty of Crefpy ; and the
French monarch, being ftill engaged in hoftilities with
England, was unable to obtain any reparation for the
lofs which he fuffered by this unforefeen event. Thefe
hoftilities, like thofe between Charles and Francis, ter-
minated in nothing decifive. Equally tired of a ftruggle
attended with no glory or advantage to either, the con-
tending princes concluded, at Campe, near Ardies, a
treaty of peace; in which it was ftipulated, that France
fhould pay the arrears due by former treaties to Eng-
land. But thefe arrears did not exceed one -third of
the fums expended by Henry on his military opera-
tions ; and Francis being in no condition to difcharge
them, Boulogne (a chargeable pledge) was left in the
hands of the EngHfh as a fecurity for the debt. j
In confequence of the emperor's refolution to humble Chai
the Proteftant princes, he concluded a difhonourable
peace with the Porte, ftipulating that his brother Fer-^°f-^^
dinand ftiould pay tribute for that part of Hungary j,e,„isp
which he ftill pofTeffed ; while the fultan enjoyed the
imperial and undlfturbed pofTeffion of all the reft, At'^"''^*'
the fame time he entered into a league with pope ^"^'^'^^
Paul III. for the extirpation of herefy ; but in reahty
with a view to opprefs the liberties of Germany. Here,
however, his ambition met with a fevere check ; for
though he was fuccefsful at firft, he was obhged in
1552 to conclude a peace with the Proteftants on their
own terms ; as has been related under the article Re-
FORMATION, n^ 26 ^2.
By the peace concluded on this occafion the emperor Attempt
loft Metz, Toul, and Verdurt, which had formed the to recot
barrier of the empire on that quarter; and therefore 'o'^*/'^
foon after put himfelf at the head of an army, in order P"^*^''"*^
to recover thefe three bifhoprics. In order to conceal
the deftination of his army, he gave out, that he in-
tended to lead it into Hungary, to fecond Maurice in
his operatioHs againft the Infidels ; and as that pretext
failed him, when he began to advance towards the'
Rhine, he propagated a report that he was marching
I firft
S P A [64
firft to diafllfe Albert of Brandenbura,h, who had re-
fufed to be included in the treaty of Paffau, and whofe
cruel exaftions in that part of Germany called loudly
for redrefs.
The French, however, were not deceived by thefe arts.
Henry immediately gueffed the true objcft of Charles's
vjg armament, and refolved to defend his coiiquells with vi-
lified gour. The defence of Metz, againft which it was fore-
fe the feen the whole weight of the war would be turned, was
committed to Francis of Lorraine, duke of Guife, who-
pofTeffed in an eminent degree all the qualities that ren-
der men great in military command. _ He repaired with
joy to the dangerous ftation ; and many of the French
nobility, and even princes of the blood, eager to diftin-
guifh themfelves under fuch a leader, entered Metz as
volunteers. The city was of great extent, ill fortified,
and the fuburbs large. For all thefe defecfts the duke
endeavoured to provide a remedy. He repaired the old
fortifications with all poffible expedition, labouring with
his own hands ; the officers imitated his example ; and
the foldiers, thus encouraged, cheerfully fubmitted to
the moft fevere toils ; he erefted new works, and he le-
velled the fuburbs with the ground. At the f?me time
he filled the magazines v^^ith provlfions and mihtary
llores, compelled all ufelefs perfons to leave the place,
and laid wafte the neighbouring country; yet fuch were
his popular talents, .as well as his arts of acquiring an
afcendant over the minds of men, that the citizens not
only refrained from murmuring, but feconded him with
no lefs ardour than the foldiers in all his operations —
in the ruin of their eftates, and in the havoc of their
public and private buildings.
Meanwhile the emperor continued his march towards
Lorraine, at the head of 6c,ooo men. On his approach
Albert of Biandenburgh, whofc army did not exceed
20,000, withdrew into that principality, as if he in-
tended to join the French king ; and Charles, notwith-
ilanding the advanced feafon, it being towards the end
of OAober, laid fiege to Metz, contrary 'to the advice
of his moft experienced cfficers.
The attention of both the befiegers and the befieged
was turned for fome time towards the motions of Al-
■ bert, v/ho ftill hovered in the neighbourhood, undeter-
mined which fide to take, though refolved to fell his
fervice. Charles at lad came up to his price, and he
joined the imperial army. The emperor now flattered
himfelf that nothing could refifl his force; but he found
himfclf deceived. After a fiege of almoft 60 days, du-
ring which he had attempted all that was thought pof-
fible for art or valour to effeft, and had loft upwards of
30,000 men by the inclemency of the weather, difeafes,
or the fword of the enemy, he was obliged to abandon
p the enterprife.
:iab!e When the French fallled.oiit to attack the enemy's
ition of -ear, the' imperial eamp was filled with the fick and
^' wounded, with the dead and the dying. All the roads
by which the army retired were ftrewed with the fame
rniferable objcds ; who, having made an effort beyond •
their ftrength to efcapc, and not being able to proceed,
were left to perifli without afllftance. Happily that,
and all the kind offices which their friends liad not the
power to perform, they received from their enemies,
'^i'he diike of Guife ordered them all to be taken care
of, and fupplied with every neceffary • he appointed
Vou XVIL Part U.
I ]
S P A
nus for-
tunes.
phyficians to attend, and direft what treatment was Spain,
proper for the fick and woimded, and what refrefliments ^~~"Y~~
for the feeble ; and fuch as recovered he fent home,
under an efcort of foldiers, and with money to bear
their chart^es. By thefe afts of humanity, lefs common
in that age, the duke of Guife completed that heroic
character which he had juftly acquired by his brave
and fuccefsful defence of Metz. 130
The emperor's misfortunes were not confined to Ger- His further
many. During his refidence at Villach, he had been |^
obliged to borrow 200,000 crowns of Cofmo de Me-
dici ; and fo low was his credit, that he was obliged to
put Cofmo in poffeflion of the principality of Piombino
as a fecurity for that inconfiderable fum ; by which
means he loft the footing he had hitherto maintained in
Tufcany. Much about the fame time he loft Sienna.
The citizens, who had long enjoyed a republican go-
vernment, rofe againft the Spanilh garrifon, which they
had admitted as a check upon the tyranny -of the nobi-
lity, but which they found was meant to enflave them ;
forgetting their domeftic aniinofit^es, they recalled the
exiled nobles ; they demolifhed the citadel, and put
themfelves under the proteAion of France.
To thefe unfortunate events one ftill more fatal had
almoft fucceeded. The fevere adminiftration of the
viceroy of Naples had filled that kingdom with mur-
muring and diffatisfaftion. The prince of Salerno, the
head of the malecontente, fled to the court of France.
The French monarch, after the example of his father,
applied to the grand fignior ; and Solyraan, at that
time highly incenfed againft the houfe of Auftria on
account of the proceedings in Hungary, fent a power-
ful fleet into the Mediterranean, under the command of
the corfair Dragut, an officer trained up under Barba-
roffa, and fcarce inferior to his mafter in courage, ta-
lents, or in good fortune. Dragut appeared on the
coaft of Calabria at the time appointed ; but not being
joined by the French fleet according to concei t, he re-
turned to Conftantinople, after plundering and burning
feveral places, and filling Naples with confternation.
Hiv'hiy mortified by fo many difafters, Charles re- Is fuccefs-
tired into the Low CountrieSj breathing vengeance ^'^^ ""^^^
arainft France : and here the war was carried on with Coun-
o ^ . . cries,
confiderable vigour. Impatient to efface the ftain which
his military reputation had received before Metz, Charles
laid fiege to Terouane ; and the fortifications being in
difrepair, that important place was .carried by aflault.
Hefdin alfo was invefted, and carried in the fame man-
ner. The king of Fraiice was too late in aflembling
his forces to afford relief to either of thefe places ; and
the emperor afterwards cautioufly avoided an engage-
ment. 13a '
The imperial arms were lefs fuccefsful in Italy. The Rut not fo
viceroy of Naples failed in an attempt to recover Siena;'" '^^^^^
aad the Fiench not only eftabhfhed themfelves more^^"''
firmly in Tufcany, but conquered part of the ifland of
Corfica. Nor did the affairs of the hon^ of Auftria
go on better In Hungary during the courfe of this year.
Ifabella and her fon appeared once more in Tranfylva-
nia, at a time when the peopk were ready for revolt, in
order to revenge the death of Martinuzzi, whofe lofs
they had feverely felt. Some noblemen of eminence
declared in favour of the yo.ung king ; and the bafnavy
of Belgrade, by Solyman's order, efpouling his caufe,
4M * in .
131
SPA
Spain.
13.1
Marriage
betwcf n
PJii'ip of
Spain a!id
Mary of
England.
[ 64
3E3-4
Chalks rC'
fijjn* his
dominions
to his foa
in oppofitlort to Ferdinand, Caitaldo, the Auftrian e^ene-
ral, was obliged to abandon Tranfylvanla to Ifabella and
the Turks.
In order to covmterbalance thefe and other lofTes, the
emperor, in 1554, concerted a marriage between hisfon
Philip and Mary of England, in hopes of adding that
kingdom to his other dominions. Meanwhile the war
between Henry and Charles was carried on with various
fuccefs in the Low Countries, and in Italy much to the
difadvantage of France. The French, under the com-
mand of Strozzi, were defeated in the battle of Mer-
ciano ; Sienna was redi>ced by Medicino, the Florentine
general, after a fiege of ten months ; and the gallant
8ienefe were fubjedled to the Spanifh yoke. Much
about the fame time a plot was formed by the Francif-
cans, but happily difcovered before it could be carried
into execution, to betray Metz to the Imperialifts. The
father- guardian, and twenty other monks, received fen-
tence of death on account of this confpiracy ; but the
guardian, before the time appointed for his execution,
was murdered by his incenfed accomplices, whom he
had feduced ; and fix of the youngeft were pardoned.
While war thus raged in Italy and the Low Coun-
tries, Germany enjoyed fuch profound tranquillity, as
afforded the diet full leifure to confirm and perfeft the
plan of religious pacification agreed upon at Paflku,
and referred to the confideration of the next meeting of
the Germanic body. During the ncgociation of this
treaty, an event happened which alloni'hed all Europe,
and confounded the reafonings of the wifeft politicians.
,The emperor Charles V. though no more than 56, an
age when objefts of ambition operate with full force on
the mind, and are" generally purfued with the greateft
ardour, had for fome time formed the refolution of re-
figning his hereditary dominions to his ion Philip. He
now determined to put it in execution. Various have
been the opinions of hiftorians concerning a refolution
fo fingular and unexpefted; but the moft probable feem
to be, the difappointments which Charles had met with
in his ambitious hopes, and the daily decline of his
health. He had early in liie been attacked with the
jXout ; and the fits were now become fo frequent and
fevere, ihat not only the vigour of his conftitution was
broken, but the faculties of his mind were fenfxbly im-
paired. He therefore judged it more decent to con-
ceal his infirmities in fome folitude, than to expofe them
any longer to the public eye ; and as he was unwilling
to forfeit the fame, or lofe the acquifitions of his better
years, by attempting to guide the reins of government
when he was no longer able to hold them with ftea-
dinefs, he determined to feek in the tranquillity of
retirement, that happinefs which he had in vain pur-
fued araidll the tumults of War and the intrigues of
ftate.
In confequence of this refolution, Charles, who had
already ceded to his fon Philip the kingdom of Naples
and the duchy of Milan, affembled the ftates of the
Low Countries at Bruffels ; and feating hlmfelf for the
laft time in the chair of ftate, he explained to his fub-
je£ts the reafons of his refignation, and folemnly de-
volved his authority upon Philip. He recounted with
dignity, but without oflentation, all the great things
■which he had undertaken and performed fince the com-
]si£acement o£ his adminiilratLon. I have dedicated
2 ] SPA
(obferved he), from the 17th year of my age, all my Spa
thoughts and attention to public objects, rei'erving no
portion of my time for the indulgence of eafe, and very
little for the enjoyment of private pleafure. Either in
a pacific or hoilile manner, I have vifited Germany nine
times, Spain fix times, France four times, Italy feven
times, the Low Countries ten times, England twice,
Africa as often ; and while my health permitted me to
difcharge the duty of a fovereign, and the vigour of my
conftitution was equal in any degree to the arduous of-
fice of governing fuch extenfive dominions, I never (hun-
ned labour, nor repined under fatigue ; but now, when
my health is broken, and my vigour exhaufted by the
rage of an incurable diftemper, my growing infirmities
admonlfh me to retire ; nor am I fo fond of reigning,
as to retain the fceptre in an impotent hand, which is
no longer able to proteft my fubjefts. Inftead of a
fovereign worn out with difeafes (continued he), and
fcarce half alive, I give you one in the prime of life,
already accuftomed to govern, and who adds to the vi-
gour of youth all the attention and fagacity of maturer
years." 'I^hen turning towards Philip, who fell on his
knees, and kiffed his father's hand, "It Is in your
power (faid Charles), by a wife and virtuous admlni-
ftration, to juftify the extraordinary proof which I give
this day of my paternal affeftion, and to demonftrate
that you are worthy of the extraordinary confidence
which i repofe in you. Preferve (added he) an in-
violable regard for religion ; maintain the Catholic faith
in its purity ; let the laws of your country be facred in
your eyes ; encroach not on the rights of your people;
and if the time (hould ever come when you fhall wifh
to enjoy the tranquillity of private hfe, may you, have
a fon to whom you can refign your fceptre with as
much fatisfaftion as I give up mine to you." A few-
weeks after, he refigned to Philip the fovereignty of
Spain and America; refeiving nothing to himfelf out
of all thefe vaft poffeffions but an annual penfion of
100,000 crowns. .
Charles was now impatient to embark for Spain»
where he had fixed on a place of retreat ; but by the
advice of his phyficians, he put off his voyage for fome
months, on account of the feverity of the feafon ; and,
by yielding to their judi^ment, he had the fatisfadtion
before he left the Low Countries of taking a confider-
able ftep towards a peace with France. This he ar-
dently longed for; not only on his fon's account, whofe
adminiftratlon he wifhed to commence in quietnefs, but
that he might have the glory, when quitting the world,
of reftoring to Europe that tranquillity which his am-
bition had banifhed out of it almoft from the time that
he affumed the reins of government.
The great bar to fuch a pacification, on the part of
France, was the treaty which Henry had concluded
with the Pope ; and the emperor's claims were too
numerous to hope for adjufting them fuddenly. A a. t'rit
truce of five years was therefore propofed by Charles ; !ive yi
during which term, without difcuffing their refpeftive ' o'>clit
pretenfions, each fiiould retain what was in his pofTef. ^^^^^^
fion ; and Henry, through the perfuafion of the con-
ftable Montmorency, who reprefented the imprudence
of facrificing the true interefts of his kingdom to the
ralh cnvjagements that he had come under with Paul,
authorifed hiar ambalTadoM to fign at Vaucellcs a treaty,,
4. which
'35
SPA, [ 643 ]
which would infurc to him for fo confiderable a period fary reinforcements,
the impoitant conquell which he had made on the Ger-
man frontier, top.cther with the greater part of the
duke of Savoy's dominions.
The Pope, when informed of this tranfadion, was no
lefs filled with terror and aionifhment than rage and in-
dignation. But he took equal care to conceal his fear
and his anger. He afFeded to approve highly of the
truce ; and he offered his mediation, as the common fa-
ther of Chriftendom, in order to bring about a defini-
tive peace. Under this pretext, he appointed cardinal
Rebibo his nuncio to the court of Brufiels, and his ne-
phew cardinal CarafFa to that of Paris. The public in-
llrudions of both were the fame ; but Caraffa, befides
thefe, received a private commiffion, to fpare neither in-
treaties, promlfes, nor bribes, in order to induce the
French monarch to renounce the truce and renew his
engagements with the holy fee. Ke flattered Henry
with, the conqueft of Naples ; he gained by his addrefs
the Guifes, the queen, and even the famous Diana of
Poiaiers, duchefe of Valentinois, the king's miftrefs ;
and they eafily fwayed the king himfelf, who already
leaned to that fide towards which they wifhed to iuchne
liim. All Montmorency's prudent remonilrances were
difregarded ; the nuncio (by powers from Rome) ab-
folvtd Henry from his oath of truce ; and that weak
prince figned a new treaty with the Pope ; which re-
kindled with frefh violence the flames of war, both in
Italy and the Low Countries.
. No fooner was Paul made acquainted with the fuc-
cefs of this negotiation than he proceeded to the mod
indecent extremities againft Phihp. He ordered the
Spanifh ambaflador to be Imprifoned ; he excommuni-
cated the Colonnas, becaufe of their attachment to the
imperial houfe ; and he confidered Philip as guilty of
hi^h treafon, and to have forfeited his right to the
kingdom of Naples, which he was fuppofed to hold of
the holy fee, for afterward afi"ording them a retreat in
Lis dominions.
Alarmed at a quarrel with the Pope, whom he had
been taught to regard with the moft fuperflitious vene-
ration, as the vicegerent of Chrift and the common fa-
thcr of Chriftendom, Philip tried every gentle method
before he made ufe of force. He even confulted fome
Spanifh divines on the lawfulnefs of taking arms againft:
a perfon fo facred. They decided in his favour ; and
Paul continuing inexorable, the duke of Alva, to whom
the negotiations as well as the war had been committed,
entered the ecclefiaftical ftate at the head of 1 0,000 ve-
terans, and carried terror to the gates ef Rome.
The haughty pontiff, though fliill inflexible and un-
daunted in himfelf, was forced to give way to the fears
of the cardinals, and a truce was concluded for 40 days.
Mean time the duke of Guife arriving with a fupply of
20,000 French troops, Paul became more arrogant than
ever, and banifhed all thoughK from his mind but thofe
of war and revenge. The duke of Guife, however, who
fcad precipitated his country into this war, chiefly iroin
a defire of gaining a field where he might difplay his
own talents^ was able to perform nothing in Italy wor-
thy of his former fame- He was obliged to abandon
the fiege of Civetella ; he could not bring the duke of
Alva fo a general engagement ; his army periflied by
difeafes ; and the Pope negleded to furnifh the necef-
SPA
He begged to be recalled ; and Spain.
France ftood in need of his abiUties. ^
Philip, though willing to have avoided a rupture,
was no fooner informed that Henry had violated the
truce of VauccUes, than he' determined to aft with fuch
vigour, as flrould convince Europe that his father had
not erred in refigning to him the reigns of government.
He immediately afl'embled in the Low Countries a body
of 50,000 men, and obtained a fupply of 1 0,000 from
England, which he had engaged in his quarrel ; and as
he was not ambitious of military fame, he gave the
command of his army to Emanuel Philibert duke of
Savoy, one of the greateft. generals of that warUke
The dul<e of Savoy kept the enemy for fome time in
fufpenfe with regard to his deft^ination ; at laft he feem-
ed to threaten Champagne; towards which the French
drew all their troops ; then turning fuddenly to the
right, he advanced by rapid marches into Picardy, and
laid fiege to St Quintin. It was deemed in thofc times The French
a town of confidcrable ftrength ; but the fortifications entirely de-
had been much neglefted, and the garrifon did not^f^'*'^"'.
amount to a fifth part of the number requifite for its^'
defence : it muft therefore have furrendered in a few
days, if the admiral de Coligny had not taken the gal-
lant refolution of throwing himfelf into it with fuch a
body of men as could be coUefted on a fudden. This
he effedled in fpite of the enemy, breaking through
their main body. I'he place, however, was clofely in-
veited; and the conftable Montmorency, anxious to ex-
tricate his nephew out of that perilous fituation, in
which his zeal for the public had engaged him, as well
as to fave a town of fuch importance, rafhly advanced
to its relief with forces one half inferior to thofe of the
enemy. His^ army was cut in pieces, and he himfelf
made prifoner.
The cautious temper of Philip on this occafion faved
France from devatftation, if not ruin. The duke of Sa-
voy pr'opofed to overlook all inferior objefls, and march
fpeedily to Paris, which, in its prefent confternation, he
could not have failed to make himfelf mafter of ; but
Philip, afraid of the confequences of fuch a bold enter.-
prife, defired him to continue the fiege of St Quintin,
in order to fecure a fafe retreat in cafe of any dilaftrous
event. The town, long and gallantly defended by Co-
ligny, was at lail taken by itorm ; but not till France
was in a ftate of defence.
Philip was now fenfible that he had loft an opportu-
nity which could never be recalled, of diftrefling his
enemy, and contented himfelf with reducing Horn and
Catelet ; which petty toyvns, together with St Quintin,
were the fole fruits of one of the moft decifive victories
gained in the i6th century. The Catholic king, how-
ever, continued in high exultation on account of his
fuccefs ; and as all his paflions were tinged with fuper-
ftition, he vowed to build a church, a nwnaftery, and a
palace, in honour of St Laurence, on the day facred to
whofe memory the battle of St Quintin had been fought.
He accordingly laid the foundation of an edifice, in
which all thefe were included, and which he continued
to forward at vaft expence, for 22 years. The fame
principle which didlated the vow dlrefted the building.
It was fo formed as to referable a gridiron— on which
culinary inftrument, according to the legendary tale,
4M2 St
SPA
»38
Pence con-
cluded.
Spain. St Laurence had fufFered martyrdom. Such is the ori-
""^r"^ g,"ii of the famous efcurial near Madrid, the royal refi-
dence of the kings of Spain.
The firft account of that fatal blow which France
had received at St Quintin, was carried to Rome by
the courier whom Henry had fent to rccal the duke of
Guife. Paul remonftrated warmly againft the depar-
ture of the French army ; but GiuTe's orders were per-
emptory. The arrogant pontiff therefore found it ne-
cefTary to accommodate his cemluft to the exigency of
his affairs, and to employ the mediation ot the Vene-
tians, and of Cofmo de Medici, in order to obtain
peace. The firft overtures of this nature were eagerly
liftened to by the Cathohc king, who ftill doubted the
juftice of his eaufe, and confidered it as his greateft mif-
fortune to be obliged to contend with the Pope, Paul
agreed to renounce his league with France; and Philip
ftipulated on his part, that the duke of Alva fliould re-
pair In perfon to Rome, and after aflcing pardon of the
holy father in his own name and in that of his mafter,
for having invaded the patrimony of the church, fhould
receive abfolution from that crime. Thus Paul, thro'
the fuperllitious timidity of Philip, only finilhed an un-
propitious war not without any detriment to the apof-
tolic fee, but law his conqueror humbled at his feet :
and fo exceffive was the veneration of the Spaniards in
that age for the papal chara&er, that the duke of Alva,
the proudeft man perhaps of his time, and accuftomed
from his infancy to converfe with princes, acknow-
ledged, that when he approached Paul, he was fo much
overawed, tliat his voice failed, and his prefence /of
mind forfook him.
But though this war, which at its^ commencement
. , threatened mighty revolutions, was terminated without
' occafioning any alteration in thofe ftates which were its
immediate objeft, it produced effefhs of confidcrable
confequence in other parts of Italy. In order to de-
tach Gftavio Farnefe, duke of Parm.a, from the French
intereft, Philip reftored to him the city of Placentia
and its territory, which had been feized by Charles V.
and he granted to Cofmo de Medici the inveftiture of
Sienna, as an equivalent for the fums due to him. By
thefe treaties, the balance of power among the Italian
ftates was poifed with more equality, and rendered lefs
variable than it had been fince it received the firft vio-
lent fhock from the invafion of Charles VIII. and Italy
Iienceforth ceafed to be the theatre on which the mo-
narchs ot Spain, France, and Germany, contended for
fame and dominion. Their hoftilities, excited by new
objcfts, ftained other regions of Europe with blood,
and made other ftates feel, in their turn, the miferies
of war.
The duke of Guife, who left Rome the fame day that
unfuccefsful his adverfary the duke of Alva made his humiliating
Countries^ fubmiffion to the Pope, was received^ in France as the
guardian angel of the kingdom. He was appointed
lieutenant-general in chief, with a jurifdiftion almoft
unlimited ; and, eager to juftify the extraordinary con-
fidence which the king had repofed in him, as well as
to perform fomething fuitable to the high expeftations
of his countrymen, he undertook in winter the 'fiege of
Calais. Having taken that place, he next invefted Thi-
onville in the. duchy of Luxembourg, one of the ftrong-
eft towns on the frontiers of the Netherlands ; and for- '
ced it to capitulate after a fiege of three weeks. But
[ <^44 ]
SPA
»39
Confequen-
ces of the
140
The French
the advantages on this quarter were more than balanced Sp
by an event which happened in another part of the '~*^-
Low Countries. The marefchal de Ternies gOTernor
of Calais, who had penetrated into Flanders and taken '
Dunkirk, was totally routed near Gravelines, and taken
prifoncr by count E^mont. This difafter obliged the
duke of Guife to relinquifli all his other fchemes, and
liaften towards the frontiers of Picardy, that he might'
there oppofe the progrefs of the enemy.
'.riie eyes of all France were now turned towards the
duke of Guife, as the only general on whofe arms vic-
tory always attended, and in whofe condutt as well as-
good fortune they could confide in every danger. Hia
ftrength was nearly equal to the duke of Savoy's, each
commanding about 40,000 men. They encamped at
the diftance of a few leagues from one another; and the
French and Spaniih monarchs having joined their re-
fpcftive armies, it was expefted that, after the viciffi- |^
tudes of war, a dccifive battle would at laft determine
which of the rivals ihould take the afcendant for the fu-
ture in the affairs of Europe. But both monarchs, as j
if by agreement, ftood on the defenfive ; neither of '
them difcovering any inclination, though each had it in
his power, to reft the decifion of a point of fuch im-
portance on the iffue of a firiglc battle. , ,
During this ftate of inaftion, peace began to be men- Pcatt ;(
tioned in each camp, and both Henry and Philip dif-'^'"'^^ M
covered an equal difpofition to liften to any overture
that tended to re-eftablifli it. The private inclinations philir
of both kings concurred with their political intcrefts
and the wifhes of their people. Philip languifhed to
return to Spain, the place of his nativity ; and peace
only could enable him, either with decency or fafety, to -
quit the Low Countries. Henry was now defirous of
being freed from the avocations of war, that he might
have leifure to turn the whole force of his government
towards fuppreffing the opinions of the reformers, which
were fpreading with fuch rapidity in Paris and the
other great towns, that they began to grov/ fotmidable
to the eftabliflied church. Court-intrigues confpired
with thefe public and avowed motives to haften the ne^
gotiation, and the abbey of Cercamp was fixed on as
the place of congrcfs.
While Philip and Henry were making thefe advan-
ces towards a treaty which reftored tranquillity to Eu,.
rope, Charles V. whofe ambition had fo long difturbed
it, but who had been for fome time dead to the world,
ended his days in the moriaftery of St Juftus in Eftre-j^^atl^ ,
madura, which he had ch®fen as the place of his retrejit, Charles
as is particularly related Under the article Charles V.
After the death of Charles, the kingdom of Spain
foon loft great part of its confequence. Though Charles
had ufed all his intereft to get his fon Philip elefted
emperor of Germany, he had been totally difappointed ;
and thus the grandeur of Philip II. never equalled that
of his father. His dominions were alio conliderabiy
abridged by his tyrannical behaviour in the Netherlands.
In confequence of this, the United Provinces revolted ; RevJ'? ,
and after a long and bloody war obtained their liberty*, the Uni
In this quarrel Ehzabeth of England took part againft Pfovii c
Philip, which brought on a war' with Spain. The great p^^^.
lofTes he fuftained in thefe wars exhaufted the kingdom
both of men and money, notwithftanding the great fums >
imported from America. Indeed, the difcovery and
cOnquelt ef that country hath much iinpoverifhed, in-
ftcad
SPA
[ ^45 ]
S P A
Ifion
•s, and
d con-
;nccs
)a II.
■)lt of
ugal,
Por-
ftead of enriching Spain ; for thus the inhabitants have
been rendered lazy and averfe from every kind of ma-
nufafture or traffic, which only can be a durable fource
of riches and ftrength to any nation. The ruin of the
kingdom in this refpeft, however, was completed by
Philip III. who, at the inftigation of the inquifition,
and by the advice of his prime minifter the duke of
Lerma, expelled from the kingdom all the Morcfcoesor
Moors, defcendants of the ancient conquerors of Spain.
Tl'tirty daj's only were allowed them to prepare for
their departure, and it was death to remain beyond
that time. The reafon for this barbarous decree was,
that thefe people were ftill Mahometans in their hearts,
though they conformed externally to the rites of Chri-
ftianity, and thus might corrupt the true faith. The
Morefcoes, however, chofe themfelves a king, and at-
tempted to ©ppofe the royal mandate ; but, being al-
mo(t entirely unprovided with arms, they were foon
obliged to lubmit, and all baniflied the kingdom. By
this violent and impolitic meafure, Spain loft almoft a
million of induftrious inhabitants; and as the kingdom
was already depopulated by bloody wars, by repeated
emigrations to America, and enervated by luxury, it
now fank into a ftate of languor from whence it has
never recovered.
In confequence of this languor, and the maladmini-
ftration of the Spanifh governors, Portugal, which had
been reduced by Philip 11. revolted, and has ever fince
y been an independent kingdom :};. Plowever, the me-
^ ^ *moiy of what Spain once was, remained for a confider-
able time, and the power of that kingdom long conti-
nued to be feared after it had ceafed to be powerful.
In the time of queen Anne, a Britiffi army was feen for
the firft time in Spain, in order to fupport Charles of
Auftria againft Philip the grandfon of Louis XIV.
The ill fuccefs of that attempt is related under the ar-
, tide Britain, n° 342 — 359 ; and thus the crown of
Spain felUlo a branch of the houfe of Bourbon, in con-
fequence of which the courts of France and Spain ge-
nerally afted in the clofeft concert till the revelution,
which at prefent aftonifhes Europe, put an end to mo-
narchical government in the former country. The wars
of thefe two courts with Britain are related under
that article and America ; and thefe, with an unfuc-
cefsful attempt on Algiers, and the threatened war re-
{peSi\ng NooTKA Sound (icQ that article), conftitute the
moft important part of the Spanifh hiftory till the de-
poiition and murder of Louis XVI. of France. On
that event Spain joined her forces to thole of the Em-
pire, Britain, and Pruffia, to chaftife the Convention,
and prevent thofe democratical principles which had
riiiued France from being fpread through the oth^r na-
tions of Europe. We cannot fay that her exertions
added much to the ftrength of the alliance ,; and being
unable to defend herfelf againft the furious inroads of
the republican troops, fee was glad to make a feparate
peace with the Convention. See Revolutjon.
The air of Spain, during^ the months of June, July,
ate of and Auguft, is exceffively hot in the day-time; but the
reft of the year it is pleafant and temperate. Even
during the above months it is very cool in the fhade ;
and^o cold in the night, tliat it makes a traveller Ihi-
ver ; and in the day-time the violent h^at continues
only for about four or five hours. In the north, on
»6
the mountains, and near the fea-coaft, the air Is much Spam,
lefs fultry in fammer than in the fouth, efpecially in the '~"*V~~^
lower parts of the country, and at a diftance from the
fea. It feldom rains here, except about the equinoxes :
the frofls are very gentle towards the fouth ; but on the
mountains in the north and north-caft the air is very
fliatp in winter.
Though there are fome fandy barren deferts in the Soil and
fouth, and many barren mountains in the north, yet in produce*
the greater part of the country, particularly in the val*
leys and plains, the foil is good, producing a great va»
riety of rich wines, oil, and fruits ; fucb as oranges, le-
mons, prunes, citrons, almonds, raifins, dates, figs, chef-
nuts, pomegranates, capers, pears, and peaches ; but
not a fufficiency of grain, which is chiefly owin^ to the
negleA of tillage. Wheat and barley are the moil
common grain ; the former of which is fald by fome to>
be the beft in Europe. There is Hot much flax, hemp,
oats, or hay, in Spain : but there is plenty of honey,
fait, fine wool, filk, and cotton ; and, in foire places, of .
rice and fugar-canes. Here alfo are abundance of
mules, and, in fome provinces, of horfes, together with
deer, wild fowl, and other game, chamois and other
goats, but few horned cattle. Wolves are almoft the.
only wild beafts in the country. The herb kali, which>
is ufed in making fait, foap, and glafs, grows in great
plenty on the fea-fhore. The wild bulls, ufed in their
b uU- fights, are bred in Andalufia. The feas about Spain-
are well ftored with fifh; among which is the anchovy,
In the Mediten-anean. We may g-uefs at the number of
fheep here by'that of the fhepherds, which is faid ta
be about forty thoufand. The fheep that bear the fine
wool move regularly, every fummer, from fouth t®'
north, along the mountains, which yield a great variety
of fweet herbs ainl plants, and return again, towards
winter. During this progrefs, large quantities of fnlt
are diftributed among tiaem, and aU poUible care Is ta-
ken both of their health and fleeces.
The chief mountains are the Pyrenees, v^hlch ftretchMountafns'^,
from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean, but notminerais,,
in a dkeft line, for near 200 miles : their breadth is, ^'•^
in fome places, not lefs than 80. That called the Pic
de Midi is of a prodigious height. Over thefe moun-
tains there are only about five paffages out of Spain in-
to France, and thefe alfo narrow ;.. even the valleys be-
tween the mountains are covered with tluck and lofty,
woods. The other chains in Spain are the Sierra
d'Occa, Sierra Molino, Sierra Moreno, and Sierra No- '- ,
vada or the fnowy mountains. Near Gibraltar, oppo*
fite to Mount Abyla in Africa, ftands the celebrated-
Mount Calpe : thefe were anclentjy called Hercules^ 3
pilhrs. The mountains yield great quantities of tim*
ber for (hipping, which, are conveyed by the Ebro and'
other rivers to the Mediterranean. According to the
ancient and modern writers, they abound alfo with gold,,
filver, iron, lead, tin, cinnabar, quickfilver, alum, vii.
ti'iol, copperas, lapis calamlnarls. Sec befides gems, and",
mineral waters both hot and cold. The gold and filver
mines are not worked ?.t prefent,, but thole of iron are.
The neglect of the former is owing partly to the indo'-
lence of the Spaniards, and partly to the gold, and filver
imported from America. Befides the rivers Minho,
Douro, Tagus, Monda, Lima, and Guadiana, mention*
ed Id Portugal, but which have their faurces in Spain,
the
SPA
r 645 ]
SPA
149
Spain, the moft confiderable are the Ebro, formerly iherusy
Guadalavier, anciently Tur'ia^ Guadalqulver or Bvettsy
Sec:ura, and Xucar.
The Spaniards are zealous RomaHifts. Nowhere is
there more -pomp, farce, and parade, in what regards
religion ; and nowhere lefs true Chriftianity. Their
zeal and their fuperllition exceed that of any other Ro-
man Catholic country, unlefs perhaps we {hould except
Portugal. Nowhere did the inquifition reign with great-
er terror; there being ho fubjeft who was not liable to
be profecuted by the holy office^ as it is called ; how-
ever, the powers of that tribunal are now greatly dimi-
nifhcd even in Spain. There are eight arehbiOiops in
Spain, feven in America, and one in Afia at Manilla ;
each of which has his fuffragan bifhops. The arch-
bifhop of Toledo is primate, chancellor of Caflile, and,
"by virtue of his office, privy- counfellor. He is laid to
have a revenue of ioo,oobl. Sterling ^tr annum, or mote.
The king nominates all archbifhops and bifliops ; and
fince 1753 all fmall benefices are alfo in his gift. He
has alfo lately obtained a power to tax ccclcfiaftical pof-
feflions, according to his . pleafure and the exigency of
affairs. I'hough the reft of the nation is poor, the
clergy are immenfely rich, and their revenues of all
kinds very great. Moft of the towns and ellates
belong to them, and are exempt from all public bur-
dens; yet their avarice is infatiable, efpecially that of
the Mendicant friars, though they profefs poverty.
Their commerce, which is free from all duties and im-
pofts, is alfo a rich fund to them. Though the Spa-
niards are naturally men of wit and of an elevated genius,
yet little progrefs in the fciences is to be expefted from
them, while the clergy ufe their utmoft efforts to keep
them in ignorance, branding all literary refearches with
ihe name of herefy, and inveighing againft the feats of
the mufes as the fchools of hell, where the devil teaches
forcery. There are 22 univerfities, and feveral acade-
mies, in Spain ; but fo conflituted, and under fuch re-
ftriftions, that they can never attain to any meafure of
true learning. There are few printing-houfes in Spain ;
and mofl of the books in that language are pubhfhed in
other countries,
d In regard to trade and manufaAures, the Spaniards
are far from making fuch a figure as might be expeft-
ed. MoH of the laborious work in their hufbandry,
manufaftures, and handicrafts, is performed by the
French, efpecially in the two Cafliles and the midland
provinces, the natives being either too lazy or too proud
to floop to fach employments. By thefe means, the
French ufually return with large fortunes to their own
country. The chief manufaftures of Spain are thofe of
filk, wool, iron, copper, and other hardwares; but thefe
fall far fhort of the flourifhing condition to which they
might be brought: hence a great part of thetreafutes of
America go to the foreign merchants, who fupply them
Vith goods for that part of the worfd. However, it is
certain, that Spain, fince it hath had princes of the
iioufe of Bourbon upon the throne, hath improved its
revenues, increafed its forces by fea and land, and ap-
plied itfelf more than it did before to manufa<£f:ures and
iiufbandry ; having , fhaken off, in fome meafm*e, that
idle indolent difpofition which rendered it fo contemp-
tible in the eyes of otlier nations ; but it will be a long
time before they will be able to fupply the wants of
llidr own country, and thofe of America, in any great
TJO
Trade an
manufac
tures.
degree. Spain Is extremely well fituatcd for trade ? Spi
but mofl of its produce in exported by foreigners, ex-
cept what is carried to (he Indies ; and even with re«
gard to that trade, they are little better than faftors to
the Englifh, French, Dutch, and Italians. Smuggling,
which, wag formerly carried to a great height, is now in
a great meafure fuppreffed. Since the year 1750, the
exportation of filvcr hath been allowed on the payment
of per cent. From 1731; almofl to 1756, the flotas
and galleons were difcontinued, and the trade to Ame- .•
rica carried on in regifter-flu'ps, which any merchant
might fend, on permillion obtained from the council of
the Indies : but then the flotas and galleons were re-
ftored. J he AfTogue flu'ps are two veffels which carry
quickfilver on the king's account to Vera Cruz. There
is a company which has an exclufive grant for trading
to the Caraccas ; and another for tradirjg to Porto Ri-
co, the Bay of Honduras, the province of Guatimala
and Hifpaniola ; but the Spanifh part of the lafl, it is
faid, hath been lately ceded to the French. One fhip,
and fometimes two, fails annually from Manilla, in the
ifland of Luconia, one of the Philippines, for Acapul-
co in Mexico : her cargo, which belongs to the con-
vents, confifls of the principal commodities of that part
of the world ; but the return from Acapulco is for the
mofl part made in money, and amounts to a vafl funi,
as appeared from the treafure found on boai"d the Aca-
pulco fhip taken by Lord Anfon. In return for the
manufaftures fent to America, the Spaniards receive
gold, filver, cochineal, indigo, the cocoa or chocolate
nut, logwood and other dyeing woods, fugar, tobacco,
fnuff, and other produftions of that part of the world ;
fupplying moft part of Europe and Afia with the filver
which they bring from thence in their galleons. In the
time of the Moors and Goths, this kingdom was ex-
ceedingly populous. It is faid to have then contained
between twenty and thirty millions ; whereas now it
does not contain above nine : and this, among other
caufes, is owing to the pride and lazlntfs of the inhabi-
tants, want of manufaftures and good regulations, ne-
gleft of the mines and agriculture, the expulfion of the
Moors, the peopling of America, heavy taxes, the great
number of convents, excefTive vcnery, and the confe-
quent infccundity of both fcxes. Their debauchery and
ilerihty are partly occafioned by their way of living ;
for they make great ufe of fpices, and drink a great
deal of chocolate, and ftrang wine mixed with brandy.
The caufes affigncd for the want of people in Spain will
account in fome meafure for its poverty ; notwithftand-
ing it is computed that it receives one year with an-
other, fetting afide other fums, above 26 millions of
pieces of eight, in regiftercd gold and filver. As moft
of the manUiadtures that are fent to America are fur-
nifhed by Britain, France, Italy, and Holland, fo a
great part of the treafure brou ght home by the gal-
leons is paid to the merchants of thofe nations.
The conflitution of Spain is at prefent an abfolute Confli
hereditary monarchy, where the females inherit in de-''°"an
fault of the males. The king, in his title, enumerates
moft of the provinces and particular parts of the domi-
nions he has been or is poffeffed of. In fpeaking of
him, he is commonly called his Catholic Majejly, or the
Catholic King. The hereditary prince is conjmonly
ftyled Prince of jffturias, and the other royal children
Infants, The kings of Spain are never crowned; they
feem
SPA
[ 647 ]
SPA
feem to have a power to difpofe of the crown to what
branch of the royal family they pleafe. _ For the admi-
niftration of the {rovernment and of juftice, here are le-
veral councils and tribunals ; as the junto or cabinet-
council, the privy-council, the council of war, the coun-
oil of Caftlle, the council of the inqulfition, the council
of finances, the council of the Indies, the ieven courts
of royal audiences, &c. ^
The general hlftory of Spain proves how great an
Influence the Cortes had in former times in the moft
important affairs of government ; fuch as war or peace,
and the levying of taxes. I'.ut during a long courfe of
years they have not been affembkd, except for the fake
of form ; and the fovereigns, without ylolence, or for-
mally rejeftlng their interventioH, have found means to
elude their authority. They promulgate from the throne
certain ordinances under the name of Pragmatics, the
preambles of which give us to underftand, that they
claim the fame authority as If they had been publifhed
in the aflembly of the Cortes ; who are never convo-
ked but at the acceffion of a new monarch, to admuu-
fter to him an oath in the name of the nation, and to
fwear fidehty to him. As this event happened fo late-
ly as the month of September 1789, when the prefent
king of Spain received the homage of all his fubjefts m
the church of St Jerome at Madrid, It may not be un-
acceptable to give an account of the ufual mode of af-
fembling them.
" On this occafion letters of convocation are fent to
all the Grandees ; to all perfor.s bearing titles of Caf-
tlle ; to all the prelates ; and to every city which has a
right to fend deputies to the Cortes. The two firft
c&es reprefent the nobility; the priefts fit in the name
of the clergy; and the cities, which depute one of their
ma-riihates,^ reprefent the people." Except on the
abo've-menVoned occafion, the Cortes of the whole
kingdom have been affembled but twice during the
prefent century, and only once upon public bufmefs, in
the year 17 13, when Philip V. convoked them to gjve
their approbation to the Pragmatic Sanfition, which
changed the order of fucceffion to the throne. _ They
are ftill confulted, for the fake of form, in certain cafes;
but then, the members of which they are compofed
correfpond with each other without affembllng. At
their breaking up in .1713, it was regulated, that they
fhould be reprefented by a permanent committee, whofvi
office It fhould be to watch over the ad mini fl ration of
that part or the taxes known by the name of Millones,
and which had been granted under Philip II. with the
formal confent of the' Cortes, upon certain conditions,
which the monarch fwore to obferve. They retained
the admlnlftratlon o^ thefe impofts until the year 1718,
when cardinal Alberoni, whofe ardent and Imperious ge-
nius was irritated at fuch ftackles, transferred it to the
hands of the fovereign. From that time, the aflemblies
©f the deputies of the kingdom have received no more
of the revenues of the ftate than, la neceffary to pay the
falaries and defray the expences of the members. Thefe
are eight in number, and are clwfen in the following
manner : All the provinces of Catflle unite to nominate
£x ; Cataloaia and Majorca appoint one ; and the re-
gencies of Valentia and Aragon eled the eighth. Thefe
«leputles hold their places fix years, at the end of which
a new .leaion takes place in the fame manner. As a
xelid of their ancient rights, they ftill retain the privi-
lege of being, by virtue of their places, members of the Sp
council of finances, by which the fovereign communi.
cates to the nation the neceffity of levy in j any new tax;
and the approbation they are fuppofed to give to the
royal refolution, is a fhadow of the confent of the Cor-
tes, without which taxes could not formerly be either
levied or augmented. But It is cafy to perceive hovsr
feeble this rampart of Hberty muft be, whi-ch Is only
formed of a finall number of citizens, who poiTcfs but
little real power ; are under the controul of govern-
ment, from which they expeft favours and preferments;,
and who, after all, reprefent the moft numerous indeed,
but leaft refpefted, part of the nation- The provinces
of Blfcay and Navarre, which have affemblles and par-
ticular privileges, fend alio, on fome occafions, deputies
to the throne ; but they do not make a part of the
body of the deputies of the kingdom, and their conftl-
tuents fix at plealure the object and duration of their
temporary mlffion.
The admlniftration of Spain Is divided into fix prin-
cipal departments. The mlnifter for foreign affaus Is
in many refpefts the directing mini iter, and receives, as.
a mark of dlftinftion, the title of fecrctary of flate. The
mlnifter of war has but a clrcumfcribed authority.. He
is prefident of the council of war, which is rather a tri-
bunal than a board of adniinlftration but the infpec-
tors of the infantry, and thofe of the cavalry, dragoons,,
and provincial regiments, draw up a ftatement ot what-
ever relates to the corps of which they have the direc-
tion ; and the mlnifter at war has only to prefent the
memorials they give in to the king. The marine ml-
nifter has no aflfoclates. The chiefs of the three de-
partments of Ferrol, Carthagena, and Cadiz, and in-
fpeiftors of the marine, are named by the king, on the
reprefentation of the mlnifter ; but the marine ordi-
nances prepared by him alone, require only the fane-
tlon of the king. The mlnifter of the finances fhould
properly be under the infpedlion of the fuperlntendant-
general of that department ; but thefe two offices were
fome time fince united, and will probably be fo conti-
nued; for the feparation of them would multiply, with-
out necelfityj the fprings of government ; and the in*
terefts of the ftate require that they ftiould be fimpllfied
as much as permanent forms, thofe facred bulwarks o£
juftice and property, will admit.
The higher nobility confift of counts, marquifes^
and dukes. The grandees, who have precedence of all
others, next the king and princes of the blood, are na-
med out of thefe. They have the privilege of being
covered In the king's piefence, who ftyles them In his
letters Illujirious ; and in fpeaklnj^ to them or of them,,
their Eminences : but there are others befide the gran-
dees who are covered In the king's pre fence ; as cardi-
nals, nuncios, archbiftiops, the grand prior of Caftile
and the grand prior of Malta, the generals of the orders-
of St Dominic and St Francis, ainbaftadors of crowned
heads, the knights of the golden fleece, and of the
three military orders of St James, Calatrava, and Al-
cantara, when the king affifts at their rcfpe£tlve chap-
ters in qciallty of grandmafter. No grandee can be ap-
prehended for any crime but by the exprefs order of the
king ; and they have many other privileges befides.
thefe. The Inferior nobility ftyle themfelves Cavalleros;
and Hidalgos.
Of the orders ia Spain, that of the goldeo fleece ia.
the
S P A
C 648 ]
SPA
»5»
Orders of
knight-
iiood.
"53
Eleveuucs.
^54
language.
Spain, tlie principal ; which was Inftituted in 1430 by Phihp
the good duke of Burgundy, and is common now to
the kintrs of Spain and the houfe of Auftria. The or-
der of St Jago de CompoltcUa was inftituted in the year
117 J by Ferdinand IT. king of Leon. The order of
Calatrava was founded by Sancho III. of Caftile. The
order of Alcantara owes its inllitution to Ferdinand 11,
king of Lfeon. The three laft orders have lan';e com-
nanderles or eftates annexed to them. The mafters of
them were once fo powerful, that they difputed the
kinsr's authority over them ; whereupon the king pro-
cured thofc mafterfhips to be conferred on himfelf by
the Pope, that they might no longer affnme aii inde-
pendency of the ftate. The knights of thefe three or-
ders are efteemed noblemen.
In the laft century, the revenues of Spain amounted
to 32 or 33 millions of livres ; but afterwards they
were fo reduced, that they did not exceed feven or
eight millions. At prefent, the revenues of the crown
arifmg in Spain are computed at five millions Sterling per
«/m?/w,befides what arifes from America. The filvermines
there are inexhauftible ; and of the produce of thefe a
fifth belongs to the king. The taxes in Spain are nu-
merous and heavy. The land forces, in time of peace,
are computed at about 80,000 ; and in time of war,
muft be much more numerous, Their navy at prefent
•cannot be afcertained.
'i^e language of this country, efpecially that fpoken
in Caftile, which is by far the pureft, approaches the
neareft to the Latin of any language in Europe, mixed
with Arabic words and terminations introduced by the
Moors. In fome provinces, the vulgar tongue is a dia-
led of the old French, or rather Gafcon, which is little
underftood in the others. In Bifcay, the language is
fald to be a dialeift of the Gothic or Celtic, and to have
fome analogy y/ith tlie Welch 'and Irifli. As to what
regards the character of the Spaniards, they do not want
cither an inclination or capacity for the fciences ; but
have hardly an opportunity of acquiring any true learn-
ing or knowledge, at Icaft in their fchools and univerfi-
tics. They are admired for their fccrecy, conttancy,
ravity, patience in adverfity, and loyalty. They are
alfo faid to be true to their word, great enemies to ly-
ing, and fo nice and jealous in point of honour, that
they will ftick at nothing to wipe off any flain that is
caft upon it. Among their vices and defeAs are reck-
oned their pride and contempt of foreigners, their indo-
lence, lazinefs, luft, bigotry, and credulity in believing
the feigned mii-acles and legends of their monks. They
are alfo faid to be extremely pafTionate, jealous, and vin-
dlftive ; and are noted, above any other European na-
tion, for defpifmg and neglecting agriculture, arts, and
-.manufaftures.
We will here fubjoin fome direAIons for travelling In
redt ions for Spain by Mr Townfend, a late refpe<9:able traveller; as
in^S^^''"^* ^^^y ^^'^ enable the reader to form a more diftinft no-
^ ' ' tion of the ftate of that country than he could obtain
from general defcnptlon.
" To travel commodioully in Spain, a man fhould
have a good conftitution, two good fervants, letters of
credit for the principal cities, and a proper introduc-
tion to the bcft families, both of the native inhabitants
and of ftrangers fettled in the country.
The language will be eafijy acquired.
*' His fervants fhould be a Spaniard and a Swifs j of
155 .
Some di-
Townfind\
vol. i.
which one Hiould be fufficlently acquainted with the art Spa
of cooking, and with the fuperlor art of providing for ^i'*'
the journey ; which imphes a perfeA knowledge of the
country though which he is to pafs, that he may fecure
a ftock of wine, bread, and meat, in places where thefe
excel, and fuch a ftock as may be fufficient to carry him
through the diftrlfts in which thefe are not to be ob-
tained. For himfelf, his fervants, and his baggage, he
fhould purchafe three llrong mules, able to fupport the
load which is to be put upon them. In his baggage he
ftiould have flieets, a matrafs, a blanket, and a quilt, a
.table-cloth, knives, forks, and fpoons, with a copper
veflel fufficiently capacious to boil his meat. This fhould
be furnilhed wit;h a cover and lock. Each of the fer-
vants fhould have a gun flung by the fide of his mule.
" To travel as an economift in Spain, a man muft be
contented to take his chance for conveyance, and either
go by the poft, wherever it is eftablifhed ; or join with
officers, going to their various ftatlons; to hire a coach,
or quietly refign himfelf to a calafh, a calafine, a horfe,
a mule, or a borrico. This laft Is the moft conve-
nient for the purpofe of croffmg the country, or of wan-
dering among the mountains. If he is to traverXe any'
diftrift Infefted by banditti, it will be fafe for him ta
go by the common carriers. In which cafe he will be
mounted on a good mule, and take the place which
vvould have been occupied by fome bale of goods. Any
one, who Is fond of botany, for ftiort excurfions, will
make choice of a borrico. I'his is always to be had
when, as in fome villages, neither horfe nor mule are to
be obtained. I have ufed this honourable appellation
for the moft patient of all animals, becaufe I would not
fliock the delicacy of a young traveller, by telling him,
at his firft fetting out, that he may fometlmes find him-
felf under the neceflity of riding upon an afs. He muft,
however, know, for his confolatlon, that an afs does not
appear fo contemptible In Spain as in the colder regions
of the north.
" The beft time for him to begin this expedition is
in autumn, when he may go by Bayonne, Burgos, Val-
ladolid, and Segovia, hattening to the court at St Ilde-
fonfo. Here he Is to procure letters for the chief cities
In Spain. On thefe will depend the whole plealure of
his excuriion. During the winter he may fee all the
fouth of Spain, Toledo, Cordova, Seville, Cadiz, Gib-
raltar, Malaga, Granada, Carthagena, Murcia, Alicant,
Valencia, and Barcelona. Returning by Zaragoza to
Aranjuez In the fpring, he may follow the Merino flock
to the mountains of the north, whilft the country, on
w hich he has turned his back, is rendered unfit for tra-
veling, by the diffolvlng heats, by want of provifions,
and by malignant fevers. I'his feafon will be beft em-
ployed in Galicia, the Afturlas, and- the provinces of
Bifcay, taking Salamanca and Leon in the way."
Ne-7v Sfjin. See Mexico.
SPALATRO, orSpALATTo, a rich, populous, and
ftrong town of the republic of Venice, capital of Ve-
netian Dalmatia, with a good harbour and an archbl-
fhop's fee. Here are the ruins of the palace of Diode-
fian, of which the late Mr Robert A dam publifhed in
1764 a fplendid account, enriched with 71 folio plates.
In 1 784, Spalatro was nearly depopulated by the plague.
It is ftrong by fituation, being built on a penuifula, which
is joined to T'erra FIrma by a neck of land half a mile
over. It is feated on the Gulf of Venice, 35 miles
3 ' fouth.
SPA
n foutti-eaft oF Sebenico, and 102 north-weft of Ragufa.
E. Longr. 1 7. 3 1 . N. Lat. 44. 4.
SPAN, a meafure taken from the fpace between the
thumb and the tip of the Uttle fingei* when both are
ftretched out. The fpan is eftlmated at three hand's
breadths or nine inches.
SPANDRELL, the folid work on each haunch of
an arch, to keep it from fpreading.
SPANHEIM (Ezckiel), a learned writer In the
17th century, was born at Geneva in 1629; and
in 1642 went to Lcyden to ftudy. Here he diftln-
gulflied himfelf to great advantage ; and his reputation
fpreading, Charles Louis elcftor palatine fent for him
to be tutor to his only fon. This tallc our author dif-
chargcd to the entire fatlsfaftlon of the eledlor ; by
whom he was alio employed in divers negotiations at
foreign courts. He afterwards entered into the fervice
of the eleftor of Brandenburg, who in 1 680 fent him
envoy-extraordinary to the court of France, and foon
after made him a minifter of ftate. After the peace of
Ryfwic, he was again feat on an embafly to France,
where he continued from the year 1697 to 1702. The
cleftor of Brandenburg havingf during that Interval af-
fumcd the title of King of Pru/Jia, conferred on him the
title and dignity of a baron. In 1702 he left France ;
and went ambalfador to England, where he had been
feveral times. Here he died in 1710, aged 81 years.
It is furprifing, that in difcharging the duties of a pub-
lic minifter with fo much exaftnefs, and amidft fo ma-
ny different journeys, he could find time enough to
write the feveral books publifhed by him. It may be
faid of him, that he acquitted himfelf in his negotiations
like a perfon who had nothing elfe in his thoughts ;
and that he wrote like a m.an who had fpent his whole
time in his ftudy. The principal of his works are,
I. De prajiantia et iifu mmifmatum antiquorum; the beft
edition of which is in two volumes folio. 2. Several
letters or dilfettations on fcarce and curious medals. 3.
A preface and notes to the edition of the empeior Ju-
lian's works, printed at Leipfic in 1696, folio.
SPANIEL, in zoology. See Canis.
SPAR, in mineralogy, a name given to thofe earths
which break eafily into rhomboidal, cubical, or lamina-
ted fragments with polifticd furfaces. As the term
Jpar is thus applied to ftones of different kinds, without
any regard to the Ingredients of which they are com-
pofed, fome additional term muft be ufed to expfefs the
conftituent parts as well as the figure ; for inftance, cal-
careous fpar, gypfeous fpar, &c. The fpars found in
Britain and Ireland are of four different fpecies; opaque,
refrafting, diaphanous, and ftalaftitical. i. The opaque
fpar is rhomboidal, hexangular, and triangular^ of va-
rious colours, and is found in mines in Wales, Derby-
ihlre, &c. and at Ovens near Cork. 2. The refrafting
fpar is rhomboidal, fliows objefts feen through it double^
and fometimes 8, 12, or 16 images at once. It \%
freqvient In the lead mines of Derbyfliire, Yorkfhire,
&c. 3. Diaphanous fpar is rhomboidal, triangular,
liexangular, pyramidal or columnar ; and is found in
mines, quari-ies, and caverns, in many different places.
4. Stalaftitical Ipar, icicle or drop-ftone, is formed by
the running or dropping of water, containing a large
proportion of calcareous earth. It is opaque, generally
laminated, but from accidental circumflauces alTumes va-
VoL.XVIL FartIL
C 649 ]
SPA
rious forms. It occuriB at Knarefborough in Yorkfhire, SpSrjr
and at Ovens near Cork. Sparga.^
A new fpecies of fpar has lately been found in the
Eaft Indies, which, from Its extreme hardnefs, approach-
ing to that of a diamond, is called adamantine fpar. It
was difcovered by Dr Black of Edinburgh to be a di-
ftinft fpecies. Happening one day to vifit a lapidary,
it was ftiown to him among other fpecimens as a ftone
that was ufed in the Eaft Indies for pollfliing gems, and
grinding other hard fubftances. Dr Black immediately
fmglcd out a fpeclmen which he fent to Mr Greville,
who requefted M. Klaproth to analyze it.
There are two varieties of this fpar ; one of them
comes from China, and cryftallizes in hexagonal prifms
without pyramids, the length of the fides varying from
fix to twelve lines ; their breadth being about nine, of
a grey colour with different fhades. Though the en-
tire pieces are opaque, the thin lamlnze are tranfparent,
and when broken, itat furface appears flightly ftriated.
Its cryftals are covered with a very fine and ftrongly
adhering cruft, compofed of fcales of filvery mica, mixed
with particles of red feld-fpar. Sometimes the furface
has martial pyrites or yellow fulphuret of Iron adhering
to it. Its hardnefs is fo great, that it not only cuts
glafs as eafily as the diamond, but even fcratches rock-
cryftal and other very hard ftones. Its fpecific gravity
is to that of water as 3710 to 1000. Sometimes it
contains cryftallized grains of magnetic oxyd of Iron^
which may be feparated from the ftone when pulveri-
zed by means of the loadftone.
The other kind found In HIndoftan Is of a whiter co-
lour, and of a more laminated texture than the formert
the grains of iron contained in it are likewife of a fraal-
ler fi?.e than thofe of the former ; they are not diffufed
through Its fubftance, but only adhere to Its furface.
This fpar Is exceedingly difficult to analyze. To do
fo, M, Klaproth was obliged to melt it no lefs than 1 2
times with 1 5 parts of foda or mineral alkali, in a filver
crucible ; the heat being each time continued for five
hours as ftrong as the crucible could bear. After each
fuflon the mafs was foftened by boiling diftilled wa-
ter, filtering and precipitating by acids the fmall quan-
tity of earth which the alkali had diffolved ; and laftly*
that portion which had not been decompofed was di-
geited at different times with concentrated and boillncr
acids. By this tedious procefs he at length found,
that the fpar coniifted of alumine and another kind of
earth, in the proportion of 2 to i , the nature of which
is not underftood. It is not fillceous earth, as it does
not combine with fixed alkalis in a melting heat ; and
for want of opportunities to make a fufficient number
of experiments, our author was unable to determine
whether it be a fixth fimple earth, or a compofition of
two or more earths which he was not able to fcparate.
Fr-om a letter of M. Morveau to Mr Crell, it ap-
pears that this ftone is alfo found in France. A fmall
bit of this was tried by him in prefence of Mr Wedge-
wood> and he found that its fpecinc gravity was fuperior
to the fpar of China, being no lefs than 4.1803, and
the true adamantine fpar of China gave 3.8222.
J-PARGANIUM, nuR-REED, in botany : A genus
of plants belonging to the clafs of monacia, and to the
order of triandria ; and In the natural fyftem ranged
under the 3d order, Calamari,e. The amentum of the
4 N male.
SPA
r 65
iparman. ni?.le flower is roundiih, the calyx is trlphyllous, and
^1 there is nb corolla. The amentum oF the female flower
Sparta, refembles that of the male. The ftigma is bifid ; the
y..«_ fiuit id a dry berry containing; one feed. There are two
fpecies, the ereftum and natans, both of them natives of
Great Britain and Ireland, i. The J^r^^ww, great bur-
reed, hris a ftem two or three feet liigh, creft, firm and
branched ; the lower leaves are triangular, the upper
ones plain. The male heads, are much fmaller than the
female. This fpecies flowers in July, and is frequent
on the banks of rivers and lakes and near flagnant wa-
ters. 2. The Natans, floating or little bur-reed, has a
flalk about t\^^o feet long. The leaves float, are about
a foot long, one-fourth of an inch wide at the bafe, and
one-eighth in the middle, and end in a point. The male
fphoerulcs are generally three, and all feflile ; the female
are commonly three, the two lower being fupported oa
peduncles, the uppermofl: feflile. It flowers in July,
and grows in pools and lakes, but is rare.
SPARMANNIA, in botany; a genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs ol polyandr'ta, and to the order of
nwnogynia. The corolla confifts of four petals, and is
bent back; the ne6iaria are numerous, and fwell a little ;.-
the calyx is quadrlphyllous ; the capfule is angulated,.
quinquclocular and cchinated. There is only one fpe-
cies, the Afr'icann.
SPARROW, in ornithology. See Fringilla.
SpARKOTv-Hawh, in ornithology. See Falco.
SpjRKow-Grnfs. See Asparagus.
SPARRY-ACID. Seei^-x uoR-y^c'id, and Cht.mistrv-
Jndex.
SPARTA, or Laced^mon, the capital of the
country of Laconia in Greece, an ancient and mofl: re-
nowned ftate, the inhabitants of which have been in all
^ ages celebrated for the fingularity of their laws and cha-
The hlftory rafter.— The hiftory of Sparta for many ages is entirely
r;f Spana fabulous ; and the authentic accounts commence only with
rnoftly fa- the celebrated lawgiver Lycurgus, who flourlflied about
buJous till ^ Q g^^j^j^ LycuRGtrs.
• * A Ao.- ■\.;r. A^r.r\. c_A : ....
the time
l.ycurgus.
After his death, the firft important tranfaftion which
we find mentioned in the Spartan hifl:ory is the Mefle-
Bian war, which commenced in the year 752 B. C. and
ended in the total reduftion of the Meflenian territory,
as related under the article Messenia. During this
period, according to fome authors, a great change took
place in the government of Sparta. This was the crea-
tion of the ephori, which is afcribed to one of the kings
named Theopompus. This man perceiving that there
was a neceflity for leaving magittrates to execute the
laws, when the kings were obliged to be in the field,
appointed the magiftrates above mentioned, who after-
wards made fo great a figure in the ftate (fee Ephori).
One great privilege of the ephori was, that they did
not rife up at the prefence of the kings, as all other ma-
giftrates did : another was, that if the kings offended
againft the laws, the ephori took cognizance of the of-
fence, and inflifted a fuitable punifhment. From the
firft eleftion of the ephori, the year was denominated,
as at Athens, from the firft eleftion of the archons.
The conqueft of Meflenia gave Sparta the fuperiority
ever the rert of the ftates, excepting only that of Athens,
which for a long time continued to be a very frouble-
fome rival ; but the contefts between thefe two rival
ftates have been fo fully related under the article At-
tica, that nothing more isre^uifite to be added in the
o ] SPA
place. — In th« time of the Perfian war,- Leonidas the Si
Spartan king diftinguiflied himfelf in fuch a manner, as """"v-
to become the admiration not only of that but of every ^ ^ .
fucceeding age. It being refolved in a general council undmj
to defend the ftraits of Thermopylae ■ againft, the Per- to dcfe
fians, 7300^ foot were put under the command of Leo-"''=' ^""^
nidas ; of whom, however, . only . 300 were Spartans.
Leonidas did not think it prafticable to defend the pafs^ainft*
againft fuch multitudes as the P<erfian king commanded; Perfia,
and therefore privately told his friends, that his dcfign§ ^ee^
was to devote himfelf to death for his country. r '^^/
Xerxes advancing/near the ftraits, was ftrangely fur-yoVj
prifed to find that the Greeks were refolved to difputep. 468
his paflage ; for he had always. flattered himfelf, that on
his approach they- would betake themfelves to flights
and not attempt to - oppofe his innumerable forces.
However, Xerxes ftill entertaining fome hopes of their
flight, waited four days without undertaking any thing,
on purpofe to give them time to retreat. During this
time, he uftd his utmoft endeavours to gain and corrupt
Leonidas, promifing to make him mafter of all Greece
it he would come over to his intereft. His offers being
rejcfted with contempt and indignation, the king order-
ed him by an herald to deliver up his arms. Leonidas,
in a ftyle and with a fpirit truly 'laconical, anfwered,
" Come thyfelf, and take them." Xerxes, at this re-
ply, tranfported with rage, commanded the Medes and
Cifiians to march againft them, take them all alive, and xhe He
bring them to him in fetters. The Medes, not able to fians re
ftand the fliock of the Greeks, foon betook themfelves f-'^ ^^it
to flight : and in their room Hydarnes was ordered to^'^^^.
advance with that body which vi^as called Immortal, and^
confifted of 10,000 chofen men ; but when thefe came
to clofe with the Greeks, they fucceeded no better than
the Medes and Ciflians, being obliged to retire with
great flaughter. The next day the Perfians, rcflefting
on the fmall number of their enemies, and fuppofing fo
many of them to be wounded that they could' not pof-
fibly maintain a fecond fight, refolved to make another
attempt; but could not by any eff"orts make the Greeka
give way : on the contrary, they were themfelves put
to a ftiameful flight. The valour of the Greeks exert-
ed itfelf on this occafion in a manner fo extraordinary,
that Xerxes is faid to have three times leaped from his
throne, apprehending the entire deftruftion of his army.
Xerxes having loft all hopes of forcing his way
through troops that were deternn'ned to conquer or
die, was extremely perplexed and doubtful what mea-
fures he fliould take in this pofturc of aff'airs; when one Tkey a
Epialtes, in expeftation of a great reward, came to him,'1^own ,
and difcovercd a fecret paflage to the top of the hilP^^^
which overlooked and commanded the Spartan forces. fJrrmin
The king immediately ordered Hydarnes thither with the Ore
his feleft_ body of 1 o,oco Perfians ; who marching all
night, arrived at break of day, and poflefled themfelves
of that advantageous poft. The Phocasan*, who defend-
ed this pafs, being overpowered by the enemy's num-
bers, retired with precipitation to the very top of the
mountain, prepared to die gallantly. But Hydarnes
neglefting topurfue them, marched down the monntain
with all poflible expedition, in order to attack thofc
who defended the ftraits in the rear. Leonidas being
row apprifed that it was impoflible to bear up againft
the enemy, obliged the reft of his allies to retire : but
he ftald himfelf, with the Thefpians, Thebans, and 300
5 Lace*
SPA
t 6
. Lacedemonians, all refolved to die with their leader }
who being told by the oracle, that either Sparta fhould
be deftroyed or the king lofe his life, determined with-
out the leaft hcTitation to facrifice himfelf for his coun-
try. The Thebans indeed remained againft their incli-
nation, being detained by Leonidas as hoftages ; for
they were fufpefted to favour the Perfians. The I'hef
pians, with their leader Demophilus, could not by any
means be prevailed upon to abandon Leonidas and the
Spartans. The augur Megiftias, who had foretold the
event of this enterprize, being prelTed by Leonidas to
retire, fent home his only fon ; but remained himfelf,
and died by Leonidas. Thofe who ftaid did not feed
themfelves with any hopes of conquering or efcaping,
but looked upon Thermopylae as their graves; and when
Leonidas, exhorting them to take fome nourifliment,
fald, that they (hould all fup together with Pluto, with
one accord they fet up a fhout of joy, as if they had
been invited to a banquet.
Xerxes, after pouring out a libation at the rifmg of
the fun, began to move with the whole body of his ar-
das my, as he had been advifed by Epialtes. Upon their
with approach, Leonidas advanced to the broadeft part of
the palfage, and fell upon the enemy with fuch undaunt-
ed courage and refolution, that the Perfian officers were
obliged to ftand behind the divifions they commanded,
in order to prevent the flight of their men. Great num-
- bers of the enemy falling into the fea, were drowned ;
others were trampled under foot by their own men, and
a great many killed by the Greeks ; who knowing they
could not avoid death upon the arrival of thofe who
were advancing to fall upon their rear, exerted their
utmoft efforts. In this aftion fell the brave Leonidas ;
which Abrocomes and Hyperanthes, two of the bro-
thers of Xerxes, obferving, advanced with great refolu-
tion to feize his body, and carry it in triumph to Xerxes.
But the Lacedemonians, more eager to defend it than
their own lives, repulfed the enemy four times, killed
both the brothers of Xerxes, with many other command-
ers of diftinftion, and refcued the body of their beloved
general out of the enemy's hands. But in the mean
time, the army that was led by the treacherous Epialtes,
advancing to attack their rear, they retired to the nar-
roweft place of the paifage, and drawing all together
except the Thebans, polled themfelves on a rifmg ground.
In this place they made head againft the Perfians, who
poured in upon them on all fides, till at length, not
vanquilhed, but oppreffed and overw^hclmed by numbers,
they all fell, except one who efcaped to Spatta, where
he was treated as a coward and traitor to his country ;
but afterwards made a glorious reparation in the battle
of Platsea, where he diftinguifhed himfelf in an extraor-
dinary manner. Some time after, a magnificent monu-
ment was erefted at Thermopylae, in honour of thofe
brave defenders of Greece, with two infcriptions ; the
one general, and relatin^x to all thofe who died on this
occafion, importing, that the Greeks of PelopoRnefus,
to the number only of 400c, made head againft the Per-
fian army, confifting of 3,000,000. The other related
to the Spartans in particular, and was compofed by the
poet Simonides, to this purport ; " Go, paffenger, and
acquaint the Spartans that we died here in obedience to
their juft commands." At thofe tombs a funeral ora-
tion was yearly pronounced in honou;- of the dead he-
roes, and public games pejrforrned with great foleranity,
.1 SPA
wherein none but the Lacedemonians and Thefpians Sparta-.
had any fhare, to ftiow that they alone were concerned
in the glorious defence of Thermopylse. 6
At the end of the 77th Olympiad, a moft ^^^'P'^^^^^'^^ J^^uake
earthquake happened at Sparta, in which, according to^^''^^^^^^^
Diodorus, 20,000 perfons loft their Uves ; and Plutarch
tells us, that only five houfes were left Handing in the
whole city. On this occafion the Helotes or flavesj
whom the Spartans had all along treated with the ut-
moft cruelty, attempted to revenge themfelves, by ta-
king up arms, and marching diredly to the ruins of the
city, in hopes of cutting off" at once thofe who had efca-
ped from the earthquake. But in this they were pre-
vented by the prudence of the Spartan king Archida-
mus ; for he, obferving that the citizens were more de-
firous of preferving their effeds than taking care of
their own lives, caufed an alarm to be founded, as if he
had known that an enemy was at hand. On this the
citizens armed themfelves in hafte with fuch weapons
as they could come at ; and having marched a htde
way from the city, met the Helotes, whom they foon j
compelled to retire. The latter, however, knowing War with
that they had now no mercy to expeft from thofe who the Helo-
had already treated them with fuch cruelty, refolved to
defend themfelves to the laft. fiaving therefore fcized
a fea-port town in Meffenia, they from thence made
fuch incurfions into the Spartan territories, that they
compelled thofe imperious mafters to afli aififtance from
the Athenians. This was immediately granted ; but
when the Spartans faw that the fl<ill of the Athenians
in befieging towns was much greater than their own,
they became jealous, and difmiffed their allies, telling
them, that they had now no farther occafion tor their
fervices. On this the Athenians left them in difgtrft ;
and as the Helotes and Meffenians did not choofe to
come to an engagement with a Spartan army in the
field, but took flielter in their fortified places, the war
was protrafted for ten years and upwards. At laft the
Helotes wei*e reduced to their former mifery ; and the
Meffenians were obliged to leave Peloponnefus, on pain
of being made flaves alfo. Thefe poor people were
then received by the Athenians, who granted them
Naupaftus for their refidence, and afterwards brought
them back to a partof their own country, from whence
In the courfe of the Peloponnefian war they had driven
the Spartans. 8
In the year 431 B. C. the Peloponnefian war com- With the
menced ; of which a full account has been given under ^'^'^"^^^
the article Attica, n° 1 16 — 165. It ended moft un.Q^jjg_
fortunately for the Athenians ; their city being taken
and difmantled, as related in the article above-mention-
ed. Thus were the Spartans raifed to the hioheft pitch
of glory ; and, in the reign of Agefilaus, they fecmed
to be on the point of fubverting the Perfian empire, as
related under the article Persia, n" 34.. But heretheir
good fortune and their views of empire were iuddenly
checked. Agefilaus had carried on the war in Afia
with the greatcft fuccefs ; and as he would hearken to
no terms of accommodation, a Perfian governor named
Tithraiiftes, having firft attempted in vain to bribe the
king, dllpatched Timccrates the Rhodian with 50 ta-
lents into Greece, in order to try whether he could
there meet with any perfons lefs incorruptible than the
Spartan monarch. This agent found many who incli-
ned to accept his offers ; particularly in fhebes, Co-
4 N 2 riiith>
SPA
9
A gerieral
combina..
^P^^^' . "nth, and Argos. By diftributinar the money in a pro.
per manner, he inflamed the inhabitantvS of thefe three
cities againfl: the Spartans ; and of all others the The-
bans came into his terms with the ^reatell readinefs.
g''^jj|^'"^They faw that their anlagonifts would not of their own
accord break with any of the Ilates of Greece, and did
not choofe to begin the war themfelves, becaufe the
ehiefs of the Perlian fadlion weie unwilling to be ac-
countable for the event. For this reafoa they perfua-
ded the Locrians to invade a fmall dillrid which lay in
<Jifpute betwixt the Phocians and themfelves. On this
the Phoc ians invaded Loci is ; the Locrians applied to
the Thebans, and the Phocians to the Spartans. The
latter were glad of an opportunity of breaking with the
Thebans ; but met with a much warmer reception than
they expcfted. Their old general Lyfander, who had
reduced Athens, was defeated and killed, with the lofs
gf I ooo men : on which difafter Agefilaus was recalled,
and obliged to relinquifh all hopes of conquering the
Perfjans. His return changed the fortune of the war
fo much, that all the ftates began to grow weary of a
conteft from which nobody derived any advantage ex-
feace of cept the king of Perfia. In a Ihort time a treaty was
Antalcidas. concluded, known in hiftory by the name of the peace
of Antalcidas. The terms of this treaty were highly
difadvantageous and diflionourable to the Greeks^; for
even the Spartans, though fuccefsful in Greece, had
loft a great battle at fea with the Perfian fleet under
Conon the Athenian, which entirely broke their power
in Afia.
By the peace of Antalcidas, the government of Boe-
otia was taken from the Thebans, which they had for
a long time enjoyed ; and by this they were fo much
provoked, that at firft they abfolutely refufed to accede
to the treaty ; but as Agefilaus made great preparations
to invade them, they thought proper at laft. to comply.
Plowever, it was not long before a new war commenced.
r 652 1
SPA
Spai
§ See Per
1 1
Hoftilifics
which threatened the total fubverfion of the Spartan
ftate. As, by the peace of Antalcidas, the king of
Perfia had in a manner guaranteed the fovereignty of
Greece to Sparta, this republic very foon began to ex-
ercife its power to the atmoft extent. The Mantineans
were the firft who felt the weight of their refentment,
although they had been their allies and confederates.
In order to have a pretence for making war againft
them, they commanded them to quit their city, and to
retire into five old villages which, they faid, had ferved
their forefathers, and where they would live in peace
themfelves, and give no umbrage to their neighbours.
This being refufed, an army was fent againft them to
befiege their city. The fiege was continued through
the furamer with very little fuccefs on the part of the
Spartans ; but having during the winter feafon dammed
up the rivej- on which the city ftood, the water rofe to
fnch an height, as either to overflow or throw down
the houfes j which compelled the Mantineans to fubmit
to the terms prefcribed to them, and to retire into the
old villages. The Spartan vengeance fell next on the
Phliafians and Olynthians, whom they forced to come
into inch meaiaires as they thought proper. After this
they fell on the Thebans ; and, by attempting to feize
on the Piraeum, drew the Athenians alio into the quar-
rel. But here their career was flopped : the Thebans
had been taught the art of war by Chabrias the Athe-
nian 3 fo that even Agefilaus himfeif took the gommand
I
of the Spartan army in vain. At fea th<!y were de-
feated by Timotheus the fon of Conon ; and by land
the battle of Leudra put an end to the fuperiority
which Sparta had held over Greece for near 500 years, of Spal
SeeLEucTRA.
After this dreadful defeat, the Spartans had occafion brokei
to exert all their courage and refolution. The women
and neareft relations of thofe who were killed i» battle,
mftead of fpending their time in lamentations, ftiook
each other by the hand, while the relations of thole
who had efcaped from the battle hid themfelves among
the women ; or if they were obliged to go abroad, they
appeared in tattered clothes, with their arms folded, and
their eyes fixed on the ground. It was a law amon^
the Spartans, that fuch as fled from battle (hould be de-
graded from their honours, flioidd be conftrained to ap-
pear m garments patched with divers colours, to wear
their beards half-fhaved, and to fuffer any to beat them
who pleafed, without refiftance. At prefent, however,
this law was difpenfed with ; and Agefilaus by his pru.
dent conduft kept up the fpirits of the people, at the
fame time that bv his fltill in military aff'airs he checked
the progrefs of the enemy. Yet, during the lifetime of
Epaminondas the Theban general, the war went on
greatly to the difadvantage of the Spartans; but he be-
mg kdled at the battle of Mantinea, all parties became
quickly defirous of peace. Agefilaus did not long fur-
Vive ; and with him, we may fay, periflied the glory of
Sparta. Soon after this all the ftates of Greece fell
under the power of Alexander the Great ; and the
Spartans, as well as the relt, having become corrupt^
^and loft their martial fpirit, became a prey to domeftic
tyrants, and to foreign invaders. They maintained
their ground, however, with great refolution a^aijift the
celebrated Pyrrhus king of Epirus ; whom they repul-
fed for three days fucceffively, though not without af-
fiftance from one of the captains of Antigonus. toon
after this one of the kings of Sparta named Ag'is, per-
ceiving the univerfal degeneracy that had taken place,
made an attempt to reftore the laws and difcipline of
Lycurgus, by which he fuppofed the ftate woidd be re-
ftored to its former glory. But though at firft he met Agi 'ar
with fomc appearance of fuccefs, he was in a fliort time Cicome
tried and condemned by the ephori as a traitor to his ^"5"^?
country. Cleomenes, however, who afcended the throne ft^'"e 'it
m 216 B. C. accompliftied the reformation which Agis
had attempted in vain. He fuppieflfed the ephori ; can.,
celled all debts ; divided the lands equally, as they had
been in the time of Lycurgus ; and put an end to the
luxury which prevailed among the citizens. But at lali
he was overborne by the number of enemies which fur-
rounded him ; and being defeated in battle by Anti-
gonus, he fled to Egypt, where he put an end to his own
life. With him perifhed every hope of retrieving the
affairs of Sparta : the city for the prefent fell into the
hands of Antigonus ; after which a fucceflion of tyrants
took pJace ; till at laft all difturbances were ended by
the Romans, who reduced Macedon and Greece to
provinces of their empire, as has been related under
thefe articles.
It remains now only to fay fomething conceraing the Inniuu;a
charafter, manners, and cuftoms ©F the Spai tans, which, "f i-) cur.
as they were founded on the laws of Lycurgus, may ^
beft be learned from a view of thefe laws.
The inftiluUoa& gf Lydugus were divided into i %
tables
SPA [
tables. The firft comprehended fuch of the Spartan
laws as regarded religion. The ftatues of all the gods
and goddefles were reprefented in armour, even to Ve-
nus herfelf ; the rcafon of which was, that the people
might conceive a military life the moft noble and ho-
nourable, and not attribute, as other nations did, floth
and luxury to the gods. As to facrifices, they con-
filled of things of very fmall value ; for which Lycur-
gus hlmfelf gave this reafon, That want might never
hinder them from worfhipping the gods. They were
forbidden to make long or raih prayers to the heavenly
powers, and were injoined to afk no more than that
they might live honeftly and difcharge their duty.
Graves were permitted to be made within the bounds
of the city, contrary to the cuftom of mod of the Greek
nations ; nay, they buried clofe by their temples, that
all degrees of people might be made familiar with
death, and not conceive it fuch a dreadful thing as it
was generally efteemed elfewhere : on the fame account,
the touching of dead bodies, or affifting at funerals,
made none unclean, but were held to be as innocent
and honourable duties as any other. 'I'here was nothing
thrown into the grave with the dead body ; magniti-
cent fepulchres were forbidden ; neither was there fo
much as an infcription, however plain or modeft, permit-
ted. Tears, fighs, outcries, v^'ere not allowed in public,
becaufe they were thought difhonourable in Spartans,
whom their lawgiver would have to bear all things with
e6[uanimity. Mourning was limited to 1 1 days ; on
the 1 2th the mourner facrihced to Ceres, and threw
afide his weeds. In favour of fuch as were {lain in
the wars, however, and of women who devoted them-
felves to a religious lite, tliere was an exception allowed
as to the rules before-mentioned ; for fuch had a fhoit
and decent infcription on their tombs. When a num-
ber of Spartans tell in battle, at a diftance from their
country, many of thtm were buried together under one
common tomb ; but if they fell on the frontiers of their
own ftate, then their bodies were carefully carried back
I (J to Sparta, and interred in their family- fepulchres.
cerning II. Lycurgus divided all the country of Laconia in-
iivifionto 30,000 equal lhares : the city of Sparta he divided
into 9000, as fomc fay ; into 6000, as others fay ; and,
as a third party will have it, into 4500. The intent of
the legiilator was, that property fliould be equally di-
vided amongft his cifizens, fo that none might be power-
ful enough to opprefs his fellows, or any be in fuch ne-
ccffity, as to be therefrom in danger of corruption.
With the fame view he Forbade the buying or felling
thefe poffeflions. If a ftranger acquired a right to any
of thefe fharcs, he might quietly enjoy it, provided he
£ubmitted to the laws of the republic. The city of
Sparta was unwalied ; Lycurgus trufting it rather to
the virtue of its citizens than to the art of mafons. As
to the houfes, they were very plain- ; for their ceilings
could only be wrought by the axe, and their gates and
doors only by the faw ; and thtir utenfils were to be
of a like ftanip, that luxury might have no inttruments
among them.
Ill, The citizens were to be neither more nor lefe
than the number of city-lots ; and if at any time there
happened to be more, they were to be led out In co-
lonies. As CO children, their laws were equally harfh
and unreafonable; for a father was direded to carry his
new- born infant to a certain place, where the gravdl
653 ] SPA
men of his tribe looked upon the infant ; and if they
perceived its limbs ftraight, and thought it had a whole-
iome look, then they returned it to its parents to be
educated ; otherwife it was thrown into a deep ca-
vern at the foot of the mountain Taygetus. 1'his law
feems to have had one very good eflfedl, viz. making-
women very careful, when they were with child, of ei-
ther eating, drinking, or exercifing, to excefs : it made
them alfo excellent nurfes ; for which they were in
mighty requeft throughout Greece. Strangers were
not allowed to refide long in the city, that they might
not corrupt the Spartans by teaching them new cuf-
toms. Citizens were alfo forbid to travel, for the fame
reafon, unlefs the good of the ftate required it. Such
as were not bred up in their youth according to the
law, were not allowed the liberty of the city, becaufe
they held it unreafonable, that one who had not fub-
mitted to the laws in his youth fhould receive the bene-
fit of them when a man. They never preferred any
ftranger to a pubhc office ; but if at any time they had
occalion for a perfon not born a Spartan, they firft made
him a citizen, and then preferred him.
Sparea
ud.
^7
the citi-
chil-
IV. Celibacy in men was infamous, and punithed In Of celibacy
a moft extraordinary manner ; for the old bachelor was and mar-
conftrained to walk naked, in the depth of winter, ""'^S^*
through the market-place : while he did this, he was
obliged to fing a fong in difparagement ot himfelt ; arid
he had none of the honours paid him which otlierwife
belonged to old age, it being held unreafonable, that
the youth fhould venerate him who was refolved to
leave none of his progeny behind him, to revere them
when they grew old in their turn. The time of mar-
riage v/as alfo fixed ; and if a man did not marry when
he was of full age, he was liable to an aftion ; as were
fuch alfo as married above or below themfelves. Such
as had three children had great immunities; fuch as had
four were free from all taxes whatfoever. Virgins were
married without portions ; becaufe neither want fhould
hinder a man, nor riches induce him, to marry contrary
to his inclinations. When a marriage was agreed on,
the hufband committed a kind of rape upon his bride.
Hufbands went for a long time, fecretly and by ftealth,
to the beds of their wives, that their love mijiht not
be quickly and eafily extinguilhed. Hufbands were
allowed to lend their wives ; but the kings were
forbid to take this hberty. Some other laws of the
like nature there were, which as they were evidently
againft modefty, fo they were far from producing the
end for which Lycurgus dehgned them ; iince, though
the men of Sparta wei-e gensrally remarkable tor their
virtue, the Spartan women were as generally decried for
their boldnels and contempt of decency. 19
V. It was the care ot Lycurgus, that, from their -Education
very birth, the Lacedemonians fliould be inured '^''^^j^jj^^j^
conquer their appetites : for this reafon he direct-
ed, that nurfes fhould accuftom their children to
fpare meals, and now-and then to fafting ;. that they
fbould carry them, when i 2 or 13 years old. to thoie
who fhould- examine their education,, and wlio fhould
carefully obferve whether they were able to be in the
dark alone, and whether they had got over all other
follies and weaknefTes incident to children. He direct-
ed, that children of all ranks fhould be brought up in
the fame way ; and that none fliould be more favoured
ia food than another,, that they might not, even in their
iiifancYs
9f-arta.
SPA [ „5
^ nitancy, perceive any difference between poverty and
riches, but confider each other as equals, and even as
brethren, to whom the fame portions were afllgned,
and who, through the courfe of their lives, were to fare
•ahke : the youths alone were allowed to eat fleHr ; older
men ate their black broth and pulfe ; the lads flept to-
gether in chambers, and after a manner fomewhat re-
fcinbling that ftill in ufe in Turkey for the Janizaries :
their beds, in the fummer, were very hard, being com-
pofed of the reeds plucked by the hand from the banks
of the Eurotas : in winter their beds were fofter, but
by no means downy, or fit to induli^-e immoderate fleep.
They ate altogether in public; and in cafe any abltain-
■td from coming to the tables, they were fined. It was
likewife ftriaiy forbidden for any to eat or drink at
home before they came to the common meal; even then
each had his proper portion, that every thing might be
done there with gravity and decency. The black broth
was the great rarity of the Spartans, which was com-
pofed of fait, vinegar, blood, &c. fo that, in our times,
it would be efteemed a very unfavoury foup. If they
were moderate in their eating, they were fo in their
drinking alfo ; thirft was the fole meafure thereof ; and
never any Lacedemonian thought of drinking for plea*
fure : as for drunkernefs, it was both infamous and fe-
verely punidied ; and, that young men might perceive
the reafon, flaves were compelled to drink to cxcefs, that
the beafthnefs of the vice might appear. When they
retired from the public meal, they were not allowed any
torches or lights, becaufe it was expefted, that men
who were perfeftly fober fliould be able to find their
way in the dark : and, befides, it gave them a facility
of marching without light ; a thing wonderfully ufeful
to them in time of war.
VI. As the poor ate as well as the rich, fo the rich
t'e '&c ^'^^^^ better than the poor; they neither
^' ^' changed their falhion nor the materials of their gar-
ments ; they were made for warmth and ftrength, not
for gallantry and fhow : and to this cuftom even their
kings conformed, who wore nothing gaudy in right of
their dignity, ^ but were contented that their virtue
fhould diftinguifh them rather than their clothes. The
youths wore a tunic till they were twelve years old ; af-
terwards they had a cloak given them, whictr was to
ferve them a year: and their clothing was, in general,
fo thin, that a Lacedemonian vefl: became proverbial.
Boys were always ufed to go without fhocs; but when
they grew up, they were indulged with them, if the man-
ner of life they led required it ; but they were always
inured to run without them, as alfo to climb up and
flip down fteep places with bare feet : nay, the very
fhoe they ufed was of a particular form, plain and
ftrong. Boys were not permitted to wear their hair ;
but when they arrived at the age of twenty, they fuF-
fercd their hair and beard to grow. Baths and anoint-
ing vvere not much in ufe among the Lvicedemonians ;
the river Eurotas fupplied tlie former, and exercife the
latter. In the field, however, their finnptuary laws did
not take place fo ftriftly as in the city ; for when they
we to war, they wore purple habits ; they put on
crowns when they were about to engage the enemy ;
they had alfo rings, but they were of iron ; which me-
tal was moft efteemed by this nation. Young women
wore their vefts or jerkins only to th^ir knees, or, as
iumQ think, not quite fo low, a cuftom which both
654 ]
SPA
Sparta
10
Of their
Greek and Roman authors cenfure as indecent. Gold,
precious ftones, and other coftly ornaments, w^ere per-
mitted only to common women ; wbich permiffion was
tlie ftron .;ell prohibition to women of virtue, or who af-
fefted to be thou'^.t virtuous. Virgins went abroad
witSout veils, with which married women, on the con-
trary, were always covered. In certain public exercifes,
in which girls were admitted as well as boys, they were
both obliged to perform naked. Plutarch apologifeg
for this cuftom, urging, that there could be no danger
from nakednefs to the morals of youth whofe minds
were fortified and habituated to virtue. One of Ly-
curgus's principal views in his inftitutions, was to era-
dicate the very feeds of civil diffenfion in his repubh'c.
Hence proceeded the equal divifion of eftates injoined
by him ; hence the contempt of wealth, and the negleft
of other diftindlions, as particularly birth, he confider-
ing the people of his whole ftate as one great family ;
diftinaions which, in other commonwealths, frequently
produce tumults and confufions that (hake their very-
foundation.
VII. Though the Spartans were always free, yet itobediem
was with thie reftriftion, that they were fubfervlent to to their 1
their own laws, which bound them asftriftly in the cityP^""""^-
as foldiers, in other ftates, were bound by the rules of
war In the camp. In the firft place, ftria obedience to
their fuperiors was the great thing required in Sparta.
This they looked upon as the very bafis of government;
without which neither laws nor raagiftrates availed much.
Old age was an indubitable title to honour in Sparta :
to the old men the youth rofe up whenever they came
into any public place ; they gave way to them when
they met them in the ftreets, and were filent whenever
their elders fpoke. As all children were looked upon
as the children of the ftate, fo all the old men had the
authority of parents : they reprehended whatever they
favy amifs, not only in their own, but In other people's
children ; and by this method Lycurgus provided, that
as youth are everywhere apt to oflTend, they might be
nowhere without a monitor. The laws went ftill fur-
ther: if an old man was prefent where a young one
committed a fault, and did not reprove him, he was
puniftied equally with the delinquent. Amongft the
youths there was one of their own body, or at moft
two years older than the reft, who was ftyled tren he
had authority to queftion all their adtions, to look
ftridly to their behaviour, and to punlfli them if they
did amifs ; neither were their punlfhments light, butp
on the contrary, very fevere ; whereby the youth were
naade hardy, and accuftomed to bear ftripes and rough
ufage. Silence was a thing highly commended at Spar-
ta, where modefty was held to be a moft becoming vir-
tue in young people; nor was it reftrained only to their
words and adions, but to their very looks and geftures;
Lycurgus having particularly direfted, that they (hould
look forward, or on the ground, and that they fhould
always keep their hands within their robes. A ftupii
Inconfiderate perfon, one who would not liften to in-
ttrudtion, but was carelefs of whatever the world might
fay of him, the Lacedemonians treated as a fcandal to
humaij nature ; with fuch an one they would not con-
verfe, but threw him off as a rotten branch and worth-
lefs member of fociety.
VIII. The plainnefs of their manners, and their be- Learninjt
ing fo very much addided to war, made the Lacede*
moniana
S P A
irtonians lefs fond of the fciences than the reft of the
Greeks. A foldier was the only reputable proftfllon
in Sparta ; a mechanic or hufbandman was thought a
lowfellow. The reafon of this wast^ that they ima,Ti-
ned profeffions which required much labour, feme con-
llant pofture, beinij- continually in the houfe, or always
about a fire, weakened the body and depreffed the
mind : whereas a man brought up hardily, was equally
fit to attend the fervice of the republic in time of
peace, and to fight its battles when engaged in war.
Such occupations as were neceflary to be followed ror
the benefit of the whole, as hufbandry, agriculture,
and the like, were left to iheir flaves the Helotes ; but
for curious arts, and fuch as fervcd only to luxury, ihcy
would not fo much as fufFer them to be introduced in
their city ; in confequence of which, rhetoricians, au-
gurs, bankers, and dealers in money, were {\iv.t out.
The Spartans admitted not any of the theatrical diver-
ftons among them ; they would not bear the reprefenta-
tion of evil even to produce good ; but other kinds of
poetry were admitted, provided the magiftratcs had the
perufal of pieces before they were handed to the pub-
lic.
Above all things, they affefted brevity of fpeech,
and accuftomed their children, from their very infancy,
never to txprefs themfelves in more words than Were
Ibiftly neceifary ; whence a concife and fententious ora-
tory is to this day ftyled Laconic. In writing they ufed
tlie fame concifenefs; of which we have afignal inftance
in a letter of Archidamus to the Eleans, when he un-
derftood that they had fome thoughts of aflifting the
Arcadians. It ran thus: " Archidamus to the Eleans:
It is good to be quiet." And therefore Epaminondas
thou'jht chat he had reafon to glory in having forced
the Spartan.s to abandon their monofyllabks, and to
lengthen their difcourfes.
^^The greateft part of their education confifted in gi-
ying their youth tight ideas of men and things : the
iren or mafter propofed queftions, and either commend-
ed the anfwers that were made him, or reproved fuch
as anfwered weakly. In thefe queftions, all matters,-
eith.er of a trivial or abftrufe nature, were equally avoid-
ed ; and they were confined to fuch points as were of
the highell importance in civil life ; fuch as. Who was--
the bell man in the city ? Wherein lay the merit of<
iuch an aftion ? and, Whether this or that hero's fame-
was well-founded? Harmlcfs raillery was greatly en-^
couraged ; and this, joined to their fhort manner of'
fpeaking, rendered laconic replies univerfally admired. ■
_Mufic was much encouraged; but in this,, as in other -
f ilings, they adhered to that which had been in favour
with their anceilors ; nay, they were fo ftria therein, -
that they would not permit their flaves to learn cither
the tune or the words of their moll admired odes ; or,
which is all one, they would not permit them to fin^--
J hem if they had learned them. Though the youth of
the male fex were much cheriihed and beloved, as thofe-
that were to build up and continue, the future glory of
the ftate, yet in Sparta it was a virtuous and- modeft af- ■
fcaion, untinged with that fenfuaHty which was fo
fcandalous .at Athens. The good cffeds of this part of
Lycurgus-s inltitutions- wckc fcen.in the union 'that
reigned am©ng his citizens-; and which was fo extra,
ordinary, that even in cafes of competition, it was hard-
ly known that rivals bore iU-wiU to each other; but,
r 655 ]
SPA
on the contrary, their love to the fame perfon begat a S, ar?a ,
fecondary friendfhip among themfelves, and united thera ' v —
in all things which might be for the benefit of the per-
fon beloved.
Some authors have accuftd this great lawgiver of en-
couraging theft in his inititutions ; which^ they fay,
was not held fcandalous among the Spartans, if it were
lo dexteroufly managed as that the perfon was pot de-
tefted in it. But this is certain, and feems to be a
ftrong contradiction of the heinous charge, that when a
thcft was difcovcred, it was punid-ied with the utmolb
feverity :^ a perfon even fufpeCled of it would endure
the heavieft puniflimcnts rather than acknowledge it,
and be branded with fo bafe a crime.
_ IX. The exercifes inftituted by law fall under the Exercitfej
ninth table. In thefe all the Greeks were extremely
careful, but the Lacedemonians in a degree beyond ■
the reft ; for if a youth, by his corpulence, or any "
other means, became unfit for thefe exercifes, he under-
went public contempt at leaft, if not baniftiment
Hunting was the ufual diverfion of their children ; nay,
it was made a part of their education, becaufe it had
a tendency to ftrengthen their hmbs, and to render
thofe who praftifed Jt fupple and fleet: they likewife
bred up dogs for hunting with gteat care. They had
a kind of public dances, in which they exceedingly de-
lighted, and which were commoH alike to virgins and
young men : indeed, in all their fports, girls were allow-
ed to divert themfelves with the youths ; infomuch
that, at darting, throwing the quoit, pitching the '
bar, and fuch-like robuft diverfions, the women were as
dexterous as the men. For the manifeft oddity of this '
proceeding, Lycurgus affigned no oth^r reafon, than '
that he fought to render women, as well as men, ftrong
and healthy, that the children they brought forth rnight
be fo too. Violent exercifes, and a laborious kind of ■
lifb, were only enjoined the youth ; for when they were
grown up to mens eftate, tliat is, were upwards of 30
years old, they were exempted from all kinds of labour,
and employed themfelves wholly either in affairs of ftate
or in war. They had a method of whipping, at a cer-
tain time, young men in the temple of Diana^and about
her ^Itar ; v/hich, however palliated, was certainly un-
natural and cruel. • It was efteemed a great honour
to fultain thefe flagellations without weeping, groan-
ing, or-fliowing any fenfe of - pain ; and the thiril
of glory v.-as fo ftrong in thefe young minds, that they
very frequently fuffered death without fliedding a tear
or breathing a fig'i. - A dclire of overcoming all the
weaknefies of human nature^ and thereby rendering his
Spartans not only fuperior to their neighbours, but to
their fpecies, runs through many of the -inftitutions of
Lycurgus ; wdiich -principle, if well attended to, tho-
roughly explains them, and without attending to which
It is impoifible to give any account of them at all.
X. Gold and filver were, by the eonftitutions of Moneys
Lycurgus, made of no value in Sparta: He was 10
well aj)prized of the danger of riches, that he made the
very poft'efTion of them venal ; but as there was no li-
ving without fomc fort of money, that is, fome common
meafure or ftandard of the worth of things.^ he direft- :
cd an iron coinage, whereby the Spartans were fan-
plied with the uletul money, and at the fame time had
no temptation to covetoufnefs afforded them ; for a very ■
fraall fum was fufficient to load. a couple of-horfes, s..d "
a-
SPA
[ 656 1
SPA
Sparta-.
15
Ci^urts of
26
Military
fcrvicc.
a great one muft have been kept in a bar» or ware-
houfe. The coming in of all foreign money was alfo
prohibited, that corruption might not enter under the
name of commerce. The moll ancient method of deal-
ing, viz. by barter, or exchange of one commodity tor
another, was preferved by law in Sparta long after it
had been out of date everywhere elfe. Intereft was a
thing forbidden in the Spartan commonwealth ; where
they had alfo a law againft alienation of lands, accepting
prefents from foreigners, even without the limits of
their own country, and when their authority and cha-
rafter might well feem to excufe them.
XI. Such of the laws of Sparta as related to courts of
juflice may be brought under the i 1 th table. Thirty
years muil have paffed over the head of him who had
a right to concern himfelf in juridical proceedings.
Young men were thought unfit for them ; and it was
even held indecent, and of ill report, for a m?n to
have any fondnefs for law-fuits, or to be bufylng him-
felf at the tribunals, when he had no affairs there of
his own. By thefe rules Lycurgus thought to fliut
out litiglouinefs, and to prevent that multiplicity of
fuits which is always fcandalous in a ftate. As young
people were not permitted to inquire about the laws
of other countries, and as they were hindered from
Itcaring judicial proceedings in their courts, fo they
were likewife forbidden to aflc any queftions about, or
to endeavour to dlfcover, the reafons of the laws by
which themfelves were governed. Obedience was their
duty ; and to that alone they would have them kept.
Men of abandoned chaiatlers, or who were notorioufly
of ill fame, loft all right of giving their votes in refpeft
of p\iblic affairs, or of fpeaking in public affemblies ;
for they would not believe tliat an ill man in private
life could mean his country better than he did his neigh-
bour.
Xtl. Till a man was 30 years old, he was not ca-
pable of ferving in the army, as the beft authors agree ;
though fome think that the military age is not well
afcertalned by ancient writers. They were forbidden
to march at any time before the full-moon ; the rea-
fon of which law is very hard to be difcovered, if in-
deed it had any reafon at all, or was not rather founded
on fome fupeiftltious opinion, that this was a more
lucky conjunfture than any other. They were like-
wife forbidden to fight often againft the fame ewemy ;
■which was one of the wifeft maxims in the political
fyftem of Lycurgus : and Agefilaus, by offending a-
gainft it, deftroyed the power of his country, and loft
iier that authority which for many ages {he maintain-
ed over the reft of Greece ; for, by continually war-
jing againft the Thebans, to whom he had an invete-
rate hatied, he at laft beat them into the knowledge
of the art of war, and enabled them, under the com-
iixand of Epaminondas, to maintain for a time the prin-
cipality of Greece. Maritime affairs they were forbid-
den to m.eddle with, though the necefiity of things com-
pelled them, in procefs of time, to tranfgrefs this inftitu-
tion, and by degrees to transfer to themftlves the domi-
nion of the fea as well as of the land : but, after the Pelo-
ponnefian war, they again neglefted naval affairs, from a
perluaiion that failors and ftrangers corrupted thofc with
whom they convevfed. As they never fortified Sparta,
they were not ready to undertake fieges : fighting In
tl)e field was their proper province, and, while they
could overcome their enemies there, they rightly con. Sp
ceived that nothing could hurt them at home. In
time of war, they relaxed fomewhat of their ftritl man- ^''P^''"
ner of living, in which they were fmgular. The true
reafon for this was, in all probability, that war might
be lefs burdenfome to them ; for, as we have more than
once obferved, a ftrong defire to render them bold and
warlike was the reigning paffion of their leglflator. They
were forbidden to remain long encamped in the fame
place, as well to hinder their being furprifed, as that
they might be more troublefome to their enemies, by
wafting every corner of their country. They flept all
night In their armour ; but their outguards were not
allowed their flilelds, that, being unprovided of de-
fence, they might not dare to fleep. In all expeditions
they were careful In the performance of religious rites ;
and, after their evening-meal was over, the foldiers fung
together hymns to their gods. When they were about
to engage, the king facrificed to the mufes, that, by
their affiftance, they might be enabled to perform
deeds worthy of being recorded to lateft times. Then
the army advanced in order to the found of flutes,
which played the hymn of Caftor. The king himfelf
fung the pgean, which was the fignal to charge. This
was done with all the folemnlty imaginable ; and the
foldiers were fure either to die or conquer : indeed they
had no other'choice ; for if they fled they were infamous,
and in danger of being flain, even by their own mo-
thers, for difgracing their families. In this confifted
all the excellency of the Spartan women, who, if pof-
fible, exceeded in bravery the men, never lamenting
over hufbands or fons, if they died honourably in the
field ; but deploring the (hame brought on their houfe,
if either the one or the other efcaped by flight. The
throwing away a fhield alfo induced infamy ; and, with
refpeft to this, mothers, when they embraced their de-
parting fons, were wont to caution them, that they
fhould either return armed as they were, or be brought
back fo when they were dead ; for, as we have obfer-
ved, fuch as were flain in battle were neverthelcfs buri-
ed In their own country. When they made their ene-
mies fly, they purfued no longer than till vlftoiy was
certain ; becaufe they would feem to fight rather for
the honour of conquering, than of putting their ene-
mies to death. According to their excellent rules ©f
war, they were bound not to fpoll the dead bodies of
their enemies ; but .in procefs of time, this, and indeed
many other of their moft excellent regulations, fell into
defuetude. He who overcame by ftratagem, ofiered
up an ox to Mars ; whereas he who conquered by
force, off"ered up only a cock ; the former being eftcem-
ed more manly than the latter. After 40 years fer-
vice, a man was, by law, no longer required to go into
the field ; and confequently, if the military age was 30,
the Spartans were not held invalids till they were 70.
SPAR TI ANUS (jElIus), a Latin hlftorlan, who
wrote the lives of Adrian, Caracalla, and four other
Koman emperors. He lived under the reign of Dio-
clefian, about the year 290.
SPAR'iTUM, Broom, in botany : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of d'ladeiphia, and order of decatt'
dria ; and In the natural fyftem arranged under the 32d
order, PaplUotiacets. The ftlgma is longitudinal and wool-
ly above : the filaments adhere to the germen. The ca-
Ivx is produced downwards. There are 16 fpeclea,
6 the
jue.
SPA [
the fcoparlum, contamlnatum, fepiarium, junceum, m©-
nofpermum, fphoerocarpon, puroans, aphyllum, fcorpius,
angulatum, patens, fupranulium, complicatum, radiatum,
cytifoldes, and fpinofum. All thefe, except the fcoparium,
are exotics, chiefly from Spain, Portugal, Italy, &c. —
The fcoparium, or common broom, has ternate folitary
leaves ; the branches angular, and without prickles.
Ufes. The common broom is ufed for a variety of
purpofes. It has been of great benefit fometimes in
dropfical complaints. The manner in which Dr Cul-
kn adminiftered it was this : He ordered half an ounce
of frefh broom tops to be boiled in a pound of water
till one half of the water was evaporated. He then
gave two table-fpoonhils of the decoftion every hour till
it operated both by ftool and urine. By repeating
thefe dofes every day, or every fecond day, he fays fome
dropfies have been cured. Dr Mead relates, that a dropfi-
cal patient, who had taken the ufual remedies, and been
tapped three times without cffedt, was cured by taking
half a pint of the deCoAion of green broom tops, with a
fpoonful of whole muftard- feed every morning and evening.
** An infufion of the feeds drunk freely (fays Mr Wi
thering) has been known to produce fimilar happy ef-
k&is ; but whoever expefts thefe efFefts to follow in
every dropfical cafe, will be greatly deceived. I knew
them fucceed in one cafe that was truly deplorable ; but
out of a great number of cafes in which the medicine
had a fair trial, this proved a fingle inftance."
The flower buds are in fome countries pickled, and
eaten as capers ; and the feeds have been ufed as a bad
fiibftitute for coffee. The branches are ufed for ma-
king befoms, and tanning leather. They are alfo ufed
inftead of thatch to cover houfes. The old wood fur-
niflies the cabinet-maker with beautiful materials for
vaneering. The tender branches are in fome places
mixed with hops for brewing, and the macerated bark
may be manufadlured into cloth.
TTie junceum, or Spanifti broom, grows naturally in
the fouthern provinces of France, as well as other parts
of the fouth of Europe. It grows in the pooreft foils,
on the fteepeft declivities of the hills, in a flony foil,
where hardly any other plant could vegetate. In a few
years it makes a vigorous ftirub ; infinuating its roots
between the interftices of the ftones, it binds the foil,
and retains the fmall portion of vegetable earth fcatter-
cd over thefe hills, which the autumnal rains would o-
therwife wafli away. It is moft eafily raifed from feed,
which is ufually fown in January, after the ground has
received a flight drefling.
This fhrub ferves two ufeful purpofes. Its branches
yield a thread of which linen is made, and in winter fup-
port fheep and goats.
In manufafturing thread from broom, the youngeft
plants are cut in the month of Auguft, or after haiveft,
and gathered together in bundles, which at firft are laid
in the fun to dry : they are then beaten with a piece of
wood, walhed in a river or pond, and left to fteep in
the water for about four hours. The bundles thus
prepared are taken to a little diftance from the water,
and laid in a hollow place made for them, where they
are covered with fern or ftraw, and remain thus to fteep
for eight or nine days ; during which time, all that is
neceffary, is to throw a little water onqe a-day on the
heap, without uncovering the broom. After this, the
bundles are well wafhed, the green rind of the plant or
Vol. XVII. Part 11.
657 ] SPA
epidermis comes off, and the fibrous part remains ; each Spa'tiurti,
bundle is then beaten with a wooden hammer upon a , J'''^''"''' ,
ftone, to detach all the threads, which are at the fame
time carefully drawn to the extremity of the branches.
After this operation, the faggots are untied, and fpread
upon ftones or rocks till they are dry. The twigs muft
not be peeled till they are perfeftly dry ; they are then
drefled with the comb, and the threads are feparated ac-
cording to their fineneis, and fpun upon a wheel.
The linen made of this thread ferves various purpofes
in rural economy. The coarfeft is employed in making
facks and other ftrong cloths for carrying grain or
feeds. Of the fineft is made bed, table, and body li-
nen. The peafants in feveral places ufe no other, for
they are unacquainted with the culture of hemp or flax,
their foil being too dry and too barren lor raifing them.
The cloth made with the thread of the broom is very
ufeful ; it is as foft as that made of hemp ; and it would
perhaps look as well as that made of flax if it was
more carefully fpun. It becomes white in proportion
as it is fteeped. The price of the fineft thread, when
it is fold, which feldom happens, is generally about a
ftiilling a-pound.
The other ufe to which this broom is applied,- is to
maintain fheep and goats during winter. Inthc mountains
of Lower Languedoc thefe animals have no other food
from November to April, except the leaves of trees pre-
ferved. The branches of this broom therefore are a re-
fource the more precious, that it is the only freih nou-
rifhment which at that feafon the flocks can procure,
and they -prefer it at all times to every other plant. In
fine weather the ftieep are led out to feed on the broom
where it grows ; but in bad weather the fhepherds cut
the branches, and bring them to the flieep folds. There
is, however, an inconvenience attending the continued
ufe of this food. It generally produces inflammation in
the urinary paflages. But this inconvenience is tafily
removed by cooling drink, or a change of food, or by
mixing the broom with fomething elfe.
It is perhaps needlefs to add, that it differs much
from the broom that is common everywhere in the north
of Europe, though this too, in many places, is ufed for
food to cattle. Both of them produce flowers that
are very much reforted to by bees, as they contain a
great quantity of honey juice. And this fliould be
another inducement to the cultivation of the Spanifli
bioom.
SPARUS, GiLTHEAD, in natural hiftory ; a genus
of animals belonging to the clafs of pifces, and the order
of thoracici. The fore-teeth and dog-teeth are very
ftrong ; the grinders are obtufe and thick fet ; the lips
are folded over ; there are five rays in the gill mem-
brane ; and the opercula are fcaly ; the body is copi-
preffed ; the lateral hne is crooked behind ; and the pec-
toral fins are roundifh.
Gmelin enumerates 39 fpecies, of which only three
are found in the Britifh feas, the pagrus, auratus, and
dcntatus. i . The pagrus, or fea-bream, is of a reddifh
colour. The fl<in forms a finus at the roots of the dor-
fal and anal fins. The body is broad ; the back and
belly ridged. There is only one dorfal fin. 2. The
auratus, or gilt-bream. The head and fides of it are
gilt, and there is a golden fpot between the eyes fliaped
like a half-moon ; there is alfo a black purple fpot on the
gills } and it weighs from eight lb. to ten lb. It is one
4 O of
S P E
Gpafm
of the pljcej fexailles, or fifli that haunts deep waters on
Speaker. ^"^^^ rocky (horeg. They feed chiefly on (hell-fift,
* — . which they comminute with their teeth before they
fwallow ; the teeth of this genus in particular being
adapted for that purpofe : the grinders are flat and
ftrong, like thofe of certain quadrupeds : befides which
there are certain bones in the lower part of the mouth
that affift in grinding their food. They are but a
coarfe filh : they were known to the Romans, who did
not efleem them unlefs they were fed with Lucrine oy-
<iers, as Martial informs us,
Non oninis laudem pretlumque Aurata meretur,
Sed quifolus erit concha Lucrina cibus.
Lib. xlii. Ep. 90.
5. The dentatus, toothed fea-bream, is black above, and
of a filvery appearance below. The eyes and gills are
very larsre. There are nine rows of teeth in the lower
jaw, and ore in the upper.
In the account of Captain Cook's voyage publifhed
by Mr Forfter, we are informed, that the giltheads are
fometimes poifonous, owing to their feeding on certain
fpecies of the raja, which have an extremely acrid and
itimulating property.
SPASM, a convulfion. See Medicine, n* 278.
SPATHA, in botany, a fheath ; a fpecies of ca-
lyx which burlls lengthwife, and protrudes a ftalk fup-
porting one or more flowers, which commonly have no
perianthium or flower-cup.
SPATHACE^ (from fpatha, « a fiieath"), the
name of the r.inth order in Linnasus's Fragments of a
Natural Method, confifting of plants whole flowers are
protruded from a fpatha or fteath. See Botany,
p. 458.
SPA1TIELIA, in botany; a genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs ot pentandr'ia^ and to the order of
irigynia. ( he calyx is pentaphyllous ; the petals are
five ; the capfule is three-edged and trilocular ; the feeds
folitary. There is only one fpecies, the fimplex, which
is a native of Jamaica, and was introduced into the bo-
tanic gardens of this country in 1778 by Dr Wright,
late of Jamaica.
SPAW. See Spa.
SPAWN, in natural hiftory, the eggs of fifhes or
frogs. See Fish and Raka.
' SPAVENPO. SeeScANTo.
SPAVIN, in the manci^e, a difeafe in horfes, being
a fwclling or ftiffnefs, ufually in the ham, occafioning
a lamenefs. See Farriery, § 29.
SPAYING, or Spading, the operation of caftra-
ting the females of feveral kinds of animals, as fows,
bitches, &c. to prevent any further conception, and
promote their fattening. It is performed by cutting
them in the mid flank, on the left fide, with a lharp
inife or lancet, taking out the uterus, and cutting it
off, and fo Hitching op the wound, anointing the part
with tar, and keeping the animal warm for two or
three days. The ufual way is to make the incifion
aflope, two inches and a half long ; that the fore-finger
may be put in towards the back, to feel for the ovaries,
which arc two kernels as big as acorns on beth fides of
the uterus, one of which is drawn to the wound, and
*hus both taken out.
SPEAKER 0/ the Houfe of Commonsy a member of
&e houle ek&ed by a majprity Qf vote» thereof to
[ 658 ] S P E
as chairman or prefidcnt in puttincr queftions, reading Speak
briefs, or bills, keepmg order, reprimanding the refrac- II
tory, adjourning the houfe, &c. See Parliament. ^P"'
SPEAKING, the art or ad of exprefling one's
thoughts in articulate founds or words. See Gram-
MAR, Language, Heading, and Oratory, Partiv.
SpEAKiNS-Tiumpet. See Trumpet.
SPEAR-Mi NT, in botany. See Mentha.
SpEAR-Wort. See Ranunculus.
SPECIAL, fomething that is particular, or has a
particular defignation ; from the L.zlmjpeaesy in oppo-
fition to the general^ from genus. '
SPECIES, in logic, a relative term, exprefling an
idea which is compriied under fome general one called 3
gemis. See Logic, n^ 68.
Species, in commerce, the feveral pieces of gold,
filver, copper, &c. which having pafled their full
preparation and coinage, are current in public. See
Money.
SPECIFIC, in philofophy, that which is peculiar to
any thing, and diiiinguiflies it from all others.
Specifics, in medicine. By fpecifics is not meant
fuch as infallibly and in all patients produce falutary
effeds. Such medicines are not to be expeded, be-
caufe the operations and efltefts of remedies are not
formally Inherent in them, but depend upon the mu-
tual adion and readion of the body and medicine upon
each other ; hence the various effeas of the fame me-
dicine in the fame kind of dilorders in different pa-
tients, and in the fame patient at diuerent times. By
fpecitic medicines we underlland fuch medicines as are
more infallible than any other in any particular dif-
order.
Specific Gravity^ is a term much employed in the
difcufiions of modern phyfics. It cxpreffes the weight
of any particular kind of matter, as compared with the
weight of the fame bulk of fome other body of which
the weight is fiippofed to be familiarly known, and.i»
therefore taken for the ftandard of comparilon. i'he
body generally made ufe of for this purpofe is pure wa-.
ter. See Hydrostatics, Seft. III.
The fpecific gravity of bodies is a very intereiling
queftion both to the philofopher and to the man of
bufmefs. I he philofopher conliders the weights of bodies
as meafures of the nujnber of material atoms, or the
quantity of matter which they contain. This he doea
on the fuppofition that every atom of matter is of the
fame weight, whatever may be its fenfible form. Thi»
fuppofition, however, is made by him with caution, and
he has recourfe to fpecific gravity for afcertaining its
truth in various ways. This ihall be cunfidered by and
by. The man of bufinefs entertains no doubt of the
matter, and proceeds on it as a fure guide in his muft
interefting tranfaftions. We meafure commodities of
varioHS kinds by tons, pounds, and ounces, in the fame
manner as we meafure them by yards, feet, and inches, or
by bufhels, gallons, and pints ; nay, we do this with
much greater conHdence, and prefer this meafurement
to all others, whenever we arc much interelled to know
the exaft proportions of matter that bodies contain.
The weight of a quantity of grain is allowed to inform
us much more exadly of its real quantity ot ufeful mat-
ter than the molt accurate meafure of its bulk. We fee
niany circumftances which can vary the bulk of a quan-
tity of naattcr, aad thefe are frequently fuch aa we cao.
S P E
[ 659 ]
S P E
clftc not regulate or prevent ; but we know very few indeed
'•'y* that can make any fenfible change in this weight with-
out the addition or abftraaion of other matter. Even
takin.i^ it to the fummit of a hisrh mountain, or from the
equator to the polar reoion, will make no change in its
• weight as it is afcertained by the balance, becaufe there
is the lame real diminution of weight in the pounds and
ounces ufed in the examination.
Notwithftanding the unavoidable change which heat
and cold make in the bulk of bodies, and the permanent
varieties of the fame kind of matter which are cauLed
by different circumllances of growth, texture, &c. moll
kinds of matter have a certain conftancyin the denfity
of their particles, and therefore in the weight of a given
bulk. Thus the purity of gold, and its degree of adul-
teration, may be inferred from its weight, it being purer
in proportion as it is more denfe. The denfity, there-
fore, of diffei-ent kinds of tangible matter becomes cha-
rafterittic of the kind, and a teft of its purity ; it marks
a particular appearance in which matter exilts, and may
therefore be called, with propriety, Specific.
But this denfity cannot be direftly obferved. It is
not by comparing the diftances between the atoms of
matter in gold and in water that we fay the firft is 1 9
times denier than the laft, and that an inch of gold con-
tains 19 times as many material atoms as an inch of
water ; we reckon on the equal gravitation of every
atom of matter whether of gold or of water ; therefore
the weight of any body becomes the indication of its
material denfity, and the weight of a given bulk be-
comes fpecihc of that kind of matter, marking its kind,
and even afcertaining its purity in this form.
It is evident that, in order to make this comparifon
of general ufe, the Itandard mufl be familiarly knov/n,
and mak be very uniform in its denfity, and the com-
parifon of bulk and denlity mull be eafy and accurate,
'i he moll obvious method would be to form, with all
tiicety, a piece of the ftandard matter of fume conveni-
ent bulk, and to weigh it very exa^lly, and keep a note
of its weight: then, to make the comparifon ®f any other
fubitance, it mull be made into a mafs of the fame pie-
cife bulk, and weighed with equal care ; and the moll
convenient way of exprelTing the fpccific gravity would
be to confider the weight of the ftandard as unity, and
then the number expreffing the fpecific gravity is the
number of times that the weiB.ht of the ftandard is con-
tained in that of the other fubftance. This comparifon
is moft eaiily and accurately made in fluids. We have
only to make a vefTel of known dimenfions equal to
that of the ftandard which we employ, and to weigh it
when empty, and then when filled with the fluid. Nay,
the moll difficult part of the procefs, the making a
veffel of the precife dimenfions of the ftandard, may be
avoided, by uling fome fluid fubftance for a ftandard.
Any vefiel will then do ; and we may enfure very great
accuracy by uling a veflel with a flender neck, fut h as
a phial or matrals ; for when this is hlled to a certain
mark in- the neck, any error in the eftimation by the
eye will bear a very fmall proportion to the whole. The
weight of the ftandard fluid which fills it to this m?.ik
being; carefully afcertained, is kept in remembrance. The
fpecific gravity of any other fluid is had by weighing
the contents of this velfd when filled with it, and divi-
ding the weight 1 y the weight of the ftandard. The quo-
tent Is the fpeciiic gravity of the fluid. But in all other
cafes this is a very difficult problem: it requires very nice
hands, and an accurate eye, to make two bodies of th€
fame bulk. An error of one hundredth part in the
Imear dimenfions of a folid body makes an error of 9.
30th part in its bulk j and bodies of irregular fhapes and
friable fubftance, fuch as the ores of metals, cannot hit
brought into convenient and exaiS dime»fions for mea-
furement.
From all thefe inconveniences and difficulties we are
freed by the celebrated Archimedes, who, from the prin-
ciples of hydroftatics difcovered or eftablilhed by hin>,
deduced the accurate and eafy method which is now
iiniverfally praftifed for difcovering the fpecific gravi-
ty and denfity of bodies. ( See Arch 1 medes and Hy-
drostatics, n® 11.) Inftead of meafuringthc bulk of
the body by that of the dtfplaced fluid (which would
have been impoffible for Archimedes to do with any
thing like the necefiary precifion), we have only to ob*.
ferve the lofs of weight fuftained by the folid. Fhis can
be done with great eafe and exa£lnefs. Whatever may
be the bulk of the body, this lofs of weight is the
weight of an equal bulk of the fluid ; and we obtain the
fpecific gravity of the body by fimply dividing its whole
vveight by the weight loft : the quotient is the fpecific
gravity when this fluid is taken for the ftandard, even
though we ftiould not know the abfolute weight of any
given bulk of this ftandard. It alfo gives us an eafy
and accurate method of afcertaining even this fundamen-
tal point. We have only to form any folid body into an ,
exaft cube, fphere, or prifm, of,known dimenfions, and
obferve what weight it lofes when immerfed in this
ftandard fluid. This is the weight of the fame bulk of
the ftandard to be kept in remembrance ; and thus we
obtain, by the by, a moft eafy and accurate method
for mcafuring the bulk or folid contents of any body,
however irregular its lhape may be. We have only to
fee how much weisrht it lofeo in the ftandard fluid ; wt
can compute what quantity of the ftandard fluid will
have this weight. Thus fliould we find that a quantity
of fand, or a furze bulh, loles 250 ounces when immer-
fed in pure water, we learn by this that the folid mea-
fure of every grain of the fand, or of every twig and
prickle of the furze, when added into one fum, amourits
to the fourth part of a cubic foot, or to 432 cubic in-
ches.
To all thefe advantages of the Archimedean method
of afcertaining the fpecific gravity of bodies, derived
from his hydroftatical do6lrines and difcoveries, we may
add, that the immediate ftandard of comparifon, namely,
water, is, of all the fubftances that we know, the fitteft
for the purpofe of an univerfal ftandard of reference.
In its ordiaary natural ftate it is fufficiently conftant and
uniform in its weight for every examination where the
Utmoft mathematical accuracy is not wanted ; all its
variations arife from impurities, from which it may zi
all times be fepawated by the fimple procefs of diftilla-
tion : and we have every reafon to think that when
pure, its denfity, when of the fame temperature, 'is in-
variable.
Water is therefore univerfally taken for the unit of
that fcale on which we meafure the fpecific gravity of
bodies, and its weight is called i. The fpecific gravity
of any other body is the real weight in pbunds and
ounces, when of the bulk of one pound or one ounce of
water. It is therefore of the firft importance, in all
4. O 2 <iif*
Gravityk
Specific
Gravity.
s F E r 660
difcuffions refpeaing the fpeclfic gravity of bodies, to
have the preclfe weight of feme known bulk of pure
water. We have taken fome pains to examine and com-
pare the experiments on this fubjea, and (hall endea-
vour to afcertain this point with the precifion which it
deferves. We ftiall reduce all to the EngliHi cubic foot
and avoirdupois ounce of the Exchequer ftandard, on
account of a very convenient circumttance peculiar to
this unit, viz. that a cubic foot contains almoft preclfely
a thoufand ounces of pure water, fo that the fpeclfic
gravity of bodies expreffes the number of fuch ounces
contained in a cubic foot.
We begin with a trial made before the houfe of com-
mons in 1696 byMrEverard. He weighed 2145,6
cubic inches of water by a balance, which turned fenfibly
with 6 grains, when there were 30 pounds in each fcale.
The weights employed were the troy weights, in the
depofit of the Court of Exchequer, which are ftill pre-
ferved, and have been moll fcrupuloufly examised and
compared with each other. The weight was 1131
ounces 1 4 penny weights. This wants juft u grains of a
thoufand avoirdupois ounces for 1728 cubic inches,
or a cubic foot ; and It would have amounted to that
weight had it been a degree or two colder. The tem-
perature indeed is not mentioned ; but as ihe trial was
made in a comfortable room, we may prefume the tem-
perature to have been about 55° of Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer. The dimenfions of the vefTel were as accu-
rate as the nice hand of Mr Abraham Sharp, Mr
Flamftead's afliftant ai Greenwich, could execute, and
It was made by the Exchequer flandard of length.
This is confided in by the naturalifts of Europe as a
very accurate ftandard experiment, and it is confirmed
by many others both private and public. The ftand-
ards of weic;ht and capacity employed in the experi-
ment are ftill in exiftence, and publicly known, by the
report of the Royal Society to parliament In 1742, and
by the report of a committee of the houfe of commons
Ml 1758. This gives it a fuperlority over all the mea-
fures which have come to our knowledge.
The firft experiment, made with proper attention,
that we meet with, is by the celebrated Snellius, about
the year 1615, and related in his Eratojihenes Batavus.
He weighed a Rhinland <:ubic foot of dittilled water,
and found it 62,79 Amfterdam pounds. If this was
the ordinary weight oF the Hiops, containing 7626 Eng.
lifh troy grains, the Englifti cubic foot muft be 62
pounds 9 ounces, only one ounce more than by Eve-
rard's experiment. If it was the Mint pound, the weight
was 6 1 pounds 6 ounces. The only other trials which
can come into competition with Mr Everard's are iome
made by the Academy of Sciences at Paris. Picart, in
169!, found the Paris cubic foot of the water of the
fountain d'Arcuell to weigh 69,588 pounds poids de
Paris. I>uHamel obtained the very fame refult ; but
Mr Monge, in 1 783, fays that filtered rain-water of the
temperature 12 (Reaumur) weighs 69,3792. Both
thefe meafures are confiderably below Mr Everard's,
which is 62,5, the former giving 62,053, and the latter
61,868. M. Lavoifier ftates the Paris cubic foot at
70 pounds, which makes the Engl'fh foot 62,47. But
there is an inconfiftency among them which makes the
coipparifon JlnpofSbk. Some changes were made in
P E
1688, by royal authority, in the national ftandards, both
of weight and length ; and the academicians are ex-
ceedingly puzzled to this day in reconciling the dif.
ferences, and cannot even alcertain with perfeft afTu-
rance the lineal meafures which were employed in their
moft boafted geodetical operations.
Such variations in the meafurements made by perfons
of reputation for judgment and accuracy engaged the
writer of this article fome years ago to attempt another.
A vefTel was made of a cyHndrical form, as being more
Spec
Gravi
eafily executed with accuracy, whofe height and dia-
meter were 6 inches, taken from a moft accurate copy of
the Exchequer ftandard. It was weighed in diftilled
water of the temperature 55" feveral times without vary-
ing 2 grains, and it loft 42895 grains. This gives for
the cubic foot 998,74 ounces, deficient from Mr Eve-
rard's an ounce and a quarter; a difference which may be
expedled, fince Mr Everard ufed the New River water
without diftillation.
We hope that thefe obfervations will not be thought
fuperfluous in a matter of fuch continual reference, in
the moft interefting queftions both to the philofopher
and the man of bufinefs; and that the determination,
which we have given will be confidered as fufficiently
authenticated.
Let us, therefore, for the future take water for the
ftandard, and fuppofe that, when of the ordinary tempe-
rature of fummer, and in its ftate of greateft natural pu-
rity, viz. in clean rain ©r fnow, an Englifh cubic foot of
It weighs a thoufand avoirdupois ounces of 437,5 troy
grains each. Divide the weight of any body by the
weight of an equal bulk of water, the quotient is the
fpeclfic gravity of that body; and if the three firft
figures of the decimal be accounted integers, tKe quo-
tient is the number of avoirdupois ounces in a cubic
foot of the body. Thus the fpeclfic gravity of the
very fineft gold which the refiner can produce is ^^y^t^t
and a cubic foot of it weighs 19365 ounces.
But an important remark muft be made here. All
bodies of homogeneous or unorganifed texture expand
by heat, and contraa by cooling. The expanfion and
contraftion by the fame change of temperature Is very,
different In different bodies. Thus water, when heated
from 60^* to 100*^, increafes its volume nearly of
Its bulk, and mercury only ^-^y, and many fubftances
much lefs. Hence it follows, that an experiment de-
termines the fpecifie gravity only in that very tempera-
ture in which the bodies are examined. It will there-
fore be proper always to note this temperature ; and it
will be convenient to adopt fome very ufeful tempera-
ture for fuch trials in general : perhaps about 60" of
Fahrenheit's thermometer is as convenient as any..
It may always be procured in thefe climates without
inconvenience. A temperature near to freezing would
have fome advantages, becaufe water changes its bulk
very little between the temperature 32° and 45°. But
this terriperature cannet always be obtained. It will
much conduce to the facility of the comparifon to.
know the variation which heat produces on pure water.
The following table, taken from the obfervations of
Dr Blag den and Mr Gilpin (Phil. Tranf. 1792) wilt
anfwer this purpofe.
TcQf*
S P E
Tempera-
ture of
Water.
Bulk
of
Water,
S[iecinc
Gravity.
30
35
99910
1,00090
40
99070
1 ,00094
45
99914
1, 00086
50
9993^
J ,00000
55
999^"^
I ,0003 0
00
100000
1 ,00000
^5
1 WWW < W
70
iooiq6
0,99894
75
1001 7 1
0,99830
80
10,0242
0,99759
85
100320
0,99681
90
100404
0,99598
95
100501
0,99502
roo
iO'6 :2
0,99402
Thofe gentlemen obferved the expanfion of water to be
very anomalous between 32° and 45°. This is diftind-
ly feen during the gradual cooling of water to the point
of freezing. It contracts for a while, and then fud-
denly expands. But \re feldom have occafion to mea-
liire fpecific gravities in fuch temperature.
The reader is now fufficiently acquainted with the
principles of this hydroftatical method of determining
the fpecific gravity of bodies, and can judge of the
propriety of the forms which may be propofed for the
experiment.
The fpecific gravity of a fluid may be determined
cither by filling with it a vefTel with a narrow neck, or
by weighing a fblid body that is immcrfed in it. It is
hard to fay which is the beft way. The laft is not fub-
jeft to any error in filling, becaufe we may fufpend the
folid by a fine wire, which will notdifplace anyfenfible
quantity of the fluid; and if the folid is but a little
heavier than the fluid, the balance being loaded only
with the excefs, will be very fenfible to the fmallell want
of equilibrium. But this advantage is perhaps compen-
fated by an obftruftion to the motion of the folid up
cr down in the fluid, ariling from vifcidity. When the
weight in the oppofite fcale is yet too fmall, we fiowly
add «iore, and at lart grain by grain, which gradually
b-ings the beam to the level. When it is exa£lly level,
the weight in the fcale is fomewhat too great ; for it
not only balances the preponderance of the folid, but
alfo this vifcidity of the fluid. But we may get rid of
this error. Add a fmall quantity more ; this will bring
the beam over to the other fide. Now put as much
into the fcale on the fame fide with the folid ; this will
not reftore the beam to its level. We muft add more
till this be accomphfhed ; and this addition is the mea-
fure of the vifcidity of the fluid, and mufl: be fubtradled
from the weight that was in the other fcale when the
beam came jirfi to a level. This efFcd of vifcidity is
not infenfible, with nice apparatus, even in the pureft
water, and in many fluids it is very confiderable — and,
what is worfe, it is very changeable. It is greatly di-
ituniflied by heat ; and this is an additional reafon for
making thofe trials in pretty warm temperatures. But
for fluids of which the vifcidity is confiderable, this
method is. by no means proper \ , and we muft. take the
661 ] S P E
other, and weigh them in a veflel with a narrow neck.
Mercury muft alfo be treated in this way, becaufe we
have no folid that will fink in it but gold and platina.
It is not fo eafy as one would imagine to fill a veffel
precifely to the fame degree upon every tiial. But if
we do not operate on too fmall quantities, the unavoid-
able error may be made altogether infignlficant, by
having the neck of the veffel very fmall. If the vefl*el
hold a pound of water, and the neck do not exceed a
quarter of an inch (and It will not greatly retard the
operation to have it half this fize), the examinator muft
be very carelefs indeed to err one part in two thoufand ;
and this is perhaps as near as we can come with a ba-
lance. We miift always recolledl that the capacity of"
the veffel changes by heat, and we muft know this va-
riation, and take it into the account. But it is affeila-
tion to regard (as Mr Homberg would make us beheve
that he did) the diftenfion of the veffel by the preffure
of the fluid. His experiments of this kind have by no
means the confiftency with each other that fliould con-
vince us that he did not commit much greater errors-
than what arofe from diftenfion.
In examining either foHds or fluids, we muft be
careful to free their furface, or that of the veffel in which
the fluid is to be weighed, from air, which frequently
adheres to it in a peculiar manner, and, by forming a
bubble, increafes the apparent bulk of the fohd, or di>
miniflaes the capacity of the veffel. The greateft part
of what appears on thofe occafions feems to have ex-
ifted in the fluid in a ttate of chemical union, and to
be fet at liberty by the fyperior attraAIon of the fluid
for the contiguous folid body. Thefe air bubbles muft
be carefully bruflied off by hand. All greafy matters
muft be cleared off for the fame reafon : they prevent
the fluid from coming into contad.
We muft be no lefs careful that no water is imbibed'
by the fohd, which would increafe its weight without
increafing its bulk. In feme cafes, however, a very
long maceration and imbibition is neceffary. Thus, in
examining the fpecific gravity of the fibrous part of
vegetables, we fhould err exceedingly if we imagined'
it as fmall as appears at firft. We believe that in mofl'
plants it is at leaft as great ae water, for after long ma-*
ceratlon they fink in it.
Ic is almoft needlefs to fay that the niceft^ and moft'
fenfible balances are neceffary for this examination. Ba-
lances are even conllrufted on purpofe, and fitted with'
fcveral pieces of apparatus, which make the examina-*
tion eafy and neat. We have defcribed (fee Balance)
Mr Gravefande's as one of the moft convenient of any.
His contrivar>ce for obferving the fraftions of a grain is
extremely ingenious and expeditious, efpecially for de^
tedling the effeft of vifcidity.
The hydrometer, or aecometer, is another inftrument
for afcertaining the fpecific gravity of fluids. This very
pretty inftrument is the invention of a lady, as eminent
for intelleftual accompllfhments as. flie was admired for.
her beauty. Hypatia, the learned daughter of the cele-'
brated mathematician Theon of Alexandria, became fo^
eminent for her mathematical knowledge, that flie was
Speci/ic
Gravity.
made public profeffor of the fcience in the firft fchool'
in the world. She wrote a commentary on the worka^
of ApoUonlus and of Diophantus, and compofed Af-
troncanical Tables j all of which are . loft* Thefe rar*.
acconi'.k
'Gr-avity.
(Plate
S P E
accompliiKments, however, could not fave her from
the fury qF the fanatics of Alexandria, who cut her
in pieces for having taken an offenfive part in a dif-
pute between the governor and patriarch. — We have
defcribed fome of the mod approved of thefe inftru-
ments in the article Hydf^ometkr, and fhall in this
place make a few obfervations on the principles of their
conftrudion, not as they are ufually made, accommodated
to the examination of particular liquors, but as indica-
tors of pure fpeclfic gravity. And we muft premife,
that this would, for many reafons, be the beft way of
couftruftimr them. The very innenious contrivances
for accommodating them to particular purpofes are un-
avoidably attended with marly fources of error, both in
their adjuftment by the maker and in their ufe ; and
all that is gained by a very expenfive inttrument is the
iaving the trouble of infpeding a table, A fimplc
fcale of fpeclfic gravity would expofe to no error in
conftrudion, becaufe all the weights but one, or all the
ppints of the fcale but one, are to be obtained by cal-
culation, which is incomparably more exaft than any
manual operation, and the table can always be more
exaft than any complex obfervation. But a ttill greater
^vantage is, that the inftruments would by this means
be fitted for examining all liquors whatever, whereas at
prefent they are almoft ufelefs for any but the one for
which they are conftrufted.
Hydrometers are of two kinds. The rooft fimple
and the moft, delicate are juft a fubftitute for the hy-
drollatical balance. They confift of a ball (or rather
m egg or pear- fhaped veffel, which moves more eafily
through the fluid) A (fig. i.) having a foot pro-
jetling down from it, terminated by another ball B,
and a flender ftalk or wire above, carrying a little difh
C. The whole is made fo Hght as to float in the Hght-
tft fluid we are acquainted with ; fuch as vitriolic or
muriatic aether, whofe fpeclfic gravity is only 0,7:5,
This number fliould be marked on the difh, indicating
that this is the fpecific gravity of the fluid in which
the inftrument floats, finking to the point D oF the
Item. The ball B is made heavy, and the foot is of
fome length, that the inllrument may have liability,
and fwim ereft, even if confiderably loaded above ;
and, for the fame reafon, it muft be made very round,
otherwife it will lean to a fide. When put into a heavier
liquor, its buoyancy will caufe it to float with a part
of the ball above the furface. Weights are now put
into the fcale C, till the inftrument fink to D. The
weight put into the fcale, added to the weight of the
inftrument, is the weight of the difplaced fluid. This,
•compared with the weight of the whole when the in-
•llrument is fwimming in pure water, gives the fpeclfic
gravity of the fluid. All trouble of calculation may
be avoided by marking the wei'rhts with fuch num-
bers as fliall Indicate the fpecific gravity at once.
Thus having loaded the inltrument lo as to fink it to
D in pure water, call the whole weight 1000; then
weigh the inftrument itfelf, and fay, «' as the weight
when fwimming in water is to its prefent weight, fo is
1000 to a 4th proportional." 'i^his is the fpecific gra-
vity of the liquor which would float the unloaded in-
ftrument. Suppofe this to be 730. The hydrome-
ter would juft float in muriatic ^ther, and this fhould
marked oa tlxe fide. Now make a fct of fmall
r 662 ] s p E
weights, and mark them, not by their weights In grains, ^P«^
but in fuch units that 270 of them fliall be equal to the ^''^^
weight which fits the inftrument for pure water.
Suppofe that, in order to float ihis inftrument in a
certain brandy, there are required 186 in thefe fmall
weights. This added to 730 gives 916 f«r the fpecific
gravity, and fliows it to be precifely exclfe proof fpl-
rit. Nine weights, viz, 256, izS, 64, 32!, 16, 8, 4,
2, I, will fuffice for all hquors from Ecther to the
ftrongeft worts. And that the trouble in changing
the w^cights may be greatly lefl'ened, let a fe^v circle"^
a, r, d, e, be marked on the top of the ball. When we
fee it float unloaded at the circle C for inftance, we know
It will require at leafti 7.b to fink it to D thaton the ftem.
If the weights to be added above are confiderable,
it raifes the centre of gravity fo much, that a fmall want
of equilibrium, by laying the weights on one fide, will
produce a great inclination of the inftrument, which is
unfightly. _ Inftead therefore of making them loofe
weights, it is proper to make them round plates, with a
fmall hole in the middle, to go on a pin in the middle
of the fcale. This will keep the inftrument alwayg up-
right. But unlefs the hydrometer is of a confiderable
fize, it can hardly be made fo as to extend from the
hghtett to the heavieft fluid which we may have oc-
cafion to examine, even though we except mercury.
Some of the mineral acids are confiderably more than
twice the weight of ^ther. When there is fuch a
load at top, the hydrometer is very apt to overfet, and
inclines with the fmalleft want of equilibrium. Great
fize is inconvenient even to the philofopher, becaufe it
18 not always in his power to operate on a quantity of
fluid fufiicient to float the inftrument. Therefore two,
or perhaps three, are necefikry for general examina*
tion. One may reach from £ether to water ; another
may ferve for all liquors of a fpeclfic gravity between
I and 1 1 ; and the third, for the mineral acids, may reach
from this to 2. If each of thefe be about two folid
inches in capacity, we may eafily and expeditioufly de-
termine the fpecific gravity within one ten thoufandth
part of the truth : and this is precifion enough for moft
purpofes of fcience or bufinefs.
The chief qneftions are, 1 . To afcertain the fpecific
gravity of an unknown fluid. This needs no farthei-
explanation. 2. To afcertain the proportion of two
fluids which are known to be in a mixture. This Is
done by difcovering the fpeciric gravity of the mixture
by means of the hydrometer, and then deducing the
proportion from a comparlfon of ihi? with the fpe-
cific gravities of the ingredients.
In this mode of examination the bulk is always the
fame ; for the hydrometer is im merged in the difi^e-
rent fluids to the fame depth. Now if an inch, for
example, of this bulk is made up of the heavieft fluid,
there- is an inch wanting of the lighteft ; and the
change made in the weight of the mixture is the
dlff'erence between the weight of an inch of the hea-
vieft and of an inch of the lighteft ingredients. The
number of inches therefore of the heavieft fluid > is
proportional to the addition made to the weight of
the maxture. Therefore let B and b be the bulks of
the heavieft and lighteft fluids in the bulk H of the
mixture ; and let D, e/, and ^ be the denfitles, or the
weights, or the fpecific gravities (foi' they are in one
ratio )
S P E [ 663 3 S P E
>fic ratio) of the heavy fluid, the light fluid, and the mix- ftrument floats In pure watef (hould be marked lood, Specific
'^V- ture (their bulk being that of the hydrometer). We and thofe above it 999, 998, 997, &c. ; and thofe be- Gravity, v
have AirB-}-^. The addition which would have been low the water mark muft be numbered 1 001, 1002,
made to the bulk ^, if the lighteft fluid were chaniTed &c. Such a fcale will be a very appofite pidure
entirely for the heavieft, would be D — d ; and the of the denfities of fluids, for the denfity or vicinity of
change which is really made 13 ^ — J, Therefore the divifions will be precifely fimilar to the denfity of
^:lf~D — d:^ — d. For fimilar reafons we fliould have the fluids. Each interval is a bulk of fluid of the
: l^zzTi — d t D — ^ ; or, in words, *^ the diference be- fame weight. If the whole inflirument were drawn
tween (he fpec'ific p-avit'tes ofihe tivo fiu'idsy is to the differ- out into wire of the fize of the ftei% the length from
snce betnueen the fpecijic gravities of the mixture and of the the watei mark would be icoo.
lightejl jluidy as the bulk of the nvhole to the bulk of the Such are the rules by which the fcale muft be divi-
/jeavteji contained in the mixture and the difference of ded. But there muft be fome points of it determined
the fpeciffc gravities of the tivo ffuids, is to the difference of by experiment, and it will b« proper to take them ag
ihe fpaftfic gravities of the mixture and sf the heaveff fluidsy remete from each other as pofllble. For this purpofe
as the bulk of the 'whole to that of the lightejl contained in let the inftrument be accurately marked at the point
the mixture." This is the form in which the ordinary where it ftiandfi, in two fluids, differing as much in fpe-
bufinefs of life requires the anfwer to be exprelTcd, be- cific gravity as the inftrument will admit. Let it alfo
caufe we generally reckon the quantity ot liquors by be marked where it ftands in water. Then determine
bulk, in gallons, pints, quarts. But it would have with the utmoft precifion the fpecific 'gravities of thefe
been equally eafy to have obtained the anfwer in pounds fluids, and put their values at the correfponding points -
and ounces ; or it may be had from their bulks, fince we of the fcale. Then the intermediate points of the fcale
know their fpecific gravities. muft be computed for the different intervening fpeclfic
The hydrometer more commonly ufed is the ancient gravities, or it muft be divided from a pattern fcale o£ "
one of Hypatia, confifting of a ball, A (fig. 2.), harmonic progreflionals in a way well known to the
made fteady by an addition B, below it like the former, mathematical inftrument-makers. If the fpecific gra-
but having along ftem CF above. It is fo loaded vities have been accurately determined, the value I003
that It finks to the top F of the ftem in the lighteft will be found to fall precifely in the water mark. If
of all the fluids which we propofe to mcafure with it, we attempt the divifion entirely by experiment, by
and to fink only to C in the heavieft. In a fluid of making a number of fluids of different fpecific gravi-
intermediate fpecific gravity it will fink to fome point ties, and markino; the ftem as it ftands in them, we
between C and F. fhall find the divifions turn out very anomalous. This
In this form of the hydrometer the weight is al- is hov?ever the way ufually praftifed ; and there are few
ways thd fame, and the immediate information given hydrometers, even from the beft maker, that hold true
by the inftrument is that of different bulks with equal to a finf^le divifion or two. Yet the method by compu-
weight. Becaufe the inftrument finks till the bulk of tation is not more troublefome; and one fcale of harmo-
the difplaced fluid equals it in weight, and the addi- nic progreflionals will ferve to divide every ftem that
tions to the difplaced fluid are all made by the ftem, off"ers. We may make ufe of a fcale of equal parts
xl is evident that equal bulks cf the ftem indicate equal for the ftem, with the afliftancc ©f two little tables,
additions of volume. Thus the ftem becomes a fcale One of thefe contains the fpecific gravities in harmonic'
of bulks to the fame weight. progrefiion, correfponding to the arithmetical fcale of
The only form in which the ftem can be made with bulks on the ftem of the hydrometer ; the other con-
fufficient accuracy is cylindrical or prifmatical. Such tains the divifions and fraftions of a divifion of the fcale
a ftem may be made in the moft accurate manner by of b«lks, which correfpond to an arithmetical fcale of
wire-drawing, that is, pafllng it through a hole made in fpecific gravities. We believe this to be the beft me-
a hardened fteel plate. If fuch a ftem be divided into thod of all. The fcale of equal parts on the ftem is fo
equal partfr, it becomes a fcale of bulks in arithmetical eafily made, and the little table is fo eafily infpededj
progtefiion. This is the eafieft and moft natural divi- that it has every advantage of accuracy and difpatch,
fion of the fcale ; but ic will not indicate denfities, and it gives, by the way, an amufmg view of the rela«
fpecific gravities, or weights of the fame bulk in arith- lion of the bulks and denfities.
wietlcal progreffion. The fpecific gravity is as the weight We have hitherto fuppofed a fcale extending from
divided by the bulk. Now a feries of divifors (the the lighteft to the heavieft fluid. But unlefs it be of
bulks), in arithmetical progreflion, applied to the fame a very inconvenient length, the divifions muft be very
dividend (the bulk and weight of the hydrometer as it minute. Moreover, when the bulk of the ftem bears a
floats in water), will not give a feries of quotients (the great proportion to that of the body, the inftrument
fpecific gravities) in arithmetical progreflion ; they does not fwim fteady ; it is therefore proper to limit
•will be in what is called harmonic pr ogrejjiony their the range of the inftrument in the fame manner as thofe
differences continually dimlnifliing. This will appear of the firft kind. A range from the denfity of aether '
even when phyfically confidered. When the hydro- to that of water may be very well executed in an in-
meter finks a tenth of an inch near the top of the ftem, ftrument of very moderate fize, and two others will dd
k difplaccs one tenth of an inch of 3 light fluid, com- for all the heavier liquors ; or an equal range in any
pared: with that difplaced by it when it is flbatino with other denfities as may fuit the ufiial occupations of the
all the ftem above the furface. In order therefore that experimenter.
the divifions of the ftem may indicate equal changes of To- avoid the inconveniences of a hydrometer with
fyecific gravity, they muft be in a feries of harmonic a very long and flender ftem, or the ncceflity of having
progreflionaU increafmg. The point at which the in- a feries of them, a third fort has been contrived, in-*
7 whichh^
S P E [6
'Ipecific wliIcK Xht principle of both are combined. Suppofe
L^*^'^"^' ^ hydrometer with a ftem, whofe bulk Is rV^h of that
of the ball, and that it finks in sether to the top of the
ftem ; it is evident that in a fluid which is -r^^th heavier,
the whole ftem will emersre ; for the bulk of the dif-
placed fluid is now xVth of the whole lefs, and the weight
.is the fame as before, and therefore the fpecilic gravity
is xsth a^reater.
Thus we have obtained a hydrometer which will indi-
cate, by means of divifions marked on the ftem, all
fpecific gravities from 0,73 to 0,803 ; for 0,803 is
•T^g-th greater than 0,7 3. Thefe divifions muft be made in
iiarmonic progreflion, as before direfted for an entite
fcale, placing 0,7} M the top of the ftem and 0,803
at the bottom.
When it floats at the loweft divifion, a weight may
be put on the top of the ftem, which will again fink it
to the top. This weight muft evidently be 0,073,
Tnjth of the weight of the fluid difplaced by the unloaded
inftrument. The hydrometer, thus loaded, indicates
the fame fpecific gravity, by the top of the ftem, that
the unloaded Inftrument Indicates by the loweft divi-
fion. Therefore,'when loaded. It will Indicate another
ferles of fpecific gravities, from 0,803 0,8833
( = 0,803 4- 0,0803), and will float in a Hquor of the
fpecific gravity 0,8833 ^^^^^ whole ftem above the
furface.
In like manner. If we take off" this weight, and
put on 1 = 0,080,3, it will fink the hydrometer to the
top of the ftem ; and with this new weight it will
indicate another ferles of fpecific gravities from 0,8833
te 0,97163 (=0,8833 + 0,08833). And, In the
fame manner, a third weight = 08833 ^i^^ again fink
it to the top of the ftem, and fit It for another ferles
of fpecific gravities up to 1,068793. And thus, with
three weights, we have procured a hydrometer fitted
for all liquors from aether to a wort for a malt liquor of
two barrels /(?r quarter. y\nother weight, in the fame
.progreflion, will extend the inftrument to the ftrongeft
wort that is brewed.
This is a very commodious form of the Inftrument,
and is now in very general life for examining fpirituous
liquors, worts, ales, brines, and many fuch articles of
commerce. But the divifions of the fcale are general-
ly adapted to the queftions which naturally occur in the
bufinefs. Thus, in the commerce of ftrong liquors.
It is ufual to eftimate the article by the quantity of fpi-
rlt of a certain ftrength which the liquor contains. —
This we have been accuttomed to call proof fpirit, and
it Is fuch that a wine gallon weighs 7 pounds 1 2 ounces;
and it Is by this ftrength that th excife duties are levied.
Therefore the divifions on the fcale, and the weights
which conneft the fucceflive repetitions of the fcale, are
made to exprefs at once the number of gallons or parts
of a gallon of proof fpirlts contained in -a gallon of the
liquor. Such inflruments fave all trouble of calcula-
tion to the cxcifeman or dealer ; but they limit the
ufe of a very delicate and .expenfive Inftrument to a
very narrow employment. It would be much better to
adhere to the expreflTion either of fpecific gravity or of
.bulk ; and then a very fmall table, which could be
comprifed In the fmallell cafe for the Iniirument, might
rendeer ti applicable to every kind of fluid.
The reader cannst but have obferved that the fuc-
ceflive weights, by which the fliort fcale of the inftru-
54 ] S P E
raent is extended to a great ranoe of fpecific gravities,
do not Increafe by equal quantities. Each difference is
the weight of the liquor dllplaced by the graduated
ftem of the inftrument when it is funk to the top of
the fcale. It is a determined aliquot part of the whole
weight of the inftrument fo loaded, (in our example it
is always Vi^h of it). It increafes therefore in the fame
proportion with the preceding wtlsTht of the loaded
inftrument. In fliort, both the fucceifive additions, and
the whole weights of the loaded inftrument, are quan-
tities in geometrical progreflion ; and. In like manner,
the divifions on the fcale, if they correfpond to equal
differences of fpecific gravity, muft alfo be unequal. —
This Is not fufficiently attended to by themakers ; and
they commit an error here, which is very confiderable
when the whole range of the inftrument is great. For
the value of one divifion of the fcale, when the largeft
weight is on, is as much greater than its value,
when the infirutnent is not loaded at all, as the full
loaded inftrument is heavier than the inftrument unload-
ed. No manner whatever of dividing the fcale will
correfpond to equal differences of foecific gravity through
the whole range with different weights ; but if the
divifions are made to Indicate equal proportions of gra-
vity when the inftrument is ufed without a wei,^ht, they
will indicate equal preport'tons throughout. This is evi-
dent from what we have been jult now faying ; for the
proportion of the fpecific gravities correfponding to
any two immediately fucceediflg weights is always the
fame.
The bcft way, therefore, of conftrufting the Inftru-
ment, fo that the fame divifions of the fcale may be ac-
curate In all its fucceflive repetitions with the different
weights, is to make thefe divifions in geometrical pro-
greflion. I'he correfponding fpecific gravities will al-
fo be in geometric proportion. Thefe being all infcrted
in a table, we obtain them with no more trouble than
by infpefting the fcale which ufually accompanies the
hydrometer. This table is of the moft eafy conftruc-
tion ; for the ratio of the fucceflive bulks and fpecific
gravities being all equal, the differences of the logarithms
are equal.
This will be illuftrated by applying it to the exam-
ple already given of a hydrometer extending from 0,73
to 1,068793 ^i^h three weights. This gives four re-
petitions of the fcale on the ftem. Suppofe this fcale
divided into 10 parts, we have 40 fpecific gravities.
Let thefe be indicated by the numbers o, i j 2, 3, &c. to
40. The mark o is aflixed to the top of the ftem, and the
divifions downwards are marked i, 2, 3, &c. the loweft
being 10. Thefe divifions are eafily determined. The
ftem, which we may fuppofe 5 inches long, was fuppofed
to be tV th of the capacity of the ball. It may there-
fore be confidered as the extremity of a rod of 1 1 times
its length, or 55 inches ; and we muft find nine mean
proportionals between 50 and 55 inches. Subtraft
each of thefe from 55 inches, and the remainders are
the diftances of the points of divifion from o, the top
of the fcale. The fmalleft weight is marked 10, the
next 20, and the third 30. if the inftrument loaded
with the weight 20 finks In fome liquor to the mark
7, it indicates the fpecific gravity 27, that is, the 27th
of 40 mean proportionals between 0,73 and 1,068793,
or 0,944242. 'I'o pbtain all thefe Intermediate fpecific
gravities, we have only to fubtraft 9.8633229, the lo-
8 garlthra
26
27
28
29
0,9442+
0,95328
0,9624 1
S P E [ 665
fMm of 0,73, fromthftt of t.o68793'v!z. 0,0288937, Item,
and take 0.0041393, the 40th pan of the difference.
Multiply this by I, 2, 3, &c. and add the logarithm of
0,73 to each of tlie produfts. The fums are the lo-
garithms of the fpecific gravities required. Thefe \vill
be found to proceed fo equably, that they may be in-
terpolated ten times by a limple table of proportional
parts without the fmalleft fenfible error. Therefore
the ftem may be divided into a hundred parts very fen-
fible to the eye (each beinc^ nearly the 20th of an inch),
and 400 des[rec3 of fpecific gravity obtained within the
range, which is as near as we can examine this matter
by any hydrometer. Thus the fpecific gravities corre-
fponding to n° 26, 27, 2^, 29, are as follow :
iftDiff. 2dDiff.
Nay, the trouble of infpefting a table may be avoid-
ed, by forming on a fcale the logarithms of the num-
bers between 7300 and 1068,793, and placing along
fide of it a fcale of the fame length divided into 400
equal parts, numbered from o to 400. Then, looking
for the mark (hown by the hydrometer on this fcale of
equal parts, we fee oppofite to it the fpecific gravity.
We have been thus particular in the illuftration of
this mode of conftruftion, becaufe it is really a beauti-
ful and commodious inftrument, which may be of great
ufe both to the naturalift and to the man of bufinefs. —
A table may be comprifed in 20 oftavo pages, which
will contain the fpecific gravities of every fluid which
can intereft either, and anfwer every queftion relative
to their admixture with as much precifion as the ob-
fervations can be made. We therefore recommend it
to our readers, and we recommend the very example
which we have given as one of the moft convenient.
The inftrument need not exceed eight inches in length,
and may be contained in a pocket cafe of 2 inches broad
and as many deep, which will alfo contain the fcale, a
thermometer, and even the table for applying it to all
fluids which have been examined-
It is unfortunate that no graduated hydrometer can
be made fo eafily for the examination of the corroflve
mineral acids (a). Thefe rauft be made of glafs, and we
cannot depend on the accurate cylindric form of any t^lafs
Item. But if any fuch can be procured, the conftruc-
tion is the fame. The divided fcale may either be on
thin paper palled on the in fide of the item, or It may be
printed on the ftem itfelf from a plate, with ink made of
a metallic calx, which will attach itfelf to the glafs with
a very moderate heat. We would recommend common
white enamel, or arfenical glafs, as the fitteft material
for the whole inflrument ; and the ink ufed, in taking
the impreflion of the fcale, may be the fame that is ufed
for the low priced printing on Delft ware pottery.-—
Firlt form the fcale on the Item. Then, having mea-
fured the folid contents of the graduated part as exa£t-
ly as poflible, and determined on the general fhape of
the ball and counterpolfe below, calculate its fize,'fo
that it may be a little lefs than ten times that of the
Vol.. XVII. Part II.
] S P K
Tlie glafs blower can copy this very pciirly, and
join it to the Item. Then make two brines or other li-
quors, which fiiall have fpecific gravities In the ratio of
10 to II. Load the inftrument fo that it may fink to
0 in the lighteft. When put into the heavielt, it fhould
rife to 10. If it does not rife fo high, the immerfed part
is too fmall. Let the glafs blower enlarge tlie ball of
the counterpolfe a little. Repeat this trial till it be cx-
adt. Nothing now remains but to form the weights :
And here we obferve, that when the inftrument 'is to
have a very great range, as for examining all ftates of
the vitriolic acid, it has a chance of being very
tottering when loaded with the greatell weight on
the top of fo long a fcale. To avoid this, Mr Qmn
and others have added fome of their weights below.—
But this will not fuit the prcfent conftrudtion, becaufe
it will alter the proportion between the bulks of the
ftem and immerfed part. Therefore let thefe weights
confift of cylinders of metal fmall enough to go into
the ftem, and let them be foldered to the end of long
wires, which will let them go to the bottom, and leave
a fmall hook or ring at top. Thefe can lie alongfide
of the inftrument in its cafe. This Is indeed the belt
conftrudion for every hydrometer, becaufe it makes it
incc mparably more fteady. The inftrument is poifed
by fmall ftiot or mercury. But it will be much better t»
do it with Newton's fufible metal (three parts of tin,
five parts of lead, and eight parts of bifmuth) in coarfe
filings. W^hen the exaft quantity has been put in, the
inftrument may be fet in a veflel of oil, and this kept
on the fire till all is completely melted. It foon freezes
again, and remains faft. If this metal is not to be had»
let a few bits of fealing-wax be added to the mercuty
or ftiot, to make up the counterpolfe. When heated,
it will float a-top, and when it freezes again it will
keep all faft. Thus we ftiall make a very complete and
cheap inftrument.
^ There is yet another method of examining the fpe-
cific gravities of fluids, firft propofed by Dr Wilfon,
late profeflbr of aftronomy In the uriiverfity of Glafgow.
This is by a feries of fmall glafs bubbles, differing equally,
or according to fome rule, from each other in fpecific
gravity, and each marked with its proper number.
When thefe are thrown into -a fluid which is to be exa-
mined, all thofe which are heavier than the fluid will fall
to the bottom. Then holding the veffel in the hand,
or near a fire or candle, the fluid expands, and one of
the floating bubbles begins to fink. Its fpecific gravi-
ty, therefore, was either equal to, or a little lefs than,
that of the fluid ; and the degree of the thermometer,
when It began to fink, will inform us how much It waa
deficient. If we know the law of expanfion of the hquor.
Sets of thefe bubbles fitted for the examination of fpi-
rituous liquors, with a little treatife lho<viug the man-
ner of ufing them, and calculating by the thermometer,
are made by Mr Brown, an Ingenious artift of Glaf-
gow, and are often uied by the dealers in Iplrlts, being
lound both accurate and expeditious.
Alfo, though a bubble or two Aould be broken, the
ftrength of fpirlts may eafily be had by means of the
remaiuder, urdefs two or three in immediate fucceffion
4P be
Specific
Ciravjty.
(a) It would be worth while to try copper enamelled.
S P E
r 666 3
S P E
specific be wanting: for a liquor which anfwcrs to N° 4 will
Gravity, ^^^^j^ -^q ^ by heating it a lew degrees, and therefore
" N"^ 3 may be fpared. This is a great advantage in or-
dinary buiinefs. A nice hydrometer is not only an ex-
penfive inftrument, but exceedingly delicate, being fo
very thin. If broken or even bruiled, it is ufelefs, and
can hardly be repaired except by the very maker.
As the onlyqueftion here is, to determine how many
gallons of excife proof fpirits is contained in a quantity
of liquor, the artift has conllrufted this feries of bubbles
in the fimpleft manner poflible, by prevloufly making
40 or 50 mixtures of fpirits and water, and then adjuft-
ing the bubbles to thele mixtures. In fome fets the
number on each bubble is the number of gallons of
proof fpirits contained in 100 gallons of the liquor. In
other fets the number on each bubble exprefles the gal-
lons of water which will make a liquor of this ftren'jth,
if added to 14 gallons of alcohol. Tlius, if a liquor an-
fwers to 4, then 4 gallons of water added to 14
gallons of alcohol will make a liquor of this ftrength.
The firft is the beft method ; for we fhould be miftaken
in fuppofing that 1 8 u aliens, which anfwer to 4, con-
tains exaftly 14 gallons of alcohol: it contains more
than 14. for a reafon to be given by and by.
By examining the fpccific gravity of bodies, the phi-
lofopher has made fome very curious difcoveries. The
moft remarkable of thefe is the chancre which the denfi-
ty of bodies fuffers by mixture. It is a moft reafonable
€xpe£lation, that when a cubic foot of one fubftance is
mixed liTiy hoiv with a cubic foot of another, the bulk
cf the mixture will be two cubic feet ; and that 8 gal-
lons of water joined to 18 gallons ot oil will fill a vefftl
of 36 gallons. A ccordingly this was never doubted ;
and even Archimedes, the raoft fcrupulous of mathema-
ticians, proceeded on this fuppofition in the folution of
his famous problem, the difcovery of the proportion of
f.lver and gold in a mixture of both. He does not even
jncntion it as a poftulate that may be granted him, fo
much did he conceive it to be an axiom Yet a little
reflexion feems fufficient to make it doubtful, and to
require examination. A box filled v/ith mufket- balls
"will receive a confiderable quantity of fmall {hot, and af-
ter this a confiderable quantity of fine fand, and after
this a confiderable quantity of water. Something like
this might happen in the admixture of bodies of poroUs f
texture. But fuch fubftances as metals, glafa, and fluids,
where no difcontinuity of parts can be perceived, or was
fufpetled, feem free from every chance ot thia kind of in-
trofufceptton. Lord Bacon, however, without being a
oaturaHft or mathematician ex proftjfof in*^erred from the
mobility of fl^ilds that they confilted of difcrete parti-
cles, v/hich muft have pores interpofed, whatever be
their figure And if we afcribe the different denfities, or
'©ther fenfible t^uallties, ta difference in fize or figure of
thofe particles, it muft frequently happen that the fmal-
kr particles will be lodged in the inter ft ices between the
larger,, and thus contribute to. the weight of the fenhble
mafs without increafing its bulk. He therefore fu-
fpefts that mixtures will be in general lefs bulky than
the fum of their ingredients.
Accordingly, the examination of this qtieftioa was
one of the flrft emplbymenta of the Royal Society of
London, and long before its inftitution had occupied
the attention of the gentlemen who afterwards compo*
k<i iu The regifter of the Society's early jneetings
contains many fxeerlments on this fubjeft, with mix*
tures of gold and filver, of other metals, and of varioua
fluids, examined by the hydroftatical balance of Mr
Boyle. Dr Hooke made a prodigious number, chief-
ly on articles of commerce, which were unfortunately
loft in the fire of Londen.
It was foon found, however, that Lord Bacon's con-
jefture had been well f®unded, and that bodies changed
their denfity very lenfibly in many cafes. In general^
it was found that bodies which had a ftrong chemical
affinity increafed in denfity, and that their admixture
was accompanied with heat.
By this diicovery it is manlfeft that Archimedes had
not iolved the problem of dcteAing the quantity of fil-
ver mixed with the gold in King Hiero's crown, and
that the phyfical folution of it requires experiments made
on all the kinds of matter that are mixed together.
We do not bnd that this has been done to this day, al-
though we may affirm that there are few queftlons oiT
more importance. It is a very curious fad: in chemi-
ftry, and it would be moft defirable to be able to re-
duce it to fome general laws ; For inftance, to afcertain
what is the proportion of two ingredients which pro-
duces the greatefl change of denfity. This is impor-
tant in the fcience of phyfics, becaufe it gives us confi-
derable information as to the mode of aftion of thofe
natural powers or forces by which the particles of tan»
gible matter are united. If this introfufception, con-
centration, compcnetration, or by whatever name it
be called, were a mere reception of the particles of
one fubftance into the interftices of thofe of aaother,
it is evident that the greaielt concentration would be
obferved when a fmall quantity of the recipiend is mix-
ed with, or diffeminatcd through, a great quantity of
the other. It is thus that a fmall quantity of fine fand
v/iU be received into the interftices of a quantity of
fmall (hot, and will increafe the weight of the bagful,
without increafing its bulk, 'i'he cafe is aowife diffe-
rent when a piece of freeftone has grown heavier
by imbibing or abforbing a quantity of water. If
more than a certain quantity of fand has been added
to the fmall fhot, it is no longer concealed. In like
manner, various quantities of water may combine with
a mafs of clay, and increafe its fize and weight alike.
x'\ll this is very conceivable, occafioning no dijSiculty.
But this is not tlie cafe in any of the mixtures we
are now confidering. In all thefe, the firft additions of
either of the two fubftances produce but an inconfider-
able change of general denfity ; and it is in gcner^
moft remarkable, whether it be condenfation or rare-
faftion, wrhen the two ingredients are nearly of equa^
bulks. We can illuftrate even this difference, by rel
fiedling on the imbibition of water by vegetable folids,
fuch as timber. Some kinds of wood, have their weight
much more increafed than their bulks ; other kind& of
wood are more enlarged in- bulk than in weight. The
like happens in grains. This is curious, and {hows in the
moft unquefl^onable manner that the particles of bodies
are not in contr,;ft, but are kept together by forces
which aft at a diftancc. For this diftance between
the centres of the particles is moft evidently fufceptlble
of variation ; and this variation is occshoned by the in-
troduction of another fubftance, which, by aftlng. on
the particles by attraction or repulfion, diminifhes or
i»crea£e8 tikic-muiual anions, aad nukes new diftances
oeceiii
S P E
t 667 1
S P E
HfcefTary for brinp:mnr all dungs again into equilibrium.
We refer the curious reader to the ingenious theory of
the Abbe Bofcovich for an excellent illuftration of
this lubjea ( Theor. Ph'iL Nat. § de Solutlone Chemica).
This queftlon Is no lefs important to the man of bu-
finefs. Till we know the condenfation of thofe metals
by mixture, we cannot tell the quantity of alloy in gold
and filver by means of their fpecific gravity ; nor can
wc tell the quantity of pUre alcohol in any fpirituous li-
quor, or that of the valuable fait in any folutlon of it.
For want of this knowledge, the dealers in gold and
filver are obliged to have recourfe to the tedious and
difficult teft of the affay, which cannot be made in all
places or by all men. It is therefore much to be
wifhed, that fome perfons would inftitute a ferles of ex-
periments in the moft interefting cafes : for it muft be
obferved, that this change of denfity is not always a
fmall matter ; it is fometimes very confiderable and pa-
radoxical. A remarkable Inftance may be given of it in
the mixture of brais and tin for bells, great guns, optical
Ipeculums, &c. The fpecific gravity of caft brafs is
nearly 8,oc6, and that of tin is nearly 7,363. If two
parts of brafs be mixed with one of tin, the fpecific gra-
vity is 8,917 ; whereas, if each had retained its former
bulk, the ipeciflc gravity would have been only 7,7.53
ZX8^6+7^1^^ ^ ^.^^^^^ ^q^^l p,,^
{hoM have the fpecific gravity 7,684 ; but it is 8,441.
A mixture of two parts tin with one part brafs, mftcad
■of being 7,577j ii5 8,027- ^ c r r
In all thefe cafes there is a great mcreale of fpecihc
gravity, and confcquently a great condenfation of parts
*r contraftion of bulk. The fu-a mixture of eight cu-
;blc inches of brafs, for Inflance, with tour cubic inches
of tin, does not produce 1 2 cubic inches of bell-metal,
but only J 04- nearly, havi^ig fhrunk f. It would ap-
pear that the diftances of the brafs particles are molt at-
fefted, or perhaps it i« the brafs that receives the tin
into its pores ; for we find that the condenfations m
thefe mixtures are nearly proportional to the quantities
of the brafs in the mixtures. It is remarkable that this
fnixture with the lighteft of all metals has made a com-
polition more heavy and dcnfe tlian brafs can be made
by any hammering. . ...
The moft remarkable inftance occurs m mixing iron
with platina. If 10 cubic inches of iron are mixed with
1 1 of platina, the balk of the compound is only 9!
inches. The iron therefore has not fimply received the
platina into its pores : its own particles are brought
nearer together. I'here are fimllar refults m the iolu-
tion of turbith mberal, and of fome other falts, m wa-
ter. The water, inftead of rifing in the neck of the vef-
>fel ' when a fmall quantity of the fait has been added to
it,'finks confiderably, and the two ingredients occupy
lefs room than the vrater did alone.
The fame thing happens in the mixture of water
with other fluids and different fluids with each other :
But wc are not able to trace any general rule that is ob-
ferved with abfoUite precifion. In moft cafes of fluids
the greateft condenfation happens when the bulks of
the ingredients are nearly equal. Thus, in the mix-
ture of alcohol and water, we have the greateft conden-
fation when 164 ounces of alcohol are mixed with 20
ounces of water, and the condenfation is about -yV of
4li€ whole bulk of the ingredients. It is extremely va-
rious in different fubftances, and no cbflification of them
can be made in this refpeft,
A differtation has been publlfhed on this fubjeft by
Dr Hahn of Vienna, intitled Da Efficada Mixthms in
mutandis Corporum Voluminibuf, in which all the remark-
able inftances of the variation of denfity have been col-
lefted. All that we can do (as we have no diredlog,
principle) is to record fuch inftances as are of chief im-
portance, being articles of commerce.
The firft that occurs to us is the mixtures of alcohol
and water in the compofitiou of fpirituous liquors. This
has been confidered by many with great care. The moft
fcrupulous examination of this, or perhaps of any mix-
ture, has been lately made by Dr Blaifden (now Sii"
Charles Blagden) of the Royal Society, on the requi-
fition of the Board of Excife. He has publifhed an ac-
count of the examination in the Phllofophical Tranfac-
tions of London in 179 c and 1 792. We fhall give an
account of it under the article Spirituous Liquors ; and
at prefent«cnly feled one column, in order to fhow the
condenfation. 'i'he alcohol was almoft the ftrongeft
that can be produced, and its fpecific gravity, whea
of the temperature 60°, was 0,825. The whole mix-
tures were of the fame temperature.
Column I. contains the pounds, oxinces, or othet
meafures by weight, of alcohol in the mixture. Co-
lumn 2. contains the pounds or ounces of water. Co-
lumn 3. is the fum of the bulks of the ingredients, the
bulk of a pound or ounce of water being accounted 1.
Column 4. is the obferved fpecific gravity of the mix-
ture, taken from Dr Blagden's diifertation. Column 5.
is the fpecific gravity which would have been obferved
if the ingredients had each retained its own fpecific gra-
vity. This we calculated by dividing the fum of the
two numbers of the firfl and fecond columns by the cor-
refpondiiig number of the third. Column 6. is the dif-
ference of column 4. and column 5. and exhibits the
condenfation.
TABLE.
Specific
G*vity.
A.
W.
Volume. ^
20
0
24,2424
20
I
25,2424
20
2
26,2424
20
.s
27,2424
20
4
28,2424
20
5
29,2424
20
6
1 30,1^24.
20
7
3 '.2424
20
8
32,2424
20
9
33*2424
20
10
34*2424
20
1 1
35*2424
20
12
36,2424
20
13
37,2424
20
14
38,2424
20
15
39*2424
20
16
40,2424
20
17
41,2424
20
18
42,2424
20
19
j 43>2424
20
20
! 44*2424
19
20
i 43*0303
Sp. Gravy Sp. Gravy Conden
obferved
al culated,
0,8250
0,8360
0,8457
0,8543
o,H62i
0,^692
0,8757
o,&8i7
0,8872
0,8923
0,8971
0,9014
0,9055
o,9'^93
0,91 29
0,9162
0,9193
0,9223
0,9250
0,9276
0,9300
0,9325
4 I* 2.
0,8250
0,8320
0,8383
0,8443
0,8498
0,8549
0,8597
0,8642
0,86-84
0,8724
0,8761
0,8796
0,8829
0,8860
0,8891
0,8919
0,8946
0,8971
0,8996
0,9019
0,9041
0,9063
fation.
00
40
74
100
123
H3
160
175
188
199
216
218
226
233
238
243
247
252
254
257
259
262
A.
S P E
Specific
Gravity.
A.
W.
Volume.
op. Lirav-
Sp. Grav^ Conden-
obferved.
i8
20
4,81182
o>9349
0,9087
262
->7
20
40,6061
0'9375
c,9 1 1 2
263
16
20
39»3939
0,9402
0.9139
263
15
20
38,1818
0,943-0
0,9167
263
H
20
36,9697
0,9458
0.9^97 .
261
13
20
35.7576
0,9488
0,9229
259
12
20
34,5455
0,9518
0,9263
255
1 1
20
33.3333
0.9549
0,9300
249
10
20
32,1212
0,9580
0,9340
240
9
20
30,9091
0,9612
0,9382
230
8
20
29,6970
0,9644
0,9429
215
7
20
28,4849
0,9675
0.9479
196
6
20
27,2727
0,9707
0,9533
174
5
20
26,0606
0,9741
0,9593
148
4
20
24,8485
0.9777
0,9659
118
3
20
23.6364
0,9818
0,9731
87
2
20
22,4242
0,9865
0,981 1
54
I
20
21,2121
0,9924
0,9900
24
0
20
20,0000
1,0000
1,0000
It is to be remarked, that the condenfation is gteat-
eft when i6| ounces of alcohol have been added to 20
©f water, and the condenfation is -^Wtt. nearly j'g-th
of the computed denfity. Since the fpecific gravity of
alcohol is 0,825, evident that 164- ounces of alco-
hol and 20 ounces of water have equal bulks. So that
the condenfation is greateft when the fubftances are mix-
ed in equal volumes ; and 1 8 gallons of alcohol mixed
with 18 gallons of water will produce not 36 gallons
of fpii-its, but 35 only.
We may alfa obferve, that this is the mixture to
which our revenue-laws refer, declaring it to be one to
Jix or one in /even under proof, and to weigh 7 pounds
13 ounce per gallon. This proportion was probably fe-
leAed as the moft eafily compofed, viz. by mixing
equal meafures of water and of the ftrongeft fpirit
which the known procefTes of diflillation could produce.
Its fpecific gravity is 0,939 very nearly.
We muft confider this elaborate examination of the
mixture of water and alcohol as a ftandard feries of ex-
periments, to w^liich appeal may always be made, whe-
ther for the purpofes of fcience or of trade. The le-
gularity of the prc->grefl]0n is fo great, that in the column
which we have examined, viz. that for temperature 60",
the greateft anomaly does not amount to one part in
fix thoufand. The form of the feries is alfo very judi-
cioudy chofen for the purpofes of fcience. It would
perhaps have been more diredly ftereometrical had the
proportions of the ingredients been ftated in bulks,
which are more immediately conneftcd with denfity.
But the author has affigned a very cogent reafon for his
choice, viz. that the proportion of bulks varies by a
change of temperature, becaufe the water and fpirits fol-
low different laws in their expanfion by heat.
This is a proper opportunity for taking notice of a
miftake which is very generally made in the conclufions
drawn from experiments of this kind. Equal addi-
tions of the fpiiit or water produce a feries of fpecific
gravities, which decreafe or incrcafe by differences con-
tinually diminifhing. Hence it is inferred that there is
a contra6;iIon of bulk. Even Dr Lewis, one of our
[ 668 ] S P E
moft accompllflied naturalifts, advances this pcfitlon, in
a differtation on the pot-afh of America ; and it confi-
derably affeds his method for eftimating the ftrength of
the pot-afh leys. But that it is a miftake, appears
plamly from this, that although we add for ever equal
quantities of the fpirits, we fhall never produce a mix.
tare which has as fmall a fpecific gravity as alcohol.
Therefore theleiies of fucceffive gravities muft appro-
ximate to this without end, like the ordinates of a hy-
perbolic curve referred to its affymptote.
That this may appear in the moft general terms, let
•w reprefent the weight of the conftant quantity of wa-
ter in the mixture, and let a be the weight of the fmall
addition of fpirits. Alfo let iv reprefent the bulk of
this quantity of water, and b the bulk of the fmall ad-
dition of alcohol. The weight of the mixture is w^a,
and its bulk is w-f-^, and its fpecific gravity is
rr ^ i r o J
It we now add a fecond equal quantity of fpirits, the
weight will be w-f 2a, and if the fpirit retains its den-
fity unchanged, the bulk will be w-{-2^, and the fpeci-
r . . W-|-2a
fic gravity is '^^^^ : and after any number m of fuch
equal additions of fpirits, the fpecific gravity will be
Divide the numerator of this fraftion by its
denominator, and the quotient or fpecific gravity will
mXa — b
l^^-^- "^^'^ confifts of the conftant part i,
and the variable part We need attend only
to this part. If its denominator were conftant, it is
plain that the fucceffive fpecific gravities would have
equal differences, each being =;~^, becaufe m in-
creafes by the continual addition of an unit, and a — ^
is a conftant quantity. But the denominator rw^mh
continuaUy increafes, and theref ore the value of the frac-
o — b
tion
iu-{-t?ib continually diminifties.
Therefore the gradual diminution of the increments
or decrements of fpecific gravity, by equal additions of
one ingredient to a conftant meafure of the other. Is not
of itfelt an indication of a change of denfity of either
of the Ingredients ; nor proves that in very diluted mix.
tut es a greater proportion of one ingredient is abfoibed
or lodged in the interftlces of the other, as is generally
imagined. This muft be afcertained by comparlncr
each fpecific gravity with the gravity cxpreffed by i -U
w-f m {a — I)
IV -\- m b
This feries of fpecific gravities refembles^ fuch a nu,
merlcal feries as the follov/Ing,. i; ; i^i^S ;
> ,1 63 ; I, + 69 ; &c. the terms of which alfo eonfift of
the conftant integer 1, and the decimal fraaions 0,1 56;
■^^^^"■^^^""—^expreffes
m (a — h
1 his will give us b = ^;^7q:^. Now a is the weiglit
of the added ingredient, and d is the variable part of
the fpecific gravity obferved ; and thus we learn whe-
^ tlier
0,165; 0,169 ; Se-
this decimal part. Call this d, or make d z=.
S P E
[ 669 ]
S P E
ther Bi the bulk of the added ingredient, fufFers any
change. We fliall have occafion by and by to refume
the confideration of this queftion, which is of the firft
moment in the theory of fpecific gravities, and has great
influence in many tranfa&ions of commerce.
This feries of fpecific gravities is not fo well fitted
for commercial tranfaftions. In thefe the ufual quef-
tion is, how many gallons of alcohol is there in a caflc,
or fome number of gallons of fpirit ? and it is more
direftly anfwered by means of a table, formed by mix-
ing the ingredients in aliquant parts of one conftant
bulk. The following table, conftruAed from the ex-
periments of Mr Briffon of the academy of Paris, and
puWifhed in the Memoirs for 1769, is therefore in-
ierted.
\v.
A.
Deiifity
obferved.
Deiifity
computed.
Conden-
fation.
Bulk of
IGjOOO
grains.
0
16
0,8371
0,8371
I ,OGOO
J
0,8527
0,8473
63
0,9937
2
H
0,8674
0,8575
i»5
0,9885
3
13
0,8815
0,8677
157
0,9844
4
1 2
0,8947
0,8778
189
0,98 I I
5
1 1
0,9075
0,8880
214
0,9786
6
10
0,9199
0,8982
235
0,9765
7
9
0,9317
0,9084
251
0,9749
8
8
0,9427
0,9 1 86
256
o>9744
9
7
0,9519
0,9287
243
0,9757
10
6
0,9598
0,9389
217
0,9783
1 1
S
0,9674
0,9491
189
0,9811
12
4
0,9733
0,9593
144
0,9856
13
3
0,9791
0,9695
99
0,9901
14
2
0,9852
0,9796
57
0,9943
•i
I
0,9919
0,9898
21
0,9979
16
0
1,0000
1 ,0000
1,0000
In this table the whole quantity of fpirituous liquor is
always the fame. The firft column is the number of
mcaf ares (gallons, pints, inches, &c.) of water in the.
mixture ; and column 2d gives the meafures of alcohol.
Column 3d is the fpecific gravity which was obferved
by Mr Briffon. Column 4th is the fpecific gravity
which would have been obferved if the fpirits, or wa-
ter, or both, had retained their fpecific denfity un-
changed. And the 5th column marks the augmenta-
tion of fpeciiic gravity or denfity in parts of 10,000.
A 6th column is added, {howing the bulk of the 16
cubic meafures of the two ingredients. Each meafute
may be conceived as the 16th part of io,oco, or 625 ;
and we may fuppofe them cubic inches, pints, gallons,
or any folid meafure.
This table fcarcely differs from Sir Charles Blag-
den's ; and the very fmall difference that may be ob-
ferved, arifes from Mr Briffon's having ufed an alcohol
not fo completely re£lified. Its fpecific gravity, ia
0,8371, whereas the other was only 0,8250.
Here it appears more diftinftly that the condenfa-
tion is greatell when the two ingredients are of equal
bulk..
Perhaps. this feries of fpecific grawtles is as declara*
tive as the other, whether or not there is a change of
denfity induced on either of the ingredienf^s. The:
<wkole bulk being always the fame, it is plain that the
fucceflive equal additions to one of the ingredients is a
fucceffive equal abflraftion of the other. The change
produced, therefore, in the weight of the whole, is the
difference between the weight of the ingredient which
is talien out and the weight of the equal meafure of
the other which fupplles its place. Therefore, if nel-
ther ingredient changes its denfity by mixture, the
weights of the mixtures will be in arithmetical progr^f-
fion. If they are not, there is a variation of denfity in
one or both the ingredients.
We fee this very clearly in the mixtures of water and
alcohol. The firft fpecific gravity differs from the fe-
cond by 156, and the lafl differs from the preceding by
no more than 81. Had neither of the denfities chan-
ged, the common difference would have been 102.
We obferve alfo, that the augmentation of fpecific gra-
vity, by the fucceffive addition of a meafure of water,
grows lefs and lefs till 12 meafures of water is mixed-
with 4 of alcohol, when the augmentation is only 58,,
and then it increafes again to 81.
It alfo appears, that the addition of one meafure of
water to a quantity of alcohol produces a greater change
of denfity than the mixture of one meafure of alcohol
to a quantity of water. Hence fome conclude, tliat the
water difappears by being lodged in the interflices of
the fpirit. But it is more agreeable to the juftefl no-
tions which we can form of the internal conftitation of
tangible bodies to fuppofe that the particles of water
diminlfh the diftances between the particles of alcohol
by their flrong attractions, and that this diminution
(exceedingly minute in itfelf^ becomes fenfible on ac-
count of the great number or particles whofe diflances
are thus diminlfhed. This is merely a probability
founded on. this, that it would require a much greater
diminution of diftances if it was the particles of water
which had their diftances thus dimlnlfticd. But the
greater probability is, that the condenfation takes place
in both.
We have been fo particular in our confideration of^
this mixture, becaufe the law of variation of denfity has, .
in this luftance, been afcertalned with fuch preclfion by
the elaborate examination of Sir Charles Blagden, fo
that it may ferve as an example of what happens ia al-
moft every mixture of bodiesv It merits a ftill farther
difcuflion, becaufe it is intimately connefted with the
adtlon of the corpufcular forces; and an exa6l knowledge
of the variations of diftance between the particles will
go far to afcertain the law of aflion of thefe forces.
But the limits of a Work like this will not permit us
to dwell longer on this fubjedt. We proceed therefore "
to give another ufefnl table.
The vitriolic or fulph uric acid is of extenfive ufe in
manufactures under the name of oil of vitriol. Its va-
lue depends entirely on the faline ingredient, and the
water is merely a vehicle for the acid. This, being
much denfer than water, affefts itfe fpecific gravity, and
thus gives us a method of afcertaining its ftrength.
The ftrongeft oil of vitriol th'at can be eafily manu-
factured contains 6i2^'^ grains of dfy acid, united'
with 387te'o gi'^ins of water, which cannot be icparated
from it by diftlUation, making 1000 grains of oil' Of
VITRIOL. Its fpecific gravity in this Itate is 1,877.
The following table fhows its fpecific gravity at the
tenl^erature 55"", when diluted by the fucceffiye. addi'
tion of parts of water by weight.
Sp.ecific
Specific'
Gravity.
Gravity,
P E
Specific Giavltf,
Obfcived.
1,644
i>474
1,381
1,320
1,274
1,2 1 1
1,183
1,172
1,148
1,128
Calculated.
J»877
j,5oi
1,269
l,2i9
1,184
1,159
1,140
1,125
1,113
1,103
1,084
1,069
Cond.
.00
»'43
,124
,112
,IOt
,090
,084
,071
,070
,070
,070
,064
»o59
Here is obferved a much greater condenfation than
an the mixture of alcohol and water. But we cannot
aflign the proportion of ingredients which produces the
greateft condenfation ; becaufe we cannot, in any cafe,
fay what is the proportion of the faline and watery in-
gredients. The ftrongcft oil of vitriol is already a wa-
tery folution; and it is by a confidcrable and uncertain
detour that Mr Kirwan has afligned the proportion of
6 1 2 and 388 nearly. If this be the true ratio, it is un-
like every other folution that we are acquainted with ;
for in all folutions of faits, the fait occupies lefs room
in its liquid form than it did when folid ; and here it
would be greatly the reverfe.
This folution is remarkable alfo for the copious emer-
gence of heat in its dilutions with more water. This
lias been afcribed to the great fuperiority of water in
its capacity for heat ; but there are fafts which render
this very doubtful. A vefTel of water, and another of
oil of vitriol, being brought from a cold room into a
warm one, they both imbibe heat, and rife in their tem-
perature ; and the water employs nearly the fame time
to attain the temperature of the room.
Aquafortis or nitrous acid is another fluid very miich
employed in commerce ; fo that it is of importance to
afcertain the relation between its fahne ftrength and its
fpecific gravity. We owe alfo to Mr Kirwan a table
for this purpofe.
The moft concentrated ftate into which it can eafdy
be brought is fuch, that 1000 grains of it confifts of
563 grains of water and 437 of dry acid. In this ftate
its fpecific gravity is 1,557. Let this be called nitrous
.■acid.
Jslkr. Ac.
JO
Water.
0
1.557
1,557
X
J.474
1.474
6
1,350
1*273
0,077
1 1
1,269
1,191
0,078
16
1,214.
1. 147
0,067
21
1^175
1,120
0,055
26
1,151
1,101
0,050
31
1,127
1^087
0,040
36
1,106
1,077
0,029
41
i,o86
1,068
0,018
There is not the fame uniformity in tlie denfities of
.this acid in its different ftates of dilution. This feems
(Owing to the variable proportion of the deleterious and
tfital air which compofe this acid. It is more denfe in
[ ^10 ^ s p E
proportion B8 it contains more of the latter ingre- Spec
dient. ^ G;av;
'J he proportions of t!ie aeriform ingredients of the
muriatic acid are fo very variable, and fo httle under our
comiTiand, that we cannot frame tables of its Jpecific
gravity which would enable us tojudge of its ftrength.
It is a general property of thefe acids, that they are
more expanfible by heat as they are more concentrated.
There is another clafs of fluids which it would be of
great confequence to reduce to fome rules with refpeft
to fpecific gravity, namely, the folutions of falts, gums,
and refins. It is interefting to the philofopher to know
in what manner falts are contained in thefe watery fo-
lutions, and to difcovcr the relation between their
ftreni^th and denfity ; and to the man of bufinefs it
would be a moft defirable thing to have a criterion of
the quantity of fait in any brine, or of extraftiblc mat-
ter in a decoaion. It would be equally defirable to
thofe who are to purchafe them as to thofe who manu-
fadture or employ them. Perhaps we might afcer-
tain in this way the value of fugar, depending on the
quantity of fweetening matter which it contains; a
thing which at prefent refts on the vague determina-
tion of the eye or palate. It would therefore be doing
a great fervlce to the public, if fome intelligent perfon
would undertake a train of experiments with this view.
Accuracy alone is required ; and it may be left to the
philofophers to compare the fafts, and draw the confe-
quences rcfpedling the internal arrangement of the par-
tides.
One circumflance in the folution of falts is very ge-
peral ; and we are inclined, for ferious reafons, to think
it univerfal: this is a diminution of bulk. This indeed
in fome falts is inconfiderable. Sedative fait, for in-
ftance, hardly fliows any diminution, and might be con-
fidered as an exception, were it not the fingle inftance.
This circumftance, and fome confiderations conneAed
with our notions .of this kind of folution, difpofe us to
think that thi* fait differs in contradlion from others
only in degree, and that there is fome, thou^jh it was
not fenfible, in the experiments hitherto made.
Thefe experiments, indeed, have not been numerous.
Thofe of Mr Achard of Berlin, and of Dr Richard
Watfon of Cambridge, are perhaps the only ones of
which we have a defcriptive narration, by which we can
judge of the validity of the inferences drawn from them.
The fubje<ft is not fufceptible of much accuracy ; for
falts in their folid form are feldom free from cavities
and Ihivery interftices, which do not admit the water
on their firft immerfion, and thereby appear of greater
bulk when we attempt to meafure their fpecific gravfty
by weighing them in fluids which do not diflblve them,
fuch as fpirite of turpentine. They alfo attach to them-
felves, with confiderable tenacity, a quantity of atmo-
fpheric air, which mci-ely adheres, but makes no part of
their compofitien. This efcapes in the aft of folution,
being fet at liberty by the ftronger affinity of the wa-
ter. Sal gem, however, and a few others, may be
very accurately meafured; and in thefe inftances die de-
gree of contraction is very conftant.
The following experiments of Dr Watfon appear to
us the moft inftruftive as to this circumftance. A glafs
vefl'el was ufed, having a (lender cylindrical neck, and
holding 67 ounces of pure water when filled to a cer-
tain
S P E
S P E
tarn mark. The neck abov« this mark had a feale of
etjual parts palled on It. It was filltd to the mark with
water. Twenty- four pennyweights of fait were thrown
into it as fpeedily as pofRble, and the bulk of the fait
was meafured by the elevation of the water. Every
thing was attended to which could retard the Immediate
folution, that the error arifinsr from the fplution of the
firft particles, before the reft could be put in, might
be as fmall as pofiible ; and in order that both the ab-
foluce bulk and its variations mi iht be obtained by fome
known fcale, 24 pennyweights of water were put In.
This raifed the furface 58 parts of the fcale. Now we
know exaftly the bulk of 24 pennywei^^hts of pure wa-
ter. It is 2,275 cubic inches ; and thus we obtain
every thinaj In abfolute meafures : And by comparing
the bulk oV each fait, both at its firft immerfion and af-
ter its complete folution, we obtain Its fpecific gravity,
and the change made on it in paffing from a folid to a
fluid form. The follow ing table is an abftraft of thefe
experiments. I'he firft column of numbers is the eleva-
tion of the furface immediately after nmmerfion ; the
fecnnd gives the elevation when the fait Is completely
diflblved ; and the third and fourth columns are the fpe-
cific gravities of the falts in thefe two ftates.
Twenty-four Pennyweights.
T.
11.
nr.
IV.
Water
58
Glauber's fait
42
36
1,380
1,61 1
Mild volatile alkali
40
33
1,787
Sal ammoniac
40
39
1,450
1,487
Refined white fugar -
39
36
1,487
1,611
Courfe brown fuj>ar »
39
36
1,487
f,6i I
White fugarcandy
37
36
^»567
1,61 1
Lymington Glauber's fait
35
29
i>657
2,000
'J'erra foliata tartar!
37
30
1.567
'.933
Rochelle fait
33-
28
i»7>:7
2,071
Alum not quite difiblved
33
28
1.757
2,c6i
Borax not one-hall diffolved
i in two days
33
3'
1.757
Green vitriol
32
26
I,HI2
2,230
White vitriol
30
24
^.933
2,416
Nitre
30
21
1.933
2,766
Sal gem from Northwich
27
17
2,143
3.4»i
Blue vitriol
26
20
2,230
2,900
Pearl afties
25
10
2,320
5,800
Tart, vitriolatus
22
II
2,636
5,272
Green vitriol calcined to
white
22
II
2,636
5.272
Dry fait of tartar
21
13
2,761
4,461
Bafket fea-falt
19
»5
3,052
3,866
Corrofive fubllmate
'4
10
4,142
;,8co
Turblth mineral
9
0
6,444
The Infpefton of this lift naturally fupfgefts two ftates
®f the cafe as particularly interefting to the philofopher
ftudying the theory of folution* The firft ftate Is when
the lixivium approaches to faturation. In the very point
©f faturation any addition of fait retains its bulk un-
changed. In diluted brines, we ftiall fee that the den-
fity of the flaid fak is greater, and gradually diminifhes
as we add more fait. It is an important queftiorv,
Whether this diminution goes on continually, till the
.fluid denfity of the fait is the fame with Its folid den-
£ty i or. Whether there is aa abrupt pafiage from loiue
degree of the one to the fixed degree of the otW, as SpecJfcc
we obff rve In the freezing of iron, the fettlug of ftucco, , Qravky.
and fome other Inftances ? *
The other interefting ftate Is that of extreme dilu-
tion, when the differences between the fucceftive denfi-
tics bear a great proportion to the denfities themielves,
and thus enable the mathematician to afcertain with
fome preclfion the variations of corpufcular force, in
confequence of a variation of diftance between the par-
ticles. The flietch of an inveftigation oF this important,
queftion given by Bofcovich, in his Theory of Natural
Philofophy, is very promifing, and ftiould incite tire
philofophical chemift to the ftudy. The firft thing to
be done Is to compare the law of fpecific gravity ; that
is, the relation between the fpecific gravity and quan-
tity of fait held in folution.
Wiftiing to make this work as ufeful as pofiible, we
have fearched for experiments, and trains of experi-
ments, on the denfity of the many brines which make
Important articles of commerce ; but we were morti-
fied by the fcantlnefsof the information, and difappoint-
ed in our hopes of being able to combine the detached
obfervations, fuited to the immediate views of their au-
thoi;s, in fuch a manner as to deduce from them fcalea
(as they may be called) of their ftrength. We rarely
found thefe detached oblervations attended with clr-
cumftances which would conneA them with others
and there was frequently fuch a difcrepancy, nay op-
pofition. In ferlefes of experiments made for afcertainin^y
the relation between the denfity and the ftrength, that
we could not obtain general principles which enable us
to conftruft tables of ftrength d priori.
Mr Lambert, one of the firft mathematicians and phi-
lofophers of Europe, In a diflertation in the Berlin Me--
moirs (1762), gives a narration of experiments on the
brines of common fait, from which he deduces a very
great coHdeniation, which he attributes to an abforption
in the weak brines of the (alt, or a lodgement of its par-
ticles In the Interftices of the particles of water, Mr
A chard of the fame academy, in 1785, gives a very
great lift of experiments on the bulks of various brines,
made In a ditferent way, which fhow no fuch introfuf-
ceptlon ; and Dr Watfon, formerly reglus profeftor
of chemiftry at Cambridge, and now biftiop of Lan-
daff", thinks this connrmed by experiments which ha
narrates In his Chemical Eflays. We fee great rea-
fon for hefitating our aflent to either fidfe, and do
not think the experiments declfive.. We Inchne to Mr
Lambert's opinion ; for this reaion, that in the iuc-
cefiive dilutions of oil of vitriol and aquafortis there Is
a moft evident and remarkable condenfatlon. Now
what are thele but brines,, of which we have not been
able to get the faline Ingredient in a feparate form?
The experiments of Mr Ac hard and Dr Watfon were
made in fuch a way that a fingle grain in the meafure"
ment b©re too great a proportion to the whole change
of fpecific gravity. At the fame time, fome of
Watfon's are fo fimple In their nature that it is very
difficult to with hold the aft'ent.
In this ftate of uncertainty. In a fubje£i which
feemS' to us to be of public Importance, we thought
it our duty to undertake a train of experiments to
which recourfe may always be had. Works like this-
are feldom confidered as fources of original informaa,
tion J and it is thought fuihcient when the knv^wu
ffee'flc
'Grdviry.
s p E r
ledge already dlffufed 13 judi'cioudjr compiled.
, a due i-efpetl for the public, and gratitude for the very
' honourable reception hitherto given to our labours,
induce us to exert ourfelves with honefl zeal to xnerit
the continuance of public favour. We affure our readers
that the experiments were made with care, and on
•quantities fufficiently large to make the unavoidable ir-
regularities in fuch cafes quite infi Tuificant. The law
of denfity was afcertained in each fubftance in tw^o
ways. We diflblved different portions of fait in the
fame quantity of water, and examined the fpecific gra-
vity of the brine by weighing it in a veffel with a nar-
row neck. The portions of fait were each of them one-
eighth of what would make a nearly faturated folution
of the temperature 55. We did not make the brine
llronger, that there might be no rifle of a precipitation
in form of cryftals. We confidered the fpecihc giavi-
ties as the ordinates of a curve, of which the abfcilTx
were the numbers of ounces of dry fait contained in a
cubic foot of the brine. Having thus obtained eight
ordinates correfponding to i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
portions of fait, the ordinates or fpecific gravities for
every other proportion of fait were had by the ufual
methods of interpofition.
The other method was, by firft makinfr a brine near-
ly faturated, in which the proportion of fait and water
was exaftly determined. We then took out one- eighth
of the brine, and filled up the veffel with water, taking
care that the mixture fhould be complete ; for which
purpofe, befides agitation, the diluted brine was allow-
ed to remain 24 hours before weighing. Taking out
one-eighth of the brine alfo takes out one eighth of the
fait ; fo that the proportion of fait and water in the
diluted brine was known. It was now weighed, and
thus we determined the fpecific gravity for a new pro-
portion of fait and water.
We then took out one-fcventh of the brine. It is
evident that this takes out one-eighth of the original
quantity of fait ; an abftra£tion equal to the former.
We idled the veffel with water with the fame precau-
tions ; and in the fame manner we proceeded till there
remained only one-eighth of the original quantity of
fait.
The fpecific gravities by thefe two methods agreed
extremely well. In the very deliquefcent falts the firft
method exhibited fome fmall irregularities, arifing from
the unequal quantities of water which they had im-
bibed from the atmofphere. We therefore confided
moft in the experiments made with diluted brines.
That the reader may judge of the authority of the
tables which we fhall iniert, we fubmit to his inipedioa
one feries of experiments.
Two thoufand one hundred and eighty-eight grains
of very pure and dry (but not decrepitated) common
fait, prepared in large cryftals, were diffolved in 6^62
grains of diflilled water of the temperature 55". A
imall matrafs with a narrow neck, which held 4200
grains of diftiUed water, was filled with this brine. Its
contents weighed 3027 grains. Now 651^2 -f- 2i^8
i 2188 = 5027 : 1256,75. Therefore the bottk of
brine contained 1256,75 grains of fait diffolved in
3770,25 grains of water. Its fpecific gravity is ==
or 1,196905 ; and a cubic foot of brine weighs
{196,9 ounces avoirdupois. Alfo 5027^ 1256,75^
673 1 B P E
But 1 19.5,9 ! 199,18. Therefore a cubia /"oot (>f this brine
containa -'99,28 ounces of perfeftly dry fait,
The fubfequent fteps of the procefs are j-eprefented as
foUowa.
1 0
D'li.e.
Water.
1 Wt. of ] .Salt in
Cub. Ft.! Cub. Ft.
8)1256,75
8)5027
628,4
3770.25
= -y of brine.
1 196,0
'299,28
4398,6
5^7>4
Remains.
Water to fill it
again.
2d Brine.
•7- taken out.
7)1099,6
7)4926,0
7=3.7
1 1 72,7
261,87
37.4'
4222,3
604,7
Water added.
942,5
6)4827,0
804,5
3d Brine.
Taken out.
1149,3
224,46
4022,5
706,5
Remains.
Water added.
5)4725,0
946
4th Brine.
Taken out.
i87i0c
3783
847
Remains.
Water added.
628,3
4 4^3^
1^57.5
3472.5
io54>5
5th Brine.
Taken out.
Remains.
Water added.
I 102,3
471,2
i57»i
3)4527
1509
6th Brine.
Taken out.
1077,9
112,23
3018
1405
Remains.
Water added.
3'4>i
157.1
2)4423
2212
7th Brine.
Taken out.
1053.3
74.82
2211
2102
Remains.
Water added.
157.0
4313
8th Brine.
1027,9
37.4»
Thus, by repeated abftraftlon of brine, fo as always
to take out ^-th of the fait contained in one conftant bulk,
we have obtained a brine confifting of 157 grains of fait
united with 43^3— I57> or 4156 grains of water.
.4313
Its fpecific gravity 13 -^^^,= 1,0279, ^ cubic foot
of it weighs 1028 ounces, and containa 37t*o ounces
of dry fait. In like manner may the fpecific gravity,
the weiaht of a cubic fo0t, and the fait it contains, be
eftimated for the intermediate brines.
When thefe eight quantities of fait contained in a
cubic foot are made the abfciffae, and the weights of the
cubic foot of brine are the correfponding ordinates, the
curve
S P E [ t
fic curve win be found to be extremely resrtikr, refembh'ns^
'y* a hyperbolic arch'whofe affymptote makes an angle of
30° with the axis* Ordinates were then interpolated
analytically for every lo ounces of contained fait, and
thus the table was conftrufted. We did not, however,
reft it on one feries alone ; but made others, in which
|th of the fait was repeatedly abftrafted. They agreed,
in the cafe of common fait, with great exaftnefs, and
in fome others there were fome very inconfiderable irre-
gularities.
To fhow the authority of the tables of ftrength was
t?y no means our only motive for giving an example of
the procefs. It may be of ufe as a pattern For fimilar
experiments. But, befides, it is very inltrudlive. We
£;e, in the firft place, that there is a very fenfible change
of denfity in one or both of the ingredients. For the
feries is of that nature [zs we have formerly explained),
that if the ingredients retained their denfities in every
proportion of commixture, the fpecific gravities would
have been in arithmetical progreflion ; whereas we fee
tliat their differences continually diminifh as the brines
grow more denfe. We can form fome notion of this
by comparing the different brines. Thus in the firft brine,
weighing 5027 grains, there arc 3770 grains of water
in a veftel holding 4200. If the denfity of the water
remains the fame, there is left for the fait only as much
fpace as would hold 430 grains of water. In this
fpace are lodged 1257 grains of fait, and its fpecific
\ . 1257
gravity, in its liquid form, is = 2,8907 very near-
ly. But in the 8th brine the quantity of water is
41 56, the fpace left for 157 grains of fait is only the
bulk ef 44 grains of water, and the denfity of the fait is
I r7
——=3,568, confiderably greater than before. This
44
induced us to continue the dilution of the brine as fol-
lows, beginning with the 8th brine.
157 2)4313 8th brine
78,; 2156,5
21 s6,s
2105,5
78,5 2)4262,0 9th brine
39»7
2131
2102
39,7 2)4233 Toth brine
21 16,5
21 16,5
2102
19,8 4218 1 Jth brine.
This laft brine contains 4198,2 grains of water, lea-
ving only the bulk of 1,8 grains of water to contain
19,8 of fait, fo that the fait is ten times denfer than
water. This will make the ftrength 243 inftead of
210 indicated by the fpecific gravity. But we do not
pretend to mcafure the denfities with accuracy in thefe
diluted brines. It is evident from the procefs that a
fingle grain of excefs or defied in taking out the brine
Vox.. XVII. Part II.
7^ 1 . . . S P E
and replacing it with water has a fenfible proportion to Specific
the whole variation. But we fee with fufficient evi- ^""^vity.
dence, that from the ftrong to the weak brines the
fpace left for the portion of fait is continually diminifii-
ing. In the firft dilution 5274- grains of water were
added to fill up the veffel ; but -^^h of its contents of
pure water is only 525 : fo that here is a diminution of
2i grains in the fpace occupied by the remaining fait.
The fubfequent additions are 604,7 ; 706,5 ; 847 ;
1054,5 ; 1405 ; 2102 } 2105,5 » 2102; 2102; inftead
of 600; 700; 840; 1050; 1400; 2100; 2100;
21G0 ; 2100. Nothing can more plainly fiiow the.
condenfation in general,. though we do not learn whe-
ther it happens in one or both of the ingredients r
nor do the experiments (how with fufficient accuracy
the proi^reffion of this diminution. The excelTes of the
added water being only fix ot feven grains, we cannot
expeft aTiice repartition. When the brine is taken
out, the upper part of the veffel remains lined with a
briny film containing a portion of fait and water,
perhaps equal or luperior to the differences. Had our
time permitted, we fhould have examined this matter
with fcrupulous attention, ufing a Teflel with a Hill nar-
rower neck, and in each dilution abftrafting one half of,
the brine. The eurve. whofe abfciffas and ordinate*
reprefent the weight of the contained fait and the
weight of a conftant bulk of the brine, exhibits the beft
and moft fynoptical view of the law of condenfation,
becaufe the pofition of the tangent in any point, or the
X
value of the fymbol , always ftiows the rate at which
y
the fpecific gravity increafes or dimlnlihes. We are
inclined to think that the curve in all cafes is of the hy-
perbolic kind, and complete ; that is, having the tan-
gent perpendicular to the axis at the beginning of the
curve. The mathematical reader will eafily guefs the
phyfical notions which incline us to this opinion ; and
will alfo fee that it is hardly poflible to difcover this ex-
perimentally, becaufe the miftake of a finale grain iri
the very fmali ordinates will change the pofition of the
tangent many degrees. It was for this reafon that we
thought it ufelefs to profecute the dilution any far-
ther. But we think that it may be profccuted much
farther in Dr Watfon's or Mr /Vchard's method,
viz. by diflblving equal weights of fait in two velTels,
of very different capacities, having tubular necks, in
which the change of bulk may be very accurately ob-
ferved. We can only conclude, that the condenfation
is greateft in the ftrongeft brines, and probably at-
tains its maximum when the quantities of true faline
matter and water are nearly equal, as in the , cafe of vi-
triolic acid, &c.
We confider thefe experiments as abundantly fuffici-
ent for deciding the queftion '* Whether the fait can be
received into the pores of the water, or the water into
the pores of the fait, fo as to increafe its weight without
increafing its bulk? * and we muft grant that it may.
We do not mean that it is fimply lodged in the pores as
fand is lodged in the interftices of fmall ftiot ; but the two
together occupy kfs room than when feparate. The ex-
periments of Mr Achard were infufficient for a decifion,
becaufe made on fo fmall a quantity as 600 grains of
water. Dr Watfon's experiments liave, for the moft
part, the fame defeft. Some of them, however^ are of
great value in this queftion, and are very fit fOr afoer-
4 0^ Hairang
Sfieclfic
Giavity.
S P E t 674 ]
talning the fpecific gravity of diflolved falts. In one
of them {not particularly narrated) he found that a
quantity of diffclved fait occupied the fame bulk in two
▼cry different flates of dilution. We cannot pretend
to reconcile this with our experiments. We have gi-
ven thcfe as they Hood ; and vtre think them conclufive,
becaufe they were fo numerous and fo perfeftly con-
fcllent with each ether ; and their refult is fo general,
that we have not found an exception. Common fait is
by no means the mod remarkable inftance of condenfa-
lion. Vegetable alkali, fal ammoniac, and fome others,
exhibit much greater condenfation.
We thouiifht this a proper opportunity of confider-
ing this queftion, which is intimately conneAed with
the principles of chemical folution, and was not per-
haps confidcred in fufficient detail under the article Che-
mistry. We learn from it in general, that the quan-
tities of fait in brines I'ncreafe at fomewhat a greater
rate than their fpeci'ic gravities. This difference is in
many cafes of fenfible importance in a commercial view.
Thus an alkaline lixivium for the purpoles of bleach-
ing or foap-making, whofe fpecific gravity is 1,234,
or exceeds that of water by 234, contains 3')! ounces
of fait in a cubic foot ; a ley, which exceeds the weight
of water tvtfice as much, or 468 ounces per cubic foot,
contains 777 ounces of fait, which exceeds the double
©f 361 by 55 ounces more than 7 ^er cent. Hence
we learn, that hydrometers for difcovering the flrength
©f brines, having equal divifions on a cylindrical Item,
are very erroneous ; for even if the increments of fpe-
cific gravity were proportional to the quantities of fait
in a gallon of brine, the divifions at the bottom of the
ftem ought to be fmaller than thofe above.
The conftruftion of the following table of flrengths
from the above narrated feries of brines is fufficiently
ifebvious. Column ifl is the fpecific gravity a.s difcover-
ed by the balance or hydoraeter, and aHb is the number
of ounces in a cubic foot of the brine. Col. 2d is the
•ounces of the dry fait contained in it.
Tablz of Brines of Common Salt,
Weight
Salt
Weight
Salt
Cuh. Ft.
in
Cub ."ft.
in
Biine.
Cub.?.
Briu. .
Cub. P.
1,000
0
1,115
170
1,008
10
1,122
180
1,015
20
1,1 a«
(90
1,022
30-
200
1,029
40
1,140
210
1,036
50
1,147
220
1,043
60
230
1,050
70
240
1,057
80
1
1,165
250
1,064
1,172
260
1,070
lOQ
1,178
270
1,077
ito
».,i84
280
1,085
t20-
1,190
290
1,090
13a
i>i97
300
1 ,096
140
I,2©3
310
• t»io3
150
1,206
5jl6
T,ro«
J6a
t,26S
3 ®
The table differs confiderably from Mr Lambert's.
The quantities of fait correfponding to any fpecific
jfravity are about tV^^i l^fs than in his table But the
seader- vdl fee that they correfpond with the feries of
S P E
experiments above narrated^; and thefe were but a few Spec!
of many which all correfponded within an hundredth
part- The caufe lof the difference feema to be, that
moft kinds of common fait contain magnefian falts, which
contain a very great proportion of water neceflary for
their cryftallization. The^falt which we ufed was of
the pureft kind, but fuch as may be had from every fait
work, by Lord Dundonald's very eafy procefs, viz. by
pafTing throuph it a faturated folution boiling hot,
which carries off with it about f the of all the bitter falts.
Our aim being to afcertain the quantities of pure fea-
falt, and to learn by the by its relation to water ia
refped of denfity, we thought it neceffary to ufe the
puieft fait. We alfo dried it for feveral days in a (love,
fo that it contained no vrater not abfolutely neceffary
for its cryftallization. An ounce of fuch fait will com.
municate a greater fpecific gravity to water than aa
ounce of a fait that is lefs pure, or that contains extra-
neous water.
The fpecific gravity 1,090 is that of ordinary pickles,
which are eftimated as to flrength by floating an egg.
We cannot raife the fpecific gravity higher than
i,2c6 by fimply diffolving fait in cold water. Bjit it
will become much denfer, and will even attain the fpe-
cific gravity 1,240 by boiling, then holding about 36^
ounces in the cubic foot of hot brine. But it will de-
pofir by cooling, and when of the temperature 55° or 60%
hardly exceeds 1,206. We obtained a brine by boiling
till the fait grained very rapidly. When it cooled to
6z°, its fpecific gravity was ; ,2063 ; for a veffel which
held 3506 grains^ of diiiillcd water held 4229 of this
brine. This was evaporated to drynefs, and there were
obtained 1344 grains of fait. By this was computed
the number interpofed between 3 1 o and 3 20 in the table.
We have however raifed the fpecinc gravity to 1,217,
by putting in no more fait than was neceffary for thi$
denfity, and ufing heat. It then cooled down to 60*
without quitting any fait ; but if a few grains of fait
be thrown into this brine, it will quickly depofit a great
deal more, and its denfity will decreafe to 1,206. We
find this to hold in all falts ; and it is a very inflruftive
fa<ft in the theory of cryftallization ; it refembles the ef-
fe£l which a magnet produces upon iron filings in its
neighbourhood. It makes them temporary magnets,
and caufes thefti to arrange themfelvcs as if they had
been really made permanent magnets. Juil foa cryftal
already formed difpofes the refl to cryflailize. We ima-
gine that this analogy is complete, and that the forces
are fimilar in both cafes.
The above table is computed for the temperature
55°; but in other temperatures the flrength will be
different on two accounts, vit. the expanfion of the
brine and the diffolving power of the water. Water
expands about 40 parts in 1000 when heated from-
60*^ to 2 I 2°. Saturated brine expands about 48 parts,
or yth more than water; and this excefs of expanfion is
nearly proportional to the quarvtity of fait in the brine.
If therefore any circumflance fhould obli^^e us to exa-
mine a brine in a temperature much above 60°, allow-
ance fhould be made for this. Thus, fhould the fpeci-
fic gravity of brine of the temperature 130 (which is
nearly half way between 60 and z 1 2 ) be ' , ' 40, we mufi .
increafe it by 20 (half of 4c) ; and having found the
flrength 24 correfponding to this correiied fpecific
gravity, we rhuft correft it again by adding i to the
^ecHic gravity for every 45 ouacea of fait,
4 But
S P E C 675 ] S V Z
But a much greater and more uncertain correftion is weight of the cubic foot is only 1 190
neceffary on account of the variation of the ditfolving
power of water by heat. This indeed is very fnaall in
the cafe of fea-falt in comparifon with other falts. We
prefume that our readers are apprifed of this peculiarity
of fea-falt, that it diffolves nearly in equal quantities in
hot or in cold water. But although water of the tem-
perature 60 will not diffolve more than 320 or 325
ounces of the pureft and dryeft fea falt, it will take up
above 20 ounces more by boiling on it. When thus
faturated to the utmoft, and allowed to cool, it does
not quit any of it till it is far cooled, viz. near to 60".
It then dcpofits this redundant fait, and holds the reft
till it is juft going to freeze, when it lets it go in the
inftant of freezing. If evaporated in the ftate in which
it continues to hold the fait, it will yield above 400
olinices per cubic foot of brine, in good cryftals, but ra-
ther overcharged wi:h water. And fince in this ftatc
the cubic foot of brine weighs about 1 220 ounces, It
follows, that 820 ounces of water will, by boiling, dif-
folve 4.00 of eryftallized fait.
The table ihows hovr much any brine muft be boiled
down in order to grain. Having obferved its fpecific gra-
vity, find in the table the quantity of fait correfponding.
Call this X. Then, fince a boiUng hot graining or fatu-
rated folution contains 340 ounces in the cubic foot of
1000
brine, fay 340 : 1000 = x : x. This is the bulk
to which every cubic foot (valued at icoo) muft be
boiled down. Thus fuppofe the brine has the fpecific
gravity 1 109. It holds 160 ounces /tr foot, and we
1000X160
muft boil it down to or 47 1 ; that is, we
muft boil off
529
340
of every cubic foot or gall«n.
Thefe remarks are of impoitance in the manufafture
of common fait j they ^enable us to appretiate the va-
lue of fait fprings, and to know how far it may be pru-
dent to entrage in the manufaAure. For the doArine
of latent heat affures us, that in order to boil off a cer-
tain quantity of water, a certain quantity of heat is in-
diipenfably neceffary. After the moft judicious appli-
cation of this heat, the confumption of fuel may be too
cxpenfive.
The fpecific gravity of fea-water In thefe climates does
not exceed » jOg, or the cubic foot weighs 1030 ounces,
and it contains about 41 ounces of fait. 'I'he brine*,
pits In England are vaftly richer ; but in many parts of
the world brines are boiled for fait which do not con-
tain above 10 or 20 ounces in the cubic foot.
In buying fait by weight, it is of importance to
know the degree of humidity. A fait will appear
pretty dry (if free from magnefia falts) though moift-
ened with I per cent, of water ; and it is found that
incipient humidity cxpofes it much to farther dellquef-
cence. A much fmaller degree of humidity may be dif-
cbvered by the fpecific gravity of a brine made with a
few ounces of the fait. And the infpcftion of the table
informs us that the brine fhould be weak ; for the dif-
ferences of fpecific gravity go on diminiftiin^f in the
ftronger brines : 300 ounces of dry fait diffolved in
897 ounces of water fliould give the fpecific gravity
J 197. Suppofe it be but 11 90, the quantity of fait
correfponding is only 290; but when mixed with 897
«unces of water, the weight is 1197, although the
There Is thcfe-
fore~more than a cubic foot of the brine, and there is as
much fait as will make more than a cubic foot of the
1 197
weight 1 190. There is 290 X^T^" » or 291I ounces,
and there is 8-f ounces of water attached to the fait.
The various informations which we have pointed out
as deducible from a knowledge of the fpecific gravity of
the brines of common fait, will ferve to fuggeft feveral
advantages of the knowledge of this circumftance in
other hxivia. We (hall not therefore refume them, but
fimply give another table or two of fuch as are moft in-
terefting. Of thofe alkahne leys are the chief, being of
extenfivc ufe in bleaching, foap-making, glafs-making,
&c.
We therefore made a very ftrong ley of the pureft
vegetable alkali that is ever ufed in the manulaftories,
not thinking it neceflary, or even proper, to take it in
its ftate of utraoft purity, as obtained from cubic nitre
and the like. We took fait of tartar from the apothecary,
perfe<3:ly dry, of which 398 3 grains were diffolved in 3 540
grains of diftilled water ; and after agitation for fever4
days, and then flanding to dcpofit fedimcnt, the clear ley
was decanted. It was again agitated ; becaufe, when of
this ftrength, it becomes, in a very fliort time, rarer
above and denfcr at the bottom. A flaflc containing*
4200 grains of water held 6165 of this ley when of the
temperature 55°. Its fpecific gravity was therefore
1,4678, and the 6165 grains of ley contained 3264
grain of fait. We examined its fpecific gravity in diffe-
rent ftates of dilution, tiU we came to a brine containing
5 1 grains ot fait, and 4189 grains of water, and the con-
tents of the flaflc weighed 4240 grains : its fpecific
gravity was therefore 1,0095. ^^^^^ °^ expe-
riments the progreffion was moft regular and fatistac-
tory ; fo that when we conftru<3:ed the curve of fpecific
gravities geometrically, none of tlie points deviated from
a moft regular curve. It was confiderahly more incur-
vated near its commencement than the curve for fea-falt,
indicating a much greater condenfation in the diluted
brines. We think that the following table, conftrufted
in the fame manner as that for common fait, may be de-
pended on as very exaft.
Spc<.ifi#
O ivity.
Weight
of
Salt
Weight
of
Salt
Weight
(i
Salt
Cub.Foot
corit.
Ciib-Fopt
cont.
Cub.Foot
cont.
oz.
bZ.
«)Z.
02.
oz.
1000
0
1 224
340'
1417
680
1016
20
1 236
360
1428
700
103I
40
1248
380
H38
720:
1045
60
1259
400
'449
740''
1058
8q
1270
420
1460
760
1071
100
1281
440
147 1
780
10-84
120
12^3
460
1482
800
1098
140
480
•493
820^
1112
160
13^7
500
1504
840
1 1 25
180
1329
520
IP5
860
1138
200
1340
540
1526
880
II50
220
560
•537
900
I162
240
1362
580
1547
920
II74
260
1372
6co
1557
940
1187
280
1384
■620
1567
960
1200
300
1395
640
IJ77
980
I2I2
320
1406
660
1586
1000
V7t
Specific
Gravity,
S P E [ 675
We fee tlie fame augmentation of the dcnfity of the
fait In the diluted brines here as in the cafe of commoil
fait. Thus a brine, of which the cubic foot wei^'hs
1482 ounces, or which has the fpeclfic gravity 1,482,
contains 800 ounces of dry alkjdi and 682 of water.
Therefore, if we fuppofc the denfity of the water un-
changed, there remains the bulk of 318 ounces of water
to receive 840 ounces of fait: its denfitv is therefore
318
= 2,^2 nearly. Bjit in the brine vvhofe weight /fr
foot is only 1016 there arc 20 ounces of fait, and there-
fore 996 of water; and there is only four ounce-mca-
fures of water, that is, the bulk of four ounces of water,
to receive 20 ounces of fait. Its fpecific gravity there-
fore IS ~„ — 5, almoft twice as great as in the ftrong
brine. Accordingly Mr Achard is difpofed to admit the
abfoiption (as it is carekfsly termed) in the cafe of fal
tart. But it is a general (w^e think an univerfal) faft
in the folution of falts. It muft be carefully diftin-
guilhed from the firft contraAion of bulk which falts
■undergo in paffmg from a folid to a fluid form. The
contraftion now under Cimfideration is analogous to the
contraftion of oil of virtriol when diluted with water ;
for oil of vitriol muft be confidered as a very ftrong
ferine which we cannot dephlegmate by diftillation, and
therefore cannot obtain the dry faline ingredient in a
feparate form, fo as to obferve its fohd denfity, and fay
how much it contrafts in firft becoming fluid. The way
of conceiving the firft contraftion in the aft of folution
as a lodging of the particles of the one ingredient on the
interftices of the other, " ou Us fe nichent, en augmentant
le poids fans affe8er le volume de la faumure" as Eller and
Lambert exprefs themfelves, is impoflible here, when
both are fluids. Indeed it is but a flovenly way of
thinking in either cafe, and fhould be avoided, becaufe
inadvertent perfons are apt to ufe as a phyfical principle
what is merely a mode of fpeech.
We learn from the table, that a hydrometer with equi-
diftant divifions on a cylindrical or prifmatical ttem is
ftill more erroneous than in the brines of common fait.
We learn from the experiments of Kirwan, Xiavoi-
fier, and others, tl>at dry fait of tartar contains about
3^th of its weight of fixed air. In many applications of
this fait to the purpofes of manufadlure, this ingredient
is of no ufe. In fome it is hurtful, and muft be abflraft-
cd by lime. Soap-maker's ley confifts of the pure alka-
line fait dilTolved in water. It is therefore of impor-
tance to afcertain its quantity by means of the fpecific
gravity of the brine. For this purpofe, we took a ley
of fal tart, whofe fpecific gravity was 1,20417, con-
taining 314 oa. of mild alkali in a cubic foot of ley, and
we rendered- it nearly cauftic by lime. The fpecific gra-
vity was then 1,1897. This is a very unexpefted re-
fult. Nothing is employed with more fuccefs than quick),
lime for dephlegmating any watery fluid. We ftiould
Tather have expefted an increafe of fpecific gravity by
the abftraftion of fome of the water of the menftruum,
and perhaps the water of the cryftallization, and the.
aerial part of the fait. But we muft- afcribe this to
the great denfity in which the fixed, air exifts in the
mild alkali.
It is unneceflTary to give fimilar tables for all the falts,
unlefs we were writing a diftfertation on the theory of
their folution. We fhali only obferve, that we examined
*trlth particular attention fal ammoniac, becaufe Mr
Achard, who denies what is called the abforption of
] S P E
falts, finds hlmfelf obliged to allow fomething like it in
this fait. It does not, however, differ from thofe of
which we have given an account in detail in any other
refpeA than this, that the changes of fluid denfity are
much lefs than in others (inttead of beinii greater, as
Achard's experiments feem to indicate) in all brines of
moderate Ifrength. But in the very weak brines there h
indeed a remarkable difference ; and if we have not
committed an error in our examination, the addition of
one part of fal ammoniac to 64 of water occupies lefs
room than the water alone. We think that we have met
with this as an accidental remark by fome author, whofe
work we do not recoiled. But we do not choofe to
reft fo much on our foi m of the experiment in fuch weak
brines. The following mixtures will abundantly ferve for
conftrufting the table of its ftrength : Sal ammeniac
= 960 grains was diflblved in 3506 grains of water,
making a brine of 4466 grains. A phial which held
i 6oo grains water held 1698 of this brine. It contained
1698 X 960
4466
vity was
or 365 grains of fait. The ipecific gra-
1698
1600'
1061 X 365
=: 1,06 r, and the cubic foot weighed
ig6i ounces. It alfo contained
1698
or 22S
ounces of fait. By repeated abftradion of brine, and
replacing with water, we had the following feries :
Brine.
Oz. Salt
Sp. Clr. in
Weight of brine,
After taking out |,
After taking out \,
After taking out \,
After taking out ~,
2d,
3^.
Cub. F.
22S
171
114
57
1\
1698 i,o6i.
1676 1,048
1653 1.0:^3
^th, 1630 T,OJ9
^th, 16 1 6 1,01 o
4, 6/^, 1610 1,0063
4-, *lth, 1605 1,0038
This feries is extremely regular, and the progrefs of
denfity may be confidently deduced from it.
From the whole of this difquifition on the relation be-
tween the fpecific gravities of brines and the qu^antities of
fait contained, we fee in general that it may be gueflTed at,
with a ufeful degree of precifion, from the denfity or fpe-
cific gravity of faturated folutions. We therefore con-,
elude with a lift of the fpecific gravities of feveral fatu-
rated folutions, made with great care by the bijliop of
Landaff. — Thetemperaturewas42'^. The firft numerical
colurun i& the denfiiy of faturated brine, and the next is
the denfity of a brine confifting of 1 2 parts (by weight)
of water and one of fait. From this may be inferred
the quantity in the faturated folution, and from this
again may, be inferred the quantity correfponding to in-
ferior denfities.
Borax,
Cor. Sublim*
Alum,
Glaub. Salt,
Common Salt,
Sal. cath. amar,
Sal ammon.
Vol. alk. roite^
Nitre,
Rochelle fait,
Blue vitriol.
Green vitriol.
White vitiiol,
Pearl afh,
SPEC
1,0 1 a
i>037
1,054
1,025
1,198
i>o59
1,232
»'039
1,072
1,026
1,087
1,095
1,150
1,052
1,043
1,386
i>534
S P E
[ 677 ]
S P E
acles
Sire.
SPECTACLES, in .dioptrics, d machine confifting
of two lenfes let in filver, horn, &c. to affift the
defeas of the organ of I'lght. Old people, and others
who have flat eyes, ujfe convex fpeaacks, which caufe
the rays of lij^ht converge fo as to meet upon the retina:
whereas myopes, or fhort-fighted people, ufe concave
lenfes for fpeaacles, which caufes the. rays to diverge,
and prevent their meeting ere they reach the retina.
See Optics, n° 73. ^ , ,
Ocular SPECTRA, images prcfentcd to the
eye after teraoving them from a bright objea, or clofing
P*'^- them. When any one has long and attentively looked
^''if at a bright objea, as at the fettiug fun, on clofing his
eyes, or removing them, an image, which refembles m
form the objea he was attending to, continues fome
time to be vlfible. This appearance in the eye we {hall
call the ocular fpearum of that objea.
Thefe ocular fpeara are oi four kinds : ift, Such as
are owing ro a lefs fenhbility of a defined part of the
retina or fpeara from defea of fenfibility. 2d, Such
as are owing to a greater fenfibility of a defined part of
the retina, or fpeara fi-om excefs of fenfibility. 3d, Su^h
as referable their objea in its colour as well as form ;
which may be termed dirta ocular fpeara. 4th, Such
as are of a colour contrary to that of their objea, which
may be termed reverfe ocular fpettra.
SPECTRE, an apparition, fomething made preter-
naturally vifible to human fight, whether the ghofts of
dead men or beings fuperior to man.
A belief that 'fupernatural beings fometimes make
themlelves vifible, and that the dead? fometimes levifit
the living, has prevailed among moft nations, efpcci-
ally in the rudeft ttages of foclety. It was common
among the Jews, among- the Greeks, and among the
Romans, as we find from the Scriptures, and from the
poems of Homer and Virgil. Celeftial appearances
were indeed fo often exhibited to the Jews, that the
origin of their beUef is not difficult to be explained.—
The Divine Bein;;: manifefted himfelf to each of the Pa-
triarchs by fome fenfible fign, generally by a flame of
f5re, as he did to Mofes. Under this femblance alfo did
he appear to the Ifraelites during their abode in the de-
fert, and after they obtained a fettlement in the land of
Canaan. Nor did they believe that heavenly beings alone
afi"umed a fenfible appearance : They believed that de-
ceafed men alfo fometimes revifited this world. When
Saul went to confult the witch at Endor, he afi^ed her
to brino- up the perfon whom he (hould name unto her ;
a proofthat he confidered his demand as eafy to be perr
formed, and therefore that he probably aaed under the
influence of popular opinion. The fame opinions had
been generally entertained at a much earlier period ; for
necromancy and witchcraft, the arts by which the dead
were fuppofed to be raifed, had been prohibited while
the Ifraelkes v/ere in the wildcmefs, and yet untainted
with the vices of the Canaanites. They mufl; therefore
have derived them from Egypt, the cradk of foperfti-
tion, as well as of the arts and fciences.
Among the Greeks and Romans the apparition of
fpeares was generally believed. On innumerable occa-
fions the gods arc faid to have difcovered themfelves to
the eyes of mortals, to have held conferences^ and to
have interpofed their aid. I'he ghofts of the dead, too,
are faid to have appeared. When iEneas, amidft the
diftradign and confuiion of liis miad.in flying from the
deftruaion of Troy, had loft his wife by the way, he Spcdlrr.
Returned in fearch of her. Her fliade appeared to him - ""
(for fhe herfelf had been flain) with the fameafpea as
before, but her figure was larger. She endeavoured to
afl^uagc the grief of her unhappy hufband, by afcribing
her death to the appointment of the gods, and by tore-
telling the illuftriouS honours which yet awaited him.
But when iEneas attempted to clafp her in his arms, the
phantom immediately vanifhed into air. From this fl;ory
we n.ay obferve, that the ancients believed that the um-
brae or ftiades, retained nearly the fame appearance after
death as before; that they had fo far the refcmblance of a.
body as to be vifible ; that they could think and fpeak as
formerly, but could not be touched. This defcription
applies equally well to thofc fhades which had pafledthc
river Styx, and taken up their refidence in the infernal-
regions. Such were the fhades of Dido, of Deiphobus,
and all thofe which ./Eneas met with in his journey-
through the fubterraneous world.
It appears from the writings of modern travellers who
have vifited rude and lavage nations, that the belief of
fpeares is po lefs coraraan among them. Mr Bruce
tells us, that the prieft of the Nile affirmed, that he had^
more than once leen the fpirit of the river in the form,
of an old man with a white beard. Among the Maho-
metans the doarine of fpeares feems to be reduced to
a regular fyftem, by the accounts which they give of
genii. Whoever has read the Arabian Nights Enter-
tainments muft have furnifhed his memory with a thou-
fand inftances of this kind. Their opinions concerning
genii feem to be a cornipted mixture of the doarines of
the jews and ancient Perfians. In Chriltian countries,,
too, notwithftanding the additional hght which their re-
ligion has {pread, and the great, improvement in the
fciences to which it has been fubfervient, the behef of
ghofts and apparitions is very general, efpecially among
the bwer ranks. They believe that evil fpirits fome-
times make their appearance in order to terrify wicked
men, efpecially thofe who have committed murder.
They fuppofe that the fpirita of dead men afl"ume a
corporeal appearance, hover about church yards and
the houfes of the deceafed, or haunt the places where
murders have been committed. (See Ghost.) In fome"
places it is beheved that beings have been feen bearing a.
perfca refemblance to men. alive. In. the Highlands of
Scotland, what is called the fecond fi^ht is ftill believed
by many (fee Second Sight) ; viz. that future events
are foretold by certain individuals by means of fpearal
reprefentation.
So general has the belief of fpedres been, that this
circuraftance alone may be thought by fome fulScient to
prove that it muft: have its foundation in human nature,
or muft reft upon rational evidence. When any doo
trine has been univerfally received by all nations, by ge-
nerations living, feveral thoufand years from one an-
other, and by people in all the different ftages of focie-
ty, there, is certainly the ftrongeft prefumption to con.-
elude that fuch a doarine has its foundation in reafoa
and in truth, in this way we arg^ie in favour of the
e^riftence of a God, concerning moral diftinaion, and
the doarine of a future ftate. : and certainly, fo far we
argue well. £ut if the fame argument be applied to
idolatry, to facrifices, or to apparitions, we fhall find
that it is apphed improperly. Idolatry was very general,
among ancient nations j fo was the offering of faciifice^
. . r 67S 1 S P E
^'r^ polythe^fm : but they were by no means «nl. wjthout tKeIr JnterpoGtion ? Would th,', be conHftent
for the fake of (hortening Avrth perfeft wifdom, or wpald It be confillent even with
Should we allow.
the argument, that all ancient^ nations were polytheilts
and idolaters, and prefented oblations to their imaginary
deities, all that could be concluded from this conceffion
18, that they fell into thefe miftakes from their igno-
rance and from the rude (tate of fociety, from which their
imperfea knowledge of theolopry and moral philofophy
was never able to refcue them. Thefe erroneous notions
fled before the brightnefs of the Chrittian fyftem; while
the doftrines of the exiltcnce of God, of moral diftinc-
tion, and of a future ftate, have been more thoreughly
confirmed and afcertained. Tlie fame thing may be faid
of the belief of fpeSres. However generally it has been
adopted in the firft ftages of fociety, or by civilized na-
tions who had made but little progrefs in the ftudy of
divine things, it has been rejeifted, we may fay invari-
ably, wherever theology and philofophy have gone
, -band in hand.
As all popular and long eftablilhed opinions are ob-
jefts of curiofity and refearch for the philofopher, we
think the behef of fpeftres worthy of fo^^ie attention
«ven in this light. It will therefore, we hope, give
iome fatisfaftion to the philofophical reader to fee a
fhort account of the fources or principles from which this
belief is derived. But as the belief of fpeftrcs is con-
nected with other opinions which appear to us highly
injurious to religion ; opinions which have been fupport-
«d by many learned men, and which are Hill believed by
fome men of literary education — it will alfo be proper,
in the firil place, to conlider the evidence on which this
belief refts, in which we muft. confider both their proba-
bility and credibility.
In the prefcnt inveftioation we mean to fet afide al-
together the celeftial appearances recorded in Scripture,
as being founded on unqueftionablc evidence, and per-
fedly agreeable to thofe rules by which the Deity ads
iu the ufual coiirfc of his Providence. The Ifraehtes,
during the exirtence of their ilate, were immediately
under the authority of God, not only as the moral go-
vernor of the world, but as the king of Ifrael. In the
infancy of the world, while men were rude and unen-
lightened, and entirely under the influence of idolatry,
many revdations were neceflary to preferve in their
minds pure ideas of the nature of God, and of the wor-
fhip due to Him. They were necefTary alfo to pave the
the CKcellence and fuperiority of underftanding which we
are taught to afcribe to the£e elevated beings > The
whole wdl of God is revealed to us in the Scriptures •
what further «fe for the vifible interpofition of angels >
It may be objefted. Are they not all miniftering fpirits
lent forth to mmifter for them who (hall be heirs of
falvation § ? We anfwer. That angels may animate and§ H«b
iupportgood men by an invifible interpofition. ButM-
the Apottle IS not fpeaking of celeftial fpirits. The
word -v.xH fij^niftes « a melTenger and in Scripture
often refers to men. In the pad'aiie which we are now
rcyiewmg it certainly is applied with much more pro-
pnety to men than to angels : for the Apoftle is ftatinix
a comparifoB between tSe Prop/jets, by whom God, at
iundry times and in divers manners, fpake in time paft
to the fathers, and ti,e Son, by whom he hath fpoken
in thefe laft days.
And if God has given no comThifllon to his angels to
dehver to men fince the publication of the Chriftian
rehgioin^ is there any probability that he would give any
commiffion or any licence to evil fpirits ? It' will be
faid, that this dodrine is clearly taught in the New Tef
lament, in thefe words, " The devil goeth about as a
roaring lion feeking whom he may devour." We will
not avail ourfelves of the interpretation of fome, who
lay that the word devi/, which in the Greek language
hgnihes an adverfary, or Jianderer, refers here to forne
human being, who was a violent enemy of the Chriftians
AH that can be deduced from thefe words, upon thi
uppofition that they refer to a malignant fpirit, is mere-
iy tfiat he goeth about feducing men to vice. But it
IS not by alfuming a hideous foVm, and prefenting bim-
lelf to the midnight traveller, that fuch a purpofe is to
be accomphfhed. A fpirit may probably have dircd ac-
ceis to our minds without the intervention of any thin^r
corporeal ; and by exciting our paflions may plun re us
mto vice, which is the only objea fuch a beinc^ is fun-
poled to have in view. None of the marvellous ftories
which we have heard concerning the apparition of evil
Ipints lead u« to conclude that they appear to entice
meri to commit crimes. We never heard of any evil
fpints that required men to fteal, to perpetrate robbery
or murder. They only appeared to terrify fome crazy
timorous individuals, who have whims and fancies enow
....^ 7- . , : "-7 "^>^"«i.y «u.o to pav« tne timorous individuals, who have whims and fan<
jvay for that illuftnous difpenlation which the Lord Je- of their own to agitate their minds thouah
lus came from Heaven to flifFiiffnvpr t)./. 17..^-.. 1 « ' '•'"-'"K"
fus came f rom Heaven to difFufe over the world. Every
celeftial appearance recorded in Scripture was exhibited
for fome wife and important pui pofe, which mufl be ap-
parent to every perfon who conliders thefe appearances
with attention. But when the Scriptures were written
and publiflied, and the Chriftian religion fully eftablifh-
ed, revelation ceafed, and miracles and heavenly mef-
iages were no longer requifite. What credit then ought
we to give to thofe marvellous ftories related in ancient
authors concerning prodigies in the heavens, and the
apparition of angels both good and bad >
It is not pretended that any of thofe prodigies and
appearances were exhibited for purpofes equally great
and important with thofe which are defcribed in Scrip-
ture : Andean we fuppofe that the all-wife Governor of
the World would permit his angels to render themfelves
vifible to the eye of man for no purpofe at all, or for a pur-
jpofc which might have been equally well accoMiplilhed
ternatural vifion fliould ever appear to them. It^ is
not conaftent, therefore, with the charader of God,
and what he has revealed to us of his will, to believe
that he would commiffion good angels, or permit evil
angels, to appear to men fmce the propagation of the
gofpel, or indeed at any former period of the world,
unlefs fome great and mighty purpofe was to be fulfilled.
It is not confiftent with what we know of the nature of
good or bad angels to fuppofe, that though permiffion
were granted them occafionally to ftiow themfelves to
men, that they would appear in that way which ftorv-
tellers defcribe.
It is equally improbable that the fpirits of the dead!
who have removed from this world Ihould again be per-
muted to vifit it. At death men undergo as great,
perhaps a greater change, than when they came firft in-
to the hght of the fun. Is it not therefore as impro-
bable that a man Ihould return in a vifible corporeal
foria
R P E
[ 67
■re- form <kftcr deatb, as that, after havin;j arrived at man-
hood, he (hould return to the ftate in which he was be-
fore his birth ? Such changes as thefe are evidently
made permanent by the invariable laws of nature. But
fuppofe it were poflible, for what purpofe Oiould they
return ? To dcfcribe to us what is pafHng in the other
■world, to animate us to virtue, by informing US of the
rewards which there await the good ; or to alarm us,
by defcribin^ the punifhment of the wicked. Thefe
feem important reafons. But Divine Providence haa
wifely thrown a veil over futurity. We know every
thing of the other world from the fcrlpture which it is
proper for us at prefent to know. And as to incen-
tives to virtue, we are already blelTed with a num-
beir fufficiently great and powerful for moral beings,
who are to a£l from rational motives, and not from com-
xvi. pulfion. " He that will not hear Mofes and the pro-
phets, will not be peifuaded though one rofc from the
dead."
* There is one ftrong objeftion awalnft the probability
of fpedres, which is fufficient to prove that they are
not intelligent creatures ; or at lead that they poflefs
fo fmall a degree of intellia:encc, that they are unquali-
fied to ad with prudence, to propofe any end to them-
felves, or ul'e the proper means to accomplifh that end.
Ghofts often appear in order to difcover fome crime
that has been committed : but they never appear to a
ihaglilrate, or perfon in authority, but to fome illiterate
clown, who happens to live near the place where the
crime was perpetrated ; to fome perfon who has no
conneftion with the affair at *11, and who in general
is the moft improper in the world for making the
difcovery. For inftance; in Glanville's Saciuri/mus tn-
urtiphatus (a book written in the laft century by a chap-
Iain of Charles II. in fupport of the common opinions
refpefting witchcraft and apparitions), we have the fol-
lowing ftory : James Haddock, a farmer, Was married
to Elenor WeHh, by whom he had a fon. After
the death of Ha-idock, his wife married one Davis; and
both aoreed to defraiJd the fon by the former marriage
of a leafe bequeathed to him by hia father. Upon this
the ghoft of Haddock appeared to one Francis Ta^
verner the fervant of lord Chichefter, and defircd him
to go to Elenor Welfh, and to inform her that it waft
the will of her former hufbafid that their fon fliould enjoy
the leafe. Taverner did not at firft execute this com-
mlfPion ; but he was continually haunted by the appari-
tion in the moft hideous ^apes, which even threatened
to t^ar him in pieces, till at laft he delivered the mef-
fage. Now, had this fpeftre had the leaft common
fenfe, it would have appeared firft to Elenor Welfh and
her huftand Davis, and frightened them into compH-
stnce at once, and not have kept poor Taverner in fuch
ctonftant dii'quietude, who had no concern in the matter.
Another very odd circumftance refpeftin^ apparition*
in general nuft not be omitted, which is, that they have
no power to fpeak till they are addreffed. In the 27th
of Glanville's Relations we read of an old wom^n that
appeared often to David Hunter, a neat-herd, at the
hou e of the 'Mihop of Down and Conners. When-
ever (he appeared, he found himfel' obliged to follow
her ; and for three quarters of a year poor David (pent
the whole of almoft every niprht in fcampcring up and
down through the woods after this old woman. How
long thie extraordinary employment might have conti-
9 1 s P E
nued, it is {mpoHlble to guefs, had not David's violent
fatigue made him one nl.rht exclaim, " Lord blefs me !
would I were dead!— Hiall I never be delivered from this
mifery !" On which the phantom replied, *' Lord
blcfs me too ! It was happy you fpoke firft, for till then
I had no power to fpeak, though I have followed you
fo long." Then (he gave him a meffaTC to her two
fons, though David told her he remembered nothing
about her. David, it feems, neglefted to deliver the
meffage ; at which the old beldafn was fo miwh pfovoked,.
that fhe retwrned and hit him a hearty blow on the
fhoulder, which made him cry out, and then fpeak
to her. Now if fhe could not fpeak till David ad«
drefled her, why might fhe not have applied this orato-
rial medicine the firft time fixe appeared to him > It
would have fdved both herfelt and him many a weary-
journey ; and certainly David would much rather havft
had even half a doien ot blows from her choppy fifts
than have wanted fo many nights flecp. To complete
the ftory, we muft add, that when Duvid s wife found
it impoffible to keep him from 'oUowing the troviblefome
vifltor, ftie trudged after him, but ne>^er was gratified
with a fi.^ht of the enchantrefs. David's little dog too
was a dutiful attendant on his mafter during his pilgri*
ma'^e.
ft is remarked by Glanvllle, that ghofts are generally
very eager to '^e gone. Indeed they are often lo much
fo, that they do not ftay to tell their errand. One
would be induced from this, as well as the circumftan-
cefi already mentioned, to think that they are the ftupid*
eft and dulleft of the dead that affume the appearance
of ghofts ; unlefs we adopt the ingenious lolution of
Glanvllle, " that it is a very hard and painful thing for
them to force their thin and tenuious bodies into a vifi-
ble confiftence ; that their bodies muft needs be exceed-
ingly comprcfl"ed; and that therefore they muft^^be in
hafte to Ue delivered from the unnatural pi-efi'ure.'*
With refpeA to the evidence in favour of fpeftreSj.
if examined ever fo flightly, it will be found very de-
feaive. They only appear to one perfon at a time ;
they are feen only in the night ; they are vifible only
to ignorant, illiterate, and credulous perfons, and never
prefent themfelves before men of education and learn-
ing.
That fpeftres only appear to one perfon at a time,,
even though there are more in company, is an objeAion
againft the credibility of their appearance quite iufur-
mountable. How is it poffible that two men ot eye-
fight equally good, direfting their eyes to the lame
fpot, Ihould not fee fo large an objeft. as that of a maii,
or woman at a fmall diftance cquaUy weU ? Some will
tell us that a mift is caft over the eyes of the one, whde
the view of the other is free from obftruaion. But
how is this to be proved ? and bcfides what purpofe
would it ferve ? Ghofts have feldom any fecrets to dif-
clofe ; they might be proclaimed to a multitude with as.
much' propriety as confined- to one perfon. Shall we
be told, that the fpedre has the power of becomma vi-
fible to fome, and of remaining invifible to others I
This Cinnot be allowed without adopting opinions de-
ftruAIve to revealed religion ; for it would be a miracle
and we cannot be periuaded, without evidence, that God
wonld empower any inferior bcir^g to controul at plea-
fure the wife laws which he has oidained for governing
the world. To him who is of a ditierent opinion, we,
wouldi
SpeAre,
S P' E [68
^ would recommend Farmer on Miracles ; a book In which
this queftion is fully examined.
Speftres appear only ia the nIgKt. But why flioiild
'they fliuH the iio^ht of the fun ? Thofe miichievous
ghofls that Glanville mentions mit^ht indeed have fomc
realon to choofe midnight for the execution of their
;f ranks, they would be more eafily detefted iu open
-day. Such was the roguifh drummer that haunted
Mr Mompeflbn's hoafe, who beat his drum all night,
threw the old gentlewoman's clothes about the room,
hid her Bible in the afhes, plucked the clothes off the
hcd, and amufcd himl'eh' with tofTing about Mr Mom-
^effon's fhoes. But why fhonld a grave ferious ghoft
appear at midniTht ? Might it not deliver its meflage
with as much eafe and more fuccefs in the day-time ?
In the day-time it would not excite much fear ; it would
he liftened to therefore with more attention ^ and did it
choofe to exhibit itielf before a number of witnefTes, its
grievances would be more fpeedily redrefTed, becaufe
more perfons would intereft thcmfelves in feeing juftice
done to the injured ghoft.
Specftres not only choofe the moft improper time,
hut the moft improper perfons. To render the tefti.
mony of any perfon credible, he muft not only be a man
of veracity, but he muft have fufficient ability to judge
of the fubjea to which he is to bear witnefs. It is
mot on the evidence of an ignorant illiterate perfon, who
has more fancy and fear than judgment, that we are to
reft our belief of what is fupernatural It is alfo wor-
thy of remark, that we have never heard of a ghoft ap.
pearing to any perfon wbo did not previoufly believe
their exiftence. A man muft be prejudiced in favour of
this opinion, or he will never fee a ghoft. But fenfible
men know, that he who has been accuftomed to hear
frightful ftorits of ghofts and apparitions gliding thro'
a church-yard, or haunting fome particular place, can
Icarcely pafs through a church-yard or haunted fpot
without conjuring up in his imagination the hideous
phantoms which he has been accuftomed to afTociate
with fuch places. Is it fl range, then, that an ignorant
man, with a mind uncultivated and uninformed, with all
the prejudices of the nnrfery about him, fliould ima-
gine he fees ghofts in thofe places where he believes
they hover, efpecially in the dead hour of midniaht,
when, with the Highteft aid of the imagination, a cow
o ] S P E
may be turned into a mon droits phantom, and the re-
flefkion of the beams of the moon From a little water
be converted into a ghoft with a winding-fheet ? But
why ftiould apparitions fhun men oF underftanding and
learning ? Why (liould learning be formidable to them
(a) ? It was not fo with the celeftial meftengers men-
tioned in the Scriptures : they appeared to the patri-
archs and prophets ; and the miracles there recorded
were performed in the moft public places, before the
eyes of Rabbies, of Scribes, and Pharifees. Indeed
this circumftance is fufficient to deftroy the evidence of
fpe6i:re8. They have never been feen by any but men
of weak or dtft ;mpe'-ed minds, or by men who have pre-
vioufly believed in them.
Having now conlidcred the evidence on which the
belief ot Ipeiii-es refts, we will endeavour to give fome
account of the foundation of it. To trace an opinion
that has prevailed l"o generally in the world to its
fource, is a labour not unworthy of the philofopher,
even tho' the opinion be faife. It is always gratlFyin j-
to dete<i the caufes of error : it is no lefa ufeful ; for in
order to refute error, it is often fufficient to point out
the fources from which it has fprung. To reach the
origin of the behef of fpeiftres is not more difficult than
to account for idolatry or polytheifm. In the infant
ftate of the intelledlual powers every thing is confider-
ed as poffeffing life and intelligence. The child beats
the ftool over which he has fallen with the fame paffion
that he would treat hii> companion : The young girl
talks to her doll as if it underftood her ; The favages
afcribe every change which they obferve on the face of
nature to the a(ftion of fome animated being. As
knowledge advances, they fingle out thofe beings which
feem to produce the moft ftriking effefts, arrange them
into fome kind of order, and divide the government of
the world among them. Unable, at the fame time, to
conceive any nation of a pure fpii it, they imagine thofe
divinities are corporeal beings. This is the foundation
of idolatry. The belief of fpeftres is but another ftep.
That thefe animated corporeal beings, to whom they
addrefs their prayers, and who prehde 'over the world,
(hould on particular occafions difplay themfelves to the
human eye, is what they muft be previoufly difpofed to
expe£l. Hence the numberlefs appearances of the hea-
then gods, of the Perfian and Mahometan genii. The
belief
Spe
, (a) The celebrated hiftorlan De Thou had a very fingular adventure at Saumur, in the year 1598. One
night, having retired to reft very much fatigued, while he was enjoyi.^ig a found fleep, he felt a very extraordi-
nary weight upon his feet, which, having made him turn fuddenly, fell down and awakened him. At firft he
imagined that it had been only a dream, but hearing foon after fome noife in his chamber, he drew afide the cur-
tains, and faw, by help of the moon, which at that time ihone very bright, a large white figure walking up and
down, and at the fame time obferved upon a chair fome rags, which he thought belonged to thieves who had
come to rob him. The figure then approaching his bed, "he had the courage to aflc it what it was. «* I am
(laid it) the Qiiecn of Heaven.'* Had fuch a figure appeared to any credulous ignorant man in the dead of
night, and made fuch a fpeech, would he not have trembled with fear, and have frightened the whole neighbour-
hood with a marvellous defcription of it ? But De Thou had too much underftanding to be fo impofed upon.
Upon hearing the words which dropped from the figure, he immediately concluded that it was fome mad wo.
tnan, got up, called his fervants, and ordered them to turn her out of doors ; after which he returned to bed and
Ml afleep. Next morning he found that he had not been deceived in his conjedure, and that having forgot to
ftiut his door, this female figure had efcaped from her keepers, and entered his apartment. The brave Schora-
berg, to whom Dc Thou related his adventure fome days after, confeffed that in fuch a cafe he would not have
Ihown fo much courage. The king aUb, who waa iaformed of it by Schomberg, made the fame acknowledge-
S p E [ 68t ] S P E
Wl?.f of Phofts may be cafily deduced frorti the opi- an objeft, the ^.Igantlc appearance it affumcd m the eye
* enteS d^efpeal future ftate. Thefe opi- inftantly dirnlnifhes and its apparent magnitade u re-
n ons entertainea rc p J> . , doarme of natural duced to its real dimenfions. But if, inftead of ap-
SlTttTthlTs rid t wS tn ftall preaching fnch an objca, the fpeaator flie, from it he
religion, ttiat tnere <t>i j^^^. ^-^^^ ^^^^^^
^''^::^r^^^^^^ raTa e td it formed ia his eye ; and. in tWs cafe he may afHrm
tnne has been ""f'j;'^"/ . have with truth that he faw an objeft terrible in its afpeft,
fr;m:fv:nft r^ enormousin its n^e. Thus the notions concerning
of TfutSa e of the htuatioh and employments of fpeares is founded in nature, and depend not, as fome
fenarteTfp Its? according to the degree of knowledge philofophers affirm, upon the ima» manon alone,
thich they ScS But the general opinion in an- In additio« to thefe obfervations of Buffon. we may
de "t and ?ude n ens was, that departed fpirits retain- take notice, that objeas are always magnified in a fog ;
Speflre.
cd the fame external appearance, the fame paffions and
principles as before. Nothing therefore was more na-
tural than the opinion, that,they might occafionally re-
vifit this world, from an anxious defire to alleviate
the fufferings of thofe beloved friends and relations
whom they had left behind them, or to communicate
from the unfeen world what might be important to
their welfare. Upon fuch an errand did Creufa appear
to iEncas. The apparition of the ghofts of murder-
ers is eafily explained upon the fame general principles.
The remorfe and horror of mind which the murderer
feels are fuppofed to haunt hinj In the other world, and
to render his fituation there Intolerable (efpeclally if the
murder was never deteaed and punifhed), till he re-
turn and give information againft hijnfclf. In this way,
then, we think it highly'probable the belief of fpeares
has originated. But many other caufes concur to con-
firm and propagate this belief. Thefe are, imperfea
vifion united with fear, dreams, opium, difeafes, drunk-
ennefs, and artifice.
T, Tndiftina vifion is one fource of apparitions, efpe-
clally when the mind is under the influence of fear. _ It
is well known, that the fenfe of feeing conveys no idea
of diftance till improved by experience and obferva-
tion ; and how we come at length to diftinguifh ob-
jeas at a diftance from thofe that are near, has been
explained in another place (fee Metaphysics, n^* 50).
In the day-time we feldom commit miftakes, becaufe
we know the objea at which we look ; but at night,
when we fee objeas obfcurely, and know not what they
are, we have no diftina idea either of their diflances or
of their magnitude. We may miftake a bufh that is
near us for a tree at a diftance ; or if the imagination be
under the influence of fear, jt will eafily convert it into
a gigantic figure. " It is generally aflerted (fays Buffon)
that thefe figures exift only in the imagination ; yet
they may have a real exiftence in the eye ; for whenever
we have no other mode of judging of an unknown ob-
jea but by the angle it forms in the eye, its magjiitude
will uniformly increafe in proportion to its propinquity.
If it appears, when at the diftance of 20 or 30 paces,
to be only a few feet high, its height, when within two
or three feet of the eye, will be many fathoms. An ob-
jea of this kind muft naturally excite terror and afto-
niftiment in the fpeaator, till he approaches and recog-
nifes it by aaual feeling ; for the moment a man knows
Vol. XVII. Part II.
fo tl\at when a fog happens in the night-time, objeas
may be magnified to an enormous fize. But, at any
rate, whether there be fog in the night or not, there Is
fuch a great analogy between darknefs and a fog, that
if the latter deceive us with refpea to the fi?,e of ob-
jeas, the former will alfo deceive us. The writer of
this article was paffing the Frith of Forth at Queensier-
ry, near Edinburgh, one morning which was extremely
foggy. Though the water be only two miles broad, the
boat did not get within fight of the fouthern fiiore till
it approached very near it. He then faw to his great
furprife a large perpendicular rock, where he knew the
fhore w^as low and almoft flat. As the boat advanced
a little nearer, the rock feeraed to fplit perpendicularly
into portions, which feparated at a little diftance frorn
one another. He next faw thefe perpendicular dlvi-
fions move ; and upon approaching a little nearer, found
it was a number of people ftanding on the beach, wait-
ing the arrival of the ferry-boat.
2. Dreams are another fertile fource of apparitions.
It is well known to every pcrfon, that while the mind
is under the influence of a dream it confiders it as
much a reahty as it does any particular aaion while
awake. Now if a peifon of a weak fuperftitious mind
ftiould have a very lively dream, which interefts his pafr
fions, particularly the paffion of fear, it may make fo deep
an Impreffion, that he may be firmly convinced that he
has adually feen with his eyes what has only pafled be^
fore his imagination (See Apparition) (b). We
fliall here tell a ftory, by way of illuftratlon, which we
have received on unqueftionable authority. An Eait
Indian captain had an honcft faithful fervant named
^o/jn, for whom he had a great regard. John died, if
we recolka right, on a voyage from England to the
Eaft Indies during a French war. As the fliip ap-
proached the place of its deftination the captain had a
dream, in which John appeared to him, and earneftly
befought him not to fail to the port for which he was
bound, as it was in the hands of the French. The cap-
tain, though not addiaed to fuperftition, thought it
prudent to follow this admonition ; and after landing at
a different port, he was inforihed that the place to
which he had intended to fteer was, according to the
Information of the dream, captured by the French.
On the voyage home, the captain had a fecond dream,
in which John again appea;-ed to him, and gave him no-
4 R tice
f b) When the thoughts are much troubled, and when a perfon fleeps without the circumftances of going to
bed or putting off his 'clothes, as when he nods in his chair, it Is very difficult, as Hobbes remarks, to diftin-
guifti a dream from a reality. On the contrary, he that compofes himfelf to fleep, in cafe of any uncouth or
abfurd fancy, eafily fufpeds it to have been a dream. — Lcviathanf par. i. c. i.
«
B P E [ 6?
t^tSlt£. tice that he fhould foon die, and that the (hip (houM be
■ " " taken in the moutli of the Channel by the French.
Next morninjt the captain called his firft mate, told him
his dream, which he believed was prophetic, and deli-
vered his papers, that he might take proper care of
them after his deceafe. Every thing happened exaftly
as the dream had foretold ; the captain died, and the
vefTel was taken by a French man of war in the mouth
of the Channel. This dream, wonderful as it appears,
is eafily explained. In the voyage out to Tnslla, no-
thing was more natural than that the captain fliculd
fometimes be thinking, that amidft the various chances
of war, the port to which he was bound might be ta-
ken ; perhaps it was a place of confequence, which the
French might be eager to poflefs. The captain bein^
accuftomed to revolve thefe thoughts in the day-timcj
they would naturally return at night ; the regret which
he felt^ for the lofs of a faithful fervant might mingle
with his apprehenfions, and thus produce the dream.
Perhaps the advice was fuch as John would have given
had he been alive. It is equally eafy to explain the
caufe of the dream in the palTage home. Tlie captain,
we are told, was very ill, and thom^ht himfelf dying,
at the very time he had the fecond dream, and there-
fore did not expeft to reach England. This part of
the dream, then, was only his own thoughts, delivered
by his fervant. As to the other part, that his fhip
^houId be taken in the mouth of the Channel, it
may be thought unaccountable how the very place
thould be forefeen. But we muft recolleft, that the
mouth of the Channel, being over againft the coaft of
France, was by far the moft dangerous place in the
*vhole palTage ; and that, therefore, the captain had
more reafon to be afraid of lofing his fhip there than
til any other place. The ufe which we mean to make
of this ftory is this : Had the captain been a man of a
*veak mind, he would certainly have confidered the
•Iream as a reality, and believed, that inftead of having
dreamed of the things on which his imagination had
dwelled, he had aftually feen his fervant return from the
dead, and heard him deliver the meflage. But, on the
other hand, the captain, though he believed the dream
was prophetic, mentioned it without any figns of fear ;
2nd no man of courage and refieftion ever fees an appa-
rition. This fight is referved for the weak, the ti-
mid, and fuperftitious. Of this many inftances might
be mentioned.
3. Speftres are fometimes alfo occafioned by opium.
Gaffendi the philofopher found a number of people
going to put a man to fleath for having intercourfe
with the devil ; a crime which the poor wretch readily
acknowledged. Gaffendi begged of the people that
they would permit him firft to examine the wizard be-
fore putting him to death. They did fo ; and GalTendi,
Hpon examination, found that the man firmly believed
himfelf guilty of this impofiible crime. .He even offered
to Gaffendi to introduce him to the devil. The philo-
fopher agreed ; and when midnight came, the man gave
him a pill, whieh he faid it was neceffary to fwallow be-
fore fctting off. Gaffendi took the pill, but gave it to his
dog. The man having fwallowcd his, fell into a pro-
found fieep ; during which he fecmed much agitated
by dreams. The dog was affefted in a fimilar man-
mr. When the nwn awoke, he congratulated Gaf-
i2 1 S P E
fendi on the favourable reception he had met with from
his fable highncfs. It was with difficulty Gaffendi
Convinced him that the whole was a dream, the cffed
of foporific medicines, and that he had never flirred
from one fpot during the whole night.
4. That difeafes, efpecially the night mare, the hy-
pochondria, hyfteric pafTion, and madnefs, are another
fotirce of fpdleres, we have the flrongeft reafon to affirm,
Perfons fubjeft to tl>e night -mare often imagine that
they fee fpeftres. This is flill more the cafe with hy-
pochondriac and hyfteric perfons, and thofe who are in
any degree deranged in their intellecfts. A fad which fell
within the obfervation of the writer of this article will
both prove and illuftrate this affertion. In a village in
one of the midland counties of Scotland, lived a widow
dilliiignifhed among her neighbours for decency of man-
ners, intetrrity, and lefpeft for religion. She afBrmed,
that for feveral nights together fhe had heard a fuper-
natural voice exclaiming aloud. Murder.' murder! This
was immediately reported through the ncigfhbourhood ;
all were alarmed, and looked around them with follci-
tude for the detection of the murder which they fup-
pofed to have been committed ; and it was net Ion r
till a difcovery feemed aflually to be made. It was
reported, that a gentleman, who had relations at no great
diftance, and had been refiding in the Weil Indies, had •
lately arrived with a confideiable fortune ; that'he had
lodged in an inn about three miles off ; and that he had
afterwards been feen entering a houfe in the village
where the widow lived, from which he had never re-
turned. It was next affirmed, that a tradefman pafTing
the church-yard about twelve at midnight had feen four
men carry a dead corpfe into that cemetery. Thefe
three fafts being joined together feemed perfeAly to
agree and to confirm one another, and all believed fome
horrible murder had been committed. The lelations
of the gentleman thought they were called upon to
make inquiry into the truth of thefe allegations : they
accordingly came firll to the church-yard, where, ia
company^ with the fexton, they examined all the
graves with great care, in order to difcover whether
any of them had been lately dug, or had the ap-
pearance of containing more than one coffin. But
this fcarch was to no purpofe, for no alteration
had been made upon the graves. It was next re-
ported that the murdered man had been buried in a
plantation about a mile dif!ant from the village. At
the alarm was now very general, a number of the inha-
bitants propofed of their own accord to explore it.
They accordingly fpread themfelvcs over the wood, and
fearched it with care, but no grave nor new dug earth
was found. The writer of this article, whs was then
a boy at fchool, was along with them. The matter
did not reft here : The perfon who was faid to have
feen four men carry a dead corpfe into the church-yard
at midnight was fummoned to appear before a meeting
of the juftices of the peace. Upon examination he de-
nied any knowledge of the affair, but referred the
court to another perfon from whom he had received
his iQformation. This perfon was examined, and the
refult was the fame as the former. In fliort, one per-
fon had heard it from another, who had received it from
a third, who had heard it from a fourth ; but it had
received a little «mbellillixnent from every perfon wlie
repeated
S P E
r m 1
S P E
Ire,
wpeated It, It turned out to be the fame with Smol-
let's ftory of the three black crows, which fomc body
was faid to have vomited.
Upon inquiry at the inn where the Weft Indian gen-
tleman had lodged, no luch gentleman had been feen
there. It was found afterwards he had never left the
Weft Indies. Still, however, the veracity of the wi-
dow was not disputed ; and fome dark and fecret tranf-
aaion was fufpefted. .But the whole affair was at
length explained by difcovering- that fhe was fomewhat
deranged by melancholy. And the cries which ftie
had at flrft imagined fhe had heard were afterwards
imitated by fome roguilh perfon, who was highly amuled
with fpreading terror among the credulous.
5. Drunkenncfs alfo has the power of creating fpeftres.
Its natural efFe<a in moft cafes is to derange the under-
:ftanding, to throw it off its guard, and to give full fcope
to that paflion which has a natural difpoiation to gam
an afcendancy ; and fometimes it excites paffions which
fcarcely feem to exift at any other time. It makes
fome men licentious, fome furious, fome all benevolence
and kindnefs, fome from being cowards it renders un-
daunted heroes. It feldom, if ever, excites fear ; and
therefore it may be thought ftrange that men {hould
imagine they fee ghofts when intoxicated. But it muft
be remarked, that the ghofts which the drunkard fees,
he fees not with the fame alarm and terror as men who
are fober. He is not afraid of them. He has the cou
of perfons walking over their heads, though they well
knew the doors were aU locked, and there could be no
body there. Prefently after they heard alfo all the wood
of the king's oak brought by parcels from the dining-
room, and thrown with great violence into the prefence
chamber ; as alfo all the chairs, ftools, tables, and other-
furniture, forcibly hurled about the room ; their papers,
containing the minutes of their tranfaftions, were
torn, and the ink-glafs broken. When all this noife
had ceafed, Giles Sharp, their fecretary, propofed to
enter lirft into thefe rooms ; and in prefence of the com-
miflioners, from whom he received the key, he opened
the doors, and found the wood fpread about the room,
the chairs toffed about and broken, the papers torn, the
ink-glafs broken (as has been faid), but pot the leaft
trad of any human creature, nor the leaft reafon to
fufpeft one, as the doors were all faft, and the keys ia
the cuftody of the commifiloBers. It was therefore una-
nimoufly agreed, that the power who did this mifchief
muft have entered the room at the key-hole. The
night following. Sharp the fecretary, with two of the
commiflioners fervants, as they were in bed in the fame
room, which room was contiguous to that where the
commiffioners lay, had their bed's feet lifted up fo much
higher than their heads, that they expefted to have
their necks broken, and then they were let fall at once
with fo much violence as fliook the vvhole houfe, and
more than ever terrified the commilTioners. On the
are iober. lie is not airaiu ui lucm. --"^ - , ,, • i j • ..u r „.
r ^e to converfe with them, and even to fight with night of the 19th. as all were m bed in the fame room
rage to couvc , v^^tumino- for crreater fafetv, and hg-hts burning by them, the can-
them, if they give him provocation. A man returning
home intoxicated, affirmed that he had met with the devil;
and that after a fevere encounter he had vanquilhed him
and brought him to the ground, to which he had nailed
him faft by driving his ftalf through his body. Next
-morning the ftaff veas found ftuck with great violence
into a heap of turfs ! . .
6. Many apparitions of fpcdres have no other origin
than the artifices of the waggifh or felf-interefted. Dr
Plot, in his Natural Hiftory of Oxfordfliue, relates a
^narvellous ftory, which will illuftrate this affertion.
Soon after the murder of King Charles I. a commifTion
-was appointed to furvey the king's houfe at Wood-
■ftock, with the manor, park, woods, and other de-
^efnes to that manor belonging ; and one CoUins, under
a feigned name, hired himfelf as fecietary to the com-
-miftioners, who, upon the 13th of Oftober 1649, met,
and took up their refiJence in the king's own rooms.
His majefty's bed-chamber they made their kitchen, the
council hall their pantry, and the prefence- chamber was
the place where they fat for the difpatch of bufinefs.
His majefty's dining-room they made their wood-yard,
and ftored it with the wood of the famous royal-oak
from the High Park, which, that nothing might be
left with the name of king about it, they had dug up
1>y the roots, and fpUt and bundled up into faggots for
their firing. Things being thus prepared, they fat on
the 16th of the fame month for the difpatch of buhnelsi;
and in the midft of their firft debate there entered a
large black dog (as they thought), which made a diead-
hil howling, overturned two or thiec of their chairs,
and then crept under a bed and vanilhed. This gave
them the greater furprifc, as the doore were kept con-
ftantly locked, fo that no real dog could get m or out.
T he next day their furprife was increafed, when fitting
at dinner i« a lower -room, they beard plainly the nolle
for greater fafety, and lights burning by them, the can-
dies in' an inftant went out with a fulphureous fmell,
and that moment many trenchers of wood were hurled
about the room,which next morning were found to be the
fame their honours had eaten on the day before, which
were all removed from the pantry, though not a lock
was found opened in the whole houfe. The next night
they ftill fared worfe ; the candles went out as before,
the curtains of their honours beds were rattled to and
fro with great violence ; their honours received many
cruel blows and bruifes, by eight great pewter-diftres
and a number of wooden trenchers beinj? thrown on
their beds, which being heaved off, were heard rolling
about the room, though in the morning ^none of thefe
were to be feen. This night likewife they were alarm-
ed with the tumbling down of oaken billets about their
beds, and other frightful noifes; but all was clear in the
morning, as if no fuch thing happened. _ The next
tiight the keeper of the king's houfe and his dog lay in
the commiffioners room, and the« they had no dittur-
bance. But on the night of the 22d, though the dog
lay in the room as before, yet the candles went out, a
number of brick-bats fell from the chimney into the
room, the dog howled piteoufly, thtir bed clothes were
all ftripped off, and their terror increafed. On |the
24th they thought all the w^ood of the kin d's oak was
violently thrown down by their bed-fides ; they counted
64 billets that fell, and fome hit and fhook the beds in
which they lay ; but in the morning none were found
there, nor had the door been opened where the billet
wood was kept. The next night the caudles were put
out,- the curtains rattled, and a dreadful crack like thun-
der was heard ; and one of the fervants running in hafte,
thinking his matter was killed, found three dozen of
trenchers laid fmoothly under the quilt by him. But all
this was nothing to what fucceeded afterwards : The
4 R 2 29th,
s p E r 684
29th, about mklnight, the can die went out, fomething
walked majeftically through the room, and opened and
fhut the windows ; great ft^nes were thrown violently
into the room, fome of which fell on the beds, others
on the floor ; and at about a quarter after one a noife
was heard as of forty cannon difcharged toiether,
and again repeated at about eight minutes diftance.
This alarmed and raifed all the neighbourhood, who
coming into their honours room, gathered up the great
Hones, fourfcore in number, and laid them by in the
corner of a field, where, in Dr Plot's time, who reports
this ilory, they were to be feen. This noife, like the
difcharge of cannon, was heard through all the country
for 16 miles round. During thefe noifes, which were
heard in both rooms together, the comtniffioncrs and
their fervants gave one another over for loft, and cried
out for help ; and Giles Sharp, fnatching up a fword,
had well nigh killed one of their honours, miftaking
him for the fpirit, as he came in his fhirt from his own
room to theirs. While they were together, the noife
was continued, and part of the tiling of the houfe was
ftript off, and all the windows of an upper room were
taken away with it. On the 30th at midnight fome-
thing walked into the chamber treading like a bear ; iP
walked many times about, then threw the warming-pan
violently on the floor ; at the fame time a large quantity
of broken glafs, accompanied with great ftones and
horfes bones, came pouring into the room with uncom-
mon force. Thefe were all found in the morning to the
aftonifhment and terror of the commiffioners, who were
yet determined to go on with their bufinefs. But on
the firft of November the mofl dreadful fcene of all en-
fued : Candles in every part of the room were lighted
■up, and a great fire made ; at midnight, the candles
all yet burning, a noife like -the buriting of a cannon
was heard in the room, and the burning billets were
tofTed about by it even into their honours beds ; who
called Giles and his companions to their relief, other-
wife the htiufe had been burnt to the ground ; about
an hour after the candles went out as ufual, the crack
as if many cannon was heard, and many pailfuls of
green (linking water were thrown upon their honours
beds ; great llones were alfo thrown in as before, the
bed curtains and bedfteads torn and broken, the win-
dows fhattered, and the whole neighbourhood alarmed
with the mofl dreadful noifes ; nay, the very rabbit-
ilealers that were abroad that night in the warren were
fo terrified, that they fled for fear and left their ferrets
behind them. One of their honours this night fpoke,
and, in the name of God, afked ivhat it ivas, and luhy it
t^tjlurbed ihem Jo? No anfwer was given to this j but
the noife ceafed for a while, when the fpirit came again ;
and, as they all agreed, brought ivith it /even devils ivorfe
than it/elf. One of the fervants now lighted a large
candle, and fet it in the door-way between the two
chambers, to fee what pafTed ; and as he watched it,
he plainly faw a hoof flriking the caudle and candk-
lllck into the middle of the room, and afterwards ma-
king three fcrapes over the fnuflF, fcraped it out. Up-
on this the fame perfon was fo bold as to draw a fword ;
but he had fcarce got it out when he felt another in-
vifible hand holding it too, and pulling it from him ;
and at length prevailing, llruck him fo violently on
the head with the pummel, that he fell down for dead with
the blow. At this inftant v.'as heard another burft like
1
S P E
the difcharge of the broadfide of a fhip of waf, and at Sj-
about a minute or two's diftance each no lefs than lo
more fuch : thefe fhook the houfe fo violently, that they
expected every moment it would fall upon their heads.
The neighbours, on this, as has been faid, being all
alarmed, flocked to the houfe in great numbers, and all
joined in prayer and pfalm-finging ;" during which the
noife ftill continued in the other rooms, and the dif-
charge o,'- cannons was heard as from without, though
no vifible agent was feen to difcharge them. But
what was the moft alarming of all, and put an end to
their proceedings effeftually, happened the next day as
they were all at dinner, when a paper, in which they
had figned a mutual agreement to refer\'e a part of the
preraifes out of the general furvey , and afterwards to fhare
it equally amongft themfelves, (which paper they had hid
for the prefent under the earth in. a pot in one corner
of the room, and in which an orange-tree grew), was
confumed in a wonderful manner, by the earth's taking
fire with which the pot was filled, and burning violent-
ly with a blue fume, and an intolerable ftench ; fo that
they were all driven out of the houfe, to which they
could never be again prevailed upon to return.
the invention of
This wonderful contrivance was all
the memorable Jofeph Collins of Oxford, otherwife
called Funny Joe, who having hired himfelf as fecreta-
ry, under the name of Giles Sharps by knowing the pri^
vate traps belonging to the houfe, and the help of
puhis fu/minans and other chemical preparations, and
letting his fellow-fervants into the fcheme, carried on the
deceit without difcovery to the very laft; infomuch that
the late Dr Plot, in his Natural Hifliory, relates the
whole for faft, and concludes in this grave manner,.
That though tricks have been often played in affairs of
this kind, many of the things above related are not re-
conclleable with juggling ; fuch as the loud noifes, bcr
yond the power of man to make without fuch inftru-
ments as were not there j the tearing and breaking the
beds ; the throwing about the fire ; the hoof treadin-r
out the candle ; and the ftriving for the fword, and the
blow the man received from the pummel of it."
SPECULARIS LAPIS, in natural hiftory, a genus
of talcs, compofed of large plates vifibly feparate,
and of extreme thinnefs ; and each fiffile again fepa-
rated into a number of plates fl;:il finer. (See Talc.)
Of this genus there are three fpccies : i. The white
fhining fpecularis, with large and broad leaves, conv
morjy called ijinglafs and Mufcovy glafs ; its lamellar,
or leaves, are extremely thin, elaftic, and tranfparent ;
it makes not the leaft: effervefcence with aquafortis,
and is not eafily calcined in the fire. It is imported
in great quantities-; the miniature-painters cover their
pi6tures with it ; the lantern-makers fometimes ufe it
inftead of horn ; and minute objefts are ufually pre-
f...,.A K«f.„».. two plates of it, for examination by
2. The bright brown fpecularis, with
very valuable fpecies, though inferior
3. The purple bright fpecularis, with
broad leaves, which is the moft; elegant of all the talcs,
and not lefs beautifully tranfparent than the firft kind.
SPECULATIVE, fomething relating to the the-
ory of fome art or fcience, in contradifliindion to pracr
tical.
SPECULUM for reflefling telefcopes, is made
of a kind of white copper confining of 3a parts fine
6 red
ferved between
the micro fcope.
broad leaves ; a
to the former.
inilogy
ii.
2.
S P E C 68
red copper, i of brafs, 15 of girain-tiii, and 3_of
white arfenic. The procefs given by the late J. Ed-
wards, who was rewarded by the Board ot Longitude
for difclofing It to the public, was pubilflied m the
Nautical Almanack for 1787, and is as follows : Melt
the copper in a large crucible, employing fome black
flux, compofcd of two parts of tartar and one of nitre ;
when mekedi add to It the brafs and the filver Let
the pure tin be melted in another crucible, alio with
fome black flux. Take them both from the fire, and
pour the melted tin Into the fufed mafs in the large
crucible. Stir the whole well with a dry fpatula
of birch, and pour off the fufed metal immediately in-
to a large quantity of cold water. The fudd£n chill of
the water will caufe the fluid metal to divide into an in-
finite number of fmall particles, which will cool in-
Vf the copoer be completely faturated^ the frac-
ture of one piece^of this mixed metal will appear bright,
and of aglofiy look, refembUng the face ot pure quick-
filver But if it is of a brown reddifh colour, it wants
a httie more tin. To afcertain the required proportion,
melt a fmall quantity, known by weight,^oi the mixed
metal, with a known very fmall part of tm ; and, it
BecefTary, repeat the trial with different dozes, till the
fraaure of the new mixture looks as already delcribed.
Havino now afcertaincd the neceffary addition of tin
that is" required, proceed to the latl melting of_ the
whole metal, toaether with the additional proporUonai
dofe of tin ; fufe the whole, obferving the fame cau-
tions as before ; and you will find that the mixture will
melt with a much lei's htat than that for the firft fufion.
Have ready as many ounces of white arfenic i;i coarfe
•powder as there are pounds in the weight of the metal ;
wrap up the arfenic in a fmall paper, and put it,
with a pair of tongs, into the crucible; ftir it well
with the fpatula, retaining the breath to avoid the ar-
fenical fumes or vapours (which however are not found
to be hurtful to the lungs) till they difappear take the
crucible off the fire, clear away the drols from the top
of the metal, pour In about one ounce of powdered ro-
Tm, with as much nitre, in order to give the metal a
clean furface, and pour out the metal into the moiUded
fiaflvs. , , , . , ,
a. The fpeculum fhould be moulded wjth the concave
furface downwards, and many fmall holes fhould be
made through the fand upwards,, to difcharge the air.
The moulding fand from Highgate near London, ufed
by the founders,, is -as good as any for calling thefe
m.etallic mirrors. The call metal fhould be taken out
from the fand of the flalks whilli It Is hot, or elfe It may
happen to crack If left to cool within. See Telescope.
Speculum, a looking glafs or mirror, capable of re-
flefting the raya ot the fun.
Speculum, lit furgery, an inftrument for, dilating a
wound, or the like, in order to examine It attentively.
See Surgery.
SPEECH, in geaeral, the art or aa of exprelling
a perfon's thoughts by means of articulate, founds,
which we. call words. See Language, Grammar,
Reading, and Oratory, part Iv.
SPEED (John), an eminent EngHfh hlftorian, was
born at Farlngton, in Chefhire, In 1542. He was by
profeflion a taylor, and freernan of the company of mer-
chant-taylors in the city of London. In 1 6v6, he p.ub<
5 ] S P E
lifhed his Theatre of Great Britain, which was after- Speedwell
wards reprinted in folio, under the title of the Theatre g -'jj^g,^
of the Empire of Great Bri^'ine. His Genealogies of ■ ^ .^-'i.
Scripture were firft bound up with the Bible in 1 61 1, when
the firft edition of the prefent tranflation was printed.
In 1614 appeared his i//y?orj (t/* Great Britaine, which
has been tranflated Inta Latin ; and in 1616 he pubhfh-
ed his Cloud of Witnejfes, in oaavo. He lived in marri-
age 57 years with his wife, by whom he had twelve fons;
and fix daughters ; and died In 1 629. He was interred:
in the church of St Giles's, Cripplegatc, London,,
where a monument was ercaed to hi^ memory.
SPEEDWELL, In botany. See Veronica.
SPELL, a charm confifting of fome words of oc-
cult power, generally attended with fome ceremony. —
In order to explain it, we will produce a few examples.
On St Agnes's night, 21ft of Janitar)^, take a row of
pins, and pull out every one, one after another, faying-
a Pater-nofter on flicking a pin in your fleeve, and you
will dream of him or her you fhall marry.
Another method to fee a future fpoufe In a dream. G^'-oA'j
The party inquiring muil lie in a different county fromJJ^'""''
that in which he commonly refides, and on going te
bed muft knit the left garter about the right-legged
flocking, letting the other garter and flocking alone ;
and as he rehearfes the following verfes, at every com-
ma knit a knot :
l.^his knot I knit.
To know the thin^ I know not yet ;
That I may fee
The man (woman) that fhall my hufband (wife) be ;
How. he goes, and what he wears,..
And what he does all days and years.
Accordingly, in a dream, he will appear with the m*"
fignia of his trade or profefTion.
Another, performed. by charming the moon, thus;
At the firll appearance of the new moon., immediately
after the new year's' day, (though fome fay any other
new moonis aa good), go out In the evening, and Hand'
over the fpars of a gate or flile, and, looking on thc-
moon, repeat the following lines :
All kail to the moon ! all hail to thee !
I prithee, good moon, reveal to me
'i'his night who my hufband (wile) muft be.
Immediately after you mulV go to bed, when you wiH
dream of the perfon deftiaed for your future hufband
or wife.
SPELLING, in grammar, that part of orthogra-
phy which teaches, the true manner of refolving
words Into their, fyllables.
All words are either fimple or compound, as ufe,
difufe ; done, . undone ; and the rules for dividing each
muft be fuch as. are^ derived from the analogy of lan-
guage In general, or from the eflabhfhed cullom of
fpeaking ; which, for - the Englifh language, are re-
duced to. the following rules : 1 . A confonant between
two vowels mufl be joined .with the latter in fpeUing, .
as na-ture, ve-ri-ly, ge-ne-rous ; except, "liowever, the .■
letter X, wliieh is joined to the firft, as xn-fux-en, ox-,
en, &c. and compound words, as in up-on,vn-ufed. Sec.
2. A double confonant muft be divided, as in let-ter^ .
man-ner, &c. 3. Thofe confonants which 'can begia
a word muft not be parted in fpelling, as in de-fraucl^
re-
Spence.
S P E [
Spelman re-prove^ di'Jlin8 however, this rule Is found forae*
■' times to fail ; for though gn begins a word, as gnanv^
^gnat; &c. yet it mull be divided in fpcHinq, as in cog-
ni-zancfy ma-lig-ni-tyy Sac 4. Thofe confonants which
cannot begin a word muffl be divided, as /^/in ffMom, It
■ in mul-tl-tmk, mp in tem'per, rcl ln ar-derit ; but in final
fyllablcs there are exceptions, as // in t'l-l/e, dl in han-
dky &c. 5. When two vowels come toeether, and are
both of them dittinilly. founded, they muft be feparated
:n fpelliiia:, as in co-e-val, mu-tu-al^ Sec. 6. The gram-
matical terminations or endinrrs mufl be feparated
in fpelling, as ed \n nuing-ed, edj in deJt-ver-edJiy ing
in hear-ing, ance in de-li-ver-ance. Sec. 7. Compound
words mud be refolved into their fimple or component
words, as up^on, m-to, ne-ver-the-lefs, not "with -Jl and-
ing, 8cc.
SPELMAN ( Sir Henry), an eminent EngllHi an-
tiquarian, was defccnded frem an ancient family, and
born at Cengham, near Lynn in Norfolk, about the
year 1561. He was knighted by king James L who
had a particular efteem for him on account of his known
capacity for bufmefs ; and he employed him feveral
times in Ireland on pnbhc affairs. When he was
about 50 years of age, he wepit to refide in London ;
where falfing into a ttudy to -which his own genius had
always inclined him, he collefted all fuch books and
'MSS. as concerned the fubjeQ: of antiquities, either fo-
reign or domeftic. In 1626, he publifhed the firft part
of his well-lcnown GlofTary, which he never carried be-
yond the letter L ; becaufe, as fome have fuggefted, he
had faid things under Magna charta," and " Maxi-
mum confdium," that could not then have appeared
without giving offence. Upon his death all h«is papers
came into the hands of his fon Sir John Spelman, a gen-
tleman who had abilities to have completed his father's
defign, if death had not prevented him. The fecond
part was afterwards publifhed by Sir William Dugdale ;
but with all the marks of a fcanty unfiniihed perform-
ance. The next work he entered upon was an edition
of the Englifli Councils, of which he publlihed the firft
volume about two years before his death, leaving the
-fecond volume, as well of this as of his GlofTary, to be
publifhed by Sir William Dugdale. Sir Henry wrote
ieveral other things, all relating to ancient laws and
A-uftoms, and died in 1641. His Pollhumous Works
were pitblllhed in folio, 1698, under the infpe&ion of
Mr Giblbn, afterwards bifhop of London.
SPELTER, in metalhirgy, the fame with Zinc.
SPENCE (Jofcph), was fellow of New College,
- Oxford, where he took the degree of A. M. in 1727.
.About that time he became firfl known as an author,
by an EJay on Pope's Odyfey, in ivhich fome particular
beauties and b/emi/bes of that luork are confidered ; a work
-of great merit, and which for fownd criticifm and can-
did difquiiltion is almoft without a pasallel. He was
elected profefTor of poetry by the univerfity in 1728,
and held that office ten years, which is as long as the
"flatutes will allow. His Hiflory of Stephen Duck was
'firft publifhed in 1731 ; but it was afterwards much al-
/ttred, and prefixed to an edition of Duck's poems.
About this time he travelled into Italy as tutor to
'the carl wf Lincoln, aiterwards duke of Newcallle. —
In 1736 he republifhed Gorboduc, at Mr Pope's de-
■fire, with a preface giving an account of the author, the
.:>earl of Dorfet. He quitted his ftUowlhlp in 1 742, up-
686 ] S P E
on being prefent«d by the Society of New QoWto^t to
the reftory of Great Harwood in Buckinsshamfhire.— ■
He never refided in his hving; but paid it an annual vi-
fit, diftributing large fums of money among the poor,
and providing for many of their children. The fame
year he was made profefTor of modern hillory at Oxford.
In 1747 he publifhed Poly metis; or an inquiry concerning
the agreement between the works of the Roman poets and
tke remains of ancient artifts, being an attempt to illuf,
trate them mutually from each other. I'his work was
treated by Gray with a contempt which it did not de-
ferve. He raifes objcftlons becaufe the author did not
illuftrate his fubjeft from Greek writers ; that is, becaufe
he failed to execute what he never undertook. He was
inftalled prebendary of the feventh flail at Durham the
. 24th May 1754. He publiflied the fame year, An
Account of the Life, Charafter, and Poems, of Mr
Blacklock, ftudent of philofophy at Edinburgh
which was afterwards prefixed to his Poems. The profe
pieces which he printed in the Mufeum he colleded and
pubhflied, together with fome others, in a pamphlet call,
ed Moralities, by Sir Hany Beaumont. Under the fame
name he publifhed " Crito, or a dialogue on beauty,"
and " A particular Account of the Emperor of China's
Gardens near Pekin, in a letter from F. Attiret, a French
milTionary now emplgyed by that Emperor to paint the
apartments iathofe gardens, to his friend at Paris." Both
thefe treatifes are printed in Dodfley's fagitlve pieces, as
is alfo " A Letter from a Swifs Officer'to his friend at
Rome which Mr Spence iiril publifhed in the Mu-
feum. In 1 75 8 he publifhed " A Parallel, in the Man-
ner of Plutarch, between a mofl celebrated man of Flo.
rence and one fcarce ever heard of in England." This
was alfo fnferted in the fugitive pieces. The fame
year he made a journey into Scotland, which he de-
fcribed in an affedtionate letter to Mr Shenftone, pub-
hfhed in Hall's Colkftion of Letters, 1778. In 1764
he was very well defcribed by Mr James Ridley, in his
admirable Tales of the Genii, under the name of Phefoi
Ecneps (his name read backwards), dervife of the groves,
A letter from Mr Spence to that ingenious moralill, un-
der the fame fignature, is preferved'in the 3d volume of
" Letters of Eminent Perfons." In 1768 he publifh-
ed «' Remarks and DifTertations on Virgil, with fome
other claffical obfervations, by the late Mr HoldfwortL"
On the 2cth of Augufl the fame year he was unfortu-
nately drowned in a canal in his garden at Byfleet ia
Surrey. He was found flat upon his face at the edge
of the canal, where the water was fo fhallow as not
even to cover his head. The accident, it was fuppofed,
for he was quite alone, was owing to a fit.
The duke of Newcaftle pofTeffes fome manufcript vo-
lumes of atecdotes coUeaed by Mr Spence, from which
Dr Johnfon was permitted to infert many extrads in hia
Lives of the Poets.
SPENCE R (Dr John), an eminent divine, was bora
in Kent in 1630, and educated at Cambridge. He was
chofenfellov/ of his college, and took a dodor's degree in
1663. In 1667 he was chofcn maflcr of Corpus Chrifti
College, and preferred tothedeanery of Ely in 1677.
died on the 2Cth of May 1695. His works are, j. The
Righteous Ruler ; a fermon on Proverbs xxix. 2. preach-
ed June 28. 1660. 2. A Difcourfe concerning Prodi-
gies, wherein the vanity of prefaces by them "3 repre-
hended, and tlieir true and proper ends aflerttd and
vindicated
S P E . [ 687
Tindicatcd. To this excellent work wa« afterwards add-
ed, A Diicoiirfe concerning vulvar prophecies, wherein
the vanity of receiving them as the certain indications
of any future event is expofed ; and fome marks of
diftindlion between true and pretended prophets are laid
down. 3- A Latin Diflertation concerning Urim and
Thummim. 4. His famous treatife De U/ibus Hebno-
rum rhualibus et earum rat'ion'ihus. The intention of this
book, as he informs us himfelf, was to vindicate the
Deity from the imputation of aftinjf from arbitrary and
fantaftical motives. It has been highly and juftly ef-
teemed both for the eleuance of ftile and the uncom-
mon erudition and found fenfe which it difplays. It
has, however, (that part of it particularly which endea-
vours to deduce fome of the Jewifh ceremonies from the
praftices -of their heathen neighbours), alarmed many
perfons, as if Inch a doftrine, if it could be proved,
would derogate from the Divine wifdom, and under-
mine revelation. But this is fo far from being the cafe,
that Dr Spencer's attempt, whether fuccefsful or not,
deferves the gratitude of Chriftians, becaufe it has a
tendency to throw light on an important and difficult
fubjea.
SPENSER (Edmund); the peet, was born in London
in the year 1553, and defcended from an ancient family
©f the Spenfers in Northamptonfliire. All we know
concerning his education is, that he was admitted a
fizer of Pembroke-hall in Cambridge, and matriculated
in I 5 69. At this time began his intimacy with Mr
Gabriel Harvey, a man of genius and a poet. In 1576,
having completed his degrees in arts, he left the univer-
fity, as it is conjeftured, for want of fubfiftence, and
retired to the 'north of England. Here he had the
misfortune to become enamoured of his Rofalind, who,
after flattering his paffion for a time, at length prefer-
red his happier "rival. Spenfer continued in the country
tilt the year 1578, when at the perfuafion of his friend
Mr Harvey he removed to London, where that gentle-
man introduced him to Mr Sidney (afterwards Sir Philip
Sidney). Concerning his firft introduction to Sir Phi-
ilp, there Is indeed a different ftory, which was firft
told by the writer of his life, prefixed to his works in
1679, and tranfcribed by Hughes, Cibber, and feveral
ethers ; which, neverthelefs, is certainly not true. The
purport of it is, that Spenfer, being unknown to this
Mecaenas of the age, went to Leicefter-houfe, and fent
in the 9th canto of the firft book of the Fairy Queen ;
that, on reading part of it, Sir Philip ordered his ftew-
ard to give the bearer 50 1. ; on reading a little farther
50 1. more ; then 200 1, bidding him to make hafte-and
pay the money, left he fliould give the poet his whole
eftate. The ftory tells prettily enough; but it is very
certain, that the Fairy Qiieen was begun long after his
acquaintance with Sir Philip. By this univerfal patron
cf genius, however, he was prefented to queen Eliza-
beth, who honoured him with the place of poet-laureat.
About this time he finiflied his Shepherd's Calendar,
which was firft printed in 1579 ; and in the following
year, being recommended by his patron to the earl of
]
S P E
Leicefter, he went to Ireland as fecretary to the lord
Grey of Wilton, then appointed lord-lieuteoant of
that kingdom. Lord Grey was recalled in 1582, and
with him Spenfer returned to London, where he conti-
nued till after the dearth of Sir Philip Sidney in 1586 ;
a lofs which he bewailed to the end of his life. The
following yeir, our poet, having obtained a royal grant
of 3 00 acres of forfeited lands in the county of Cork
in Ireland, fet out for that kingdom, took poffeffion of
his e'late, and fixed his refidence in the caftle of Kil-
colman, which had belonged to the earl of Defmond.
In this retirement he refumed his great work of the
Fairy Queen ; and continued in Ireland till, being vi-
fited by his old friend Sir Walter Raleigh In 1 1J89, he
came over with him to England, but returned to Ire-
land the year foUos^'Ing, where he fell In love with a
countiy girl, and married her. Soon after his marri-
age, he paid another vifit to his native country, where
we alfo find him in 1 596. In the following year he re-
turned once morQs to Kllcolman ; but on the rebellion
of Lord Tyrone, who ravaged the whole county of
Cork, he was Gbllgcd to fly for fafety with his family
to England, where, in the year 1599, he died In ex-
treme poverty (a). He was buried in Weftminfter
Abbey, according to his requeft, ^lear Chaucer. A
monument was erefted to his memory by Ann countefs
of Dorfet. We know but little of his charadter as a
man ; as a poet, confidering the age in which he lived,
he deferves our utmoft veneration. He wrote variom
pieces befides thofe above-mentioned His whole works,
with his life by Hughes, were publiflied in fix volumes
l 2mo, in 1715 and 1750.
SPERGUL A, Spurrey, In botany: Agenus of plants
belonging to the clafs of decamiria^ and the order of pen"
tagyn 'ta ; and in the natural fyttem arranged under the
22d order, caryophjlhoe. The calyx is pentaphyltous ;
the petals five, and undivided ; the capfule oval, unilocu-?
lar, and containing five valves. There are five fpecles,
the arvenfis, n'odofa, pentandra, larlcina, and faginoides ;
all of which are Britifh ; i. The arwH/fj, corn-fpurrey,
has linear furrowed leaves, from eight to twenty in a
whirl. The flowers are fmaUj white, and terminal. It
is frequent in corn-fields: In Holland it is cultivated
as food for' cattle, and has the advantage of growing on
the very pooreft foils ; but does not afford a great deal
of food- ' Poultry are fond of the feeds ; and the inha-
bitants ©f Finland and Norway make bread of them
when their crops of corn fail. Horfes, flieep, goats, and
fwine, eat it. Cows refufe it.
2. The nodofa, knotted fpurrey. Several ftalks
arife from one root, fometlmes reclining and fometlmes
ereft, and from three to five inches high. The leaver
are fmooth, of a fine green, narrow, pointed, and op-
pofite. The flowers are white, terminal, with yellow
antherse.
3. Pentandra,. fmall fpurrey. The leasees are very-
narrow, and grow in whirls at the joints. The feeds
are black with a white circle. It flowers In July.
4-.. Lariemay larch-leaved fpurrey. Several, ftalks
at ifc
Spenfer,
S eryiila.
(a) This is Camden's account, and it has been generally believed j, but Mr Malone, the laft editor of
Shakcfpeare's works, by examining the patent roll, 33 Eliz. p. 3. has difcovered, that in February 1 790-1
Spenfer obtained from Queen Elizabeth an annuity or penfion ©f L. 50 during his life; a fum ecjuivalent t»
L. 200 at prefcnto 5
S P E
r 688 ]
S P E
Sperm, arlfe from owe root, from an inch to an inch and a half
Spermaceti^ high ; the leaves are linear, fubulate, and acuminated,
* ' ■ fomewhat hairy on the edges, and their points turned to
one fide of the ftalk. The petals are white and about
the length of the calyx. Lightfoot found this ipeciea
on a hill in the ifle of Bute. He is doubtful whether
the fagina procumlens, var. (I of I^Innseus, be not the fame
plant with this. It flowers in July.
5. Sagino'id^Sy pearl wort fpurrey, has fmooth, linear,
■oppofite leaves: the peduncles are folitary and very long.
Aiton fays it is a native of England, and flowers from
June to Auguft.
SPERM, the feed whereof an animal is formed. See
'pHYSlOLOGy.
SPERMACETI,awhiti{h, unaiiQus, flaky fubftance,
prepared from oil, but chiefly from the brains of a fpe-
cies of whale called phyfeter macrocephalus.
The method of preparing fpermaceti is kept a fecret;
but the procefs is faid to be this : The brafiis bein,?
taken out of the animal, are then, as fome fay, melted
over a gentle fire, poured into moulds, and when cold
melted again ; and this procefs is continued till they are
purified. Others fay, that after being prefTed and drain-
ed they are more thoroughly purified by lleeping them
in a ley of alkaline fait and quicklime. 'I'he brains are
then wafhed, and cut into thin flakes or flices with
wooden knives. One fifh is faid to aiford fome tons of
brains. Good fpermaceti is gloffy and femitranfparent,
in fine white flakes ; foft and imftuous to the touch, yet
dry and friable ; in tafte, fomewhat like butter, and of
ii faint fmell like that of tallow. Some adulterate It
■with wax ; but the deceit is difcovered, either by th*
fmell of the wax or by the dulnefs of the colour. Some
<alfo fell a preparation of oil taken from the tail of the
-whale inftead of that from the brain ; but this kind
turns yellow as foon as expofed to the air. Indeed it is
apt in general to grov/ yellowifh, and to contraft a ran-
cid fifliy fmell if not carefully fecured from the air.
The more perfeftly it has been purified at firlt, the
lefs fufccptible it is of thefe alterations ^ and after it
Jbas been changed, it may be rendered white and fweet
again by fteeping it afrelh in a ley of dkaline fait and
quicklime. It melts in a fmall degree of heat, and
congeals again as it cools.
Spermaceti is of ufe in medicine. Quincy fays it is
a noble remedy in the afthma, &c. though chiefly ufed
in bruifes, inward hurts, and after delivery. For inter-
nal ufe, it may be diffolved in aqueous Hquors into the
form of an emulfion, by trituration with almonds, the
yolk or white of an egg, and more elegantly by muci-
Jages ; or made into a lohoch, by mixing two drams of
it with a fuitable quantity ot yolk of egg, then adding
half an ounce of frcfli drawn oil of almonds, and an
ounce of balfamic fyrdp. Spermaceti is not capable of
btring diffolved by cauftic alkalis, and of forming foaps,
like other oily matters : but it is altogether foluble in
oils, and unites by liquefa&ion with wax and refins ;
and in thcfe forms is applied externally. But it is cer-
tain, its greaieft property, and that which makes it
io much in vogue in many places, is its foftening the
ilcin. Whence it conies to be ufed by the ladies in pafl.es,
wafhes, &c.
Spermaceti candlcs are ©f modern raanufa£lure : they
are made fmooth, with a fine gloi's, free from rings and
fears, fuperior to the fineit wax-candles in colour and
lufl:re ; and, when genuine, leave nofpotor ftaln on the Sperm
finefl filk, cloth, or linen. II
A method has been lately propofcd by Mr Smith
Gibbes of Magdalen college, Oxford, to convert animal
mufcle into a fubllance much refembling fpermaceti.
I'he procefs is remarkably fimple : Nothing more is Phil, "i
neceffary than to take a dead carcafe and expofe it to a'794'
ftream of running water : it will in a fliort time be chan-
ged to a mafs of fatty matter* To remove the offcnfive
fmell, a quantity of nitrous acid may then be poured
upon It, which uniting with the fetid matter, the fat is
feparated in a pure ftate. This acid Indeed turns it
yellow, bat it may be rendered white and pure by the
afkion of the oxygenated muriatic acid. Mr Gibbes
brought about the fame change in a much Ihorter time.
He took three lean pieces of mutton and poured on
them the three mineral acids, and he perceived that at
the end of three days each was much altered ; that In
the nitrous acid was much foftened, and on feparating
the acid from it, he found it to be exaftly the fame
with that which he had before got from the water ;
that in the muriatic acid was not in that time fo much
altered ; the vitriolic acid had turned the other black.
SPERMAeOCE, BUTTON-WOOD, in botany: A
genus of plants belonging to the clafs of telramlria^
and order of monogynia ; and in the natural fyfl.em ar-
ranged under the 47th ordtr^Jlellata, The corolla ia
monopetalous and funnel-fliaped, and there are two i
bidentatc feeds. The fpecies are eight, tenuior, verti- \
cillata, hirta, articularis, itrifta, hifpida, procumbens,
and fpinofa.
SPERMATIC, in anatomy, fomething belonging
to the fperm or feed.
SPEUSIPPUS, an Athenian philofopher, the ne.
phew and fucceffocof Plato. Contrary to the praftice of
Plato, Speufippus required from his pupils a llatcd gra-
tuity. He placed llatues of the graces in the fchool
which Plato had built. On account of his infirm fl:ate
of health, he was commonly carried to and from the aca-
demy in a vehicle. On his way thither he one day met
Diogenes, and faluied him ; the furly philofopher re-
fufed to return the falute, and told him, that fuch a fee-
ble wretch ought to be afliamed to live ; to which
Speufippus replied, that he lived not in his limbs, but
in his mind. At length, being wholly incapacitated,
by a paralytic fl:roke, for the duties of the chair, he re-
figned it to Xenocrates. He is faid to liave been of a
violent temper, fond of pleafure, and exceedingly avari-
cious. Speufippus wrote many philofophical works,
which are now loft, but which Ariltetle thought fuffi-
clently valuable to purchafe at the cxpence of three
talents. From the few fragments which remain of his
philofophy, it appears that he adhered very ftriftly to
the dodlrine of his mafl;er.
SPEY, a river of Scotland, rifing from a lake of the
fame name in Badenoch, and, after a ferpentine courfe
of 76 miles, pafies by Rothes caftle, and falls into the
German fea at Garnoch near Elgin. Mr Pennant tells
us, that the Spey is a dangerous neighbour to Cafl:Ie
Gordon, overflowing frequently in a dreadful manner,
as appears by its ravages far beyond its banks. The
bed of the river is wide and full of gravel, and the chan-
nel very fliifting. In 1746 the duke of Cumberland
pafled this river at Belly church, near Caftle Gordon,
•when the channel was fo deep as to take an of&cer, from
whom
S P H
t ^89 ]
S P H
whom Mr Pennant had the account, and who was fix
feet four inches hi^h, up to the breaft. The banks are
here very high and fteep ; fo that had not the rebels
been infatuated in fuch a manner as to nejijleft oppofi-
tion, the paflajre muft have been attended with confi-
/ierable lofs. On this river there is a great falmon-
iilliery ; about 1700 barrels full are caught in the fea-
fon, and the (hore is rented for about 1 zooX. per annum.
SPHACELUS, in furgery and medicine, an abfolute
and perfeft corruption or death of the parts.
SPH^RANTHUS, in botany: A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of fyngenejia, and to the order of
polygam'ia fegregata ; and in the natural fyftem arranged
luider the 49th order, Compojiu. Each partial calyx
contains eight florets ; the florets are tubulated, the fe-
male being fcarcely diftinguifhable. The receptacle is-
fcaly ; and there is no pappus. The fpecies are three,
the indicus, africanus, and chinenfis.
SPHAGNUM, BOG-MOSS, in botany ; a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of ayptogamia and order
of mufci. The antherae are globofe ; the mouth entire
and clofed by an opetculun* ; the calyptra is wanting.
There are three fpecies, the paluilre, alpinum, and ar-
boreum, i. The f alujlre, common bog-mqfs, grows on
our bogs in wide patches, fo as frequently to cover
a large portion of their furface. I'he fl:alks are from
two inches to two leet long, irregularly furrounded with
numerous, conical, pendant branches, and terminated
with a roiaceous clufter of ereft fhort ones. It is gene-
rally believed, that the roots and decayed {talks o\ this
mofs conftitute a principal part of that ufeful bitiuninous
fubftance called [eat, which is the chief fuel of the
northern regions. — The L'apland matrons are well ac-
quainted with this mofs. They dry and lay it in their
cradle, to fnpply the place of bed, bolfter, and every
covering ; and, being changed night and morning, it
keeps the infant remarkably clean, dry, and warm. It
is fufficiently ioft of itfelf ; but the tender mother, not
fatisfie'd with this, frequently covers the mofs with the
downy hairs of the rein-deer ; and by that means makes
a moll delicate nell for the young babe. 2. The aipi'
num, green bog-mofs. Its branches are fubulate and
ereft ; the antheras are oval. It grows in mountain -
bogs in South Britain. 3 The arboreum, creeping bog-
mofs, is branched ; the antheras are numerous, fcffile,
hairy, and grow along the branches chiefly on one fide.
It is found on the trunks of trees.
Os SPHENOIDES, the feventh bone of the crani-
um or flcull. See Anatomy, n^ 11.
SPHERE, is a folid contained under one uniform
round furface, every point of which is equally dittant
from a certain pomt in the middle called its centre ; and
is formed by the revolution of a femicircle about its
diameter. See Geometry.
Proje8ion of the Sphfrk. See Projection.
Sphere, in afl;ronomy, that concave orb or expanfe
which inveft;8 our globe, and in which the heavenly bo-
dies appear to be fixed, and at an equal diftance from
the eye.
The better to determine the places of the heavenly
bodies in the fphere, feveral circles are fuppofed to be
defcribed on the furface thereof, hence called the circles
of the fphert : of thefe fome are called great circles, as
the equinoftial, echptic, meridian, &c. and others /mall
Vol.. XVII. Part II.
circles, as the tropics, parallels, &c. See Geography ; Sphere
and Astronomy, ^fl^m. II
Armillary Sphsre. See Geography. , ^P^''^'
Sphere of j^divity of a Body, is that determinate fpace
or extent to which, and no farther, the effluvia conti- »
nually emitted from that body reach ; and where they
operate according to their nature.
SPHERES, in optics, the fame with metalline mir-
rors, for telefcopes or other purpofes. See Mirr.or.
SPHEROID, in geometry, a folid approaching to
the figure of a fphere. It is generated by the entire
revolution of a ferai-ellipfis about Its axis. When the
revolution is made round the largeft axis, the fpheroid
is called prolate ; and when round the (horteft, oblate.
This laft is the figure of the earth, and probably of all
the planets.
■ SPHEX, Ichneumon Wasp, or Savage; a ge-
nus of infefts belonging to the order of hymenoptera.
The mouth is armed with entire jaws, but contains no
tongue ; the mandibles are horny, crooked, dentated ;
the lip horny, the apex membranaceous. The palpi
or feelers are four. The antennas have from 10 to 16
joints. The wings 01 both fexes are extended without
folds, and laid horizontally on the back. The fiing is
fharp, and concealed within the abdomen. There are
97 fpecies, of which two only are natives of Britain and
Ireland, the viatica and cribraria. r. The victica is
black : the antennse are fhoit and thick : the three firft
fegments of the abdomen red-brown : the pt-dicle is
fliort: the, length half an inch. 2. The cribraria is
black, with yellow ringlets on the abdomen : the anten-
nas are (hort, and turned backwards : the fore-legs are
broad, with an appendix like a fliield.
The manner of living is different in the various fpe-
cies, and fo is the genei-al form of the body and their
haunts ; but though the method of life be utterly diffe-
rent, yet the lame manners appear innate and inherent
in aU. They agree in being the fiercefl or all flies :
they will attack infefts much larger than themfelves,
and this whether they be defcncelefs or armed, as they
are provided with a fl:ing. The ftrength in all this fa-
yage kind is great ; their jaws arc hard and fliarp, and
in their fting lies a poifon fuddtnly atal to the crea-
tures with whom they engage. The favage ft izes har-
dily on the animal he attacks, and gives a fl;toke of
amazing force ; after which he falls down as if himfelf
were killed, but it is to refl: from his fatiguej and en-
joy his viftory. He kcepg a fteady eye otil8lse crea-
ture he has ttruck till it dies, which happens in ^ few
minutes, and then drags it to the nell to feed the
young. The number of oiher infefts they deftroy is
fcarce to be conceived ; the mouth of their cave is like
that of a giant in the days of yore, ftrewed with the
remains of prey. The eyes, the hlament that ferves as
a brain, and a fmall part of the contents of the body,
are all the favage eats, and will kill .,0 for a meal
SPHINCTER, m anatomy, a term applied to a
kind of circular muicles, or mufcles in form of rinog,
which ferve to clofe and draw up feveral orifices of the
body, and prevent the excretion of the contents.
SPHINX (fab. hift.), a monller which had the head
and breafts of a woman, the body of a -dog, the tail of
a ferpent, the wings of a bird, the paws of a Jion, and
an human voice. It fprang fVom the uoion of Grthos
4^ with
S P H
[ 690 ]
S ? H
J,empriere s
Bihlioiheca
SpWfur , with tKe Chimasra, or of Typhon with Echidna. The
^"""■V"-"^ vSphinx had been Cent into the nei.jhbourhood of
Thebes by Juno, who wlfhed to punifh the family of
Cadmus, which (lie perfecuted with immortal hatred,
and it laid this part of Boeotia imder continual alarms,
by propofmg eni;Tmas, and devouring the inhabitants If
unable to explain them. In the midft of. their confter-
nation the 'i'hebans were tnld by the oracle, that the
fphinx Avould deftroy herfelF as foon as one of the en-
igmas ihe propofed was explained. In this enigma (he
wifhed to know what animal walked on four loi^s in the
morning, two at noon, and three in the evening. Upon
this Crcon king ot Thebes promifed his crown and his
filler Jocafta in marriage to him who could deliver his
country from the monfter by a fuccefsful explanation
of the eni'ima. It was at laft happily explained by
(Edipus, who obferved, that man walked on his hands
and feet when young, or in the morning of life, at the
roon of life he walked ereft, and in the evening of his
days he fupported his infirmities upon a flick. {V\d.
Oedipus). The fphinx no fooner heard this explana-
lion than fne dalhed her head agalnft a rock, and imme-
diately expired'. Some mythologies wifh to unriddle
the fabulous traditions about the fphinx by the fuppo-
fition that one of the daughters of Cadmus, or Laiu's,
infefted the country of Thebes by her continual depre-
dations, becaufe fhe had been refufed a part of her fa.
ther's pofTeffions, The hon's paw cxpreffed, as they
€)bferve, her cruelty, the body of the dog her lafcivi-
oufnefs, her enigmas the fnares flic laid for ftrangers
and travellers, and her wings the difpatch (he ufed in
her expeditions.
Among the Egyptians the fphinx was the fymbol
of religion, by reafon of the obfcurity of its myfteries ;
and on the fame account the Romans placed a fphinx
in the pronaos or porch ©f their temples. Sphinxes
were ufed by the Egyptians to fliow the beginning of
the water's rifing in the Nile : with this view, as it had
the head of a woman and body of a Hon, it fienified
that the Nile began to fwell in the months of July and
Auguft, when the fun paffes through the figns of Leo
and Virgo. There are feveral of thefe ftill to be feen ;
one in particular, near the pyramids, much fpoken of
by the ancients ; being of a prodigious fize, and cut out
of the rock ; the head and Beck appear only at prefent,
the reft of the body being hid in the fand. This, accord-
ing to Thevcnot, is 26 feet high, and 15 feet from the
ear to die chin : but Pliny affures us, the head was no
lefs than 102 feet in circumference, and 62 feet high
from the belly, and that the body was 143 feet long,
and was thought to be the fepulchre of king Amafis.
The learned Mr Bryant * obferves, that the fphinx
feems to have been originally a vaft rock of different
ftrata ; which, from a {hapelefs mafs, tke Egyptians fa-
fhioned into an objeft of beauty and veneration. The
Egyptians ufed this figure in their building; from the»i
the Greeks derived it, and afterwards improved it into
an elegant ornament. It is alfo frequently ufed in mo-
dern architcfture.
It is proper to obferve, that the fphinx of the Egyp-
% Vol. ii. tians is faid in the Afiatic Refearches % to have been
p. 334. fou«d in India. Colonel Pearfe was told by Murari
Pandit, a man of learning among the Hindoos, that the
fphinx there called jingb 13 to appear at the end of the
* Anttent
J^ythology
vol. iii.
p. 53»-
world, and as foon as he is born will prey on an ele-
phant : he is therefore fii^ured felzing an elephant in his
claws ; and the elephant is made fmall, to fliow that the
Jlrigh, even a moment after his birth, will be very large in
proDortion to it. But in oppofition to this account
given by Murari Pandit, the late Sir William Jones,
the learned and illuftrious prelident of the Aliaiic So-
ciety, was affured by feveral Brahmans, that the figure
taken for a fphinx was a reprefentatlon of a lion fci-
zlng a young elephant. This point therefore requires
farther inveillgatiou.
Sphinx, HAirK-Molhy in natural hlftory ; a genus
oF infe£ts belonging to the order of kp'tdoptera. Tiie
antenna: are fhaped fomevvhat Hke a prifm, and ate more
flender at each end than at the: middle. The tongue is
generally thruft out ; the two palpi are bent back, and
the wings deflexed. There are about 165 fpecies al-
ready difcovered, of which 10 are found in Great Bri-
tain and Ireland.
I. The ocellata, eyed willow hawk- moth. There
is no trunk ; the wings are indented. Above, 1 ft wing*
dark and light-brown, marbled ; 2d, red, vvith a large
yellow-black eye. Beneath, a large red triangle frorei
the bafe of the ift wings. The breadth, one inch and
an half. Caterpillar fmooth, green, with oblique white
lines on the fides, and a pofterior horn. The eggs are
green. It lives on willows. 2. Popu/ty poplar hawk-
moth. The wings are fcallopcd, bluifh grey, and wa-
ved with dark lines. On the ift wings a long white
fpot, and the bafe of the 2d red brown. Wings rever-
fed. Length one inch. A long fplral trunk cater-
pillar green, fmooth, with oblique white fpots, and 3
pofterior horn. It hves on poplars and willows. 3.
Tilla, lime hawk-moth. No trunk : the wings arc fcal-
loped : the antennse are white on the upper fide, yellow
on the under. Above, ift wings grey-brown, with two
irregular large green fpots ; 2d, wings orange. Be-
neath greenilh grey. Caterpillar green, fhagreened, with
a pofterior horn. 4. Convohu/i, unicorn, or bindweed
hawk-moth. The antennse are long and thick: the
trunk very long and fpiral. Above, body marked with
black and red belts ; wings entire, brown-grey, with
black aig-zag tranfverfe lines. The breadth three inches,
Caterpiiiar fmooth, green, with a pofterior horn. 5.
Ligu/lriy privet hawk-moth. The antennse are bng,
thick, and brown. Trunk long, fpiraL ift wings two
inches long, narrow, entire, brown; 2d, fliort, red, witli
black bars. The abdomen is red,, with black rings.
Caterpillar fmooth, yellow-greer^ with a pofterior horn*
6. Jtroposy jeflamine hawk-moth. The wings are en-
tire : the trunk long, fplral. Above, ift wings brown,
clouded with grey and yellow, and a yellowifh fpot iu
the centre ; 2d, yellow, with two waved, tranfverfe ftripes.
The abdomen is yellow, with fevcn black-brown belts.
The thorax marked like a Death's-head. Length tw©
inches. Caterpillar very large, yellow, with fix greea
and orange oblique belts, and^ pofterior horn. 7. EU
penor, elephant moth. The wings are angular, entire.
Above, ift wings ftrlped tranfverfely with red and
green ; 2d, black at the bafe, and red outwards. The
body red and green. Caterpillar fmooth, brown and
yellow, with a pofterior horn, and a fnout like a hog.
It lives on vines, convolvulus, &c. 8. Stellatarum, large
bee moth. The antenna arc thick towards the ends,
^ brown«
S P T
brown. Tlie trunk Is fplral : tlie wings
and entire : the body is thick, brown, and hairy. Firlt
wings are brovn, waved ; 2d, red-brown. It refembles
a large bee. Caterpillar fmooth, with a poftenor blue
horn, tipt with red. It lives on gallium. 9. Tipu/i-
formis, ftnall bee moth. The thorax Is yellow beneath:
*the wings are fhort, with black veins. The abdomen
black, bearded, yellow at the extremity. Caterpillar on
the lonicera. lO. FUlpenduLe, burnet moth. The an-
tenna, legs, and body, are black. Second wings red,
with a greenllh boi-der. Flrft wings bluifti green, with
fix red fpots, In pairs. Tength eight lines. Caterpil-
lar yellow, with black fpots. It lives on grafs.
The name fph'mx is given to this genus on account
■of the fmgular attitudes of their caterpillars, who apply
the hinder part of their body to a branch of a tree,
liolding the reft of it ereft, like the fabulous fphlnx.
Moft of them fpin their cod under ground, making
them up with fmall parcels of earth and grains of corn
interwoven with threads. The fphlnges Pxy either ear-
ly in the morning, or after funfet in the evening. They
^y heavily and fluggiftly, often emitting a kind of
found.
SPIGELTA,. Worm-grass, in botany : A genus
oF plants belonging to the clafs of pentamlria, and order
of monogynia ; and in the natural fyftem arranged un-
der tJie 47th order, Slellata. The corolla is funnel-flia-
ped ; the capfule is didymous, bllocular, and polyfpcr-
jnous. 'ilicre are two fpecles, the anthelmia and marl-
landlca.
The anthelmia has a herbaceous ftem, and its highell
leaves are fourfold.
«' The effects of this medicine (fays Dr Browne) are
thefe: It lirit procures lleep, almoft as certainly, and In an
equal degree, with opium; the eyesfeem to bedlftended,
and fpai kle as it were before the eruption of the fmall-pox
or meafles, which may be eafily obferved after the flcep is
over ; the pulfe grows regular and rifes, the fever cools,
the fymptoms appear more favourable, and the worms
are generally difcharged by the uie of the fubfequent
purgatives (If not before) in great quantities, often
above 100 at a time ; but when a few only come away,
which is feldom, and thefe alive, the fame dofes are again
repeated, which feldom or never fail. I never faw this
inediclne fail when there was the leaft probability of
fuccefs ; nay, often prove fuccefsful when there was not
the Icart reafon to exped it. I have been, however,
cautious In ordering it for children ; for though I never
knew it at all hurtful, its effeft upon the eyes has of-
ten deterred me from ordering it to children, whofe
fibres are weak and relaxed, and in whom the fevers
from this fource are feldom fo vehement as to hinder the
adminiftratien of other medicines, likely as efFeaual in
other cafes of this nature. This plant is generally had
in low dry lands, after they have been turned up fome
months, and after great rains ; Its tafte is herbaceous,
and fomewhat clammy, its growth is foft and fudden,
its ftalk hollow, fmooth, and roundifh. Its herbaceous
tafte and fudden growth would alone make me think It
■capable of little or no atllon, had not hundreds of care-
ful obfet vations fatisfied me to the contraiy."
The marilandica, perennial worm- grafs, or Indian
pkik. 'i"he bell defcrlptlon of this plant which we have
feen is given by Dr Woodville, in his Medical Botany;
[ 691 1 S P I
are fhort a work which exhibits a complete fyftcmatic view of Spigsl*,
the medicinal effefts of vegetables. Its ftem is four- J'P"^'^-
cornered ; all the leaves oppofite.
Dr Garden, in a letter to the late Dr Hope, profef-
for of botany in the univerfity of Edinburgh, dated
1-763, gives the following account of the virtues of this
plant. " About 40 years ago, the anthelmintic vir-
tues of the root of this plant were difcovered by the In-
dians ; fince which time it has been much ufed here by
phyficlans, praftitloners, and planters ; yet its true dofe
Is not generally afcertalned. I have given it in hun-
dreds of cafes, and have been very attentive to its ef-
feds. I never found it do much fervice, except when
it proved gently purgative. Its purgative quality na-
turally led me to give it in febrile difeafes, which feem-
ed to arifc from vifcidlty in the prima via ; and, in
thefe cafes, it fucceeded to admiration, even when the
fick did not void worms.
" I have of late, previous to the ufe of the Indian
pink, given a vomit, when the circumftances of the cafe
permitted it ; and I have found this method anfwer fo
well, that I think a vomit fhould never be omitted. I
have known half a dram of this root purge as brifldy
as the fame quantity of rhubarb ; at other times I have
known it, though given in large quantities, produce na
effed upon the belly : in fuch cafes, k becomes neceffa-
ry to add a grain or two of fweet mercury, or fome
grains of rhubarb ; but it is to be obferved, that the
iame liappy effefts did not follow its ufe in this way, as
when it was purgative without addition. The addition,
however, of the purgative renders its ufe fafe, and re-
moves all danger of convulfions of the eyes, although
neither ol. ruta, fabinx, or any other nervous fubftance,
is given along with it. It Is, in general, fafer to give it
in large dofes than in fmall ; for, from the latter, more
frequently the giddlnels, dimnefs of the fight, and con-
vullions, &c. follow ; whereas, from large dofes, I have
not known any other efFed than its proving emetic or
violently cathartic. To a child of two years of age,
who had been taking i o grains of the root twice a-day,
without having any other efftA than making her dull
and giddy, I prefcribed 22 grains morning and even-
ing, which purged her briflily, and brought away five
large worms. After fome months an increafed dole
had the fame good effeds. I prefer the root to the
other parts of the plant; of which, when properly dried,
I gave from 12 to 60 or 70 grains in fubftance. In
infufion, it may be given to the quantity of two, three,
or four drams, twice a-day. I have found that, by
keeping, the plant lofes its virtue In part ; for 40 grains
of the root which has not been gathered above two
months, will operate as iirongly as 60 which has been
kept for 15 months."
In Dr Garden's fubfequent letters, addreffed to Dr
Hope, in the years 1764 and 1766, the efficacy of this
root in worm cafes is further conlirmed; and he obferves,
that the root keeps better than he at firft thought (ha-
ving lately ufed it feveral years old with grent fuccefs.).
In what he calls continued or remitting low worm fe-
vers, he found its efficacy promoted by the addition of
rad. /epentar virg.
SPICE, any kind of aromatic drug that has hot and
pungent qualities : fuch are pepper, nulmeg, ginger,
cinnamon, cloves, &c.
482 SeiCS'
S P I
SpjcF-IJIands, in the Eall Indies. See Eanba, Mo
ivccA-Ijlands^ and Ceylon.
SPIDER, in zoology. See Aranea.
SPIDER WORT, in botany. See Phalancium.
SPIGNEL, in botany. See A THAM ANTA.
SPIKE, or Oil of SriKE, a name given to an eflential
oil diftilled from lavender, and much ufed by the varnifh-
makers and the painters in enamel.
SPIKENARD, in botany. See Na ROUS.
SPILANTHUS, in botany ; a geltus of plants
belonging to the clafs oi Jyngenefia, and to the order of
polygamia aqualis. The common calyx iseretSt; the leaf-
lets numerous, fub-equal, and oblong, the two exterior
being lon'jer than the reft. The compound corolla is
uniform and tubular ; the florets are hermaphrodite and
equal ; the proper corolla is funnel-fhaped. The fila-
ments are five in number, and fhort. The antherge cy-
lindrical and tubular, 'i'he feeds are vertical, ©blong,
flat, and covered with chaff. The receptacle is palea-
ceous and conical. There are leven fpecies, the urens,
pfeudo-acmella, acmella, falivaria, atriplicifolia, infipida,
and oleracea.
SPINA CERvihfA, the fame as the rhamnus cathar-
ticus. See Rhamnus.
Spina Ventofa^ in furgery, that fpecies of corruption
of the bones which takes its rife in the internal parts,
and by degrees enlarges the bone, and raifes it into a
tumor. See Surgery.
SPINACIA, SPIN AGE, in botany : A genus -of
plants belonging to the clafs of dlada, and to the order
o\ pentar.dria ; and in the natural fyltem arranged un-
der the 1 2th order, Holoracea. The male calyx is
quinquepartite ; there is no corolla : the female calyx
is quadrifid ; no corolla; there are four ftyles, and one
feed within the indurated calyx. There are only two
fpecies, the oleracea and fera. i. The oUracta^ com-
mon fpinage. has fefiile fruits and fagittated leaves. It
has been cultivated in Britain fince 1568, but it is
rot known Irom what country it was originally brought.
When intended for winter ule, it lliould be fovvn on an
open fpot of ground in the latter end of July ; obfcr-
ving to do it if poflible when the weather is rainy.
When the young plants are come up, the weeds mull
be dcifroyed, and the plants le:t at about five inches
afunder. The ground being kept clear of weeds, the
fpinagc will be fit for ufe in 0£tober. The way of ga-
thtrii;g it to advantage is only to take off the longefl
leaves, leaving thofe in the centre to grow bigger; and
at this rate a bed of fpinage will furnifh the table for a
whole winter, till the fpinage f -wn io j||i)ring i? become
fit for ufe, which is common in April. 2. The feroy
wild fpinagc, produces its fruit on footflalks.
SPIN GE, or SpiNACH. See Spinx\cia.
SPlNiE, in botany, thorns, rigid prickles: a fpecies
of armo, growing 011 various parts of certain plants for
their delence ; IHiiif ramorum arcmt pecora. On the
branches we find examples in the pyrus, prunus, citrus,
hippophaes, gmclina, rhamnus, lycium, &.c. ; on the
leaves in the aloe, agave, yucca, ilex, hippomane, theo-
phrafla, carlina, &c. ; on the calyx, in the carduus,
cnicus, centauria, moluccella, galeopfis, &c. ; on the
fruit, in the trapa, tribulus, murex, fpinacia, agremo-
4lia, datura, &c.
SPINAL MARRQw. SeeANATOMY, PartV. n° 1323.
r 692 ] s p I
SPINALIS, in anatomy, the name of feveral muf- Sj
cles, &c. of the fpine.
SPINDLE-TREE, in botany. See Euonymus.
SPINE, SPINA DORsi. See Anatomy, 30.
Spine, in botany. See Spin^.
SPINELLO, a Tufcan painter, of great repute In
his time. He painted a pifture of the fallen angels, in
which he drew fo horrid a picture of Lucifer, that it
frightened him fo much as to afFeft his fenfes ever after.
He flourifhed about tlie year 1380.
SPINET, or Spinnet, a mulical inftrument ranked
in the fecond or third place among harmonio\js inflru-
ments. It confifts of a chefl or belly made of the moli
porous ?.nd refinous wood to be found, and a table of
fir glued on flips of wood ciH^tdt Jummers , which bear on
the fides. On the table is railed two little prominences
or bridges, wherein are placed fo many pins as there are
chords or firings to the inftrument. It is played on by
two ranges of continued keys, the former range being
the order of the diatonic icale, and that behind the or-
der of the artificial notes or feraitones. The keys are
io many flat pieces of wood, which, touched and pref-
fed down at the end, make the other raife a jack which
ftrike and found the ffrings by means of the end of a
crow's quill, wherewith it is armed. The 30 lirft Itringa
areof brafs, the other more delicate, ones of fteel oj-
iron-wire ; they are all ftretched over the two bridges
already mentioned. The figure of the fpinet is a long
fquare or parallelogram ; fome call it an horp couched^
and the harp an inveited jplnet. See the article Harp.
This inftrument is generally tuned by the ear, which
method of the praftical muficians is founded on a fup.
pofjtion that the ear is a ptrfed judpe of an odlave and
a fifth. 1 he general rule- is to be^in at a certain note,
as C, taken towards the middle of tHe inftrument, and
tuning all the odaves up and down, and alio the fifths,
reckoning feven femitones to each fifth, by which means
the whole is tuned. Sometimes to the common or fun-
damental play ol the fpinet is added another fimilar one
in uniion, and a third in odave to the trrft, to make the
harmony the fuller ; they are either played fepa-ately
or together by means of a ftop : thtfe are called ii-.ub/s
or triple J'plntti } fomctimes a play of violins is added, by
means of a bow, or a few wheels parallel to the keys,
which prefs the ftrings and make the found laft as lonij
as the mufician pleales, and heighten an ! fofttn tfiera
moie or left;, as they are more or lefs prefTed. i'hs
h:-irpiichoid is a kind of fpinet, only with another dif-
pofnion o^ the keys (fee the article PIarpsichord).
The inftrument takes its name from the frnail quill ends
which touch the ftrings, reiembling_;^in<* or thorns.
SPINIFEX, in botany ; a genus of plants belong-
ing to the glals of prAygamiu and order of moncechi. Tlig
hermaphrodite flowers have a calyx with bivalved bi-
fli^)rous glumes, the valvelets being parallel to the rachis;
the corolla is bivalved and avvnlefs ; there are three Ita^
mina and two ftyles. In the male flowers the calyx is
common with the hermaphrodite ; the corolla and ftar
mina are fimilar. There is only one fpecies, the fquar-
rofus.
^ SPINNING, in commerce, the aft or art of redu,
cing filk, flax, hemp, wool, hair, or other matters, into
thread. Spinning is either performed on the wheel,
or with a diftafF and fpindJe, or with other machinej
proper
S P I
ling proper for the feveral kinds of working. Hemp, flax,
nettle-thread, and other like vCijetable matters, are to
be wetted in fpinnin^ : filks, wools, &c. are fpun dry,
and do not need water ; yet there is a way of fpinning
or reeling filk as it comes off the cafes or balls, where
hot and even boiling water is to be ufed (fee Silk).
The vaft variety, and the importance of thofe branches
of our manufaflures, which are produced from cotton,
wool, and flax, Ipun into yarn, together with the cheap-
nefs of provifions, and the low price of labour in many
foreign countries, which are our rivals in trade, haveoc-
cafioned many attempts at home to render foinning
more eafy, cheap, and expeditious. For which fee
Cotton Spinning and Cotto^j Mil s.
ef Thefe co<ntrivances have in fome parts of Scotland
been applied to the fpinning of flax ; but a very con-
" fiderabie improvement has lately been made by Mr An-
[r&c.tis of Fulneck near Leeds of the common fpinning
wheel. , It is well known, that hitherto much time has
been lull by ftopoing the wheel in order to fhi't the
thread from one iiaplc on the tiyer to another ; but in
Mr Antis's wheel the bobbin is made to move back-
wards and forwards, fo as to prevent the neceffity of
this perpetual interruption, as well as to obviate the
danger of breaking the thread and lofmg the end. This
is effected by the axis of the great wheel being extend-
ed through the pillar next the fpimier, and formed into
Ig.g a pinion of one leaf A, which takes into a wheel B,
Lxxiv.feven inches dinmeter, having on its periphery 97 teeth;
fo that 97 revolutions of the <>-reat wheel caufe one of
the kfrer wheel. On this lelTer wheel is fixed a rincr of
w'ntccc; which, being fupported on fix legs, fliands
obliquely to the wheel itfelf, touching it at one part,
and prujeCting nearly three qua ters of an inch at the
oppoate one ; near the f.de of this wheel is an upright
lever C, about 1 5 inches lonjj, moving on a centre,
three inches from its lower extremity, and connected at
the top to a flidino; bar D; from which riles an upright
piece of biafs E, which workino- in the notch of a pul-
ley drives the bobbin F backward and forward, accord-
injT as the oblique wire forces a pin (r m or out, as the
wheel moves round. To regulate and aiiitl tlie aUer-
nate motion, a weight H hangs by a line to the Aiding
bar, axid paffmj) over a pulley I rik-s and ralib as the
bobbin advances or leccdes, and tends conftautly to
keep the pin in contafi: with the wire. It is evident,
from tliis defcrlption. that one iiuple only is Wcinted to
the flyer ; which, being placed near the extremity K,
the thread pailing throu it is by the motion of the
bobbin laid rei^ularly thereon. For this invention the
Society inftituted at London for the Encoura.ieraent of
Arts, &c. gave the author a premium of twenty gui-
neas.
SFINOSUS CAULis, in botany; a ftera covered
with ilrong v/oody ptickles, whole toots are not fuper-
ficial, but proceeding from the body of the ftem. When
auplied to a leaf, fpinojum fohum, it indicites the mar"-
gin running out into rigid points or pricldes, quod mar-
gtne exit^in acumina duiioray r-gidrj, pungeniia.
SPINOUS, in botany. See Spinosus.
SPINOUS F'jhss, fuch as have fome of the rays of the
loack-fins running out into thorns or prickles, as the
perch, &c.
SPINOZA (Benedia), was born at Amfterdam the
34th November 1632, His father was a Jew of Por-
r 693 ]
S P I
tugal, by profefllon a merchant. After being taught Spinoza.
Latin by a phyfician, he applied himlelr for many years
to the ftudy of theolo/y, and afterwards devoted him-
felf entirely to philofophy. He began very eai-ly to be
dilTatisfied with the Jewiih religion ; and as his temper
was open, he did not conceal his doubts 'rom the fyna-
pOL iie. The Jews, it is laid, off^ered to tolerate his in-
fidelity, and even promifed him a penTioa of a thoufand
dollars per annum^ if he would remain in their fociety,
and continue outwardly to prafetife their ceremonies.
But if this offer was really made, he rejefted it, per-
haps from his averflon to hypocrify, or rather becaufe
he could not enduie the reflraint which it would have
impofed- He alfo refufed the legacy of a very con-
fiderable fortune, to the prejudice of the natural
heirs ; and he learned the art of p.olifhIng glafs for
fpeClacles, that he might fubfift independently of every
one.
He would probably have contmuedin the fyna To^ue
for fome time longer, if it had not been for an accident.
As he was returning home one evening from the the-
atre, he was fl.abbed by a Jew : the wound was flight ;
but the attempt .naturally led Spinoza to conclude that
the Jews had formed the deflgn of aff?.flinating him.
After leaving the fynagogue, he became a Chriflian,.
and frequented the churches of the Lutherans and Cal-
vinifls. He now devoted himfelf more than ever to his
favourite philofophical {peculations ; and finding him-
felf frequently interrupted by the vlfits of his friends,
he let't Amfferdam, and fettled at the Hague, where he
often continued for three months together without ever
llirring from his lodging. Daring his refidence in that
city, his hoilefs, who was a Lutheran, aflced him one
day if flie could be faved while fhe continued in her re-
ligion ? "Yes (replied Spinoza), ^rovirled you join to
your religion a peaceable and virtuous li''c From this
anfwer it has been concluded that he was a Chri'lian
in appearance only, while in reality he regarded all re-
ligions as indifferent. But this ci nclunou would be
too levere, even if the woman had been a rvlahometan.
His T'iid iits "Th'vlog'co-politicus, which was publilhed ,
about that time, is a better proof of his inhacerity thar>
a thoufand Juch conckilions ; tor this book contains all
thoie ^:o .'lilies I'l erahi'yo which were afterwards unfold-
ed in his O^fr-i P-JrijumfJ, and which are geneiaLy con-
iidered as a fylfem o*' atheifin.
His fame, which had now fpread far and wide, o!)li-
ged him fometimes to interrupt his philoiopfiical reve-
ries. Learned men vifited him from all qu:u ters While
the prince of Conde comman-'ed the Fiench ai my in
Utiecht, he intreated Spinoza t > vifit him; p.nd though
he was abfent when the philoiopher arrived, he return*
ed immediately, and Ipent a confzderable time with hira
in converfation. 't he ele£^or Palatine offered to make
Spinoza profeffor of philofophy at Heidelberg; which,
however, he declined.
He died of a confumptton at the Hague on the lifl;
Ftbruaiy i 677, at the age or 4;. His hte was a per-
petual contradiclion to his cfpinions. He was tempe-
ratCj liberal, and i-emark-ibly difinterefted ; he was fo-
ciable, affable, and friendly. His converfilion was
agreeable and inflrudtive, and never deviated from the
ftridteft propriety.
The only edition of the works of Splnoxa that vrt
have fcen is in two volumes fmall 4to j the ^rmer of
8. •ft'h'dx.
S P I
C 694 3
S P I
spin rza. which was printed at Hamburg In the year 1670, and
the latter we know not where, in 1677, a few months
after his death. In the TraSatus TheoIo^ico-poiU'tcusy
already mentioned, he treats of prophecy and prophets ;
and of the call of the Hebrews^ whom he affirms to have
been diftinpruiihed from other nations only by the ad-
mirable foiTO of their government, and the titneCs of
their laws for long preferving their political Rate. He
38 likewife of opinion, or at It a(l pretends to be fo, that
God may, in what we call a fupernatural <way, have gi-
ven political inftitutcs to other nations as well as to the
Hebrews, who were, he fays, at no time a peculiar peo-
ple to the Supreme I.ord of heaven and earth ; for,
accordinj^ to him, all hiflory, facred and profane,
teftifies that every nation was bleffed with the light of
prophecy. i'hat light indeed, if his notions of it be
juft, was of very little value. He labours to piove, that
the prophets were diftinguiflied from other men only
by their piety and virtue ; that their revelations de-
pended wholly on their imaginations and the difpofi-
tions of their minds ; that they were often grofsly ig-
norant and highly prejudiced ; that the fpeculative opi-
nions of one prophet are feldom in unifon with thofe of
another ; and that their writings arc valuable to us on-
ly for the excellent rules which he acknowledges they
contain refpefting the praftice of piety and virtue. He
then proceeds to treat of the divine law and of mi-
racles ; and endeavours to prove that 110 miracle, in
the proper fenfe of the word, can have been at any
time performed ; becaufe every thing happens by a ne-
ceflity of nature, the refiilt of the divine decrees, which
are from all eternity neceflary thcmfelves. He acknow-
ledges, that in the Scriptures, which he profeiTes to ad-
mit as true hiftory, miracles are ofcen mentioned ; but
he fays that they were only lingular events which the
facred hiftorians imagined to be miraculous: and he then
gives fome very extraordinary rules for interpreting the
books of tbe Old and New Teftaments where they
treat of miracles, or appear to foretel future events.
See our articles Miracle and Prophecy.
Having thus divefted the Scriptures of every thing
<;haraftcrifl.ic of a revelation from heaven, he next calls
in queftion their authenticity. He affirms, in contra-
diftion to the cleareft internal evidence, that tlie Penta-
teuch and all the other hillorical books muft have been
written by one man ; and that man, he thinks, could
not have flourilTied at a period earlier than that of Ezra.
The grounds of this opinion are unworthy of the ta-
lents of Spinoza j for that he had talents is incontro •
vertible. His principal objeAion to the authenticity of
ihe Pentateuch is, that Mofes is made to fpeak of him-
felf in the third perfon, and to talk of the Canaanites
Jbeing then in the land ; and becaufe he finds in his
writings, as well as in the books of Jofhua, Judges,
Ruth, Sarauel, &c. places defigned by names which he
fuppofes they had not in the early ages of which thcfe
books contain the hiftory, he concludes that thefe wri-
tings muft be one compilation from ancient records
made at a very late period ; more efpecially as the au-
thor often fpeaks of things of great antiquity remaining
to this day. The books of Efther, Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Chronicles, muft have been compiled, he thinks,
under the Maccabees ; and he feems to confider as of
^qual value with them the llory of Tobit, and the other
two apocryphal treatlfes intitled the Wjfdom of Sofo^ Spi
mon and Ecclefiafticus.
'I'hefe fenfelefs cavils, worthy only of one of thofe
modern freethinkers wlu)fe learning, in tlie opinion of
Bifhop WarburtOB, ia not fnfficicnt to c?.rry tb.em even
to the confines of rational doubt, we have fufficiently
obviated in another place {fee Scripture, n" 8 — 31 )
Spinoza urges them ajainft the other books of the Old
Teftament. The prophecies of liaiah, Jeremiah, E/.e-
kiel, Daniel, Hofea, and Jonah, are, as we have them,
only fragments, he fays, of the writings of thofe men
compiled by the Pharilees under the fecond temple froiti
ancient and voluminous records.
In the midft of this dogmatical fcepticifm, if we may
ufe luch a phrafe, he bears fuch a teftimony to the l-rit
chapters of the book of Daniel, as we ftiould not have
looked for in the writings either of a Jew or of a Dcift,
After detailing the various hypotbefes which in his time
were held refpeding the author and the intention of the
book of j^ob ; in which, he fays, Momus is called Sa-
tan, he proceeds in thefe words : " i ranfeo ad Da-
niehs librum ; hie fine dubio ex cap. 8. ipfius Danielis
fcripta continet. Undenam autem priora fcptem capi-
ta defcripta fuerint, nefcio*}" thus admitting the fa- *
mo\}S prophecy of the feventy weeks. The canon of ^
the Old I'eftamcnt, he fays, was finally fettled by rab-^*
bins of the Pharifaical fed, who wifhed to exclude from
it the books of Proverbs, Ecc/eft jfiesy and Ez.ekiel, a$
they had aftually excluded others of equal value ; but
the three books in queftion were inferted by the influ-
ence of two of the rabbis of greater wifdom and inte-
grity than the reft.
That fo paradoxical a writer, who had been original-
ly a Jew, and was now almofl; a Deift, fhould have
treated the New Teftament with as little ceremony as
the Old, v/ill not furprife the intelligent reader. He
begins his remarks, however, with affirming, that no
man can perufe the Chriftian Scriptures, and not ac-
knowledge the apoftles to have been prophets ; but he
thinks that their mode of prophefying was altogether
different from that which prevailed under the Mofaic
difpenfation ; and that the gift, whatever it was, for-
fook them the inftant that they left off preaching, as
their ivrttings have to him every appearance of human
compofitions. This diftinftion between Chriftian and
Jewijh prophecy is the more wonderful, that he founds
it principally on the diffimilarity of Jiyle vifible in the
writings of the Old and New Teftaments ; though, in
his fecond chapter, which treats of the works of the
Jewifh prophets, he fays cxprefsly, « Stylus delude
prophetiae pro eloquentia cujufque prophets; variabat,
prophetias enim Ezekielis et Amofis non funt, ut ills
Efaias, Nachumi eleganti, fed rudiore ftylo fcriptae."
That the Hebrew fcholar may be convinced of the
truth of this remark, he recommends to him to ftudy
diligently the writings of thefe prophets, and to confi.
der the occafions on which their prophecies were utter-
ed : " Qux fi omnia refte perpendentur (fays he) fa-
cile oftendant, Deum nullum habere ftylum peculiarera
dicendi, fed tantum pro eruditione, et capacitate pro-
phetx eatenus efle ekgantem, compendiofum, feverum,
rudem, prolixum, et obfcurum." Another objeaion
brought by Spinoza againft the prophecies of the New
Teftament arifcs from the authors of them having been
at
S P T
Rt all time? matters of themfelves. This
peculiarly the cafo of St Paul, who often confirms kis
dodrine by reafoning, which the Jewilh prophets never
concieicended to do, as it would have fubmitted their
d(J<rmas to the examination of />nW/^ judgment. Yet,
vyi(h fingulav inconfiftency, he affirms, that the Jewifh
prophets could not know that the impreffions made on
their imaginations proceeded from God, but by a fign
given them, which by their own reafon ox judgment they
knew would never be vouchfafed to an impious or a
wicked man.
After thefe very free remarks on the Scriptures of
the Old and New Teltaments, he naturally enough ex-
prefles a fufpicion, that by thofe who confider the Bible
as the epillle of God fent from heaven to men, he will
be thought to have finned aoainit the Holy Ghofl: by
vilifying his diftates. This leads him to inquire in what
fenfe the Scriptures are the word of God ; and he
gravely determines them to be fo only as they aaually
contribute to make men more virtuous and holy. It is
not enoue;h that they are calculated to improve virtue
and holinefs : for fhould the words of the languages in
which they are written acquire in procefs of time a fig-
nificatlon dilferent from what they had originally; Ihould
mankind lofe all knowledge of thefe languages; or even
fhould they agree to negleft the books, whether from
ignorance Or from wilfulnefs— thofe books would ceafe
to be the word of God, and become nothing better than
walle paper and ink ; juft. as the tw© tables, which Mo-
fes broke on obferving the idolatry of liis countrymen,
were not the covenant between Jehovah and the Ifrae-
litcs, but merely two pieces of Ilone ! The Scriptures,
however, are the word of God, becaufe they teach the
true religion of wliich God is the author ; and they
have taught it in fuch a manner, he fays, that it can
never be loft or corrupted whatever become of the books
of the Old and New Teltaments, or of the languages in
which they are written. The whole of religion, as
the Scriptures themfelves teftify, confifts in the love of
God above all things, and of our neighbours as our-
felves : whence it follows, that we muft believe that
God exifts, and watcheth over all things by his provi-
dence ; that he is omnipotent, and has decreed the
pious to be ultimately happy, and the impious mifer-
able ; and that our final falvation depends folely on His
grace or favour. Thefe truths, with their neceflary
confequenccs, are the wori. of God : they are clearly
taught in the Scriptures, and can never be corrupted ;
but every thing elfe in thefe volumes is vain, he fays,
and of no greater importance to us than fa£ls related in
any other ancient and authentic hillory.
Such are the opinions which were entertained of re-
velation by a man whom a critic, writing in a Chriftian
country, and profefling to be a zealous Chriftian him-
felf, has lately pronounced to have been a chofen veJfeL
For what purpofe he was chofen it is not eafy to con-
ceive. His religion, as it appears in the TraSatus, is
the worft kind of Deifm ; and his politics are fuch as
our monthly critics are net wont to teax;h, and fuch as
we truft (hall never be ferioufly taught by any Brltifli
fubjeft. By the law of nature, he fays, every man be-
fore the formation of civil government has an unquef-
tionable right to whatever appears eligible either to his
reafon of to his appetites ; and may get pofTtffion of it
by intreatyy by violence, by frauJj ©r by any other means
[ 69J 1 5 p r
fays he, was attended with lefs trouble to hinifelf (ft-ve yt.JivB doloy Spinox*,
Jive precibus, Jive quocunque demum modo Jacilius poterit) ;
and may treat as an enemy every perfou who fhall at-
tempt to^obftrua his purpofe. But when men agree
to devolve this right upon others, and to conftitute a
political ftate, which both reafon and appetite mull per-
fuade them to do, then are they in duty bound to obey
every mandate of the government, however abfurd it
may be (omnia mandata tameji abjurd'iffima ) y as long as
that government can enforce its edifts, and no longer ;
for, according to hiiv., light and power are fo infepa-
rably united, that when a government lofes its power, it
has no longer the fmalleil claim to obedience. This
dffldrine, he fays, is moft obvioujly juft when taught of
democratical governments ; but it is in faft equally trut
of monarchies and ariftocracies : " Nam quilquis fum-
mam habet poteftatem, five unus fit, five pauci, five de-
nique omnes, certum etl ei iuramum jus quicqu'td ve/ii
imperandiy competere : ct prasterca quifquis poteftatem fc
dei'endendi, five fpontc, iive vi couclus, in alium tranf-
tulit, eum fuo jure naturali plane cefhfTe, et confequen-
ter eidem ad omnia abfolute parere decrevifie quod om-
nia prjEftare tenetur, quamdiu rex, five nobiles, five po-
pulus fummam, quam acceperunt, poteftatem, quae juris
transferendi fundamentum fuit, confervant ; nec his plu-
ra addere opus eft*." We heartily agree with him, * fraSf,
that to this precious conclufion it is needlefs to add a'"*P'
hngle word.
Taking our leave- therefore of his TraSatus Theolo-
gico-polittcus y we ftiall now give our readers a fliort ac-
count of his- Opera Pojlhuma. Thefe confift of, I . E- .
THiCA, more geometnco demonftrata ; 2. Politica ;
3. De Ememdatione Intellectus; 4. Epistol^,
et ad eas RiiSPONSioNEs; 5. Compendium Gramivta-
TiCEs Lingua Hebr«^.
The Ethica arc divided into five parts, which treat
in order,, ti'f Deo ; de naturaet origine mentis ; de ori-
gine et natura affectuum ; de servitute humana, feu
de affectuum viRiBUs ; de potentia intellectus,-
feu de libertate humana. As the author profefles to-
tread in the footfteps of the geometers, and to deduce
all his conckifions by rigid demonftration from a few
felf evident truths,ihe introduces his work, after the
manner of Euclid, with a coUeftion of definitions and-
axioms. Thefe are couched in terms generally ambi-
guous ; and therefore the reader will do well to con-
fider attentively in what fenfe, if in any, they can be
admired; for it will not be found eafy to grant his-
premifes, and at the fame time refufe his conclufions.
His definition of fubftance, for inftance, is fo exprefled
as to admit of two fenfes ; in one of which it is juft,
whilft in the other it is the parent of the moft impious
abfurdity. We ftiall give it in his own words : Per
fubftantiam intelligo id, q^uod in fe eft, et per fe conci-
pitur: hoc eft id,'cujus conceptus non indiget concep-
tu alterius rei, a quo formari debeat." If by this be
meant, that a fubftance is that which we can conceive
by itfelf without attending to any thing elfe, or thinking
of its formation, the definition, we beUeve, will be ad-
mitted by every reflefting mind as lufficiently diftin-
guiflilng the thing defined from an attribute, which, he
fays, is that which we perceive of a fubftance, arid
which we certainly cannot conceive as exifting by it-
felf. Thus the writer of this article can ftiut his eyes
and conttmplate in idea the fmali 4to volume now be-
fore
S P I [ 696
-Spineiza. fore him, without attending to any thing elfe, or think-
*' . incr of its paradoxical author, or even of the Great Being
who created the matter both of him and of it ; but he
cannot for an inftant contemplate the yellow colour of
its vellum boards w ithout thinking of triple extenfion,
or, in other words, of body. The book therefore is a
fubjiance, becaufe conceivable by itfelf ; the colour is an
attribute or quality, becaufe it cannot be conceived by
■itfelf, but neceflarily leads to the conception of fome-i
thing- elle. But if Spinoza's meaning be, that nothing
is a fubftance but what is conceived as exifting from
eternity, independent of every thing as a caufe, his de-
finition cannot be admitted : for every man conceives
that which in himfelf thinks, and wills, and is con-
fcious, as a fubftance : at the fame time that he has the
]
S P I
bell evidence poffible that he exifled not as a confcious,
thinking, and active bcincr, from eternity.
His toiuth axiom is thus exprcffed : *' EfFcftus cog-
iiitio a cognitione caufae dependet, eteandem involvit;"
and his fifth, ••' Quse nihil commune cum fe invicem
habent, etiam per fe invicem intelligi non poffuat, five
conceptus unius alterius conceptum non involvit." The
former of thefe propufitions, fo far from being felf-evi-
■dent, is not even true ; and the latter is capable of two
fenfes very different from'^each other. ■ 'I'hat every ef-
fe£l proceeds from a caufe, is indeed an ?.xiom ; but
furely we may know the efftft accurately, though we
be ignorant of the particular caufe from which it pro-
ceeds (fee Philosophy, n''36; and Physics, n° 9 1 ,
•&C.) ; nor does the knowledge of the one by any means
involve the knowledge of the othei-. If different things
have nothing in common, it is indeed true that the
knowledge of one of them will not give us an adequate
conception of the other ; but it will in many cafes com-
pel us to believe, that the other exijls or has cxifled.
A parcel of gunpowder lying at reil has nothin g in
common with the velocity of a cannon-ball ; yet when
we know that a ball has been driven with velocity
from a cannon, we infer with certainty that there has
been a parcel of powder at reft in the chamber of that
cannon.
It is upon fuch ambiguous definitions and axioms as
thefe that Spinoza has raifed his pretended demonltra-
tions, that one fubflance cannot produce another ; that
every fubftance muft necefl'ariiy be infinite ; that no
fubftance exifts or can be conceived befides God ; and
that extended fubftance or body is one of the infinite
attributes of God. iVe fhall not wafte our ow'» time
or the reader's with a formal confutation of thefe im-
pious abfurdities. We truft they are fufficiently con-
futed in other articles of this work (fee Metaphysics,
Part III. Providence, and I'heology, Part I.) ; and
whoever wifhes for a m^re particular examination of tlic
author's principles, may find it in Dr Clarke's Demon-
ftration of the Being and Attributes of God. Tlie
truth, however, is, chat no man will need the afTiftance
of that eminent metaph)(fician to difcover the fallacy of
the reafoning by which they are attempted to be pro-
ved, if he affix any one precife weaning to the definitions
and axioms, and adhere to that meaning lleadily thro'
the whole proceis of the pretended demonftrations.
By way of apology for this jargon, it has been late-
ly faid, that " Spinoza takes the word Juhjiance in its
m©ft fimple and perfeA fenfe; which is nccelTary, as he Spinoza,
writes mathematically, and propofes a fimple idea as the ^ ^ ,
foundation of his theory. What is the proper fignifi- ^ZloLlt
cation of a fubftance? Is it not that which ftands &\onSt concerning
which has the caufe of its exiftence within itfelf ? I ^oJ.
wifh that this fimple meaning of the word could be unl-
verfally admitted in philofophy. Stridtly fpeaking, no
worldly thing is a fubftance ; fitice all mutually depend
on each other, and finally on God, who, in this exalted
fenfe, is the only fuljlance. The word modification founds
harfh and improper, and therefore it cannot be expefh-
ed to gain a place in philofophy ; but if the fchool of
Leibnitz may term matter the appearance of fubjlances^
why may not Spinoza be allowed a bolder term? World-
ly fubftances are kept in union by divine power, as it
was by divine power that they had exiftence. They
reprefent alfo, if you plcafe, modified appearances^of di-
vine power ; each according to the ilatlon, the time,
and the organs, in and with which it appears. The
phrafe ufed by Spinoza is concife, and it gives an unity
and fimplicity to his whole fyftem, however ftrange it
may found in our ears."
From this account of Spinozifm, one who had never
looked into the works of the author would be led to
fuppofe that his fyftem is the f^^e with that of Berke-
ley ; which, denying the exiftence of material fubftance,
attributes all our perceptions of what we call the qua-
lities of body to the immediate agency of the Deity on
our minds (fee Metaphysics, Part II. Chap. 3,) But
Spinoza's dodlrine is very difierent. According to him,
bodies are. either attributes or aftecitions of God; and as
he fays there is but one extended fubftance, he affirms
that fubftance to be indivihbie, and employs a long
fcholiumf to prove that thofe are miftaken who fup- j- See hi's
pofe it finite and not efj'cntial to the Deity, 'i hat we do l-'rop. xv,
not rnifreprefent his fentiments, the learned reader will
be convinced by the two following definitions, with
which he introduces that part of his ethics which treats
of the nature and origin of mind. i. *' Per corpus in-
telligo modum, qui Dei ef^entiam, quatenus, ut res ex-
tenfa conlideratur, certo et determinato modo expri-
mit." 2. " Ad eflentiain ahcujus rei id pertinere dico,
quo dato res neceffario ponitur, et quo fublato res necef-
fario toUitur ; vel id, fine quo res, et vice verfa quod
fine re nec effe nec concipi poteft." In conformity
with thefe definitions, he attempts to prove that Godpron. ij.
is an extended as well as a thinking lubffance ; that asv'i. xi.
a tfiinking fubftance he is the caufe of the idea oi a ^•
circle, and as an extended fubftance of the circle itfelf ;
and that the minds of men arc not fubftances, but cer-
tain modifications of the divine attributes ; or, as he
fometimes exprefles it, *' Quod humanae mentis attuale
conftitiiit, eft idea rei fingularis aftu exiflentis." Hence,
he fays, it follows that the human mind is a part of the
intelleft of the infinite God ; fo that when we fpeak of
the human mind perceiving this or that, we can only
mean that God, not as he is infinite, but as he appears
in the human mind or couftitutes its effence, has this or
that idea ; and when we fpeak of God's having this or
that idea, v/e muft conceive of Him not only as confti-
tuting the human mind, but as, together with it, having
the idea of fomething elfe (a). In another place he
tells us, that the human mind is nothing but the idea
which
(a) Hinc fequitur^ mentem humanam partem effe infiniti intelleaus Dei ; ac proinde cum dicimus, mentem
huraanam
S P I [ 6(
Imit, which God has of the human body as a^luallv exiftlng;
that this idea of the body, and the body itfeif, are one
and the fame thing ; and that thinking and extended
fubftances are in reality but one and the fame fubftance,
which is fometimes comprehended under one attribute
•op. vii. »f the Deity, and fometimes under another*.
If this impious jargon be not Atheifm, or as it has
*• been fometimes called Pantheifm, we know net what it
is (fee Pantheism). According to Spinoza, there is
but one fubftance, which is extended, infinite, and in-
divifible. That fubftance indeed he calls God ; but he
labours to prove that it is corporeal ; that there is no
difference between mind and matter ; that both are at-
tributes of the Deity varioufly confidered ; that the hu-
man foul is a part of the intelled of God ; that the
fame foul is nothing but the idea ©f the human body ;
that t^is idea of the body, and the body itfeif, are one
and the fame thing ; that God could not exift, or be
conceived, were the viable univerfe annihilated ; and
therefore that the vifible univerfe is either the one fub-
ftance, or at leaft an effentlal attribute or modification
of that fubftance. He fometimes indeed fpeaks of the
power of this fubftance; but when he comes to explain
himfelf, we find that by power he means nothing but
>p. blind neceflity % ; and though he frequently talks of
ii. Part the ivijdom of God, he feems to make ufe of the word
without meaning. This we think evident from the
long appendixrto his 36th propofition ; in which he
labours to prove that the notion of final caufes is an idle
figment of the imagination, fince, according to him,
nothing but the prejudices of education' could have led
men to fancy that there is any real diftinftion between
good and evil., merit and demerit., pf^ifi «md reproach, or-
der arnd confujwn ; that eyes were given them that they
might be enabled to fee ; teeth for the purpofe of chew-
ing their food ; herbs and animals for the matter of that
food ; that the fun was formed to give light, or the ocean
to nourifh fijhes. If this be true, it is impofliblc to dif-
cover wifdom in the operations of his one fulflance; fince,
in common apprehenfion, it is the very charaftcrittic of
folly to atft without any end in view.
Such are the reveries of that writer, whofc works a
German philofopher of fome name has lately recom-
mended to the public, as calculated to convey to the
mind more juft and fublime conceptions of God than
are to be found in moft other fyftems. The recommen-
dation has had its effeft. A literary journalift of our
own, reviewing the volume in which it is given, feels a
peculiar fatisfaftion from the difcovery that Spinoza,
iaftead of a formidable enemy to the caufe of virtue and
religion, was indeed their warmeft friend ; and pioufty
liopes that we fhall become more cautious not to fuffer
ourfelves to be deceived by empty names, which thofe
who cannot reafon (Sir Ifaac Newton and Dr Clarke
perhaps) give to thofe who can (Hobbes, we fuppofe,
and Spinoza). But though we have the honour to
think on this queftion with our illuftrious countrymen,
we have no defire to depict Spinoza as a reprobate, which
Vol. XVII. Part II.
17 S P I
the critic fays has often been done by ignorance and Spfna?«
enthufiafm. We admit that his condud in aftive life P . >
was irreproachable ; and for his fpeculative opinions, he , ^P'"^' y
muft ftand or faU to his own Matter, His Ethics ap- "
pear to us indeed a fyftem (hockingly impious ; and in
the trad intitled Politica, power and right are con-
founded as in the former volume ; but in the treatife
De Intellectus Emendatione, are fcattcred many
precepts of praftical wifdom, as well as fome judicious
rules for conducing philofophical inveftigation ; and we
only regret, that the reader muft wade to them, through
pages of fatalifm, fcepticifm, and palpable contradic-
tions. His Compendium Grammatices Lingua Hebraf^
though left imperfed, appears to have fo much merit,
that it is to be wiftied he had fulfilled his intention oF
writing a philofophical grammar of that language, in-
ftead of wafting his time on abftrufe fpeculations, which,
though they feem not to have been injurious to his own
virtue, are certainly not calculated to promote the vir-
tue of others, or to increafe the fum of human happi-
nefs.
SPIR/EA, in botany; A genus of plants belong-
ing to the clafs of icofandria, and to the order of penta^
gynia ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
26th order, Pomacea. The calyx is quinquefid ; there
are five petals; and the capfule is polyfpennous. There
are 18 fpecies ; of which two only are Britifh, the fili-
pendula and ulmaria. i . The filtpendula, dropwort, has
pinnated leaves ; the leaflets are ferrated ; the ftalk is
herbaceous, about a foot and a half high, terminated
with a loofe umbel of white flowers, often tinged with
red. The petals are generally fix, and the fegments of
the calyx are reflexed : the ftamina are 30 or more;
the germina 1 2 or upwards. It grows in mountainous
pafturcs. 2. The ulmaria, meadow- fvveet. The leaves
have only two or three pair of pinnas, with a few fmal-
ler ones intermixed ; the extreme one being larger than
the reft, and divided into three lobes. The calyx is
reddifti ; the petals white, and the number of capfules
from fix to ten twifted in a fpiral. The tuberous pea,
like roots of the filipendula dried and reduced to pow-
der, have been ufed inftead of bread in times of fear-
city. Hogs are very fond of thefe roots. Cows, goats,
fiieep, and fwine, eat the plant ; but horfes refufe it.
The flowers of the ulmaria. have a fragrant fcent, which
rifes in diftillation. The whole plant indeed is extreme-
ly fragrant, fo that the common people of Sweden
ftrew their floors with it on holidays. It has alfo an
aftringent quality, and has been found ufeful in dyfen-
teries, ruptures, and in tanning of leather.
SPIRAL, in geometry, a curve line of the circular
kind, which in its progrefs recedes from its centre.
SPIRE, in architefture, was ufed by the ancient*
for the bafe of a column, and fometimes for the aftragal
or tore ; but among the moderns it denotes a fteeplc
that continually diminiihes as it afcends, whether coni-
cally or pyramidally.
SPIRIT, iu metaphyfics, an incorporeal being or
4 T intelligence ;
humanam hoc vel lUud percipere, nihil ahud dicimus quam quod Deus, non quatenus infinitus eft, fed quatenua
per naturam humanse mentis explicatur, five quatenus humanas mentis effentiam conftituit, banc vel illam habet
ideam : et cum dicimus Deum banc vel illam ideam habere, non tantum, quatenus naturam humanae mentis con-
ftituit; fed quatenus fimul cum mente humana alterius rei etiam habet ideatn. Core/, prop. xi. part 2.
S P I
[ 698 ]
S P I
Spirit intelligence j m wliich fenfe God is faid to be a fpirit,
tl as areanpels and the human foul. See Metaphysics,
Sor" Part III.
I Spirit, in chemlftry and pharmacy, a name applied
to every volatile liquid which is not infipid like phlegm
or water ; and hence the ditlindion into acid, alkahne,
and vinous fpirits. See FnA^UACY-Index.
Spirit of Wine. See CHEMisTRY-ZWfx, Distil-
lation, and TtiAKMACY-Index.
SPIRITS, or Animal Spirits. See Anatomy,
Part V. n° 136, and Physiology, h" 185.
SPIRITUAL, in general, fomething belonging to
or partaking of the nature of fpirit. See Spirit.
SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS have in all nations been
confidered as a proper fubjcia of heavy taxation for the
fupport of the Itate. This has naturally occafioned a
pice examination of their .ftrength. It having been at
iall found that this was intimately connefted with the
fpectfic gravity, this has been examined with the moll
fcrupulous attention to every circumftance which could
atfeft it, fo that the duties might be exaftly proportion-
ed to the quantity of fpirit in any ftrong liquor, inde-
pendent on every other citcumflaace of flavour or talle,
or other valued quality. 1 he chemift at laft found
that the bafis of all ftrong liquors is the fame, produced
by the vinous fermentation of pure faccharine matter
diffolved in water. He alfo found, that whether this
vegetable fait be taken as it is fpontaneoufly formed in
the juices of plants, and fruits, or as It may be formed
or extricated from farinaceous fruits and roots by a cer-
tain part of the procefs oF vegetation, it produces the
fame ardent fpirit, which has always the fame denfity
in every mixture with water. The minute portions of
aromatic oils, which are in fome degree infeparable from
it, and give it a different flavour according to the fub-
ftance from which it was obtained, arc not found^ to
have any fenfible effed on its denfity or fpecific gravity.
This feems very completely eilablifhed in confequence
of the unwearied attempts of the manufafturers to lefTen
.the duties payable on their goods by mixtures of other
fubftances, which would increafe their denfity without
making them lefs palatable. The vigilance of the re-
venue officers was no lefs employed to detcft every fuch
contrivance. In Ihort, It is now an acknowledged point,
that the fpecific gravity is an accurate teil of the
Itrength.
But though this is true in general, we cannot derive
much benefit from it, unlefs we know the precifc rela-
tion between the ftrengtli and the denfity of a fpiritu-
ous liquor. Do they increafe pari pajfu, or by what
law are they connedted ? It was natural to exped that
equal additions of ardent fpirits or alcohcUo a given
quantity of water would produce equal diminutions of
denfity. Areometers were accordingly made on this
principle above 200 years ago, as may be feen in the
works of Gafpar Schottus, Sturmius, Agricola, and
other old authors. But when mathematical phyfics be-
came more generally known, this was eafily difcovered
to be erroneous ; and it was fhown (we think firft by
Mr Boyle) that equal additions to the fpecific grav-ty
would be produced by fucceffively taking out of ai.'^
velTel a certain meafure of alcohol and replacing it with
an equal meafure of water. This was the moft conve-,
nient difcovery for all parties, becaufe then the duties
payable on a c^flc of fpirits would be in the exad pro-
portion of the diminution of its denfity. But It was Splrituoj^
foon found by thofe who were appointed guardians of
the revenue that this conclufion was erroneous, and
that a mixture which appeared by this rule to contain
35 gallons of alcohol, did really contain 354. This they
found by adlnally making fuch a mixture : 1 8 gallons
of alcohol mixed with i8 of water produced only 35
gallons of fpirits. The reveaue officersj finding that
this condenfation was moft remarkable in mixtures of
equal parts of water and the ftrongeft fpirits which could
then be procured, determined to levy the duties by this
mixture ; becaufe, whether the fpirltuous liquor was
ftronger or weaker than this. It would appear, by its
fpecific gravity, rather ftronger than it really was. This
fagacious obfervation, and the fimplicity of the compo-
fition, which could at all times be made for comparifon,
feem to be the reafons for our exclfe offices felefting
this mode of eftlmating the ftrength and levying the
duties. A mixture of nearly equal mcafures of water
and alcohol is called proof spirit, and pays a certairi
duty per gallon; and the ftrength of a fpirituous liquor
is eftimated by the gallons, not of alcohol, but of proof
fpirit which the cafe contains. But becaufe It might
be difiicult to procure at all times this proof fpirit for
comparifon, fuch a mixture was made by order of the
board of exclfe : and it was found, that when fix gallons
of it was mixed with one gallon of water, a wine gal-
lon of the mixture weighed 7 pounds 13 ounces avoir-
dupois. The board therefore declared, that the fpirituous
liquor of which the gallon weighed 7 pounds 13 ounces
fhould be reckoned i to 6 or i in 7 under proof. This
is but an aukward and complex formula ; It was ill
order to fuit matteis to a mode of examination which
had by time obtained the fandilon of the board. Mi-
Clarke, an ingenious artift of that time, had made a
hydrometer incomparably more exaft than any other,
and conftruftcd on mathematical principles, fit for com-
putation. This had a fet of weights correfponding to
the additions ot water or proof fpirit, and the mixture
I to 6 or I in 7 was the only one which weighed an
exaft number of ounces per gallon without a fraftion.
Thus ftands the excife law; and Clarke's hydrometer
Is ftill the iiiftrument of authority, although others have
been fince coaftrufted by Dicas, Quin, and otheiSy
which are much more Ir.genious and convenient. The
mathematician who examines Dicas's hydrometer, with
its Aiding fcale, by which it is adjufted to the different
temperatures, and points out the condenfations, will
perceive a beautitul and fagacious combination of quan-
tities, which he will find it difficult to bring under
any analytical formula. Perhaps Quin's may have foms
preference in refpeft ot conveniency ; but facile invenlis
addere. Mr Dicas's was original.
As naturalifts became more accuftomed to exaft ob-
fervatlon in every topic of inquiry, the condenfation
which obtains in the mixture of different fubftances be-
came more famiharly known. This evidently affefts
the prefent queftion; and both the excife and the diftillers
are interefted in its accurate dccifion. This occafioned
an application to the Royal Society ; and a moft fcru-
pulous examination of the ftrength of fpirituous liquors
was made by Sir Charles Blagden and Mr Gilpin, ot
which they have given a very particular account in the
PhilosophicalTransactions for 1790 and 1792.
We have taken notice of tliis in the article Specific
S F X
'\t\m» CRAviTV, tt^entioninq fuch circumftances of th? refults
quors. lulted our purpofes of phyfical difcuflion. At pre-
fent we give the 'general refult in the tabk of fpecific
gravity, as peculiarly belon,s;ini^ to Ipirituous liquors,
affording the moft exad account of their denlity in
every itate of dilution of alcohol with water. And
as the relation between the proportion of ingredients
and the denfity is peculiar to every fubftance, fo that
fcarcely any inference can be made from one to another,
the reader will confidcr the tables here given as charac-
teriftic with refped to alcohol. In all folutions of falts
we found that the condenfationincreafes continually with
the dilution, whereas it is greatell when equal bulks of
water and alcohol are mixed : yet we do not confider
this as an exception ; for it is certain, that in the ftrong-
eft brine tlie faline ingredient bears but a fmall pro-
portion to the water — and when we mix two folutions,
the condenfation is greateft when they are nearly equal
in bulk. But we think ourfelves entitled to infer, that
alcohol is not a dilution of a fubftance in a quantity of
water; but that water, in a certain proportion, rtot very
diftant from what we can produce by flow diftillation,
ic- an ingredient of alcohol, or is one of its component
parts, and not merely a vehicle or menftruum. We
therefore imagine that proof fpirit contains nearly equal
bulks of water and ardent fpirits.
The ^reat difficulty in this examination arofe from
the very diflimilar expanfions of water and alcohol by
heat. This determined Sir Charles Blagden to eftimate
the proportions of ingredients by weight, and made it
abfolutely neceffary to give a fcale of fpecific gravity and
iftrength for every temperature. For it muft be remark-
ed, that the queftion (whether in commerce or philofo-
phy) always is, " How many gallons of alcohol and of
water, taken jufl now and mixed together, will pro-
duce a hundred gallons of the fpirit we are exami-
ning ?" The proportion of thefe two will be different
according to the temperature of both. As many mix-
tures therefore muft have been made in each proportion
as there were temperatures conlidered ; but by taking
the ingredients by weight, and examining the denfity
of the compound in one temperature, it is then heated
and cooled, and its change of denfity obferved. Caku-
lation then can tell us the change in the proportion of
the bulks or numbers of galbns in the mixture, by
means of a previous table fhowing the expanfions of
water and of alcohol.
The alcohol feleded for this examination had the
fpecific gravity 0,825. This is not the pureil that can
■foe procured; fome was produced of 0,816, of 0,814,
and 0,81 3, both obtained from rum, from brandy, and
from malt fpirit. We are informed that Dr Black has
obtained it of the fpecific gravity 0,8 by digefl:ing al-
cohol with fixed ammoaiac (muriatic acid united with
lime) made very dry. It dephlegmates alcohol very
■pov/erfully without decompofing it, which always hap-
pens when we ufe cauftic alkali. Alcohol of 0,825
chofen becaule expreffed by a number of eafy manage-
<inent in computation.
The examination commenced by afcertaining the ex-
panfions of water and alcohol. The temperature 60"
of Fahrenheit's fcale was felefted for tlie general tenri-
perature of comparifon, being eafily attainable even in
cold weather, and allov/ing the examinator to operate
*t eafe. The firfl and iaft copartracnts of the tables
[ 699 ]
s P I
contain the iVelghte mi fpecific gravities of al^ohill and Spiritimat
water for every fifth degree of heat from 30** to 100^. Lictuorsv^
From thefc wc have conftruiled the two following little *
tables of expanfion. The bulk of lOOo ounces, pounds,
or other weight of water and of alcohol of the tempera-
ture 60°, occupies the bulks expreffed in the tables for
every other temperature. W ater could not be eafily or
ufefully examined when of the temperature 30°, becauie
it is with great difficulty kept fluid in that temperature.
It is very remarkable, that when it can be fo kept, it
expands inftead pf contracting ; while cooling down
from 35° or thereabouts, and as it approaches to 32",
it expands rapidly. We obferve the fame thing in the
cryftalli^ation of Glauber fait, martial vitriol, and fome
others, which contain much water in their cryftals. We
obferve, on the other hand, a remarkable coritraftioa
in the zeolite juft before its beginning to fwell into
bubbles by a red heat.
Heat
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Bulk of 100,000 ounces.
Of Water.
99910
99906
99914
99932
99962
I 00000
100050
100 I 06
1 00 1 70
IOO24I
100320
I 00404
100500
100608
Diff.
- 4
+ 8
18
30
38
50
56
64
71
79
84
96
108
Of Alcohol
'»95'4
119839
1 20172
1 205 14
12086;
1 2 1 2 1 2
121565
121919
122279
122645
123017
J23393
123773
1241S7
Diff.
319
325
332
342
348
350
353
354
360
366
372
376
380
384
This being premifed, the examination was conduftcfS
in the following manner. It was determined to mix
1 00 parts by weight of pure alcohol with five, ten, fif-
teen, twenty, parts of difl;illed water, till they were
compounded in equal quantities, and then to mix 100
parts of diftiUed water with 95, 90,85, 8o,_5cc. parts
of alcohol, till they were mixed in the proportion of 1 00
to 5. Thus a feries of mixtures would be obtained, ex-
tending froni pure alcohol to pure water. This feries
would be fuch, that the examinations would be mofl:
frequent in the cafes moll ufual in the commerce of
fttong liquors. A fet of phials, fitted with ground
ftoppers, were provided, of fizes fit to hold the intended
mixtures. Thefe mixtures were made by fufpending
the phial to the arm of a very nice balance, in the op-
pofite fcale of which (befides the counterpolfe of the
phial) there was placed the weight too. Spirit was
then poured into the phial till it exa^lly balanced the
weight 100. The weight for the water to be added
was then put into the oppofite fcale, and water was
poured into the phial by means of a flender glafs funnel,
by fmall quantities at a time, and the phial frequently
agitated to promote the mixture. When the additional
weight was exadly balanced, the phial was taken off, its
flopper put in, and leather tied over it, and it was fet byj,
for at leail a month, that the mixture and the whole
4 T 2 procef?
s p r
[ 700 ]
s p I
Sp'tituous procefs of condenfation might be completed. The fame
Liquora. ^ n^etjjojj followed in the mixtures where tlie water
' was predominant.
When the ingredients of thefc mixtures were judged
to have completely incorporated, their fpecific gravity
was examined by weighing with the moll fcrupulous pre-
cifion the contents of a veffel which held 2925 troy
grains of water, of the temperature 60°. The balance
was fo exceedingly fenfible, that the 50th pari of a grain
greatly deranged its pofition when loaded with the
V fcales and their contents. It was conftrufted by Mr
Ramfden, and fome account of its exquifite fenfibility
may be feen in the journal de Phyjiqucy vol. xxxiii.
This quantity of materials was therefore thought abun-
dantly fufficient for afcertaining the denfity of the li-
quor. It is necdlefs to detail the precautions which
were taken for having the contents of the weighing
bottle brought to the precife temperature proper for
the experiment. They were fuch as every perfon con-
verfant with fuch things is accuftomed to take — The
bottle had a flender neck, and being put on a lathe,
a mark was made round it with a diamond. The bot-
tle was filled till the bottom of the hollow furface of
the fluid was in the plane of this mark ; and to judge
cf the accuracy attainable in fiUIncr the bottle, the ope-
ration was feveral times repeated and the contents weigh-
ed, without the difference of 5'^th of a grain in 2925.
The only fource of error which was to be guarded
Sfcgainft was aii -bubbles adhering to the infide of the
bottle, or moifture condenfing (in the experiments with
low temperatures) on the outfide. Both of thefe were
attended to as much as poflible.
This method of determining the fpecific gravity was
preferred to the ufual method, obferving the weight loft
fey a lump of glafs when fufpended in water ; for Mr
Gilpin had been enabled, by means of this nice ba-
lance, to difcover, even in pure water and in alcohol,
8 waot of perfed fluidity. Something like vifcidity
rendered the motion of a lump of glafs ihrouofh the Spmtui
liquor fenfibly fluggifla, fo that when the balance was ^'j""
brought to a level, there was not a perfeft equUibrium
of weights: (See what we have faid of this matter
in Specific Gravity). Mr Gilpin alfo tried the
ingenious inftrument propofcd for fuch experiments
by Mr Ramfden, and defcribed by him in a pamphlet
on this very fubjeil ; and he found the anomalies
of experiment much greater than in this method by
weighing. — Indeed the regular progreffion of weights
to be feen in the annexed tables is an unqueftionable
proof of the fufficlency of the method ; and it has the
evident advantage of all other methods in point of fim-
plicity and praAicability without any uncommon ap.
paratus. Any perfon pofleffed of a good ordinary ba-
lance and a fet of exadl weights may examine all quef-
tlons of this kind, by weighing pure water and the li-
quor which he may have occafion to examine in a com-
mon 6 or 8 ounce phial. For this reafon, it is recom-
mended (in preference to all hydrometers) to the board
of excife to provide this fimple apparatus in every prin-
cipal office.
Every experiment was made at leafl. three times ; and
the mean refult;(which never differed one grain from the
extreme) was taken.
From thefe experiments the annexed tables wete
conttrufted. The firft is the fimple abftradl of the ex-
periments, containing the weights of the contents of
the bottle of every mixture. The fecond contains the
fpecific gravities deduced from them.
We have faid that the experiments appear furprifing-
ly accurate. This we fay on the authority of. the re-
gular progreffion of the fpecific gravity in any of the
horizontal rows. In the feries, for inftance, for the
temperature 600, the greateft anomaly is in the mixture
of 50 parts of fpirit with 100 of water. "The fpecific
gravity is 95864, wanclng 3 or 4 of the regular pro»
greffion. This does not amount to i in 18000^
TABLE
S P I [ 701 ] S P I
TABLE I. — Weights at the different Dej^rees of Temperature,
[eat.
The pure c
Spirit.
00 grains i
)f fpirit to
5 grains
of waier.
Grains.
2519,92
2513,43
2506,75
2500,14
2493,33
/1 5i6
■*4°'-'j3 7
2479,56
2472,75
2465,88
2458,78
2451,67
2444,63
2437,62
2430,33
2423,22
00 grains
)f fpirit to
10 grains
of water.
00 grains
if fpirit to
I T grains
of water.
too grains
af fpirit to
a.o grains
of water.
100 grains'
of fpirit to'
»s grains
of water.
100 grains
of fpirit to
30 grains
of water.
00 grains
of fpirit to
35grains
of water
100 grains
of fpirit to
4ograins
of water.
loograins
of fpirit to
43 grains
of water.
1 00 grains
of fpirit to
3 c grains
of water.
1 00 grains
of fpirit to
55 grains
of water.
loograins
of fpirit to
60 grains
of water.
100 grains]
of Ipirit to
65 grains
of water.
leg.
30
35
40
45
50
60
65
70
7 ?
80
85
90
95
00
Grains.
2487,35
2480,87
2474,30
2467,62
2460,75
2453,80
2447,00
2440, 1 2
H33,23
2426,23
2419,02
241 1,92
2404,90
2397,68
2390,60
Grains.
2548,42
2541,84
2535,4'
2528,75
2521,96
2508,27
2501,53
2494,56
2487,62
2480,45
2473,33
2466,32
2459, '3
2452,13
Grains.
2573,80
2567,26
2560,74
2554,09
2547,47
1 c A d^f\n
2533,83
2526,99
2520,03
2513,08
2506,08
2499,01
2491,99
2484,74
2477,64
Grains, j
2596,6fl
2590,16
2583,66
2577,10
2570,42
^3"3,'^'4
2556,90
2550,22
2543,32
■25^6,39
2529,24
2522,29
2515,28
2508,10
2500,91
Grains.
2617,30
2610,87
2604,50
2597,98
2591,38
2577,95
2571,24
2564,47
2557,61
2550,50
2543,54
2536,63
2529,46
2522,30
Grains.
2636,23
2629,92
2623,56
2617,03
2610,54
2597,22
2590,55
2583,88
2C76,Q3
2569,86
2563,01
2556,1 I
2549,13
2541,92
Grains.
2653,73
2647,47
2641,08
2634,64
2628,21
lf\0 1 rn
2615,03
2608,37
2601,67
2CQ4,8o
J yi'
2587,93
2580,93
2574,02
2567,03
2559,96
Grains.
2669,83
2663,64
2657,23
2650,87
2644,43
2631,37
2624,75
2617,96
261 1,19
2604,29
2597,45
2590,60
2583,65
2576,56
Grains .
2684,74
2678,60
2672,30
2666,04
2659,55
■76 c 3. OA
2646,53
2640,01
2633,32
2626,55
2619,72
2613,02
2606,16
2599,24
2592,14
Grains.
2698,51
2692,43
2686,32
2679,99
2673,64
2667,14
2660,62
2654,04
2647,52
2640,81
2633,99
2627,^9
2620,52
2613,57
2606,5c
Sograint.
.of fpirit to
(OO grains
of water.
Grains.
2711,14
2705,14
2698,94
2692,77
2686,54
2679,98
2673,55
2667,07
2660,63
2653,99
2647,12
2640,60
2633,74
2626,94
2619,75
73 grains
if fpirit to
(OO grains
of water.
Grains.
2722,89
2716,92
2710,81
2704,57
2698,42
2601 .8a
2685,52
2679,15
2672,74
2666,06
2659,36
2652,78
2646,00
2639,25
2632,17
Grains.
2733,87
2727,87
2721,83
2715,62
2709,48
2 702,98
2696,73
2690,32
2684,02
2677,34
2670,69
2664,16
2657,41
2650,63
2643,75
^eat.
TOO grains
of fpirit to
70 grains
of water.
1 so grain.*
!<f fjiiritto
75 grains
iif water.
icograins
of fpirit ti
8o^rain>
of water
(OO grain^
of fj)iric to
Ss grains
ol water.
Grains.
2771,08
2765,32
2759,50
2753,36
2747,27
2741,24
2735,>7
2728,98
2722,75
2716,3 5
2709,76
2703,33
2696,91
2690,33
2683,63
too graii.s
.f fpirit to
90 grains
of water.
100 grains
of fpirit to
95grains
of water.
IOC grains
of fpirit to
100 grains
(.if water.
^5 grains
of fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
yo grains
'f fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
Sfgrain-
of fpirit to
I CO grains
of water.
70 grains
of fpirit to
loa grains
of wa'er.
65 grains
of fpirit to
loograins
of water.
kg.
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
/ J
80
85
90
95
too
Grains.
2744,20
2738,13
2732,24
2726,09
2719,93
271 $)6o
2707,40
2701,05
'694,76
2688,14
2681,5c
2674,95
2668,29
2661,51
2654,76
Grains.
2753,75
2747,74
2741,86
2735,77
2729,64
2723,51
2717,30
27 10,96
2704,64
2698,07
^691, 50
2684,98
2678,49
267 1,82
2664,99
55 grains
if fpirit to
loograins
bf water.
Grains.
2762,72
2756,91
2750,96
2744,82
2738,74
2732,64
2726,52
2720,25
2713,87
2707,49
2700,9^
2694,53
2687,99
2681,34
2674,62
jO grains
i)f fpirit to
too grains
of water.
Grains.
2778,99
2773,22
2767,48
2761,42
2755,37
2743,28
2737,09
273=^,94
2724,64
27 18,12
271 1,86
2705,37
2698,86
2692,25
Grains.
2786,36
2780,59
2774,90
2768,85
2762,95
2750,03
2750,93
2744,86
2738,73
27 32,50
2726,06
2719,74
2713,32
2706,88
2700,33
Grains.
2793,22
2787,54
2781,84
2775,94
2770,14
2704,09
2758,17
2752,21
2746,06
2730,80
2733,53
2727,25
2721,01
2714,61
2708,04
Grains.
2799,85
2794,19
2788,69
2782,99
2777,19
2771,29
2765,40
2759,47
2753,41
274.7, 2^
2740,93
2734,80
2728,59
2722,23
27'5,73
Grains.
2806,61
2801,14
2795,70
2789,99
2784,30
2778,54
2772,7c
2766,73
2760,75
27 <;4,7 3
2748,42
2742,31
2736,23
2729,89
2723,3s
Grains.
2813,85
2808,52
2803,17
2797,45
2791,72
2780,26
2774,43
2768,45
2762,58
2756,43
2750,22
2744,24
2737,98
2731,55
Grains.
2821,35
2816,07
2810,73
2805,08
2799,58
-793,^2
2788,25
2782,62
2776,72
2770,93
2764,87
2758,80
2752,76
2746,57
2740,43
GraiiiS.
2828,90
2823,68
2818,36
2812,93
2807,56
2 80 1 ,89
2796,45
2790,8 r
2785,06
2779,26
2773,33
2767,44
2761,51
2755,34
2749,28
Gra'ns.
2836,39
2831,36
2826,31
2821,00
2815,71
2 8 r n. 7 2
2804,85
2799,38
2793,80
2788,00
2782,14
2776,33
2770,59
2764,57
2758,48
Grains.
2844,16
2839,26
2834,40
2829,28
2824,12
281 8.80
2813,65
2808,31
2802,88
2797,21
2791,52
2785,81
2780,1 1
2774,25
2768,43
leat.
60 grains
of fpirit to
i 00 grain?
of water.
45 grains
of fpirit to
tco grains
of water.
40 grains
of fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
55gr?.in.s
of fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
30 grains
of fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
15 grains
of fpirit to
loograins
of water.
20 j^rsrtns
of fpirit t<
.'OO grains
of water
rj grains
of fpirit to
(Oo grains
of water.
10 grains
of fpirit to
1 00 grains
of water.
5 grains
of fpirit tc
100 grains
of water.
Water.
dcg;
30
35
40
45
5^
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Grains.
2852,03
2847,45
2842,62
2837,64
2832,76
2827,68
2822,65
2817,49
2812,16
2806,75
2801,25
2795,69
2790,13
27 ii 4,36
2778,64
■ Grains
2859,71
2855,32
2850,88
2846,16
2841,52
2836,69
2831,90
i826,90
2821,78
2816,63
281 1,23
2805,85
2800,40
2794,91
2789^32
Grains.
2867,12
2863,1-6
2859,06
2854,67
2850,29
2845,72
2841,10
2836,30
28-31,61
2 8-26,,56
28:2I,.38
28i6,,32
2 8 n ,05
2805,79
2800,25
Grains.
2874,43
2870,87
2867,08
2863,04
2858,96
2854,75
2850,50
2845,97
2841,42
2836,80
2831,92
2827,12
2822,15
2817,08
2811,80
Grains,
2881,34
2878,21
2874,81
2871,22
2867,52
2863,75
2859,87
2855,65
2851,53
2847,14
2842,56
2838,07
2833,38
2828,46
2823,55
Grains
2887,77
2885,06
2882,30
2879,22
2875,98
2872,67
2869, 15
2865,45
2861,63
2857,70
2853,38
2849,28
2844,81
2840,26
2835,30
Grains.
2894,22
2892,07
2889,78
2887,33
2884,57
288 1,69
2878,72
2875,49
2872,06
2868,49
2864,54
2860,86
2856,80
2852,47
2848,18
Grains.
2900,85
2899,31
2897,61
2895,67
2893,58
28)1,11
2888,62
2885,85
2882,90
2879,67
2876,22
2872,88
2869,16
2865,15
2861,12
Grains.
2908,21
2907,45
2906,39
2904,98
2903,39
2901,42
2899,35
2897,09
2894,56
2891,79
2888,73
2885,56
2882,25
2878,71
2875,07
Grains.
2917,19
2916,95
2916,41
2914,42
2913,02
291 1,32
2909,43
2907,33
2905,04
2902,35
2899,55
2896,58
2898,44
2890,04
Grains.
2928,80
2928,99
2928,93
2928,49
2927,81
2926,73
2925,50
2923,90
2922,24
2920, t 7
2917,83
2915,46
291 2,84
2910,02
2906,97
Grains.
2944,53
2945,02
2945,25
2945,20
2944,73
2943,98
2942,98
2941,69
2940,13
2938,33
2936,31
2934,14
2931,77
2929,15
2926,28
Grains.
2967,14
2967,45
2967,40
2967,05
2966,34
2965,39
2964,1 1
2962,66
2960,97
2959,07
2956,94
2954,70
2952,08
2949,34
S P I [ 70a 1 S P X
TABLE II.- — Real fpecific Gravities at the different Temperatures*
Heat,
100 {rraiiih
The pure offpiritto
fpirit. 5 grains
of water.
deg.
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Heat,
deg.
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Heat
deg.
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
LOO
,83896
,83672
,83445
,83214
^82977
,82736
,82500
,82262
,82023
,81780
,81530
,81283
,81039
,80788
»8o343
100 grams
of fpirit to
70 grains
of water
,92563
'92355
,92151
,91937
,91723
,91502
,91287
,91066
,90847
,90617
,90385
,90157
,89925
,89688
'89453
6© grains
of fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
,96209
,96048
'95879
'95705
'95534
'95357
,95181
,95000
,94813
'94623
'94431
,94236
,94042
'93839
,93638
100 grains ioo grain.'
)f f,'irit to of fpirit to
10 grains I15 graini>
of %vater. of wattr.
,84995
,84769
'84539
,84310
,84076
'83834
'83599
,83362
'83124
,82878
,8263 I
,82386
,82142
,81888
,81643
00 grains
of fpirit to
20 grains
of water.
100 grains
wf fpirit to
of water.
,92889
,92680
,92476
,92264
,92050
'91837
,91622
,91400
,91181
,90952
'90723
,90496
,90270
,90037
,89798
,85957
,85729
,85507
,85277
,85042
,84802
,84568
.84334
,84092
,83851
,83603
'83355
,83111
,82860
,82618
100 grain
of fpirit to
80 grains
of water
,93191
,92986
'92783
,92570
'92358
,92145
'91933
'91715
'91493
,91270
,91042
,90818
,90590
,90358
,90123
55 grams 50 grains
of fpiritto of fpirit to
100 gram;
cjf water.
,96470
'96315
,96159
'95993
,95831
,95662
'95493
'953^8
,94957
,94768
'94579
'94389
,94196
m999
1 00 grain
of water.
,96719
'96579
'96434
,96280
,961 26
,95966
,95804
^9S^i5
,95469
,95292
,95111
'94*932
'94748 1
'94563
'94368
,86825
,86587
,86361
,86131
,85902
,85664
,85430
.85193
,84951
,8471©
,84467
,84221
'83977
'83724
'83478
(oo grains
of fpirit t(
85 grains
of water.
'8758;
'87357
,87^34
,86907
,86676
,86441
,86208
,85976
'85736
'85493
,85248
,85006
,84762
,84511
,84262
100 grains
of fpiiit to
90 grains
of water
'93474
'93274
,93072
,92859
,92647
,92436
,92225
,92010
,91793
,91569
'91340
,91119
,90891
,90662
,90428
45 grair.,-
of fpirit to
100 grain:
of water,
,96967
,96840
,96706
,96563
,96420
,96272
,96122
,95962
,95802
'95638
,95467
.95297
.95123
,94944
.94759
'93741
.9354'
.93341
'93'3i
,92919
,92707
,92499
,92283
,92069
,91849
,91622
,91403
.91177
,90949
,90718
100 grain'
)f fpirit ti
25 grains
of water.
ICO grain'
of fpirit to
30 grait)s
of water.
,88282
,88059
,87838
,87613
.87384
,87150
,86918
,86686
,86451
,86212
,85966
'85723
,85483
,85232
,84984
(OO grains
of fpirit ti
95 grains
of water.
40 gram
offpiritto
100 grain
of water,
,97200
,97086
,96967
,96840
,96708
^9^515
.96437
,96288
,96143
.95987
,95826
.95667
,95502
.95328
'95'52
93991
93790
93592
93382
93177
92963
92758
92546
92333
921 1 1
91891
91670
91446
91221
90992
,88921
,88701
,88255
,88030
,87796
,87568
.87337
,87105
,86864
,86623
,86380
.86139
,85896
,85646
too gram
of fpirit to
100 grains
of water.
,^5 grains
of fpirit t
too grail
of water.
,97418
,97319
,97220
,97110
,96995
,96877
,96752
,96620
,96484
,96344
,96192
,96046
,95889
,95727
'95556
94222
94025
938^7
93621
93419
93208
93002
92794
92580
92364
92142
91923
91705
91481
91252
f fpirit to
100 graini
of water.
too grains
of fpirit ^^
3.'> gr&m^
of water.
,89511
,89294
,89073
,88626
.88393
,88169
'87938
,87705
,87466
,87228
,86984
,86743
,86499
,86254
9J grains
of fpirit to
loo grains
of water.
'94447
,94249
,94058
,93860
'93658
'93452
'93247
,93040
,92828
,92613
.92393
,92179
,91962
.9 ' 740
.91513
30grauis 2 5 grains
.97635
-97556
,97472
■97384
97284
97181
.97074
96959
96836
,96708
96568
.96437
96293
96139
95983
:f fpiritto
100 grain,-
of water.
,97860
,97801
'97737
,97666
'97589
,97500
,97409
.97309
.97203
,97086
,96963
,96843
,96711
,96568
96424
100 grain
of fpirit to
40 grains
of water
,90054
,89839
,89617
,89396
,89174
,88945
,88720
,88490
,88^4
,88018
,87776
.87541
,87302
,87060
,86813
90 grains
of fpirit t
100 grains
of water.
.94675
,94484
,94295
,94096
'93897
,93696
'93493
'93285
,93076
,92865
,92646
,92432
,92220
,91998
,91769
70 gram
of fpirit ro
100 grail,
of watei .
98108
98076
'98033
,97980
,97920
'97847
'97771
,97688
'97596
'97495
.97385
,97271
'97153
,97025
,96895
ISO gram
)f fpirit to
45 grains
of water
leo gi aiipis 100 grains
f fpirit toof fpitit to
,90558
'90345
,90127
,89909
,8968
'89458
,89232
,89006
,88773
,88538
,88301
,88067
'87827
,87586
,87340
83 grains
of fpirit t
too grain
of water
94920
94734
94547
94348
94149
93948
93749
9ZS^^
93337
93'32
92917
92700
92491
92272
92047
5 grains
offpiritto
J'-o gram
water.
,98412
98397
,98373
.98338
.98293
,98239
,98176
,98106
,98028
.97943
.97845
.97744
,97637
.97523
,97401
50 grain,'
of water.
,91023
,908 1 1
,90596
,90380
,90160
.89933
,89707
,89479
,89252
,89018
,88781
,88551
,88312
,88069
,87824
80 graini
of fpiiit t
100 grains
of wate
95173
94988
94802
94605
94414
94213
94018
93822
936 16
93413
93201
92989
92779
9^562
92346
Sr, grains
100 grains
of fpirit to
60 jirains
of water, of water.
.91449
,91241
,91026
,90812
.90596
,90367
,90144
,89920
,89695
,89464
,89225
,88998
,88758
,88521
,88271
75 grains
of fpirit tt:
roo grains
of water.
o grains
■fpirit to
DC grains
of water
,98804
,98804
.98795
98774
98745
,98702
,98654
,98594
98527
98454
,98367
98281
,98185
98082
97969
'95429
,95246
,95060
'94871
,94683
,94486
,94296
'94099
,93898
.93695
,93488
,93282
'93075
,92858
,92646
,91847
,91640
,91428
,91211
'9-997
,90768
,90549
,90328
,90104
,89872
,89639
.89409
'89173
,88937
,88691
70 grains
of fpirit to
100 grain
of water.
j grains
of fpirit t(
100 grain
of water.
'99334
'99344
'99345
.99338
,99^^^
,99284
,99244
,99194
'99134
,99066
,98991
,9891 2
,98824
,98729
,98625
,95681
,95502
,95328
■.95143
,94958
.94767
'94579
.94388
.94193
.93989
.93785
,93582
'93381
.93170
'92957
icogiai
of fpirit
65 graii
of wate
,9221'
,9200;
'9179:
,9158.
.9137'
,91 14.
,9092
,9070
,9048,
,9025;
,9002
.8979,
,8955;
,8932
,8908:
Water.
00090
00094
00086
00068
00038
00000
99950
99894
99830
99759
99681
99598
99502
99402
65 grail
of fpirit
100 graj
of wate
'9594
'9377
,9560
'9542
'95243
'9505:
,9487^
,9468(
,9450c
.9430'
,94103
,93902
.937oi
.9349:
.9329^
>jrltuevi8
iqucrs.
S P I t 7*
We formerly obferved, that the feriea of mixtures
chofen by Sir Charles Blagden, for the advantages at-
tending it in making the experiment, was not fuited for
folving the queftl®ns which commonly occur in the fpi-
rlt biifinefs. He accordingly fuggefts the propriety of
forming tables in a convenient feries from the data fur-
jiilhed by thefe experiments, indicating the proportion
of ingredients contained in fome conftant weight or
bulk.
To facilitate the conftruftton of fuch tables, it is
tieceffary to confider the f«bjeft in the moft general
manner. Therefore let a reprefent the conftant num-
ber 100. Let iv and J reprefent the quantities of water
and fpirit by weight in any mixture ; that is, the
pounds, ounces, or grains of eachi Let x reprefent
the quantity per cent, of fpirits alfo by weight ; that
is, the number of pounds of fpirits contained in lOo
pounds of the mixture ; and let y be its quantity per
cent, in gallons, or the number of gallons contained in
ipo gallons of the unmixed ingredients. Let m be the
bulk of a pound of fpirit of any given temperature, the
bulk of a pound of water of the fame temperature being
accounted i.
Then <w-\-s is the weight of a;iy mixture, and w-j-
m s is its bulk.
We have the following proportions : I. w-j- j : j = « :
tCf and X = _^_L (Equation ift); and hence j may be
found when x the per centage in weight is given, for s
s: ^ajL (Equation 2.)
]
S P I
?. «;+OTx:wjr=a : j', and jy:
(E.
alfo in fuch fort, that the eye fliall readily catch their Splrltuour
diftance from the principal line A B. Let GPL be a
thin flip of whalebone, of uniform breadth and thick- ■— ^ '
nefs, alfo divided into equal parts properly diftinguifh*
able. Laftly, let there be a pin P fixed near the mid-
dle of the principal line AB.
Now fuppofe that a value of s is to be interpolated
by means of an obferved fpecific gravity not in the ta-
ble. Look for the neareft to it, and note its diftance
from the preceding and the following. Let thefe be
PH and PK on the flexible fcale. Alfo take notice of
the lines K lo and H lo, whofe diftances from AB
are equal to the conftant difference between the fuccef-
five values of S, or to any ealily eftimated multiple of it
(as in the prefent cafe we have taken lo and lo, in-
ftead of 5 and 9, the running difference of Sir Charleg
Blagden's table). Then, leaning the middle point P of
the whalebone on the pin P in the board, bend it, and
place it flantwife till the points K and H fall fome-
where on the two parallels K 10 and H ic. No matter
how oblique the pofition of the whalebone is. It will
bend in fuch a manner that its different points of divi-
fion (reprefenting different fpecific gravities) will fall
on the parallels which reprefent the correfponding va-
lues of s. We can fay that all this may be done in lefs
than half a minute, and lefs time than is neceffary fqr
infpefting a table of proportional parts, and not the
tenth part of that neceflary for interpolating by fecon/l
differences. Yet it is exaQ: enough (if of the lize of a
duodecimo page) for interpolating three decimal places.
This is ten times more exa6l than the prefent cafe re-
quires. To return from this digreflion.
Having thus found s in the table, we get x or y by.'
quation 3d) ; and s may be found when jy, the per centage the equations
and
.=y.
in gallons, is given ; for s
(Equation 4th.)
The ufual queftions which can be folved from thefe
experiments are,
I . To afcertain the quantity of fpirits per cent, in
bulk from obfervation of the fpecific gravity, or to tell
how many gallons of fpirit are in 100 gallons of mix-
ture.
Look for the fpecific gravity in the table, and at
the head of the column will be found the lu andj cor-
refponding. If the precife fpecific gravity obferved is
not in the tables, the s muft be found by interpola-
tion. And here it is proper to remark, that taking the
fimple proportional parts of fpecific gravity will not be
fufnciently exaft, efpecially near the beginning or the
end of the table, becaufe the denfities correfponding to
the feries of mixtures do not change uniformly. We,
muft have recourfe to the general rules of Interpolation,
by means of firft and fecond differences, or be provided
with a fubfidiary table of differences, A good deal of
praftice in computations of this kind fuggefted the fol-
lowing method of making fuch interpolations with great
difpatch and abundant accuracy. On a plate of wood,
Plate or metal, or ftj'ff card-paper, draw a line EF (fig. 3.),.
Lxxii. as a fcale of equal parts, reprefenting the leading or
equable arithmetical feries of any table. (In the pre-
fent cafe EF is the fcale on which i is computed.) —
Through every point of divifion draw the perpendicui
lars B A, EC, F D, &c. Make one of them AB
more confpicuous than the reft, and diftinguifh the others
But here a material circumftance occurs. The weight ,
of alcohol J, and its per centage was rightly deter-
mined by the fpecific gravity, becaufe it was interpolated'
between two values, which were experimentally con-
nedled with this fpecific gravity. But in making the
tranfitlon from .\- to j, we only give the per centaye
in gallon's before mixture, but not the number of gal-
lons of alcohol contained in an hundred gallons of mix-
ed liquor. For when we have taken a — y and y inftead
of IV and j, they will indeed make a fimilar compound
when mixed, becaufe the proportion of their ingredients
is the fame. But they will not make 100 gallons of
this compound, becauic there is a fhrinking or condenfa-
tion by mixture, and the fpecific gravity by which we
interpolated s is the phyfical or real fpecific gravity
^"+^ the
correfponding to lu and s ; while
fpecific
n) X ms
gravity implied in the value of y, is the mathematical
denfity independent on this condenfation. Since there-
fore J, together with a — y, make lefs than ico gal-
lons of the compound, there muft in 1 00 gallons of it
be more alcohol than is expreffed by y.
Let G be the mathematical fpecific gravity (~
""^"^■^ ^ and ^ the phyfical or real obferved fpecific
nv ■\- m .
gravity (which we cannot exprefs algebraically) '; and
let % be the gallons of alcohol really contained in ico
gallons of the compound. The bulk being inverfely as
the denfity or fpecific gravity, it 13 evident , that. the.
S P I
SSplriwiu bulk of the compound muft be to loo gallons as to
-Liquors. Q j^^^ fm^jg ^^^it to make it ftill up to loo
gallons, we muft increafe it in the proportion of G to
g. And becaufe this augmentation muft be of the
fame ftrength with this contra£led liquor, both ingredi-
ents muft be increafed in the proportion of G to g, and
we muft have G;g —y :z, and z = g X^. Now, in-
G
C 704 1
s P I
If not, we mull In*
ftead of yy write a
tn s
and inftead of write
'W-\- t
which are refpeftively equal to them.
This
gives U3 z = ^ a X — ' X , = g aX — --,
All this will be illuftrated by an example.
Suppofe that we have obferved the fpecific gravity of
a fpirituous liquor of the temperature 60° to be 0,941 28.
XiOoklng into Sir Charles Blagden's table, we find the
grarities 0,94018 and 0,94296, and the s correfpond-
insr to them is 80 and 75, the water in each mixture
being 100. By interpolation we obtain the s corre-
fponding to 0,94128, ^1%. 78. At this temperature m
s= — \ — , = 1,21212, and mj= 94,54545. There-
0,025
fore a = 0,94128 X 100 X -^ll^liii-., = 49,097, or
194,54545
very nearly 50.
We have feen even perfons not unacquainted with
fubjefts of this kind puzzled by this fort of paradox.
z is faid to be the per centage of fpirit in the com-
pound. The compound has the fame proportion of in-
gredients when made up to loo gallons as before, when
y was faid to be its per centage, and yet y and 2 are not
the fame. The faft is, that although » is the number
of gallons of alcohol really contained in 100 gallons of
the compound, and this alcohol is in the fame propor-
tion as before to the water, this proportion is not that
of 50 to 50 : for if the ingredients were feparated again,
there would be 50 gallons of alcohol and 52,876 of
water.
The proportion of the ingredients in their feparate
m s ...
, which
iv-^-ms
- For the prcfent example
iv-\r s '■
y will be foand 48,599, and a — y, or the water per
cent. 51,401, making loo gallons of unmixed ingre-
dients. We fee then that there has been added 1,398
gallons of alcohol ; and fince both ingredients are aug-
mented in the proportion of G to g, there have alfo
been added 1,478 of water, and the whole addition for
making up the 100 gallons of compound is 2,876
gallons ; and if the ingredients of the compound were
feparate, they would amount to 102,876 gallons. This
might have been found at the firft, by the proportion,
G:g — G = 100 : (The addition. J
The next queftion which ufually occurs in bufincfs is
to find what denfity will refult from any propofed mix*
tare per gallon. This queftion is folved by means of the
equation = s. In this examination it will be
m{a^y)
moft convenient to make iv= a. Tf the value of s
found in this manner falls pn a value in the tables> we have
ftate is had by the 3d Equation y:=:a
is equivalent to G a
SpWtllQ
-Liquop
the fpecific gravity by infpe(SHon.
terpolate.
JV.B. The value of w, which is employed in thefe rc-
duftions, varies with the temperature. It is always ob-
tained by dividing the fpecific gravity of alcohol of that
temperature by the fpecific gravity of water of the
fame temperature. The quotient Is the real fpecific
gravity of alcohol for that temperature. Both of thefe
are to be had in the firft and laft copartments of Sir
Charles Blagden's table.
Thefe operations for particular cafes give the anfwerg
to particular occafional queftlons. By applying them
to all the numbers in the table, tables may be conftruft.
ed for folving every queftion by infpedion.
There is another queftion which occurs moft fre-
quently in the excife tranfaaions, and alfo in all com-
pofitlons of fpirituous liquors, viz. What ftrcngth will
refult from a mixture of two compounds of known
ftrcngth, or mixing any compound with water ? To
folve queftlons of this kind by the table fo often quo-
ted, we muft add into one fam the water per gallon of
the different liquors. In Hke manner, take the fum of
the fplrlts, and fay, as the fum of the waters is to that
of the alcohols, fo is a to f ; and operate with a and /
as before.
Analogous to this is the queftion of the duties.
Thefe are levied on proof fpirit ; that Is, a certain du-
ty is charged on a gallon of proof fpirit ; and the gan-
ger's bufinefs Is to difcover how many gallons of proof
fpirit there is in any compound. The fpeclfication of
proof fpirit in our excife laws is exceedingly obfcurc
and complex. A gallon weighing 7 pounds 13 ounce*
(at 55«) is accounted 1 to 6 under proof. The gal-
Ion of water contains 58476 grains, and this fpirit is
54688. Its denfity therefore Is 0,93523 at 55^*, or (as
may be inferred from the table) 0,9335 60°. This
denfity correfponds to a mixture of 100 grains of wa-
ter with 93,457 of alcohol. If this be fuppofed to re-
fult from the mixture of 6 gallons of alcohol with i of
water (as is fuppofed by the defignation of i to 6 un-
der proof), the gallon of proof fpirlts confifts of loo
parts of fplrits by weight, mixed with 75 parts of
water. Such a fpirit will have the denfity 0,0163
nearly.
This being premifed, in order to find the gallons of
proof fpirlts In any mixture, find the quantity of alco-
hol by weight, and then fay, as 100 to 175, fo is the
alcohol in the compound to the proof fpirit that may-
be made of it, and for which the duties muft be paid.
We have confidered this fubjeft at fome length, be-
caufe it is of great importance in the fpirit-trade to have
thefe circumftances afcertained with precifion ; and be-
caufe the fpecific gravity is the only fure criterion that
can be had of the ftrcngth. Firing of gunpowder, er
producing a certain bubble by fhaking, are very vague
tefts ; whereas, by the fpecific gravity, we can very fe-
curely afcertain the ftrength within one part in 500, as
will prefently appear.
Sir Charles Blagden, or Mr Gilpin, have publifhed * a » pi.,
moft copious fet of tables, calculated from thefe valu. rw^j 7<i
able experiments. In thefe, computations are made for
eveiy unit of the hundred, and for every degree of the
thermometer. But thefe tables are ftill not in the moft
commodious form for bufinefs. Mr John Wilfon, an
ingenious gentleman refuiing at Dundee, has juft pub-
« , liftied
S P I
[ 705 1
s p r
n»m lilKed at Edinburgh tables fomevvliat finular, founded
on the fame experiments. Both of thefe tables (how
the quantities by meafure correfponding to evei^y unit
by weight of Sir Charles Blagden's experiments, and
for every dee:ree of temperature. 'They alfo fhow the
J>er centage of alcohol, and the condenfation or the quan-
tity loft by mixture. But as they both retain the ori-
ginal feries of parts by weight, which is very unufual,
the fpirit traders will find confiderable difficulty in ma-
kincr ufe of them. Retaining this feries alfo caufes all
the per centage numbers (which are the only intereftiojj
ones to the trader) to be fraAional, and no anfwer can
be had without a double interpolation.
We have therefore calculated a table in the form in
which it muil; be moft ufeful and acceptable to thofe
who are engaged in the fpirit trade, fhowinp; at once
the fpecific gravity which refults from any proportion of
admixture in hundredth parts of the whole- This an-
fwers immediately the chief queftions in the terms in
which they are ufually conceived and propofed. The
. two firft or leading columns fhow the proportion in gal
Ions, pints, or other cubic mcafures, of the mixture, the
-whole {jUantity being always 100. The fecond column
fhows the correfponding fpecific gravity : fo that we
can either find the proportion of the ingredients by the
obferved fpecific gravity, or find the grav ty refulting S-prltu^im
from any proportion oi the ingredients. lA third co- ^'yiors.^
lumn (hows how much the hundred meafares of the two '
ingredients fall ihort of making an hundred meafures of
the compound. A fimpic proportion, which can be
done without the pen, will determine what part of this
deficiency muft be made up by fpii-it, 'Hie ufe of this
table muft now be fo familiar to the reader's mind,
that we need not give further inftrudions about it.
This is followed by another fimilar table, givingr an
immediate anfwer to the moft ufaal queftion, " Kow
many meafures of alcohol are there really contained in
100 meafures i This is alfo accompanied by a column of
condenfation. It would have been fomewhat more ele-
gant, had the fpecific gravities in this table made the
equable feries and leading column. But we did not ad-
vert to this till we had computed the table, and the la-
bour was too great to be repeated for flight reafons.
The tables are only for the temperature 60''. I'o this
the fpirituous hquors can always be brought in thefe cli-
mates ; and in cafes where we cannot, a moment's in-*
fpeAion of Sir Charles Blagden's table will point out'
very nearly (or exaftly, by a fhort computation) the
necefiary corre£lions.
Cf'mpoiu.d.
specific
ZIond. 1
per
cetU,
Ciinipourd.
Specific
Ilond.
per
cent.
Compiiunii.
boecific
oDccmc
Cond'
per ..
cent. V
S.
w.
Gravity.
S.
w.
Gravity.
S.
w.
Gravity.
100
0
O5023O
'
66
34
0,9073
33
67
-^»3
99
I
0,02 Y 0
0,19
65
35
1 6
32
68
o.o6ci
2.3
98
2
n 8206
64
36
0,91 16
2,6
.■fi
69
0,9662
2,2
97
3
0,4
63
37
0,9137
2,6
30
70
0,9673
2,1
96
4
0,8060
0,5
62
38
0,9157
2,6
29
71
0,9683
2,
95
5
0,8387
0,6
61
39
0,9177
2.7
28
72
0,9693
1.9
94
6
0,8413
0,7
60
40
0,9198
2.7
27
73
0,9704
i'9
93
7
0,8439
0,8
59
41
0,9218
2,7
26
74
0,9713
1,8
92
8
0,8465
0,9
58
42
0,9238
2,7
25
75
0,9724
i>7
91
9
0,8491
I,
57
43
0,9257
2 7
24
76
0,9734
1,6
90
10
0,8516
1,1
^56
44
0,9277
2,8
23
77
0,9744
1,6
89
II
0,8542
1,2
55
45
0,9296
2,8
22
78
0,9754
1,5
88
12
0,8567
^'3
54
46
0,93*6
2,8
21
79
0,9763
1,4
87
13
0,8592
i>4
53
47
0,9335
2.8
20
80
0,9773
i»3
86
14
0,8617
i»5
52
48
0,9353
2,8
19
81
0,9783
1,2
85
15
0,8641
1,5
51
49
0,9371
0,9388
2>8
18
82
0,9793
1,2
84
16
0,8666
1,6 •
50
50
2,8
17
83
0,9802
1,1
83
17
0,8690
i>7
49
51
c,94c6
2,8
16
84
0,9812
I,
82
18
0,^713
48
52
0,9423
2,8
15
85
0,9822
0,9
81
^9
0.8737
i>7
47
53
0,9440
2,8
14
86
0,9832
0,9
80
20
0,876c
1,8
46
54
0,9456
2,7
13
87
0,9842
0.8
79
21
0,8764
1.9
45
• 55
0,9473
2,7
12
88
89
0 9853
0,7
78
22
0,8807
2,
44
56
0,9489
2,7
J I
0,9863
0,7
77
23
0,8830
2,
43
57
0,9505
2,7
10
90
0,9874
0,6
76
M.
0,8853
2,1
42
,58
0,9520
2,7
9
91
0,9886
0,5
75
25
0,^^876
2,1
41
59
0,9535
2,6
8
92
0,9897
0,4
74
26
0,8899
2,2
40
60
0,9549
2,6
7
93
0,9909
0,3
; 73
27
0,8921
2,2
39
61
0,9563
2,6
6
94
0,9921
0,3
. 72
28
0,8944
2.3
38
62
0,9577
2,5
5
95
0,9933
. 0,2
71
29
0,8966
2,3
37
63
0,9590
2,5
■ 4
96
0,9946
0,1
70
30
0,8988
2,4
36
64
0,6603
2,4
3
97
0,9959
0,07
69
31
0,9010
2»5
35
65
0,9616
2,4
2
98
0,9972
0,03
68
3^
1 0,9031
2,5
34
66
0,9628
2,3
1
99
0,9985
0,01
67
33
1 0,9053
2,5
33
67
0,9640
2>3
0
100
1,0000
OjOO
66
34
' 0,9073
2,5
Vol. XVII. Fart II.
4 U
SpJr,
S P I
SpirituOUj
i,iquor<.
Spir.
fier
Gravity.
Contr.
■cent-.
I OO
0,82 ^00
00
0,82629
0,18
0.83 1 42
0. 2 '1
y 1
0.82140
q6
0 r *7
'-''57
95
0 8dOj8
W J V/ i-l v_/ _J. l_l
0,68
'-''''433y
0,8
yi
0 r»
yz
Pi R i nopi
I 0 1
01
Q 8 CI'72
I.I I
no
1,21
80
oy
pi Q r *7 PI ,1
Tot
88
87
^'39
0,86228
86
T r /I
8c
n 86*7 2*7
o,ou / -5 /
I 6t
8a
0 86ri8*7
i- ,07
8^
0.8t23 C
1 "74
82
0 8*7 /iH 1
I 8t
J. . 0 1
81
0 Vtin(\
1,88
80
0.8*7060
/ y y
jy4
ly
0,88207
2.
78
o.88d/i c
2.0 c
/ /
0 886*76
2, 1 1
76
0 fiRnon
0 y wy
'2. T *7
0 ftn T /1 0
vj,oy .1 i|-o
2, 22
74
0.8026*7
2,26
7-3
o,8q CO?
2,3 I
72
0,89815
2,36
71
0,90035
2,41
70
0,90241
2>49
69
0,90464
2,47
68
0,90675
2,51
67
0,90885
2,55
66
0,91095
2,59
I
; 706
]
Sj'ir.
Specific
Contr.
per
ravi.y.
cent.
66
t->,y i*j95
2,59
6c
"5
0,9 1 306
2,62
64
o.n t r t t
62
"3
t^>y 17 14
2,00
62
0 0 T r> f /t
^>y -ly * 4
z ,u 0
61
0 n ^ T T 0
2,70
60 ■
0 A 0 0 Q
2,7*
en
2,74
c8
2,76
CI
57
z 0 0 -J
2,77
c6
^'93072
2,70
cc
0.02 9 rS
•7 80
.^,00
'-^'y343"
■^,01
C 2
x,o 1
r\ n •> *7 A
Z,o2
5^
^59393^
2,0 I
CO
0 O/I T 7 R
2,79
Hy
0 0 /I 0 r\ ^5
0,94293
2,70
48
iff
'-'>y4455
2,76
47
0,94.0 1 0
2>73
46
'yT /'-"-'
z,7 1
/I r
45
0,94923
2,70
44
0.95074
2,0o
43
^>y5 ^ 9
4^
o,953"4
2,63
/I t
4*
0,95502
2,60
/to
0,95636
2,50
2 n
39
0,95700
2,54
3R
0,95 »94
2,49
37
0,96019
2,46
30
0,96 ! 41
2,43
35
0,96258
2,38
34
0,96371
2,33
33
0,96481
2,27
S P I
Spir.
.per
cent.
Specific
G'l'a vity.
Contr
33
0 1 Q r
o,yu .^0 X
2,27
3 2
0,90507
7,f2 1
3 '
0,9*^691
2,15
30
0,96793
2,00
29
0,96894
2,00
28
^>93
27
0,97089
T R<
1,00
zo
0.97 1 85
i>79
25
0,97280
i'7i
24
o>97374
1,63
23
0,9746^
1,50
2 2
0,97561
1,40
2 f
0,97654
20
0,97747
1,32
'9
0,97841
1,24
I 0
0,97936
i>i7
^7
0,98032
i,oo
I u
o',98 1 29
X ,00
T r
^5
f~\ A 8 7
o,y 0 ^ z 0
'93
1 A
' 4
0,903 20
>°5
^ 3
o,9°43o
1 2
0,98534
»7i
0,90040
,00
t 0
X \J
0,90740
I^t
9
0,90050
8
0,9^973
'43
7
0,9909^.
»34
6
0,9921 I
,25
5
0,99334
,'8
4
0,99461
,12
3
0,99591
'7
2
0,99725
>3
X
0,99861
»i
0
1,00000
,0
" In the firft table, of which the fole intCHtion is to
point out the proportion of ingredients, the fpecific gra-
vities are computed only to four places, which will al-
ways give the anfwer true to -g-o^oth part In the laft,
which is more immediately interefting to the merchant
ih his tranfaftions with the excife dffice,^ the computa-
tion is carried one place further
The confideration of the firft of thefe two tables will
furnifh fome ufeful information to the reader who is in-
terefted m the philofophy of chemical mixture, and who
endeavours to inveftigate the nature of thofc forces
which connedl the particles of tangible matter. Thefe
vary with the diftance of the particle ; and therefore
the law of their aftion, hke that of univerfal gravitation,
is to be difcovered by meafuring their fenfible effefts at
their various diftances. Their change of diftance is
feen in the change of denfity or fpfecific gravity.
Did the individual denfities of the water and fpirit
remain unchanged by mixture, the fpecific gravity would
change by equal differences in the feries of mixtures on
which this table is conftrufted ; for the bulk being al-
ways the fame, the change of fpecific gravity mnft be
the difference between the weight of the gallon of wa-
t«r which is added and that of the gallon of fpirit which
is taken, out. The whole difference of the fpecific gra-
vitles of fpirits and water being 1,750 parts in 10,000,
the augmentation by each fucceffive change of a meafure
of fpirit for a meafure of water would" be the jooth
part of this, or 17,5. But, by taking the fucceffive
differences of denfity as they occur in the table, we fee
that they are vaftly greater in the firft additions of wa-
ter, being then about 29; after which they gradually
diminifti to the medium quaptity 17-1, when water and
fpirits are mixed in nearly equal bulks. The differen-
ces of fpecific gravity ftill diminish, and are reduced to
9, when about 75 parts of water are mixed with 25 of
fpiiit. The differences now increafe again ; and the
laft, when 99 parts of water are mixed with i part of
fpirit, the difference from the fpecific gravity of pure
water is above 14.
The mechanical effeft, therefore, of the addition of
a meafure of water to a great quantity of fpirit is great-
er than the fimilar effedl of the addition of a meafure of
fpirits to a great quantity of water. What we call me-
chanical effeft is the local motion, the change of diftance
of the particles, that the corpufcular forces may again
be in equilibrio. Obferve, too, that this change is
greater than in the proportion of the diftance of the
3 particles|
S P I [ 7
particles ; for tlie denlity of water is to that of fpirits
ntarly as 6 to 5, and the changes of fpeciiic gravity are
nearly as 6 to 3.
We alfo fee that the changing caufe, which produces
the abfolute condenfation of each ingredient, ceafes to
operate when 75 parts of water have been mixed with
25 of alcohol : for the variation of fpeciiic cravity,
from diminiftiing comes now to increafe ; and therefore,
in this particular ftate of compofition, is equable. Things
are now in the fame ttate as if we were mixing two
fluids which did not aft on each other, but were mutu-
ally dilTeminated, and whofe fpecific gravities are nearly
a:3 9 to 10 ; for the variation 9 of fpecific gravity may
be confidered as the looth part of the whole difference,
in the fame manner as 17,5 would have been had water
and alcohol fuftained no contraftion. *
The imagination is greatly affifted in the contempla-
tion of geemetrical quantity by exhibiting it in its own
form. Specific gravity, being an expreffion of denfity
(a notion purely geometrical), admits of this illullra-
tion.
Therefore let AB (fig. 4.) reprefent the bulk of any
mixture of water and alcohol. I'he fpecific gravity of
water may be reprefented by a line of fuch a length,
that ABfhall be the difference between the gravities of
alcohol and water. Suppofe it extended upwards, to-
wards <7, till B is to as io,ooo to 8250. It will
fuit our piirpofe better to reprefent it by a parallelo-
gram a BFe, of any breadth BF. In this cafe the dif-
ference of the fpecific gravities of alcohol and water
will be expreffed by the parallelogram ABFE. If there
were no w'hange produced in the denfity of one or both
.ingredients, the fpecific gravity of the compound would
increafe as this parallelogram does, and AGHE would
be the augmentation cirrefponding to the mixture of
the quantity AG of alcohol with the quantity GB of
water, and fo of other mixtures. But, to exprefs the
augmentation of denfity as it really obtains, we muft
do it by fome cuivilineal area DABCHD, which va-
ries at the rate determined by Sir Charles Blagden's ex-
periments. This area muft be precifely equal to the
rectangle ABFE. It muft therefore fall without it in
forae places, and be deficient in others. Let DMHKC
Tdc the curve w'hich conefponds with thefe experiments.
It is evident to the mathematical reader, that the ordi-
nates LM, GH, IK, &c. of this curve are in the ulti-
mate ratio of the differences of the obferved fpeciiic gra-
vities. If A-<>a/^, &c. are each —5, the little fpaces
A*' ^D, <x p: b'^, &c. will be precifely equal to the diffe-
rences of the fpeciP.c gravities 0,8250; 0,8387; 0,85 1 6;
6cc. correfponding to the different mixtures of water
and alcohol. The curve cut^ the fide of the parallelo-
gram in K, where the ordinate GK exprefles the mean
variation of denfity 0,0017,5. IK is the fmalleft va-
riation. The condenfation rhay be expreffed by draw-
ing a curve dmGkf parallel to DMGKF, making
D J = AE. 'I he condenfation is now reprefented by
the fpaces comprehended between this laft cui-ve and
the abfciffa AGB, reckoning thofe negative which lie
On the other fide of it. This fhows us., not only that
the condenfation is greateft in the mixture AG X GB,
but alfo that in mixing- fuch a compound with another
AIXlB, there is a rarefaftion. Another curve ANPOB
may be drawn, of which the ordinates LN, GP, lO,
&c. are proportional to the areas AL m d, AG/»D>
07 1 S P L
AH-GwD (rrAGw^/— Gl-f), &c. This curve fhows Spirltuoui
the whole condenfation. l.iqu' r»
This manner of reprefenting the fpecific gravities ofg j^^Hj^^^^
mixtures will fuggeft many curious inferences to fuch as r
will confider them in the manner of Bofcovich, with a
view to afcertain the natui-e of the forces of cohefion
and chemical affinities: And this manner of viewing the
fubjeft becomes every day more promifing, in confe-
quence of our improvements in chemical knowledge ;
for we now fee, that mechanifm, or motive forces,' are
the caufes of chemical aftion. We fee in almoft every
cafe, that chemical affinities are comparable with me-
chanical preffures; becaufe the converlion of a liquid in-
to a vapour or gas is prevented by atmofpheric pref-
fure, and produced by the great chertiical agent heat.
The aftion of heat, therefore, or of the caufe of heat,
is a mechanical aftion, and the forces are common me-
chanical forces, with which we are familiarly acquaint-
ed. .
" It may be alfo remarked in the column of contrac-
tions, that in the beginning the contra£lions augment
nearly in the proportion of the quantity of fpirits (but
more flowly) ; whereas, in the end, the contraftions are
nearly in the duplicate proportion of the quantity of
water. This circumftance deferves the confideration
of the philofopher. We have reprefented it to the eye
by the curve a-.g h d."
We fhould here take fome notice of the attempt made
to elude fome part of the duties, by adding fome ingre-
dient to the fpirits. But our information on this fub-
jeft is not very exaft ; and befides it would be doing
no fervice to the trader to put fraud more in his power.
There are fome falls which make a very great augmen-
tation of denfity, but they render the liquor unpala-
table. Sugar is frequently ufcd with this view ; 1 6 grains
of refined fugar difiolved in looo grains of proof fpirits
gave it no fufpicious tafle, and increafed its Ipecific gra-
vity from 0,920 to 0,925, which is a very great change,
equivalent to the addition of 9 grains of water to a
mixture of 100 grains of alcohol and 80 of water.
SPITHEAD, a road between Portfmouth and the
Ifle of Wight, where the royal navy of Great Britain
frequently rendezvous.
SPITTLE, in phyfiology. See Saliva.
SPITZBERGEN. See Greenland, n<^io.
SPLACHNUM, in botany : A genus of plants be.
longing to the clafs of cryptogamia, and order of mufc'u
The antherae are cylindrical, and grow on a large co-
loured apophyfis or umbraculum. The calyptra is ca-
ducous. The female ftar grows on a feparate ftem.
Thei-e are fix fpecies, the rubrum, luteum. fphaei-icum,
ampuUaceum, vafculofum, anguftatum. Two of thefe
are natives of Britain.
1. The ampuUaceum^ orcrewet fplachnum, is found in
bogs and marfhes, and often upon cow-dung. It grows in
thick tufts, and is about two inches high. The leaves
are oval lanceolate, terminated wath a long point or
beard. The top of the filament or peduncle fwells into
the form of an inverted cone, which Linnseus terms an
apophyfis o,r umbraculum ; upon the top of which is ^
placed a cylindrical anthera, like the neck of a crewet.
The calyptra is conical, and refembles a fmall exting-
guilher.
2. The vafculofum^ or acorii-fhaped fplachnum, is
found upon bogs and cow-dung, and upon the points of
4 U a rocks
Spl-en
S P O [70
rocks on the top of the His^liland mountains, as on
]3en-Lcmond, and ia the Ifle of Sky, and dfewhere,
I This differs little from the precedintT, and perhaps Is
no more than a variety. The filaments are about an
inch high. The leaves oval-acute, not fo lanceolate
and bearded as the other. The apophyfis, and the
anikera at the top of it, form together nearly an oval
figure, not unhke an acorn in its cup, the apophyfis
being tranlVerfely femi-oval, and of a blood-red colour,
the anthera fhort and conical. The calyptra Is the fame
as that of the other. The operculum is {hort and ob-
tafe, and the rim of, the anthera has eight large hori-
zontal cilia. The anthera of the other is alfo ciliated,
but not fo difl.in<9:ly. It is an elegant mofs, and very
dlftinguifhable on account of its orange-coloured fila-
ments and dark-red capfules.
SPLEEN., in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° 99.
SPLEEN-JVort. See ASPI/ENIUM.
SPLENETIC, a perfon affliaed with an obftrudlon
of the fpleen.
SPLENT, or Splint, among farriers, a callous in-
fenfible excrefcencc, breeding on the (hank-bone of hor-
fes. See Farriery, Seft. xxxi.
SPLICING, In the fea-language, Is the untvirifting
the ends of two cables or ropes, and workinp^ the fe-
veral ftrands into one another by a fidd, fo that they
become as ftrong as if they were but one rope.
SPOILS, whatever is taken from the enemy in time
of war. Among the ancient Greeks, the fpoils were
divided among the whole army ; only the general's fhare
was largeil : but among the Romans, the fpoils belong-
ed to the republic.
SPOLETTO, a duchy of ItaIy,bounded on thenorth
by the Marqulfate of Ancona and duchy of Urbino, on
the eaft by Farther Abruzzo, on the fouth by Sabina and
the patrimony of St Peter, and on the well by Orvie-
tano and Perugino. It is about 55 miles in lenijth and
40 in breadth. It was anciently a part of Umbria, and
now belongs to the Pope. — The name of the capital ci-
ty is alfo Spo/etto. It was formerly a large place, but
in 1 703 was ruined by an earthquake ; from whence it
has never recovered itfelf.
SPOLIATION, in ecclefiattlcal law, is an injury
done by one clerk or incumbent to another, in taking
the fruits of his benefice without any right thereunto,
but under a pretended title. It is remedied by a de-
cree to account for the profits fo taken. This injury,
when thejw patronatus, or right of advowfon, doth not
come in debate, is cognizable in the fpiritual court :
as if a patron firft prefents A to a benefice, who is
inftituted and indudted thereto ^ and then, upon pre-
tence of a vacancy, the fame patron prefents B to the
jame living, and he alfo obtains inftitution and induc-
tion. Now if A difputes the fa£t of the vacancy,
then that clerk who is kept out of the profits of the
living, whichever it be,, may fue the other in the fpi-
ritual court for fpoliation, or taking the profits of his
benefice. And it fhall there be tried, whether the
living were or were not vacant ; upon which the vali-
dity of the fecond clerk's pretenfions muft depend. But
if the right of patronage comes at all into difpute, as if
one patron prefented A, aod another patron prefented
B, there the ecclefiaftical court hath no cognizance, pro-
vided the tithes fued for amount tp a fourth part of the
Yalue of the living, but may be prohibited at the in-
8 1 S P O
ftance of the patron ty the king's writ of Indleavil, So Spe
alio if a clerk, without any colour of title, ejeds ano-
ther from his patfonage, this injury muft be redrefied in ^i'"'
the temporal courts : for it depends upon no queftion
determinable by tl\e fpiritual law (as plurality of bene-
fices or no plurality, vacancy or no vacancy), but is
merely a civil injury.
SPONDEE, in ancient poetry, a foot confifting of
two long fyllables, as omnes,
SPONDIAS, Brasi LiAN or Jamaica Plum, in
botany ; a genus of plants belonging to the clafs of
di'cnndrla^ and order oi pentagynia. The calyx is quin-
quedentate. The corolla pcntapetalon§. The fruit
contains a quinquelocular kernel. There are only two
fpecies, the mombin and myrobalanus, which appear fo
mi!ch confounded in the del'criptions of different bota«
nifts, that we do not venture to prefent them to our
readers.
SPONGIA, Sponge, in natural hiftory ; a genus
of animals belonging to the clafs of vermes, and order of
%oophyta. It Is fixed, flexible, and very torpid, grow-
ing in a variety of forms, compofed either of reticula-
ted fibres, or rnaffes of fmallfpines interwoven together,
and clothed with a living gelatinous flefh, full of fmall
mouths or holes on its furface, by which it fucks in and
throws out the water. Fifty fpecies have already been
difcovered, of which 10 belong to the Britilh coalls.
1. Ocu/nta, or branched fponge, is delicately foft and
vei-y much branched ; the branches are a» little compref-
fed, grow eiedl, and often united together. They
have rows of cells on each margin, that proje£l a little.
This fpecies is of a pale yellow colour, from five to ten
inches high. The fibres are reticulated, and the flefli
or gelatinous part is fo tender, that when it is taken out
of the water it foon dries away. It is very common
round the fea-coaft of Britain and Ireland. This de-
fcription will be better underflood by Plate cccclxxv.
fig. I. At by by along the edges and on the furface of
the branches, are rows of fmall papillary holes, through
which the animal receives its nourifhment.
2. Crtjlata, or cock's comb fponge, is flat, ereft, and
{oh, growing in the fhape of cock's comb.'?, with rows
of little holes along the tops, which project a little. It
abounds on the rocks to the eaft ward of Haftings iai
Suffex, where it may be feen at low-water. It is com-
monly about three inches long, and two Inches high,
and of a pale yellowifli, colour. When put into a glafs-
veflel of fea-water, it has been obferved to fuck in and
fquirt out the water through little mouths along the
tops, giving evident figns of life.
3. Stupofa, tow-fponge, or downy branched fponge,
is foft like tow, with round branches, and covered with
fine pointed hairs. It is of a pale yellow colour, and
about three inches high. It is frequently thrown on'
the ftiore at Haftings In Suffex. Fig. 2. reprefents this,
fponge ; but it is fo clofely covered with a fine down»-
that the numerous fmall holes in its furface are not dif-
cernible.
4. Dkhotoma, diehotomous or forked fponge, is ftiff,
branched, with round, upright, elaftic branches, cover-
ed with minute hairs* It is found on the coaft of Nor-
way, and alfo, according to Berkenhout, on the Cor-
nlfh and Yorkfhire coafts. It is of a pale yellow colour,
and full of very minute pores, guarded by minute fpines.
Fig- 3^
5..
S P o
S P o
5". Ur-ens or tomentofa, fting'nff fponp-e, or crumb of
bread fponge, is of many forms, full of pores, very
brittle and foft, and interwoven with very minute fpines.
It is full of fmall protuberances, with a hole in each, by
which it fucks in and throws out the water. It is very
common on the Britifh coaft,"and is frequently feen fur-
rounding fucufes. it is found alfo on the fhores of
North America, Africa, and in the Eaft Indies. When
newly taken out of the fea, it is of a bright orange co-
lour, and full of gelatinous flefli ; but when dry, it be-
comes whitifli, and when broken has the appearance of
crumb of bread. If rubbed on the hand, it will raife
blillers ; and if dried in an oven, its power of ftinging is
much increafed, efpecially that variety of it which is
lound on the fea-coaft of North America.
6. Faimata, palmated fponge, is like a hand with fia-
p;ers a little divided at the top. The mouths are a
little prominent, and irregularly difpofed on the furface.
It is found on the beach at Brighthelmftone. It is of
■a reddifh colour, inclining to yellow, and of the fame
foft woolly texture with the fpongia oculata, fig. 4. _
7. Coronata, coronet fponge, in very fmall, confifting
of a fingle tube funounded at top by a crown or httle
Ipines. ^ 'i'he tube is open at the top. The rays that
compofe the little crown are of a bright, (hining pearl
colour ; the body is of a pale yellow. It has beca
found in the harbour of Emfworth, betweea Suflex and
Hampfhire.
8. Botryoidts^ grape fponge, is very tender and
branched, as if in bunches : the bunches are hollow,
and are made up of oblong oval figures having the ap-
pearance of grapes \ and each bunch is open at top.
This fpecies is of a bright, {hining colour. The open-
ings at the top are evidently the mouths by which the
animal imbibes and difcharges moiilure. When the
furface is very much magnified, it appears covered with
little maffes of triple, equidiftant, fhinixig fpines.
9. Lacuphy creeping fponge, has ercft, cylindrical,
and obtufe branches. It is found in lakes in Sweden
and England.
10. F/uviatiHsy. river fponge, is green, creft, brittle,
and irregularly difpofed in numerous branches. It
abounds in many parts of Europe, in the frefh rivers of
Ruffia and England, but particularly in the river Thames.
It fcarcely exhibits any fymptoms of life, is of a fifty
fmell : its pores or mouths are fometimes filled with
jvreen gelatinous globules. It differs very little from
. the lacuftris.
So early as the days of Ariftotle fponges were fup-
pofed to poffefs animal life ; the perfons employed in
eollefting them ha^'in^ obferved them fhrink when torn
from the rocks, thus exhibiting fymptoma of fenfation.
The fame opinion prevailed in the time of Pliny : But
no attention was paid to this fubjed till Count Mar-
fic^li examined them, and declared them vegetables. Dr
peyfonell, in a paper which he fent to the Royal So-
eiety in the year 1752, and in a fecond in 17^7, af-
firmed they were not vegetables, but the produ£lion of
animals ; and has accordingly defcribed the animals, and
the proccfs which they performed in. ntiaking the
fponges. Mr Ellis, in the year 1762, was at great
pains to dilcover thefe animals* For this purpofe he
differed the fpongia urens, and was furprifed to find a
great number of fmall worms ot the genus of nereis or
fea-fcolopeitdra, which had pierced their way through
the foft fubftance of the fponge in quell of a fafc re- Sponfor
treat,-' 'I'hat this was really the cafe, he was ftilly alTu-^ otf'lond
red of, by infpeding a number of fpecimens of the , , J.
fame fort of fponge, jull freih from the fea. He put
them into a giafs filled with fea-water; and then, inllead
of feeing any of the little animals which Dr Peyfonell
defcribed, he obferved the papillte or fmall holes with
which the papiHas are farrounded contrail and dilate
themfelves. He examined another variety of the fame
fpecies of fponge, and plainly petceived the fmall tubes
infpire and expire the water. He therefore concluded,,
that the fponge is an animal, and that the ends or
openings of the branched tubes are the mouths by
which it receives Its nourifliment, and difcharges its ex«
"crements.
SPONSORS, among Chriftians, are thofe perfons
who, in the office of baptifra, anfsver or are fureties
for the perfons baptized.
SPONTANEOUS, a term applied to fuch motions
of the body and operations of the mind as we perform
of ourfelves without any conftraiot.
SPOON-BILL, in ornithology. See Platalea.
SPOONING, in the fea-language, is faid of a fhlp^
which being under fail in a florm at fea, is unable to
bear it, and confequently forced to go right before the
wind.
SPORADES, among ancient aftronomers, a name
given to fuch ilars as were not included in any conflel-
lation.
SPORADIC DISEASES, among phyficians, are fuch
as feize particular perfons at any time or feafon, and in
any place ; in which fenfe they are diftinguifhed from
epidemical and endemical difeafes.
SPO TS, in allronomy, certain places of the fun's or
moon's diflc, obferved to be either more bright or dark,
than the reft ; and accordingly called facu/'a Sff macula.
See AsTRONOMY-Zn^yc'a:.
SPOrSWOOD (John), archbifhop of St An-
drew's in Scotland, was defcended from the laiids of
Spotfwood in the Merfe, and was born in the year
1565. He was educated in the univerfity of Glafgow^
and fuccceded his father in the parfonage of Calder
when but (8 years of age. In j6oi he attended Lodo»
wick duke of Lennox as his chaplain, in an embaffy to
the court of France for confirming the ancient amity
between the two nations, and returned in the ambaffa-
dor's retinue through England. When he entered in-
to the arclibifliopric of Glaf<ow, he Tound there was-
not I to 1. Sterling of yearly revenue left ; yet fuch
was his care for his fucceffors, that he greatly impro-
ved it, and much to the fatisfadlion of his diocefe. Af.
ter having filled this fee 1 i years, he was raifcd to that,
ol St Andrew's in 1615, and made primate and metro-
politan of all Scotland. He prefided in feveral affem-
blies for reltoring the ancient difcipline, and bringing
the church of Scotland to fome fort of uniformity with,
that of England. He continued in high efteem with
king James I. nor was he lefs valued by king Charles I.
who was crowned by him in 1633, in the abbey-
church of Holyroodhoufe. In 1635, upon the death
of the earl of Kinnoul chancellor of Scotland, our pri-
mate was advanced to that poll ; but had fcarcely held:
it four years, when the contufions beginning in Scot-
land, he was obliged to retire into England ; and being
broken with age, grief, and ficknefs, died at London in-
S P R [7
Spout i6;^9, and was interred in Weftminfter-abbey. He wrote
II A Hiltory of the Church of Scotland from the year
20:^ to the rei':>"n of king- James VI. in foho.
^'^"''"^ SPOUT, or IVater-SpQUT. See IVATER-Hpout.
Sfovr-Fi/l), See Solen.
SPRAT (Dr Thomas), bifhop of Rochefter, was
born in 1636. He had his education at Oxford, and
■ after the Reftoration entered into holy orders. He
became fellow of the Royal Society, chaplain to
George duke of Buckin-^ham, and chaplain in ordi-
nary to king Charfes II. In '667 he publifhed the
Hittory of the Royal Society, and a Life ot Mr Cow-
ley ; who, by his lail v/ill, left to his care his printed
works and MSS. which wf.e accordingly publiflied by
him. In .668 he was inftalled prebendary of Wefl.-
minller ; in 1680, was appointed canon of Windfor ;
in 1683, dean of Weftminlter ; and in 1684, confecrated
to the birtiopric of Rochefter. He was clerk o^ the clo-
fet to king James 11. ; in 168 j, was made dean of the
chapel royal ; and the year followin;^, was appointed
one of the commiffioners for ecclcfiaftical affairs. In
J 693 his lordfliip, with feveral other perfons, was
charged with tieafon by two men, who drew up an af-
fociation, in which they whofe names were fubfcribed
declared their refolution to reftore king James ; to feize
the princefs of Orange, dead or alive ; and to be ready
with 30,000 men to meet king James when he fhould
land. To this they put the. names of Sancroft, Sprat,
Marlborough, Salisbury, and others. The bifhop was
iirrefted, and kept at a melfenger's, under a ftriA guard,
for eleven days. His houfe was fearched, and his pa-
pers feized, among which nothing was found of a trea-
• ibnable appearance, except one memorandum, in the
following words : Thorough-paced doEtriiie. Being allc-
ed at his examination the meaning of the words, he
faid that, about 20 years before, curlofity had led him
to hear Daniel Burgefs preach ; and that being ftruck
with his account of a certain kind of do&rine, which
he faid entered at one ear, and pacing through the head
'went out at the other, he had ir.ferted the memorandum
in his table-book, that he m.ight not lofe the fubftance
of fo ftrange a fermon. His innocence being proved,
he was fet at liberty, when he publifhed an account of
"his examination and deliverance ; which made fuch an
imprefiion upon him, that he commemorated it through
life by an yearly day of thankfgiving. He lived to the
79th year of his age, and died May 20. 1713. His
works, befides a few poems of little value, are, The
Hiftory of the Royal Society " The Life of Cow-
ley ;"" " The Anlwer to Sorbiere <' The Hiftory of
the Rye houfe Plot " The Relation of Ills own J1.X-
amination and a volume of " Sermons." Dr Johnfon
fays, " I have heard it obferved, with great juftnefs,
that every book is of a different* kind, and that each
has its diflinft and charafteriftical excellence."
Sprat, in ichthyology. See Clupea.
SPRAY, the fprinkling of the fea, which is driven
from the top of a wave in ftormy weather. It differs
from fpoon- drift, as being only blown occafionally from
the broken furface of a high wave ; whereas the latter
continues to fly horizontally along the fea, without iri-
termiffion, during the excels of a teropeft or hurricane.
SPRING, in riatui-al hiftory, a fountain or fource
of water rifing out of the ground.
Many have beea the conjedures of philofophera con«
o ] S P R .
cerning the origin of fountains, ' and great pains have Sprlnsr
been taken both by the members of the Royal Society
and thole of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, in or-
der to afcertain the true caufe of it. It wa^ Ariftotle's
opinion, and held by moft of the ancienr philofophers
after him, that the air contained in the caverns of the
earth, being condcnfed by cold near its furface, was
thereby changed into water ; and that it made its way
through, where it could ftjid a pafia'ge. But we have
no experience of any fuch tranfmutation of air into wa-
ter.
. Thofe who imagine that fountains owe their orif^iii
to waters brought from the fea by fubterraneous duets,
give a tolerable account how they lofe their faltnefs
by percolation as they pafs through the earth : but they
find great difficulty in explaining by what power the
water riles above the level of the fea to near the tops
of mountains, where fprings generally abound ; it be-
ing contrary to the laws of hydroftatics, that a fluid
fliould rife in a tube above the level of its fource. How-
ever, they have found two ways whereby they endea-
vour to extricate themfelves from this difficulty. The
one is that of Des Cartes, who imagines, thaj after
the water is become frefli by peixolatioa, it is raifed
out of th? caverns of the earth in vapour towards its
furface ; where meeting with rocks near the tops of
mountains in the form of arches or vaultsj it fticks to
them, and runs down their fides, (like water in an
alembic), till it meets with proper receptacles, from
which it fupplies the fountains. Now this is a mere
hypothefis, without foundation or probability : for, in
the firft place, we know of no internal heat of the earth
to caufe fuch evaporation ; or if that were allowed, yet
it is quite incredible that there fhould be any caverns fo
fmooth and void of protuberances as to anfwer the ends
of an alembic, in coUedling and condenfmg the vapours
tcgether in every place where fountains arife. There
are others (as Varenius, &c. ) who fuppofe that the wa-
ter may rife through the pores of the earth, as through
capillary tubes by attraftion. But hereby they fliow,
that they are quite unacquainted with what relates to
the motion of a fluid through fuch tubes : for when a
capillary tube opens into a cavity at its upper end, or
grows larger and larger, fo as to ceafe to be capillary
at that end, the water will not afcend through that tube
into the cavity, or beyond wheie the tube is capillary ;
becaufe that part of the periphery of the cavity, which
is partly above the furface of the water and partly be-
low it, is not of the capillary kind. Nay, if the ca-
vity is continually fupplied with water, it will be at-
tracted into the capillary tube, and run down it a3
through a funnel, if the lower end is immerged in the
fame fluid, - as in this cafe it is fuppofed to be.
It has been a generally received opinion, and much
efpoufed by Mariotte (a diligent oblerver of nature),
that the rile of fprings is owing to the rains and melted
fnow. According to him, the rain-water which falls
upon the hills and mountains, penetrating the furface,
meets with clay or rocks contiguous to each other ;
along which it runs, without being able to penetrate
them, till, being got to the bottom of the mountain,
or to a confiderable diftance from the top, it breaks
out of the ground, and forms fprings.
In order to examine this opinion, Mr Perrault, De
la Hire, and D. Sideleau, endeavoured ■ to make an
eft i mate
S P R [ ^
eftimate of the quantity of rain and fnow that falls in
the fpace of a year, to fee wheth^ it would be fuffici-
ent to aflford a quantity of water equal to that which is
annually difcharged into the fea by the rivers. The re-
fult of their inquiries was, that the quantity of rain and
fnow whith fell in a year into a cyhndrical veffel would
fill it (if fecured from evaporating) to the height of
about nineteen inches. Which quantity D. Sideleaa
fhowed, was not fufficient to fupply the rivers ; for that
thofe of England, Ireland, and Spain, difcharge a
greater quantity of water annually, than the rain, ac-
cording to that experiment, is able to fupply. Befides
which, another obfervation was made by them at the
fame time, viz. that the quantity of water raifed in va-
pour, one year with another, amounted to about thirty-
two inches, which is thirteen more than falls in rain : a
plain indication that the water of fountains is not fup-
plied by rain and melted fnov/.
Thus the true caufe of the origin of fountains re-
mained undifcovered, till Dr Halley, in making his ce-
leftial obfervations upon the tops of the mountains at
St Helena, about 800 yards above the level of the fea,
found, that the quantity of vapour which fell there (^even
when the fky was clear) was fo great, that it very much
impeded his obfervations, by covering his glafTes with
water every half quarter ot" an hour ; and upon that he
attempted to determine by experiment the quantity of
vapour exhaled from the furface of the fea, as far ^as it
rifes from heat, in order to try whether that might be
a fufficient fupply for the water continually difcharged
by fountains. The procefs of his experiment was" as
follows : He took a veffel of water falted co the fame
degree with that of fea water, in which he placed a ther-
mometer ; and by means of a pan of coals brought the
water to the fame degree of heat, which is obferved to
be that of the air in our hottefl fummer ; this done, he
fixed the veffel of water with the thermometer in it to
one end of a pair of fcales, and exatlly counterpoifed it '
with weights on the other : then, at the end of two
hours, he found, by the alteration made in the v^^eight
of the veffel, that about a fixtieth part of an inch of
the depth of the water was gone off in vapour ; and
therefore, in twelve hours, one-tenth of an inch would
have gone off. Now this accurate obferver allows the
Mediterranean Sea to be forty degrees long, and four
broad, (the broader parts compenfating for the narrow-
er, fo that its whole furface is 160 fquare degrees) ;
which, according to the experiment, muft yield at leaft
5,280,000,000 tons of water : In which account no re-
gard is had to the wind and the agitation of the furface
of the fea, both v/hich undoubtedly promote the evapo-
ration.
It remained now to compare this quantity of water
with that whicli is daily conveyed into the fame fea by
the rivers. The only way to do which was to compare
them with fome known river ; and accordingly he takes-
his computation from the river Thames ; and, to avoid
all objeftions, makes allowances, probably greater than
what were abfolutcly neceffary.
The Mediterranean receives the following confider-
able rivers, viz. the Iberus, the Rhone, the Tyber, the
Po, the Danul)e, the Niefter, the Boryfthenes, the I'a-
nais, and the Nile. Each of thefe he fuppofes to bring
down ten times as much water as the i'hames, whereby
he allows, for fmaller rivers which fall into the fame fea.
ni ] S P R
The Thames, then, he finds by menfuration to difcharge Spr
about 20,300,000 tons of water a-day. If therefore
the above-laid nine rivers yield ten times as much water
as the Thames doth, it will follow^, that all of them to-
gether yield but 1827 millions of tons in a day, which
is but little more than one-third of what is proved to be
raifed in vapouj- out of the Mediterranean in the fame
time. We have therefore from hence a fource abun-
dantly fufficient for the fupply of fountains.
Now having found that the vapour exhaled from-
the fea is a fufficient fupply for the fountains, he pro-
ceeds in the next place to confider the manner in which
they are raifed ; and how they are condenfed into water
again, and conveyed to the fources of fprings.
In order to this he confiders, that if an atom of
water was expanded into a ffiell or bubble, fo as, to be
ten times as big in diameter as when it was water, that
atom would become fpecifically lighter than air ; and
therefore would rife fo long as the warmth , which firft
feparated it from the furface of the water fhould conti-
nue to diflend it to the fame degree ; and confequently^
that vapours may be raifed from the furface of the fea-
in that manner, till they arrive at a certain height in the
atmofphere, at which they find air of equal fpecific gra-
vity with themfelves. Here they will float till, bein^
condenfed by cold, they become fpecifically heavier than
•the air, and fall down in dew ; or being driven by the
winds againft the fides of mountains (many of which'
far furpafs the ufual height to which the vapours would'
of themfelves afcend), are compelled by the ffream of
the air to mount up with it to the tops^of them; where
being condenfed into water, they prefently precipitate,
and gleeting down by the crannies of the ftones, part
of them enters into the caverns of the hills-; which be-
ing once filled, all the overplus of water that comes thi-
ther runs over by the loweft place, and breaking out by
the fides of the hills forms fingle fprings, Many of thefe
running down by the valleys between the ridges of the
hills, and coming to unite, form little rivulets or brooks:
many of thefe again meeting in one common valley, and
gaining the plain ground, being grown lefs rapid, be-
come a river ; and many of thefe being united in one
common channel, make fuch fl:reams as the Rhine and
the Danube ; which latter, he obferves, one would
hardly think to be a coUedrion of water condenfed out
of vapour, unlefs we confider how vaft a traft of ground
that river drains, and that it is the fum of all thofe fprini^a.
which break out on the fouth fide of the Carpathian
mountains, and on the north fide of the immenie ridgo
of the Alps, which is one continued chain of mountains
from Switzerland to the Black Sea.
Thus one part of the vapours which are blown oa
the land is returned by the rivers into the fea from>
whence it came. Another part falls into the fea before
it reaches the land ; and this is the reafon why the ri-
vers do not return fo much water into the Mediterra-
nean as is raifed in vapour. A third part falls on the
lowlands, where it affords nourifliment to plants ; yet
it does not reft there, but is again exhaled in vapour by
the a6tion of the fun, and is either carried by the winds
to the fea to fall in rain or dew there, or elfe to the
mountains to become the fources of fprings.
However, it is not to be fuppofed tliat all fountains
are owing to one and the fame caufe ; but that fome
proceed from rain and mehcd fnow, which, fubfiding
througti-
S P R
[ 7'
Spr'n?. through the furface of the earth, makes its way Into
•^•r-y^ certain cavities, and thence iffiies out in the {onn of
fprings ; becaufe the waters of feveral are found to in-
creafe and diminifh in proportion to the rain which falls :
that others ajjain, efpecially fuch as are fait, and fpring
near the fea-fliore, owe their oiigln to fea-water perco-
lated through the earth ; and feme to both thefe caufes:
though without doubt moll of them, and eipccially
fuch as fpring near tiie tops of high mountains, receive
their waters from vapours, as before explained.
This reafoning of Dr Halley's is confirmed by
more recent obfervations and difcoveries. It is now
found, that tha«r;h water is a tolerable condutlor of
the ele£li-ic fluid, dry earth is an dedric per fe, con-
fequently the dry land muft always be in an eledrified
Hate compared with the ocean, unlefs in fuch particu-
ler cafes as are mentioned vmder the article Earth-
quake, n° 82. It is alio well known, that fuch bodies
as are in an eleftrlfied ilate, whether f lus or minus^ will
attraft vapour, or other light fubftances that came near
them. Hence the vapmu-s that are railed from the
oceau muft neceffarily liave a tendency to approach the
land in great quantity, even without the affiftance of
the wind, though this laft muft undoubtedly contribute
greatly towards the fame purpofe, as Dr Halley juftly
obferves. In like manner, the higher grounds are al-
ways in a more eledtrified ftate than the lower ones :
and hence the vapours having once left the ocean and
approached the fliore,are attracted by the hi -h moun-
tains , of which Mr Pennant gives an inftance in Snow-
don. Hence we may fee the reafon why fprings are io
common in the neighbourhood of mountains, they be-
ing fo advantageoufly formed in every refped for col-
lefting and condenfmg the vapours into water.
The heat of fprings is generally the fame with
the mean temperature of the atmofphere. The mean
temperature of the fouth of Englaixi is 48° ; im
Scotland, near Edinburgh, it is 45 ; in the north
of Ireland it is 4.8°, and on the fouth coaft about
51°. At Upfal, in Sweden, it is 43**, and in Paris
53". According to accurate experiments made by
eminent philofophers, the heat of the fprings in thele
different countries correfponds with the medium tem-
perature. We have not heard that fimilar experiments
have been made in other countries, or we fhould have
been careful to colled them. We do not, however,
doubt but they have been made in moft countries of
Europe ; yet we fufped little attention has been paid
to this fubjed within the tropical regions.
Though this coincidence of the heat of fprings with
the mean temperature of the climate where they flow,
feems to be a general fad, yet it admits of many ex-
ceptions. In many parts of the world there are fprings
which not only exceed the mean temperature, but even
the ftrongeft meridian heat ever known in the torrid re
gions. The following table will give a dlftind notion
of the degrees of heat which different fprings have been
found to poffefs, according to the experiments of phi-
lofophers. It is neceffary to remark, that experiments
made upon the fame fprings, made by different perfons,
vary a little from one another, wh'ch may be owing to
jnany accidents eafily accounted for. Where this is
the cafe, we fhall mention both the loweft and higheft
degree of heat which has been afcribed to the fame
f|)ring, according to Fahrenheit's therihoraeter.
2 1
Places,
Briftol,
S P R
Springs.
St Vincent's or
the hot well.
Gentleman's bath,
grceofheac, greeofheat.
SnrJr
84
82
69
119
1 46
122
104
76
136
Buxton,
Matlock,
Bath, King's bath,
Aix-la-Chapelle,
Barege,
Pifa,
Caroline baths Prudel or furi-
in Bohemia, ous, 165
Iceland, Geyzer, 212
In cold countries, where congelation takes place, the
heat of the earth is conf:derably above the freezing
point, arid continues fo throu gh the whole year. Fram.
experiments that have been made in mines and deep pitSs
it appears that this heat is uniform and ftationary at a
certain depth. But as the heat of thefe fprings far
exceeds the coir;mon heat of the internal parts of the
earth, it muft be occalioned by caufes peculiar to cer-
tain places ; but what thefe caufes are it is no eafy mat-
ter to determine. We are certain, indeed, that hot
fprings receive their heat from fome fubterranean caufe;
but it is a matter of difficulty to inveftigate how this
heat is produced and preferved. I'heories, however,
have been formed on this fubjed. t he fubterranean
heat has been afcribed to the eledrical fluid, and to a
great body of fire in the centre of the earth : But we
fufped that the nature of the eledrical fluid and its ef-
feds are not fufficiently ii«derifood. A s to the fuppo-
fition that the heat of fprings is owing to a central fire,
it is too hypothetical to require any refutation. From
what then does this heat origiiiate, and whence is
the fuel which has p'"oduced it tor io many ages ? To
enable us to anfwer thefe queftions with p.ecificn, more
information is necefl"ary than we have hitherto obtained
refpeding the flrudture of the internal parts of the
earth. It is peculiarly requifite that we flaould be made
acquainted with the foflils which are mofl common in
thole pl?.ces where hot fprings abound. We ifhould
then perhaps difcover that hot fprings always pafs thro'
bodies of a combuftlble nature. ' It is well known to
chemifts, that when water is mixed with the vitriolic
acid, a degree of heat is produced fuperior to that of
boiling water. It is alio an eftabllilied fad, that when
water meets v^;ith pyrites, that is, a mixture of iulphur
and iron, a violent inflammation takes place. If, there-
fore, we could prove that thefe materials exlft in the ftra-
ta from which hot fprin'js are derived, we fhould be en-
abled to give a fatisfadory account of^this curious pheno-
menon. As fome apology for this fuppofitloH, we may-
add, that moft of the hot fprings mentioned above have
been found by analyfis to be impregnated with fulphur, ,
and fome of them with iron. It mutt, however, be
knowledgcd, that the hot fprings of Iceland, which are German
T 12^, the heat of bolhng water, according to an accurate and S-w
analyfis of their contents by the ingenious Dr Black, 2"^'"'
were neither found to contain iron nor fulphur. It
will therefore, perhaps, be neceffary that we fliould wait
with patience, and continue to colled fads, till the ici-
ences of chemiftry and mineralopy fhall be fo far ad-
vanced as to enable us to form a permanent theory on
this fubjed.
Springs are of different kinds. Seme aic perennial,
^ or
S P U [7
'ng or continue to flow during the whole year ; others flow
only during the rainy feafon ; fome ebb and flow. At
Torbay' there is one of this kind, which ebbs and flows
five or fix inches every hour. There is another near
Corifo in Italy, which ebbed and flowed three times a-
day in the time of Pliny, and continues to do ftill. A
fpring near Henly fometimes flows for two years to-
gether, and then dries up for an equal period. The
caufe of this is explained under the article Hydrosta-
tics, 26. For the ingredients found in fprings,
fee Mineral Waters, and WATEVi.
Spring, in mechanics, denotes a thin piece of tem-
pered fteel, or other elafl;ic fubftance, which being
wound up ferves to put machines in motion by its ela-
fticity, or endeavours to unbend itfelf ; fuch is the fpring
of a watch, clock, or the like.
Spring, Fer, ia cofmography, denotes one of the
feafons of the year ; commencing, in the northern parts
of the world, on the day the fun enters the firft: degree
of Aries, which is about the loth day of March, and
ending wheA the fun leaves Gemini ; or, more fl:ri(3:ly
and generally, the fpring begins on the day when the
diftance of the fun's meridian altitude from the zenith,
being on the increafe,is at a medium between the greatefl;
and leafl;. The end of the fpring coincides with the be-
ginning of fummer. See Summer.
SpRiNG-Tide. See AsTRONOMY-/«i^i?,v, and Tide.
Burning Springs. See BuRNiNG-Spr'mgs.
Springer, or SpRiNG-Boi, in zoology. See Capra.
SPRIT, a fmall boom or pole which crofles the fail
of a boat diagonally, from the mail to the upper
hindmoft corner of the fail, which it is ufed to extend
and elevate ; the lower end of the fprit reRs in a fort of
wreath or collar cabled the Jmotter, which encircles the
mall in that place.
SPRITSAIL. See Sail and Ship.
SpRitsAiL-TopfaU. See Sail and Ship,
SPRUCE-TREE. See PiNus.
SpRucK-Beer, a cheap and wholefome liquor, which
is thus made : Take of water 1 6 gallons, and boil the
half of it. Put the water thus boiled, while in full heat,
to the referved cold part, which fl^ould be previoufly
put into a barrel or other veflel ; then add 16 pounds of
treacle or molafles, with a few table fpoonfuls of the
eflence of fpruce, ftirring the whole well together ; add
half a pint of yeafl:, and keep it in a temperate fitua-
tion, with the bung hole open, for two days, till the
fermentation be abated. Then clofe it up or bottle it
qfi", and it will be fit for being drunk in a few days af-
terwards. In North America, and perhaps in other
countries, where the black and white ipruce-firs abound,
inftead of adding the ejfence of the fpruce at the fame
time with the molaffes, they make a decoftion of
the leaves and fmall branches of thefe trees, and find
the hquor equally good. It is a powerful anti-
fcorbutic, and may prove very ufeful in long fea voy-
ages.
SPUNGE, or Sponge. See Spongia.
SPUNGING, in gunnery, the cleaning of the Infide
of a gun with a fpunge, in order to prevent any fparks
of fire from remaining in it, which would endanger
the life of him that fliould load it again.
SPUN-Y ARN-, among failors, is a kind of line made
from rope yarnj and ufed for. feizing. or &lkninf
thinafs togetben
¥oL. XVII. Part II.
13 ] S U
SPUNK, in botany. See Boletus.
SPUR, a piece of metal confifling of two branches
encompafling a horfeman's heel, and a rowel in form
of a fl:ar, advancing out behind to prick the horfe.
SpvR-JVin^ed Water Hen. See Parra.
SPURGE, in botany. See Euphorbia.
SpvRGR-Laurel. See Daphne.
SPURREY, in botany. See Spergula.
SPY, a perfon hired to watch the aftions, motions,
&c. of ano<:her ; particularly what pafles in a camp.
When a fpy is difcovered, he is hanged immediately.
SQUADRON, in rililitary affairs, denotes a body
of horfe whofe number of men is not fixed ; but is
ufually from loo to 200.
SsruADRON of Ships, either implies a detachment of
fhips employed on any particular expedition, or the
third part of a naval armament.
SQUADS, in a military fenfe, are certain divifrong
of a company into fo many fquads, generally into three
or four. The ufe of forming companies into as many
fquads of Infpeftion as it has ferjeants and corporals,
is proved by thofe regiments who have pradlifed that
method ; as by it the irregularity of the foldiers is con-
fiderably refl;rained, their drcfs improved, and the dif-
cipline of the regiment in general mott remarkably for-
warded. Every officer fhould have a roll of his com-
pany by fquads.
SQUALL, a fudden and violent blafl; of wind, ufu-
ally occafioned by the interruption and reverberation of
the wind from high mountains. Thefe are very frequent
in the Mediterranean, particularly that part of it which
is known by the name of the Levant, as produced by
the repulficn and new direftion which the wind meets
with in its paflage between the various iflands of the
Archipelago.
SQUALUS, Shark., in ichthyology; a genus ar-
ranged by Linnreus under the clafs of amphibia, and the
order of nantes, but by Gmclin i-eferred to the clafs of
pifces, and order o{ chondropterygii. 'fhe head is obtufe ; '
on the fides of the neck there are from 4 to 7 femilunar
fpiracles. The eyes are oblong, vertical, half covered,
and before the foramen temporale. The mouth is fitua-
ted in the anterior and lower part of the head, and is
armed with feveral ix)ws of teeth, which are ferrated,
acute, partly moveable afnd partly fixed, and unequal in
form. The body is oblong, tapering and rough, with
very tender prickles. The ventral tins are much kfs
than the pe6toral, and are fituated round the anus and
genitals. I'here are 3 % fpecies ; the ifabella canlcula
or greater dog fifh ; catulus or fmaller dog-fifh ; ftellaris;
galeus or tope ; mufl;elus or fmooch hound ; cirratus;;
barbatus or barbu ; tigrinus or tigre ; Africanus or
galonne ; ocellatus or oeille ; zygasna or b?.lance-fifh ;
tiburo or pantouflicr of Brouffonet ; grifeus or trnfet ;
vulpes or fea-fox ; longicaudus ; glaucus or blue fhark ;
cornubius, porbeagle, or beaumaris-fliark ; cinereus or
perlon ; maximus ; carcharias or white fhark ; priiUs
or fcie ; fpinofns or beuele ; acanthias or jjicked dog
fifh fernandinus ; fpinax or fagre ; fquamofus or ecail-
leux ; centrina or humantin ; indicus ; Arrrcricanus or
liche ; _fquatina or angel fifli ; maffafa; and kumaL The
following are the moll remarkable :
f. The ifabella has a wrinkly fpotted fl<in, and the
anterior dorfal fin is perpendicular to the abdominal fins.
The body is fomevvhat fiat ; the head fite'rt,- large, and
4 X obtufe.
Spunk
I!
Squahis.
S Q^U [7
Squalus. obtufe. The teeth are difpoftd In fix rows, comprefled,
""-^r^ fhort, and triangular, having a notch on each fide of
their bafes. The eyes are funk ; the iris is of a copper
colour, and the pupil is black and oblong. The fins
of the back are almoft fquare ; the caudal fin is divided
into two lobes, and the lateral line is parallel to the
back. The upper part of the body is of a reddifh afli-
colour, with blackifh fpots difpofed irregularly. The
«nder part is of a dirty white hue. This fpecies is
found n«ar New Zealand, and is about 2^ feet long.
2. Canicu/a, greater dog-fifh, or fpotted fhark, is
diftinguifiied by large noftrils, which are covered by
a kbe and worm-fhaped flap, or by the pofitlon of the
anal fin, which is at an equal diftance from the anus
and tall. The body is fpotted ; the head is fmall, with
a Ihort fnout ; the eyes are oblong ; the iris whitifti ;
the mouth is large and oblong, armed with three rows
of teeth i the tongue is cartilaginous ; the anus is be-
fore the middle of the body ; the iirft dorfal fin is be-
hind the ventral fins ; the other, which is lefs, is almoft
oppofite the anal fin ; the caudal fin is narrow and mar-
ginated. 'I'his fpecies is found' in almoft every fea,' is
about four feet long, extremely voracious, generally
feeding on fifhes, and is long Hved. The fldn, which
is fpotted like a leopard's, is ufed when dried foi vari-
ous purpofes.
3. Catulusy fmaller dog fifh, has a large head ; the
pupil of the eyes is black ; the iris white ; the fnout is
of a bright hue ; the mouth, which is large, is fituated
between the noftrils, and is armed with four rows of
teeth, ferrated with three points bent Inwards ; thofe in
the middle between the two mandibles are longer than
the reft. The tongue is broad and fjmooth ; the fpira-
cles are five ; the back is tapering and yeilowifh ; the
fides are fomewhat comprefled ; the tail longer than the
body, and the caudal fin is narrow and marginated ; the
anterior anal and dorfal fins are behind the ventral ; the
pofterior dorfal fin is oppofite to the anal. It inhabits
the Mediterranean, Northern, and Indian Ocean, and
is two or three feet long.
4. Stellarts, or greater cat fifh. The head is mark-
ed with points ; the abdominal fins are united and ftiarp
at the apex ; the dorfal fins extend almoft to the tail ;
the fkin is reddlfh, marked with black fpots of different
fizes, and is of a dirty afh colour below. It is from two
to fix feet long ; refembles the canicula, but dlftingutfti-
ed by larger and fewer fpots, by a fnout fomewhat longer,
a tall fomewhat fhorter, and noftrils almoft fhut. It
brings forth 19 or 20 young at a time. It inhabits the
European feas, living chiefly on fhell fifii, moUufcae,
and other fmall fifhes. The dorfal fins are equal ; the
anterior one being behind the middle of the body,
and the pofterior one being a little behind the anah
5. TigrinuSf or tigre, is about 1 5 feet long; the body
is long, of unequal thicknefs, black, interfperfed with
white ftrlpes and fpots, irregularly and tranfverfely. —
The head is large ; the mouth low and tranfverfe, the
upper jaw having two curls ; the upper lip is thick and
prominent ; there are five fpiracles on each fide, the two
laft being united fo as to give the appearance only of
/ four ; the mandibles are armed with very fmall pointed
teeth ; the tongue is fhort and thick ; the eyes fmall
and oblong ; the pupil azure coloured ; the iris black.
The abdomen is broad ; the pcftoral fins are broad, and
rounded at the extrejnity. The anterior doxfal is oppo-
4 ] s Q^U
fite to the ventral fins, and the pofterior dorfal fin to the Sqi
anah The tail is comprefTed on both fides, and the fin
which terminates it Is hollow. The tigrinus Is found
in the Indian Ocean, and lives chiefly on ftiell fifh. See
Plate CCCCLXXVI. fig. i.
7. Zygi£na, marieaUf or balance-fifh, h frequently fix
feet long, and weighs 500 lbs. The head is elongated
on each fide ; the fore part is bent back, and convex
both above and below. At the extremities of the elon-
gated part are the eyes, which are large, prominent, and
dlrefted downwards ; the iris Is of a golden colour ;
the mouth is arched, and near the beginning of the
trunk. It has a horrible appearance from the teeth,
which are arranged in three or four rows, and are broad,
pointed, and ferrated on both fides. The tongue is
thick, broad, and like a man's. The trunk is long and
tapering : the fins are femicircular on the margin, and
black at the bafis ; the ventral fins are feparate ; the anal
and pofterior doifal fins are fmall ; the anterior dorfal
fin Is large, and near the head ; the caudal is long.-~-
This fpecies inhabits the Mediterranean Sea and the
Indian Ocean. It is one of the moft voracious of the
whole tribe. See fig. 2.
8. Fu/peSf or fea-fox. Is moft remarkable for the great
length of its tail, the body being about feven feet and
the tail fix feet long. The head is flrort and conical ^
the eyes are large ; the jaws are armed In a dreadful
manner with three rows of triangular, comprefTed, and
pointed teeth ; the tongue is blunt ; the lateral line is
ftraight. The anterior dorfal fin Is , placed about the
middle of the back ; the pofterior, which confifts of two
pointed lobes, is oppofite to the anal fin ; the ventral
fins are very near one another ; the anal is acuminated ;
the Inferior lobe of the tail is about a foot long ; the
upper, vvhich is fhaped like a fcythe, is five times
longer. This fpecies inhabits the Mediterranean, the
coaft of Scotland and England. It is covered with
fmall fcales ; Its back Is afti-coloured, belly whitifh. It
is extremely voracious. The ancients ftyled this fifh
ccKeuTn^^ and vu/pesy from its fuppofed cunning. They-
believed, that when it had the misfortune to have takea
a bait, it fwallowed the hook till it got at the cord,
which It bit oiF, and fo efcaped.
9. Glaucus, or blue fhark, is about feven feet long.
The colour of the back Is a fine blue ; the belly a filvery
white ; the head is flat ; the eyes fmall ar>d roundifh ;
the teeth are almoft triangrilar, elongated, and pointed,
but not ferrated. The anus is very near the tail ; the
anterior dorfal fin is fituated before the ventral fins,
about the middle of the body, and Is almoft triangular ;
the pofterior dorfal fin is equal to the anal fin, and is
placed nearer the tail ; the peftoral fins are large, long,
and marginated ; and the ventral are blue above and
white below ; the caudal Is blue, divided into two lobes,^
of which the fuperlor is much longer than the Inferior
lobe. This fpecies is frequent in every fca, and is fierce^
but not very deftrufllve in our feas.
10. The max'imus, baflcing fhark, or the fun-fifh of
the Irlfh. This fpecies has been long known to the in-
habitants of the fouth and weft of Ireland and Scotland,
and thofe of Caernarvonfliire and Anglefea ; but ha-
ving never been confidered in any other than a com"
mercial view, is defcribed by no Engllfh writer except
Mr Pennant ; and, what is worfe, miftaken for anct
confounded with Uie luna of Rondelejius, the fame
s IT In
that our Engllfl* writers call the fun-fifh. ^ The Irifh
and Welfh give it the fame name, from Its lying as if to
fun itfelf on the furface of the water ; and for the fame
reafon Mr Pennant calls it the bafl<ing (hark. It was
long taken for a fpecies of whale, till Mr Pennant
pointed out the bronchial orifices on the fides, and the
perpendicular fite of the tail. Thefe are migratory
fifh.or atleaft it is but ia a certain number of years that
they are feen in multitudes on the Welfh feas, thoup,h in
moft fummers a fitigle, and perhaps a ftrayed fifh ap-
pears. They inhabit the northern feas, even as high
as the ar£lic circle. They vifited the bays of Caernar-
vonfhire and Anglefea in vaft ftoals in the fummers of
1756 and ,a few fucceeding years, continuing there
only the hot months ; for they quitted the coaft about
Michaelmas, as if cold weather was difagreeable to
them. Some old people fay they recoUeft the fame
fort of fifh vifiting theie feas in vad numbers about 40
years ago. They appear in the Frith of Clyde, and
among the Hebrides, in the month of June, in fmall
droves of feven or eight, but oftener in pairs. They
continue in thofe feas till the latter end of July, when
they difappear.
They have nothing of the fierce and voracious nature
of the fhark kind, and are fo tame as to fufFer the.m-
felves to be ftroked ; they generally he motionlefs on
the furface, commonly on their bellies, but fometlmes,
like tired fwimmers, on their backs. Their food fecms
to confifl entirely of fea plants, no remains of fifh
being ever difcovered in the itomachs of numbers that
were cut up, except fome green ftuff, the half digefled
parts of-algce, and the Hke. Linnseus fays It feeds on
medufae.
■ At certain times, they are feen fporting on the
waves, and leaping with vaft agility feveral feet out of
taie water. They fwim very deliberately, with the
dorfal fins above water. Their length is from three
to twelve yards, and fometlmes even longer. Their
form is rather flender, hke others of the fhark kind.
The tipper jaw is much longer than the lower, and
blunt at the end. The tail is very large, and the up-
per part remarkably longer than the lower. The
colour of the upper part of the body is a deep lead-
en ; the belly white. The fkin is rough like fiiag-
i-een, but lefs fo on the belly than the back. In the
mouth, towards the throat, is a very fiiort fort of
whale-bone. The liver is of a great fize, but that of
the female is the largeft,; fome weigh above 1000
pounds, and yield a great quantity of pure and fweet
oil, fit for lamps, and alfo much ufed to cure bruifes,
burns, and rheumatic cofnplaints. A large fifh has af-
forded to the captors a profit of 20 1. They are vivi-
parous ; a young one about a foot in length being found
iii the belly of a filh of this kind. The meafurcments
of one found dead on the fliore of Loch Ranza in the
itle of Arran were as follow: The whole length, 27
feet 4 inches ; fir ft dorfal fin, 3 feet; fecond, i foot ;
peftoral fin, 4 feet ; ventral, 2 feet ; the upper lobe of
t^ie tail, 5 feet ; the lower, 3,
They will permit a boat to follow them, without ac-
celerating their motion till it comes almoft within con-
tad when a harpoaeer ftrikes his weapon into ihem,
as near to the gills as poffible. But they are often fo
Mifenfible as not to move till the united ftrength of two
jnen have forced m the liarpoon deeper. As foon 33
5 ] S Q^u
they perceive themfelves wounded, they fling up their Squalm.^
tail and plunge headlong to the bottom ; and fre- — -v— ^
quently coil the rope round them in their agonies, at-
tempting to difengajje the harpoon by rolling on the
ground, for It is often found greatly bent. As footl
as they difcover that their efforts are In vain, they fwim
away with amazing rapidity, and with fuch violence,
that there has been an inftance of a vefTel of 70 tons
having been towed away agalnft a frefti gale. They
fometlmes run off with 200 fathoms of line, and with
two harpoons in them ; and will employ the fifhers for
12, and fometimes for 24 hours, before they are fub-
dued. When killed, they are either hauled on fliore,
or, if at a diftance from land, to the veflel's fide. The
hver (the only ufeful part), is taken out, and melted
into oil in kettles provided ^for that purpofe. A large
fifh will yield eight barrels of oil, and two of worthlefs
fediment.
II. CarchariaSf requ'ttit or white fhark, is often 30
feet long, and according to GUlius weighs 4CCX) pounds.
The mouth of this fifh Is fometloies furnlfhed with
a fix-fold row of teeth, flat, triangular, and exceedingly
lharp at their edges, and finely ferrated. Mr Pennant
had one rather more than an inch and a half long.
Grew fays, that thofe In the jaws of a fhark two yards
In length are not half an Inch ; fo that the fifh to which
this tooth belonged muft have been fix yards long, pro-
vided the teeth and body keep pace in their growth.
This dreadful apparatus, when the fifh Is In a ftate Fig, 4.
of repofe, lies quite flat in the mouth ; but when he
felzes his prey, he has power of erefting them by the
help of a fet of mufcles that join them to the jaw.
The mouth is placed far beneath ; for which reafon
thefe, as well as the reft of the kind, are faid to be
obliged to turn en their backs to feize their prey ;
which is an obfcrvatlon as ancient as the days of Pliny,
The eyes are large ; the back broad, flat, and fhorter
than that of other fharks. The tail is of a femllunar
form, but the upper part Is Isnger than the lower. It
has vaft ftrength In the tail, and can ftrike with great
force ; fo that the failors inftantly cut It off with aa
axe as foon as they draw one on board. The pedloral
fins aie very large, which enables It to fwira with great
fwiftnefs. The colour of the whole body and Hns is a
light afh. The ancients were acquainted with this fi'h;
and Opplan gives a long find entertaining account of
its capture. I'heir fiefh is ix)metlmes eaten, but is efteem-
ed coarfe and rank. — They are the dread of the failors
in all hot climates, where they conftantly attend the
fhlps In expeftation of what may drop over-board : a
man that has that misfortune perifhes without redemp.
tion ; they have been feen to dart at him like gudgeons
at a worm. A mafter of a Guinea fiiip informed Mr
Pennant, that a rage of fulcide prevailed among his
new-bought flaves, from a notion the unhappy creatures
had, that after death they fiiould be reftored again to
their families, friends, and country. To convince them
at leaft that they fhould not reanimate their bodies, he
orderd one of their corpfes to be tied by the heels- to a
rope and lowered into the fea ; and though it was drawn
up again as faft as the united force of the crew could
be exerted, yet In that fhort fpace the fharks had de-
voured every part but the feet, which were fecured at
the end of the cord.
Swimmers very -often perifh by them ; fometlmes
4X2 they
S Q, U [7
Squalu--. they lofe an arm or leg, and fomet' nes are bit quite
""^ afunder, ferving but for two morfels for this ravenous
animal : a melaacholy tale of this kind is related in a
Weft- India ballad, preferved in Dr Percy's Relics of
ancient Englifti Poetry.
This fpecies inhabits the abyfs of the ocean, and on-
ly appears on the furface when allured by its prey. It
3s the moil voracious of all animals, not even it is faid
fparing its own offspring, and often fwallowing its prey
entire. At the famous naval battle of the i 2th of A-
pril 1782, when the Csefar, one of the French fhips of
the line, was f< t orv fire, the (ailors threw themfelves
into the Tea, Sir Charles Douglas cblerved great num-
bers ot theie {harks, which lay between the French and
Britifh fleets, inftantly feize on the unhappy viftiras.
He feveral times favv two of them difputing about their
prey, each feizing a leg, and at length difappearing,
dragging the body along with them. Notwithftauding
ihe continued roar of artillery, he heard diftinftly the
cries of thofe unhappy men.
12. Prijlu, fcky or faw-fi(li, is fometlmes 15 feet
lon-r, fmooth, black on the upper parts, alh- coloured
on the iides, and white underneath. The head is flat
and conical ; the beak or fnout projecting from the nofe
is about five feet long, covered with a coriaceous fliin,
and armed on each fide, generally with 24 long, ftrong,
and fiiarp-pointed teeth ; but the number varies with
age. The teeth are granulated ; the eyes large, the
iris of a golden colour, and the fpiracles five. The an-
terior dorfal fin correfponds to thofe of the belly ; the
pofterior is fituated in the middle, between the former
and apex of the tail ; the peroral fins are broad and
long the caudal is fliorter than in the other fpecies. It
inhabits all the feas from Greenland to Brazil : and is
found alfo in the Indian Ocean. It is harmlefs.
1 3. Spinax, fagre, or picked dog-fifh, takes its name
from a ftrong and fharp fpine placed juft before each
of the back-fins, diftinguifhing it at once from the reft
of the Britifli ftiai ks. The nofe is long, and extends
greatly beyond the mouth, but is blunt at the end.
I'lie teeth are difpofed in two rows, are fmall and fharp,
and bend, from the middle of each jaw towards the cor-
ners of the mouth. The back is of a browuiili afli-co-
lour; the belly white.— It grows to the weight of
about 20 pounds. This fpecies fwarras on the coafts
of Scotland, where it is taken, fpht, and. dried ; and is
a food among the common people. It forms a fort of
inland commerce, being carried on womens backs 14
or 16 miles up the country, and fold or exchanged for
neceflaries.
14. Squatina^ angel-filh, is from fix to eight feet
long, has a large head ; teeth broad at their bafe, but
flender and very fharp above, and difpofed in five rows
- all round the jaws. Like thofe of all fharks, they are
capable of being jaifed or deprefled by means of muf-
cles uniting them to the jaws,, not being lodged in foc-
kets as the teeth of cetaceous 'fifh are. The back is of
a pale afh-colour, and very rough ; along the middle is
a prickly tubercuh^ed line : the belly is white and
fmooth. The peftoral fins are very large, and extend
horizontally from the body to a great diftance ; they
have f( me refemblance to wings, whence its name. The
ventral fins are placed in the fame manner, and the
double penis is placed in them ; vfrhich forms another
charader of the males ia this genus'.
6 ] S U
This is the fifh which connefts the genus of rays and Squal
fharks, partaking fomething of the charafter of both ; —
yet is an exception to each in the fituation of the
mouth, which is placed at the extremity of the head.
It is a fifli not unfrequent on moft of our coafts, where
it prowls about for prey like others of the kind. It is
extremely voracious ; and, like the ray, feeds on floun-
ders and flat fifh, which keep at the bottom of the
water. It is extremely fierce, and dangerous to be
approached. Mr Pennant mentions a fifherman whofe
leg was terribly torn by a large one of this fpecies,
which lay within his nets in ftiallow water, and whicli
he went to lay hold of incautioufly. The afpedt of
thefe, as well as the reft of the genus, have much ma-
lignity in them : their eyes are oblong, and placed
lengthwife in their head, funk in it, and overhung by
the flcln, and feem fuller of malevolence than iire.
Their fl<in is very rough ; the ancients made ufe of it
to polilh wood and ivory, as we do at prefent that of
the greater dog-fifh. The fleftr is now but httle efteem-
ed on account of its coarfenefs and ranknefs ; yet Ar-
cheftratus (as quoted by Athenasus, p. 319.), fpeak-
ing of the fidi of Miletus, gives this the firft place, in
refped to dehcacy, of the whole cartilaginous tribe.
They grow to a great fize ; being fometimes. near an
hundred weight.
Sharks are feldom deftruftive in the tempetate re-
gions ; it is in the torrid zpne that their ravages are
moft frequent. In the Weft Indies accidents happen
from them almoft every day.
"During the American war in 1780, while the Pal- jvfo^^,^
las frigate was lying in Kingfton, harbour, a young Tr^Tf/
North American jumped overboard one evening to make D'fe.ijci^
his efcape, and pcriflied by a ftiark in a fliocking man-
ner.
*' He had been captured in a fmall veflel, loft all his.
property, and was detained by compulfion in the En-
gH(h navy, to ferve in a depredatory war againft his
country. But he, animated with that fpirit which per-
vaded every bofom in America, refolved, as foon as he
arrived at fome port, to releafe himfelf from the morti-
lying ftate of employing his life againft his country^
which, as he faid when dying, he was happy to lay
down, as he could not employ it againft her enemies.
"He plunged into the water; the Pallas was a quarter -
of a mile from the ftiorc. A lhark perceived him, and
followed him, very quietly, till he came to a ftate of
reft, near the fliore : where, as he was hanging by a
rope, that moored a vefTel to a wharf, fcarcely'out of his
depth, the (hark fcized his right leg, and ftripped the
flefh entirely away from the bones, and took the foot oft"
at the ancle. He ftill kept his hold, and called to the
people in the vefTel near him, who were ftanding on the
deck and faw the aff"air. The fliark then feized his
other leg, which the man by his ftruggling difengaged
from his teeth, but with the fleOi cut through down to
•the bone, into a multitude of narrow flips. The people
in the veflel threw billets of wood into the water, and
frightened the fhark away. The young man was
brought on fliore. Dr Mofeley was called to him ; but
he had.loft fo much blood before any afiiftance could be
given him, that he expired before the mangled limba
eould be taken off".
"A few weeks before this accident happened, a fliark,
of I a feet in length, was caught in the harbour; and
cm
S u
[ 7^7 ]
S T A
on being opened, the entire head of a man was found in
his ftomach. The fcalp, and flcrti ot the face, were ma-
cerated to a foft pulpy fubftancc ; which, on being
touched, feparated entirely from the bones. The bones
were fomevvhat foftened, and the futures loofened."
The following extraordinary inftance of intrepidity
and friendfhip is well worth recording. It is given on
the authority of Mr Hughes, who publifhed a natural
hiftory of Barbadoes. About the latter end of Queen
Anne's wars, captain John Beanis, commander ot the
York Merchant, arrived at Barbadoes from England.
Having difeiTibarked the laft part of his lading, which
was coals, the failors, who had been employed in that
dirty work, ventured into the fea to wafh themfelves ;
there they had not been long before one on board efpi-
ed a large fhark making- toward them, and gave them
notice of their danger ; upon which they fwam back,
and all reached the boat except one ; him the monfter
overtook almoft within reach of the oars, and griping
him by the fmall of his back, foon cut him afunder,
and as lb«n fwallowed the lower part of his body ; tlie
remaining part was taken up and carried on board,
where a comrade of his was, whofe friendfhip' with the
deceafed had been long dittinguiflied by a reciprocal
difcharge or all fuch endearing offices as implied an
unioii and fympathy of fouls. When he faw the feve-
red trunk of his friend, it was with an horror and emo-
tion too great for words to paint. During this affec-
ting fcene, the infatiate (hark was feen traverfing the
bloody fiirface in fearch of the remainder of his prey ;
the reft of the crew thought themfelves happy in being
on board, he alone unhappy, that he was not within
reach of the deftroyer. Fired at the fight, and vow-
Eig that he would make the devourer difgorge, or be
fwallowed himfelf in the fame grave, he plunges into
the deep, armed with a /harp- pointed knife. The fhark
HO foon^r faw him, but he made furionfly toward him ;
both equally eager, the one of his prey, the other of
Tevenge. The moment the fliark opened his rapacious
jaws, his adverfaiy dexteroufly diving, and grafpinghim
with his left hand fomewhat below the upper iins, fuc-
Geisfully employed his knife in his right hand, giving
him repeated ilabs in the belly ; the enraged fliark, af-
ter many unavailing efforts, finding himfelf overnlatched
in his own element, endeavoured to dlfengaire himfelf,
fbmetimes plunging to the bottom, then mad with pain,
searing his uncouth form, now ftained with his own
ilreaming blood, above the foaming waves. The crews
of the furrounding veffels faw the unequal combat, un-
certain from which of the combatants the ftreams of
blood iffued ; till at length the fhark, much weakened
by the lofs ot blood, made toward the fhore, and with
him his conqueror ; who, flufhed with an aflurance of
vifts^ry, puflied his foe with redoubled ardour, and, by
the help of an ebbing tide, dragged him on fhore, rip-
ped up his bowels, and united and buried the fevered
carcafe of his friend"
*' It is evident (fays Dr Mofeley, to whofe valuable
work we are indebted for the ilory of the Am.erican
related above), that digeftion in thefe animals is not
performed by trituration, nor by the mufcular a£fion
of the llomach ; though nature has furaifhed them with
a ftomach of wonderful force and thicknefs, and far ex-
ceeding that of any other creature. Whatever their
force of 'digeftion is, it has no efie<£l upon their young
ones, v/hich always retreat into their f-orruichs >Ci time
of danger.
" That digeftion is not performed by hs-d': in fiih, is
equally evident. Being on the Banks of Nev.'found-
land in Auouft 1782, I opened many cod-lifli, and rip-
ped up their ftomachs juil as they came alive out of
the water ; in which were generally found fmall oyfters,
mufcles, cockles, and crabs, as well as fmall fifhes of
their own and other fpecies. I'he coldnefs of the fto-
mach of thefe fifhes is far greater than the temperature
of the water out of which they are taken ; or of any
other part of the fifh, or of any other fubltance of ani-
mated nature I ever felt. On wrapping one of them
round my hand, immediately on being taken out of the
fifh, it caufed fo much aching ^nd numbnefs that I could
not endure it long."
SQUAMARIA, in botany. See Lathr.^ja.
SQUAMOUS, in anatomy, a name given to the
fpurious or falfe futures of the flcuU, becaufe compo-
fed of fquamae, or fcales like thofe of nfnes.
SQUARE, in geometry, a quadrilateral figure both
equilateral and equiangular. See Geometry.
Si>uARK-Root. See Algebra, Part I. Chap. iv. and
Arithmetic, n" 33. and 34.
HMoiv SQUARE, in the military art, a body of foot
drawn up with an empty fpace in the middle, for the
colours, drums, and baggage, faced and covered by
the pikes every way, to keep off the horfe.
Square, among mechanics, an inftrument conliftiug
of two rules or branches, faftened perpendicularly at one
end of their extremities, io as to form a right angle. It
is of great uie in the defcription and menfuration ok'
right angles, a*d laying down perpendiculars.
S^-AKE-Rig^^ed, an epithet applied to a fliip whofe
yards are very long. It is alfo ufed in contradiftinc-
tion to all veffels whofe fails are extended by flays or
latoen-yards, or by booms and gafis ; the ui"ual fitua-
tion of which is nearly in the plane of the keel ; and
hence,
Ssn'ARE-Sai/, is a fail extended to a yard v/hich hanfjg
parallel to the horizon, as diftinguilhed from the other
fails which are extended by booms and ftays placed ob-
liquely. This fail is only ufed in fair winds, or to feud
under in a tcmpeft.' In the former cafe, it is furnifhed
with a large additional part called the bonnet, which is
then attaclied to its bottom, and removed when it is
neceffary to scud. • See Scudding.
SQUATIN A. See S(;ualus.
SQ^JILL, in botany. See Scilla.
SQ^UIIjLA, the name pf a fpecies of cancer. See
Cancer.
SQUINTING. See Medicine, n« 383.
SQUIRREL, in zoology., See SciuRua.
STABBING, in law. The offence of mortally
ftabbing another, though done upon iudden provoca-
tion, is punifced as murder ; the benefit of clergy be-
ing taken away from it b, ftatute. (See Murder).
For by Ja. T. c. 8. when one thiuils or ftabs another,
not then having a weapon drawn, or v/ho hath not
then firll ftricken the party flabbiiig, to that he dies
thereof within fix months after, the offender fhall not
have the benefit of clei'gy, though he did it not of
malice aforethought. This ftaiute was made on ac-
count of the frequent quarrels and ftabbings with ihort
daggers betvt=e€n the Scotch and the Enghfh, at the ac-
ceflioE-
Squamaria
II
Stabbing.
S T A [7
^ ^tacnyy. ^ cefiion of J?.mes I. ; and beiivT therefor^ of a tempo-
^ rsry nature, ought to have expired with the mifchief
which it meant to remedy. For, in point of folid and
fubftantlal juftice, it cannot be faid that the mode of
killin^j-, whether by ftahbina, llrangling, or fhooting,
can either extenuate Or enhance the guilt; unlefs where,
as in the cafe of poifoning, it carries with it internal
evidence of cool and deliberate malice. But the be-
Jllaclji. nignity of the law hath conftrued the ftatute fo favoiir-
Comment. ably iu behalf of the fubjeft, and fo ftriftly when againft
Tol. iv. him, that the offence of ftabbing now llands almoft upon
P° »95' the fame footing as it did at the common law. Thus,
(not to repeat the cafes mentioned under Manslaugh-
TER, of ftabbing an adulterefs, &c. which are barely
manflaughter, as at common law), in the conftruftion
of this ftatute it hath been doubted, whether, if the de-
ceafed had ftruck at all before the mortal blow given,
this does not take it out of the ftatute, tho' in the pre-
ceding quarrel the ftabbcr had given the firft blow ; and
it feeras to be the better opinion, that this is not within
the ftatute. Alfo it hath been refolved, that the kil-
' ling a man, by throwing a hammer or other weapon, is
Kot within the ftatute ; and whether a ftiot with a piftol
be fo or not is doubted. But if the party ftain had a
cudgel in his hand, or had thrown a pot or a bottle, or
difcharged a piftol at the party ftabbing, this is a fuffi'
cient reafoii for having a weapon drawn on his fide with-
in the words of the ftatute.
STACHYS, in botany : A genus of plants belong-
ing to the clafs of didynamia, and order of ^ymnofpermia }
and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 42d or-
der, Vert'tcillata. The upper lip of the corolla is arch-
ed ; the lower lip reflexed, and the larger intermediate
lacinia is marginated. The ftamlna, after ftieddiiig the
farina, are bent towards the fides. There are 1 7 fpe-
cies, the fylvatica, paluftris, alpina, germanica, lanata,
eretica, glutinofa, orientalis, palasftina, maiitima, sethio-
pica, hirta, canarieniis, refta, annua, and arvenfis. Four
only are natives of Britain.
I. Syhmtica, hedge-nettle. The plant is hairy all
over, ereft, a yaid high, and branched ; the hairs are
jointed. The flowers are of a deep red colour, fix or
eight in a whirl, which terminates in a lonnj fpike defti-
tute of leaves. The leaves are heart -ftiaped, and grow
on footftalks. The whole plant has a ftrong fetid fmell.
It grows commonly in woods and fliady places, and
flowers in July or Auguft. 2. Palujirts, clown's all-
heal. The roots are white and tuberous. The ftalk
is branched at the bottom, and two or three feet high.
The flowers are red or purple, from fix to ten in a whirl,
ending in a long fpike. The leaves are feflilc, narrow,
pointed, and in part furrounding the ftem. This plant
has a fetid fmell and bitter tafte, and is reckoned a good
vulnerary. It grows on the fides of rivers and lakes,
in low moift grounds, and fometimes in- corn-fields.
5. Germanica, bafe hore-hound. The ftem is downy,
and about two feet high. The leaves are white, downy,
wrinkled, and indented. The flowers are white^ pur-
plifli within, and grow in multiflorous whirls. It grows
in England. 4. /irvenjis, corn-ftachys, petty iron-
wort, or all-heal. The ftalk is lo or 12 inches high,
fquare, branched, and hairy. The leaves are heart-
Ihaped, obtufe, bluntly ferrated, and lefs hairy. The
c-alyx is hairy and feffile, and deeply divided into five
acute dejJts of ecjual length. The flowers are fiefti-co-
8 1 S T A
loured, and grovf from three to fix in a whirl. The Stajji
lower lip is trifid ; the middle fegment fpotted with red, S^adth
but not emarginated according to the charaAer of the
genus. It is frequent in corn-fields, and grows from
June to Auguft.
STADIUM, an ancient Greek long meafure, con-
taining 1 25 geometrical paces, or 62 5: iloman feet, cor-
refponding to our furlong. The word is faid to be
formed from the Greek word racrif "a ftation,*' or 'ir^^r
*' to ftand," becaufe it is reported that Hercules having
run a ftadium at one breath, ftood ftill at the end of it.
The Greeks ufually meafured diftances by ftadia, which
they called T(ia.Sta.!!iJ.o^. Stadium alfo fignified the
coutfe on which their races were run.
STADTHOLDER, the principal magiftrate or
governor of the Seven United Provinces. This office
is now aboHftied by the repubhcan influence of Fiance ;
but as the prince of Orange is in aUiance with this
country, our readers will probably not be ill pleafed with
a fhort account of his feveral powers and claims. To
render that account the more intelligible, we fliall trace
the office of Stadtholder from its origin.
The Seven Provinces of the Low Countries were
long governed by princes inverted with the fovereignty,
though limited in their powers, and under various
titles ; as Counts of Holland, Duhs of Guelder, Bijhop of
Utrecht, &c. When thefe countries fell to the princes
of the houfe of Burgundy, and afterwards to thofe of
Auftria, who had many other dominions, the abfence
of the fovereign was fupplied by a ftadtholder or gover-
nor, vefted with very ample powers. Thefe ftadthol-
ders or lieutenants had the adminiftration of the govern^
ment, and prefided in the courts of juftice, whofe jurif-
di(Slion was not at that time confined merely to the trial
of caufes, but extended to aftairs of ftate. The ftadt-
holders fwore allegiance to the princes at their inaugu-
ration, jointly with the ftates of the provinces they go-
verned. They likewife took an oath to the ftates, by
which they promifed to maintain their fundamental laws
and privileges.
It was upon this footing that William the Firft,
prince of Orange, was made governor and lieutenant-
general of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, by Philip
the Second, upon his leaving the Low Countries to go
into Spain. The troubles beginning foon after, this
prince found means to bring about an union, in 1576,
between Holland and Zealand ; the ftates of which two
provinces put into his hands, as far as was in their pow-
er, the fovereign authority (for fo long time as they
ftiould remain in war and under aims), upon the fame
footing as Holland had mtrufted him with in the year
before. In 1581 the fame authority was again renew-
ed to him by Holland, as it was foon after by Zealand
hkevvife ; and in 1384, being already elefted count of
Holland, upon certain conditions he would have been
formally invefted with the fovereignty, had not a
wretch, hired and employed by the court of Spain, put
an end to his life by a horrid aflaffination.
In the preamble of the inftruments by which the
ftates in 1581 conferred the fovereign authority upon
prince William the Firft, we find thefe remarlcable
words, which are there fet down as fundamental rules :
*' 'I'hat all republics and communities ought to pr^-
ferve, maintain, and fortify themfelves by unanimity ;
which being impofilble to be kept up always nmong fo
6 many-
S T A [7
thold- many members, often differing in inclinations and fenti-
ments, it is confequently neceffary that the government
fhould be placed in the hands of one fmgle chief magi-
flrate." Many good politicians, and the greateft part
of the inhabitants of thefe provinces, have, fmce the
cftablifliment of the republic, looked upon the ftadthol-
dei ian government as an eflential part of her conltitu-
tion ; nor has fhe been without a ftadtholder but twice,
that is to fay, from the end of 16^50 to 1 672, and again
from March 1702 till April 1747. The provinces of
Friefland and Groningen, with Oramelands, have al-
ways had a ftadtholder without interruption : their in-
ftruftions, which are now no longer in force, may be
feen in Aitzema ; but formerly the powers of the ftadt-
holder of thefe provinces were confined within narrower
bounds, and till William the Fourth there was no ftadt-
holder of the feven provinces together.
The ftadtholder cannot declare war nor make peace,
but he has, in quality of captain-general of the union,
the command in chief of all the forces of the ftate (a) ;
and military perfons are obliged to obey him in every
thing that concerns the fervlce. He is not limited by
inftruftions, but he has the important power of giving
out orders for the march of troops, and the difpofition
of all matters relative to them. He not only direfts
their marches, but provides forthe gari ifons, and change*
them at pleafure. All mihtary edicts and regulations
come from him alone ; he conftitutes and authorizes the
high council of war of the United Provinces, and, as
captain- general of every province, difpofes of all mihta-
ry offices, as far as the rank of colonel inclufively. The
higher pofts, fuch as thofe of velt-maiftials, generals,
lieutenant-generals, major-generals, are given by the
ftates-genei al, who choofe the perfons recommended by
his highnefs. He make:; the governors, commandants,
&c. of towns and ftrong places of the republic, and of
the barrier. The perfons nominated prefent their in^
ftruments of appointment to their high mightinefies,
who provide them with commiffions. The ftatcs-gene-
lal have hkewife great regard to the recommendation
bf the prince ftadtholder in the difpofition of thofe ci-
vil employments which arc in their gift.
The power of the ftadtholder as high.admiral, ex-
tends to every thing that concerns the naval force of
the repubhc, and to all the other affairs that are. here
within the jurlfdiaion of the admiralty. He prefides
at thefe boards either in perfon or by his reprefentar
tives ; and as chief of them all in general, and of every
one in particular, he has power to make their orders
and inftruAions be obferved by themfelves and others.
He beftows the pofts of lieutenant-admiral, vice-admi-
lal, and reai'-admiral, who command under him j and
he makes hkewife poit- captains.
The fbdtholdcr grants likewife letters of grace, par-
don, and abolition, as- well for tlie crime called Commu-
nia Deliaa, as for military offences. In Holland and
Zealand, thefe letters are made out for crimes of the firft
19 ] S T A
fort, in the name of the ftates, with the advice of his Stadtfiold-
highnefs. In military offences he confults the higli , ^
council of v/ar, and upon the communia del'iEla he takes *
the advice of the courts of juftice, of the counfellors,
committees of the provinces, of the council of ftate, and
the tribunals of juftice in the refpedfive towns, accord-
ing to the nature of the cafe.
In the provinces of Holland and Zealand, the ftadt-
holder elefla the magiftratcs of the towns annually, out
of a double number that are returned to him by tha
towns themfelves.
When any of thofe ofHccs become vacant, which, at
the time there was no governor, were in the difpofal of
the ftates of Holland, or as formerly in that of the
chamber of accounts^ the ftadtholder has his choice of
two, or, in feme cafes, of three candidates, named by
their noble and great mightinefies. He choofes like-
wife the counfellors, infpeftors of the dykes of Ryn-
land, Dclfland, and Seheeland, out of three perfons
prefented to him by the boards of the counfellors
infpeAors ; which boards are of very ancient eftablifh*
ment in Holland.
His highnefs prefides in the courts of Holland, and
in the courts of juftice of the other provinces ; and his
name is placed at the head of the proclamations aiKi
a£fs, called in Dutch Mandamenten, or Ft ovi/ien van
J-uJiiUe. In Overyffel and in the province of Utrecht
the poffeftbrs of fiefs hold of the prince ftadtholder.
He is fupreme curator of the univerfities of Guelder,
Friefland, and Groningen ; grand forefter and grand'
veneur in Guelder, in Holland, and other places. In the
province of Utrecht, his highnefs, by virtue of the re-
gulation of 1674, difpofes of the provoftfhips and other-
benefices which remain to the chapters, as alfo of the
canonical prebends that fall in the months which were
formei-ly the papal months.
By the firft article of the council of ftate of the U-
nited Provinces, the ftadtholder is the firft member of
it, and has a right of voting tliere, with an appointment,
of 25,000 guilders a-year. He affiits alfo as often a»
he thinks it for the fervice of the ftate, at the delibera-
tions of the ftates-general, to make propofitions to them=,
and fometimes alfo at the conferences which the deputies-
of their high mlghtlnefTes hold in their differ-ent com*
mittees, in confequence of their ftanding orders. He.
likewife aflifts at the affemblles of the ftates of each
particular province, and at that of the counfellors com-,
mittees. In. Guelder, Holland, and Utrecht, his high--
nefs has a fhare of the fovereignty, as chief, or prefident
of the body of nobles ; and in Zealand, where he pofTef-
fes the marquifate of Veer and Flufhing, as firft noble,,
and reprefenting the whole nobility. In his abfence he
has in Zealand his reprefentatlves, who have the firft
place and the firft, voice in all. the councils, and the
firft of whom is always firft deputy from the provinca
to the afTembly of their high mightinefies. .
In 1 74^ the prince ftadtholder was created by the
ftates^
(a) In times of war, however, the ftates have always named deputies for the army, to accompany the ftadt-^
holders, in. the field'i and to ferve them as coimfellors in all their enterprifes, particularly in the moll, important af-
feirs, fuch as giving battle, or undertaking a fiege, &c. This was always praftifed till the acceffion, ot king.
William the Third to the crown of Great Britain, and after his death was continued with regard to the general;
in, chief of the array of the republic In J747 and 1748 there were likewife deputies withthe army, butwitbi
more limited power.
S T A
C 7
Stshellna
!!
Siaffa. -
ftates-general, governor-general and fupreme direftor of
the Eaft and Weft India companies ; dignities which
give him a great deal of authovity and power, and which
had never been conferred upon any of his predeceflbrs,
i:!or have they hitherto been made hereditary. He has
his reprefentatives in the feveral chambers of the compa-
v.y, and choofes. their direftors out oF a nomination of
three quahned perfons. The prince enjoyed this pre-
jogative in Zealand from the time of his elevation to
the ftadtholderate.
The revenues of the ftadtholderate of the feven U-
nited Provinces are reckoned (including the 25,000
guilders which the prince enjoys annually as the firft
member of the council of ftate, and what he has from
the India company's dividends) to amount to 300,000
guilders' a year. As captain- general of the union, his
ferine highnefs has 1 20,000 guilders fer annum, befides
24,000 from Friefland, and ( 2,000 from Groningen, in
quahty of captain-general of thofe provinces. In times
of war the ftate allows extraordinary fums to the captain-
general for the expence of every campai®;n.
To all thefe powers and privileges the prince of O-
range has a legal and conftitutional right ; but he has
been diverted of them by a faftion which feems deter-
mined to fell to the cruel and arbitrary republic of
France that country which his anceftors redeemed from
Auftrian flavery, at the hazard of lofmg every thing dear
to them but liberty and honour.
STiEHELINA, in botany : A genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs of fyngentfia, and order o't po/ygomia
aqualls ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
49th order, Compofits. The receptacle is paleaceous,
the chaft" being very ftiort ; the pappus is branchy, and
the antherse caudated. There are eight fpecies, the gna-
phaloides, dubia, arborefcens, fruticofa, ilicifolia, coryra-
bofa, chamaepeuce, and imbricata.
STAFF, an inftrument ordinarily ufed to reft on in
walking. The ftaff is alfo frequently ufed as a kind of
natural weapon both of offence and defence ; and for fe-
veral other purpofes.
Staff, a light pole erected in diff"erent parts of a flilp,
whereon to hoift and difplay the colours.
The principal of thefe is reared immediately over the
ftern, to difplay the enfign ; another is fixed on the
bowfprit, to extend the jack ; three more are erefted at
the three maft heads, or formed by their upper ends, to
fhow the flag or pendant of the rcfpeAive fquadron or
divifion to which the fliip is appropriated. See En-
sign, Mast, Jack, and Pendant.
Staff, in military matters, confifts of a quarter-
mafter general, adjutant-general, and majors of brigade.
The ftaff properly exifts only in time of war. See
^jj-jTRT ES>M ajler General, &c.
Regimental St^ff, confifts in the adjutant, quarter-
jnafter, chaplain, furgeon, &c.
Staff, in mufic, five lines, on which, with the in-
termediate fpaces, the notes of a fong or piece of mufic
are marked.
Fore-ST^FF. See FoRF.-Staff'.
STAFF A, one of the Hebrides or Weftern Ifiands
of Scotland, remarkable for its bafaltic pillars. It was
vifited by Sir Jofeph Banks, who communicated the
following account of it to Mr Pennant.
" The little ifland of Stsffa lies on the weft coaft of
20 ] S T A
Mull, about three leagues north-eaft from'Iona, -or I-
columbkill : its greateft length is about an Englifh
iniie, and its breadth about half a one. On the weft
fide of the ifland is ,a finall bay where boats generaJy
land ; a little to the fouthward of which the firft ap-
pearance of pillars are to be obferved : they are fmall ;
and inftead of being placed upright, lie down on their
fides, each forming a fegment of a circle. From thence
you pafs a fmall cave, above which the pillars, now
grown a little larger, are inclining in all direftions ;
in one place in particular, a fmall mafs of them v?ry
much rei'embles the ribs of a fiiip. From hence having
paffed the cave, which, if it is not low^-water, you mult
do in a boat, you come to the firft ranges of pillars,
which are ftill not above half as large as thofe a littk
beyond. Over againft this place is a fmall ifland, call-
ed in Erfe Boo-JJm-la, feparated from the main by a
channel not many fathoms wide. This whole ifland is
compoied of pillars without any ftratum above them ;
they are ftill fmall, but by much the neateft formed of
any about the place.
" The firft divifion of the ifland, for at high water it
is divided into two, makes a kind of a cone, the pil-
lars converging together towards the centre : on the
other they are in general laid down flat : and in the
front next to the main, you fee how beautifully they
are packed together, their ends coming out fquare with
the bank which they form. AH thefe have their tranf-
verfc feftions exadf , and their furfaces fmooth ; which
is by no means the cafe with the large ones, which are
cracked in all direftions. I much queftion, however,
if any part of this whole ifland of Boo-fha-la is two feet
in diameter.
" The main ifland oppofite to Boo-flia-la, and farther
towards the north-welt, is fupported by ranges of pil-
lars pretty ereft, and, thou-^h not tall (as they are not
uncovered to the bafe), of large diameters ; and at
their feet is an irregular pavement, made by the upper
fides of fuch as have been broken off", which extends as
far under water as the eye can reach. Here the forms
of the pillars are apparent : thefe arc of three, four,
five, fix, and feven fides ; but the number of five and
fix aie by much the moft prevalent. The largcft I
meafured was of feven' ; it was four feet five inches in
diameter.
" The furfaces of thefe large pillars, in general, are
rough and uneven, full of cracks in all direiftions ; the
tranfverfe figures in the upi ight ones never fail to run
in their true direftions. The furfaces upon which we
walked were often flat, having neither concavity nor
convexity ; the larger number, however, were concave,
though fome were very evidently convex. In fome pla-
ces, the interftices within the perpendicular figures were
filled up with a yellow fpar : in one place, a vein pafled
in among the mafs of pillars, carrying here and tliere
fmall threads of fpar. Though they were broken and
cracked through in all direftions, yet their perpendicu-
lar figures might eafily be traced : from whence it is
eafy to infer, that whatever the accident might have
been that caufed the diflocation, it happened after the
formation of the pillars.
" From hence proceeding along fliore, you arrive at
Fingal's cave. Its dimcnfions I have given in the form
of a table :
5 Length
S T A [ 72
[alTa. , i'eef-
Length of die cave from the rock without, 371 6
From the pitch of the arch, - 250 O
Breadth of ditto at the mouth, - 53 7
At the farther end, - - 20 o
Height of the arch at the mouth, - 1176
70 o
39 6
54 o
18 o
9 ^
At the end,
Height of an outfide pillar,
Of one at the north weft corner.
Depth of water at the niouth.
At the bottom,
The cave runs into the rock in the dIr«6tion of
•north call by eafl by the compafs.
*' Proceeding farther to the notth-weft, you meet with
the higheft ranges of pillars ; the magnificent appear-
ance of which is pad all defcription. Here they are
bare to their very baHs, and the llratum below them is
-alfo vifible : in a fhort time, it rifes many feet above
-the water, and gives an opportunity of examining its
quality. Its furface is rough, and has often large lumps
•of ftone flicking in it as if half immerfed : itfelf, when
broken, is compofed of a thoufand heterogeneous parts,
which together have very much the appearance of a
iava ; and the more fo, as many of the lumps appear
to be of the very fame ftone of which the pillars are
formed. This whole ftratum lies in an inclined poii-
tion, dipping gradually towards the louth-eaft.. As
hereabouts is the fituation of the " higheft pillars, I
ihall mention "my raeafurements of them, and the dif-
ferent ftiata in this place, premifing-, that the mea-
furements were made with a line, held in the hand of
a perfon who Hood at the top of the cliff, and reaching
to the bottom ; to the lower end of which was tied a
white mark, which was obferved by one who llaid be-
low for the purpofe : v.rhen t]>is m^rk was fet off from
the water, the perfon below noted it down, and made
fignal to him above, who made then a mark in his
rope : whenever this mark -puffed a notable place, the
iame fignal wrs made, and the name of the place no-
ted down as before : the line being all hauled up, and
the diftances between the marks meafurcd and noted
down, gave, when compared with the book kept be-
low, the diftances, as for inftarice in the cave :
" N" I. in the rxjok below, was called from the wa-
fc«F to the foot of the firft pillar ;in the book above ;
ii^^ I. gave 36 feet 8 inches, the higheft of that afcent,
which was compofed of broken pillars.
" 1, Pillar at the weft corner of Fingal's cave.
i r.eet. In.
I From the water to the foot of the pillar, j 2 10
■5;, Height, of the. pillar, - - 37 3
3 Stratum abpyc, the i>iUar, - - 66 9
it. 2., Fin ral's cave. ^
I Fi-op the >\'ater to tljie foot of, t^e pillar, 36 S
12 Height of the pillar, • , -
^ From the top of the pillar to the top of the
arch, - 31,4
4. Thicknefs of the ftratum above, - 34., 4
Sjy adding. together tftc-thrcC; fir.ft.;Tieafurements,
vve^o^ the height of ,the arcii £rom the wa-
ter, -, . , ^ ■ - < i j' 117 6
. .".N" 3' Corner plllar to tlie weftw^rd of
Fingal'ii cave.
Stratum below the pillar of lava-like matter, 110
l^eugth of pillar, - . 54 O
■ ,,y xvii. Part n.
I ] S T A
Stratum above the pillar
" 4. Another pillar to the leftward.
Stratum below the pillar, - - 171
Height of the pillar, - - 50 o
Stratum above, <• - - 5^1
" N*^ 5. Another pillar farther to the weft-
ward.
Stratum below the pillar, . . ». 19 8
Hei^rht of the pillar, - 55 ^
Stratum above, - •> - 54 7
" The ftratum above the pillars, which is here men-
tioned, is uniformly the fame, confifting of numberlefs
fmall pillars, bending and inclining in all direftions,
fometimes fo irregularly that the ftbnes can only be faid
to have an inclination to affume a columnar form ; in
others more regular, but never breaking into or difturb-
iag the ftratum of lai-ge pillars, whofe tops everywhere
keep an uniform and regular line.
" Proceeding now along the fhore round the north
end of the ifland, you arrive at Oua na fcarve^ or the
Corvorant's Cave. Here the ftratum under the pillars
is lifted up very high ; the pillars above it are confider-
ably lefs than thofs at the north weft end of the ifland,
but ftill very confiderable. Beyond is a bay, which
cuts deep into the ifland, rendering it in that place not
more than a quarter of a mile over. On the fides of
this bay, efpecially beyond a little valley, which almoft
cuts the ifland into two, are two ftages of pillars, but
fmall ; however, having a ftratum between them exaftly
the fame as that above them, formed of innumerable
little pillars, fhaken out of their places, and leaning in
all dlrefitions.
" Flaving paffcd this bay, the pillars totally ceafe; the
rock is of a dark-brown ilone, and no figns of regularity
occur till you have paffed round the foutn-eall end of
the ifland (a fpace almoft as large as that occupied by
the pillars), which you meet again on the weft fide, be-
ginning to form themfelves irregularly, as if the ftratum
had an inclination to that form, and foon arrive at the
bending pillars where I began.
" The ftone of wliich the pillars are formed, is a
coarfe kind of bafaltes, very much refembling the Giant's
Caufeway in Ireland, though none of them are near fo
neat as the fpecimeng of the latter which I have feen at
the Britifh Mufeum; owing chiefly to the colour, which
in ours is a dirty brown, in the Infh a fine black ; in-
deed the whole produftion feems very much to refemblc
the .Giant's Caufeway."
STAFFORD, the county town of Staffordfliire,
in W, LohjT. '2. o. N.;I.at. 5:3. g. It ftands on the
river Sow, has two-' parifti churches, a fine fq,uare mar?
ket-place, and a flouriihing cloth- manufafture. It fends
two- members to parliament, and is I35milc3 from Lon-
don. ■ .
STAFFORDSHIRE, a county of England, bound-
ed on the fouth by iWor^efterfhire, by Chefhire and Der-
byfliire oiS the north, by Warwickfhire and'Derbyihire
OH' the eaft, and Shroplhire and Chefhire on the well*
Tiie length is reckoned 6i miles, the. \breadth 33,
and the circumference iSo. , , It contains 5 hundreds',
150 pariflies, 8iO,030 acre's^ and 18 market towns.
The air, except in thofe parti that are called the
Moorlands and Woodlands, and about the 'mines, is
good, efpecially upon the hills, where it is accounted
4 Y very
(5 1 6 Staffa
.Stafford,
filire.
§Sec
Stone-
S T A [ 72
very fine. The foil in the northern mountainous parts
is not fertile ; but in the middle, where it is wa-
tered by the Trent, the third river in England, it is
both fruitful and pleafant, being a mixture of arable and
meadow grounds. In the fouth, It abounds not only
tvith corn, but with mines of iron and pits of coal.
The principal rivers of this county ^ befides the Trent,
which runs almoft thro' the middle of it, and abounds
with falmon, are the Dove and Tame, both of which
are well itored with fifh. In this county are alfo a great
many lakes, or meres and pools, as they are called ;
which, having ftreams either running into them or from
them, cannot be fuppofed to be of any great prejudice
to the air ; they yield plenty of fifh. In divers parts of
the county are medicinal waters, impregnated with dif-
ferent forts of minerals, and confequenlly of different
qualities and virtues ; as thofe at Hints and Brefsford-
honfe, which are mixed with bitumen ; thofe at In-
geftrc, Codfalwood, and WlUough-bridge park, which
are fulphureous. OF the faline kind are the Brine-pits
at Chertley, Epfom, Pcnfnet-clofe, of which very pood
fait is made. 'I'here is a well at Newcaftle-under-Line
that is faid to cure the king's evil; another called Elder-
lue/l near BlemhlU, faid to be good for fore eyes ; and
a third called the Sp^^ near Wolverhampton.
Great flocks ef (heep are bred in this county, efpe-
dally in the moorlands, or mountains of the northern
part of it ; but the wool id faid to be fomewhat coarfer
than that of many other counties. Of this wool, how-
ever, they make a variety of manufa£lures, particularly
felts. In the low grounds along the rivers are rich paf-
tures for black cattle ; and vaft quantities of butter and
cheefe are made. In the middle and fouthern parts not
enly grain of all kinds, but a great deal of hemp
and flax are ralfed. This county produces alfo lead,
copper, iron ; marble, alabaflier, millflones, limeilone ;
coal, fait, and raarles of feveral forts and colours; brick-
earth, fullers earth, ana potters- clay ^, particularly a fort
ufed in the glafs manufa(flure at Amblecot, and fold at
feven-pence a bufhel ; tobacco pipe-clay ; a fort of red-
difli earth called Jl'ip-. ufed in painting divers veflels; red
and yellow ochres ; fire-ftones for hearths of iron fur-
naces, ovens, &c. ; iron-ftones of feveral forts; blood-
flones, or haematites, found in the breok Tent, which,
when wet a little, will draw red lines like ruddle; quar-
ry-ftones, and grind-ftones. For fuel the county is well
fupplied with turf, peat, and coal of feveral forts, as
cannel coal, peacock coal, and pit-coal. The peacock-
coal is fo called, becaufe, when turned to the light, it
difplays all the colours of the peacock's tail ; but it is
fitter fer the forge than the kitchen. Of the pit- coal
there is an inexhauftible ftore : it burns into white
alhes, and leavjes no fuch cinder as that of the New-
eaftle coal. It is not ufed for malting till it is charred,
and in that ftate it makes admirable winter-fuel for a
chamber.
This county is in the diocefe of Litchfield and Co-
ventry, and the Oxford circuit. It fends ten mem-
bers to parliament ; namely, two for the county, two
for the city of Litchfield, two for Staffxjrd, two ior
Ncwcaftle-onder-Line, and two for Tamworth.
STAG, in zoology. See Cervus.
SrAG'Beetle. See Lucanus.
STAGE, in the modern drama, the place of aftion
and reprefentation included between the pit and the
2 ] S T A
fcenes, and anfwering to the profcenium or pulpltum of Sup^gc
the ancients. See Playhouse and Theatre. I!
STAGGERS. See Farriery, § xlii. Stalagm
STAHL (George Erneft), an eminent German che-
mift, was born in Franconia in 1660, and chofen pro-
fefibr of medicine at Hall, when a unlverfity was found-
ed in that city in 1 694. The excellency of his leftures
while he filled that chair, the importance of his various
publications, and his extenfive pradlice, foon raifed his
reputation to a very great height. He received an in-
vitation to Berlin in 171 6, which having accepted, he
was made counfellor of ftate and phyfician to the
king. He died in 1734, in the 7 cth year of his
age. Stahl is without doubt one of the greateft men
of which the annals of medicine can boaft : his name
marks the commencement of a new and more illuf-
trious era in chemiftry. He was the author of the
doftrine of phlogifton, which, though now complete-
ly overturned by the difcoveries of Lavoificr and
others, was not without its ufe ; as It ferved to com-
bine the fcattered fragments of former chemlfts into a
fyftem, and as it gave rife to more accurate experiments
and a more fcientific view of the fubje6l, to which ma-
ny of the fubfcquent difcoveries were owing. This
theory maintained its ground for more than half a cen-
tury, and was received and fupported by forae of the
moft eminent men which Europe has produced ; a fuffi-
clent proof of the ingenuity and the abilities of its au-
thor. He was the author alfo of A Theory of Medicine,
founded upon the notions which he entertained of the
abfolute dominion of mind over body ; in confequence
of which, he affirmed, that every mufcular aftion is a
voluntary aft of the mind, whether attended with con-
fcioufnefs or not. This theory he and his followers
carried a great deal too far, but the advices at leaft
which he gives to attend to the ftate of the mind of the
patient are worthy of the attention of phyficlans.
His principal works are, i. Exper'menta et OhfervO'
i'lones Chemica et Phyjlca^ Berlin, 173 i, 8vo. 2. Differ^
tatlones Medicay Hall, 2 vols 4to. Th's is a coUeftioa
of thefes. ^. Theorin Med'ica veroy 1737, 4^°- 4' 0-
pufculum Chymtco-phyjico mrdicum, 1740, 4t0. 5, A
Treatife on Sulphur, both Inflammable and Fixed, writ-
ten in German. 6. Negotium Otio/umy Hall, 1720, 410.
It is in this treatife chiefly that he eftabKftics his fyftem
concerning the aftion of the foul upon the body.
7 . Fundamenta Chym'tca Dogmat'ice et Experimentalisy
Nuremberg, 1747, 3 vols 410. 8. A Treatife on Salts,
written in German. 9. Commentariurn in Mttaliur^iam
Beccher'ty 1723.
STAINING or Colouring ©/"Bone, Horn, Mar:-
BLE, Paper, Wood, &c. See thefe articles.
• STAIRCASE, in archltefture, an afcent inclofed
between walls, or a baluftrade confifting of flairs or fteps,
with landing places and rails, ferving to make a com-
munication between the feveral ftories of a houfe. Se«
Architecture, n" 89, &c.
STALACTITES, in natural hiftory,cryftallinc fpars
formed into oblong, conical, round, or irregular bodies,
compofed of various crufts, and ufually found hanging
in form of ificles from the roofs of grottoes, &c.
STALAGMITIS, in botany: A genus of the mo.
nacia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants \
and in the natural method ranking under the 38th or
der, TricQCca. The calyx is either quadriphyllous ©r
8 hexaphylloufs
S T A
[ 7
tale hexapliyllous ; the corolla confills of four or of fix pe--
il. tals : the receptacle is fiefhy, and fomewhat fquare (ha-
* ped ; the filaments about 30. In the hermaphrodite
flower ths Jyius is fhort, thick, and ereft ; the fruit is
a berry of a globular fhape, unilocular, and crowned
with the Jlylus and Jligma : they contain three oblong
jointed triangular feeds. Of this there is only one fpe-
cies, viz. the Cambogiordes, a native of the Eatt Indies
and of the warmer parts of America. From this plant
is obtained the gutta cambogia, or gum gamboge of the
(hops. See Gamboge.
Till very lately botanills were at a lofs for the true
nature of the plant which yields this gum._ Koenig, a
native of Ireland, and an excellent botanift, travelled
over a great part of India, and coUedled a great num-
ber of new plants, and among the reft, the ftalagmitis.
Thefe he bequeathed to Sir Jofeph Banks prefident of
the Royal Society.
STALE, among fportfmen, a living fowl .put in a
place to allure ad bring others where they may be ta-
ken. For want of thefe, a bird fliot, his entrails taken
out, and dried in an oven in his feathers, with a ftick
thrufl through to keep it in a convenient pofture, may
ferve as well as a live one.
Stale is alfo a name for the urine of cattle.
Animated STALK. This remarkable animal was
found by Mr Ives at Cuddalore : and he mentions
feveral kinds of it ; fome appearing Hke dry ftraws tied
together, others hke grafs ; fome have bodies much lar-
ger than others, with the addition of two fcaly imper-
feft wings ; their neck is no bigger than a pin, but
twice as long as their bodies ; their heads are like thofe
of an hare and their eyes vertical and very briflc. They
live upon flies, and catch thefe infefts very dextereufly
with the two fore-feet, which they keep doubled up in
three parts clofe to their head, and dart out very quick
oQ. the approach of their prey ; and when they have caught
it, they eat it very voracioufly, holding it in the fame
manner as a fquirrel does its food. On the outer joints
of the fore-feet are feveral very flrarp hooks for the ea-
fier catching and holding of their prey ; while, with the
other feet, which are four in number, they take hold of
trees or any other thing, the better to furprife whatever
they lie in wait for. They drink like a horie, putting
their mouths into the water. Their excrements, which
are very white, are almofl: as large as the body of the
animal, and as the natives fay, dangerous to the eyes.
S L'ALLION, or Stone-horse, in the manege, an
horfe defigned for the covering of mares, in order to
propagate the fpecies. See Equus.
STAMFORD, an ancient town of Lincolnftiire in
Enii-land ; feated on the river Welland, on the edge of
Northamptonfliire. It is a large handfome place, con-
taining fix parifli -churches, feveral good fl:rcets, and fine
buildings. It had formerly a college, the ftudents of
which removed to Biazen-Nofe college in Oxford. It
has no confiderable manufaftories, but deals chiefly in
malt. W. Long. o. 3 1 . N. Lat. 5 2. 42. /
STAMINA, irt botany, are thofe upright filaments
whish, on opening a flower, we find within the corolla
furroundingthe piftillum. According to Linnceus, they
are the male organs of generation, whofe ofiice it is to
prepare the pollen. Each ftamen confifts of two difl.ind
parts, viz. the filamentum and the anthera.
Stamina
Standard.
23 ] S T A
Stamina, in the animal body, are defined to be thaf«
fimple original parts which exilted fir ft in the embryo
or even in the feed ; and by whofe diftindion, augmen-
tation, and accretion by additional juices, the animal *
body at its utmoft bulk is fuppofed to be formed.
STAMP-DUTIES, a branch of the perpetual revenue.
See Revenue.
In Great Britain there is a tax impofed upon all
parchment and paper, whereon any legal proceedings or
private inllruments of almofl any nature whatfoeyer are
written ; and alio upon licences for retailing wines, of
all denominations ; upon all almanacs, newfpapers, ad-
vertifements, cards, dice, &c. Thefe impoits are very
various ; being higher or lower, not fo much according
to the value of the property transferred, as according to
the nature of the deed. The higheft do not exceed ,s';,,,v/,'^
fix pounds upon every flieet of paper or flcin of parch- K^ecM of
ment ; and thefe high duties fall chiefly upon grants
from the crown, and upon certain law proceedings,^''*'"*
without any regard to the value of the fubjedl. I'here
are in Great Britain no duties on the regiftration of
deeds or writings, except the fees of the officers who
keep the regilter ; and thefe ar e leldora more than a
reafonable recompenfe for their labour. The crown
derives no revenue from them.
The ftamp-duties conflitutc a tax which, though in
fome inltances it may be heavily felt, by greatly increa-
fing the expence of all mercantile as well as legal pro-
ceedings, yet (if moderately impofed) is of fervice to
the public in general, by authenticating inllruments,
and rendering it much more difiicult than formerly to
forge deeds of any ftanding ; fince, as the officers of
this branch of the revenue vary their ftamps frequently,
by marks perceptible to none but themfelves, a man
that would forge a deed of King William's time, mull
know and be able to councerfeit the ilamp of that date
alfo. In France and fome other countries the duty is
laid on the contrail itfclf, not on the infl;rument in
which it is contained; as, with us too in England (be-
fides the ftamps on the indentures), a tax is laid, by
Itatute 8 Ann. c 9. on every apprentice-fee; of 6 d in
the pound if it be 50 1. or under, and l s. in the pound
if a greater fum : but this tends to draw the fubjtil in-
to a thoufand nice difquifitions^and difputes concerning
the nature of his contraft, and whether taxable or not ;
in which the farmers of the revenue are fure to have
the advantage. Our general method anfwers the pur-
pofes of the ftate as well, and confults the eafe of the
fubjedl much better. The firtt inftitution of the itamp-
duties was by ftatute 5 and 6 W. and M. c. 2 < . and
they have fince, in many inftances, been increafed to
five times their original amount.
STANCHION, or Stanchions, a fort of fmall
pillars of wood or iron ufed tor various purpofes in a
fhip ; as to fupport the decks, the quarter-rails, the
nettings, the awnings, &c. The firft of thefe are two
ranges of fmall columns fixed under the beams, through-
out the fiiip's length between decks ; one range being
on the ftarboard and the ocher on the larboard fide of
the hatchways. They are chiefly intended to fupport
the weight of the artillery.
STAND, in commerce, a weight from two hundred
and an half to three hundred of pitch.
STANDARD, in war, a fort of banner or flag,
4Y2 borne
S T A [ 72
fitati'^arfl, borne as a fijrnal for the joining together of the feveral
^Stanhope, droops beloniring to the fame body.
"" ^ Standard, in commerce, the original of a weight,
meafure, or coin, committed to the keeping of a ma-
giftrate, or depofited in fome pubh'c place, to regulate,
adjull, and try the weights ufed by particular perfons
in traffic. See Money.
STANHOrE (Philip Dormer, earl of Chefterfield),
was bora in 1695, and educated in Trinity-hall, Cam-
bridge ; which place he left in 1714, when, by his own
account, he was an abfolate pedant. In this charafter
he went abroad, where a familiarity with good compa-
ny foon convinced him he was totally miftaken in al-
moll all his notions : and an attentive ftudy of the air,
manner, and addrefs of people of fafhion, foon poUflied
a man v hofe predominant deHre was to pleafe ; and
who, as it afterward appeared, valued exterior accom-
])Hfhments beyond any other human acquirement.
While Lord Stanhope, he got an early feat in parlia-
ment ; and in 1722, fucceeded to his father's eftate
and titles. In 1728, and in 1745, he was appointed
ambaflador cxtraordinaiy and plenipotentiary to Hol-
land : which high charafler he fupported with the
greateft dignity ; ferving his own country, and gain-
ing the efteem of the ftates-general. Upon his return
from Holland, he was fent lord-lieutenant of Ireland ;
and during his adminiftration there, gave general fa-
tisfaftion to all parties. He left Dublin in 1746, and
in Oclober fucceeded the earl of Harrington as fecre-
tary of ftate, in which poll he officiated until February
6th 1748. Being feized with a deafneis in 1751 that
incap?.citated him for the pleafures of fociety, he fiom
that time led a private and retired life, amufing him-
felf with books and his pen ; in particular, he engaged
largely as a volunteer in a periodical mifcellaneous pa-
per called The IVor/d, in which his contributions have
a diftinguifhed degree of excellence. He died in 1773,
leaving a charafter for wit and abilities that had few
equals. He diitinguifhed himfelf by his eloquence in
parliament on many important occafions ; of which
■we have a charafteriftic inftance, of his own relating.
He was an aftive promoter of the bill for altering the
llylc ; on which occafion, as he himfelf v/rites in one
of his letters to his fon, he made fo eloquent a fpeech
in the ho\ife, that every one was pleafed, and faid he
had made the whole very clear to them ; " when (fays
he). God knows, I had not even attempted it. I
could juft as foon have talked Celtic or Sclavonian to
■ them, as aftronomy ; and they would have underftood
me full as well." Lord Maccle$field, one of the
greateft mathematicians in Europe, and who had a prin-
cipal hand in framing the bill, fpoke afterwards, with
all the clearnefs that a thorough knowledge of the fub-
je6l could diflate ; but not having a flow of words
equal to Lord Chelterfield, the latter gained the ap-
plaufe from the former, to the equal credit of the
fpeaker and the auditors. The high charadler Lord
Chefterfield fupported during life, received no fmall
injury foon after his death, from a fuller difplay of it by
hi§ own hand. He left no iffue by his lady, but had a
natural fon, Phlhp Stanhope, Efq; whofe education wag
ior many years a clofe objedl of his attention, and who
was afterward envoy extraordinary at the court of
Drefden, but died before him. When Lord Cheller-
ficU died, Mr Stanhojge's widow pubUfhed a courfe of
4 ] S T A
letters, written by the father to the Ton, filled with in- SranTi
ftru&ions fuitable to the different gradations of the
young man's life to whom they were addreflPed. Thcfe
letters contain many hne obfervations on mankind, and
rules of condufx : but it is obfervable that lie lays a
greater flrefs on exterior accomplifhments and addrefs,
than on intelleftual quaUfications and fincerity ; and
allows greater latittide to fafhionable pleafures than
good morals willjuiUiy, efpecally in paternal inflruaions.
Hence it is that a celebrated writer tj, and of manners
fomewhat different from thofe of the polite earl of/o«,
Chefterfield, is faid to have obferved of thefe letters
that " they inculcate only the morals of a whore, with
the manners of a dancing- mafler."
Stanhope (Dr George), an eminent divine, was
born at Hertifhorn in Derbyfnire, in the year 1 660^
His father was reftor of that place, vicar of St Mar-
garet's church in Leicefter, and chaplain to the earls of
Chelterheld and Clare. His grandfather Dr George
Stanhope was chaplain to James I. and Charles I.
had the chancellorfliip of York, where he v/as alfo a
canon refidentiar)-, held a prebend, and was redor of
Weldrake in that county. He was for his loyalty dri-
ven from his home with eleven children ; and died ia
1644. Our author was fent to fchool, firfl at Upping-
ham in Ivutland, then at Leicefter ; afterwards removed
to Eaton ; and thence chofen to King's college in
Cambridge, in the place of W. Cleaver. He took the
degree of B. A. in 1681 ; M. A. 1658 ; was eleded
one of the fyndics for the univerfity of Cambridge, in
the bufuiefs of Alban Francis, 1687 ; minifter of Quoi
near Cambridge, and vice-proftor, 1688 ; was that year
preferred to the reftory of Tring in Hertfordfliire,
which after fome time he quitted. He was in 1689
prefcnted to the vicarage of Lewifliam in Kent by Lord
Dartmouth, to whom he had been chaplain, and tutor
to hib fon. He was alfo appointed chaplain to King
WiUiam and Queen Mary, and continued to'cnjoy that
honour under Q_ueen Anne. He commenced D. D.
July 5th 1^7, performing all the ^offices required to
that degree publicly and with great applaufe. He
was made vicar of Deptford in 1 703 ; fucceeded Dr
Hooper as dean of Canterbury the fame year ; and wa»
thrice chofen prolocutor of the lower houfe of convoca-
tion.^ His uncommon diligence and induftry, affifted
by his excellent parts, enriched him with a large ftock,
of polite, folid, and ufeful learning. His difcourfea
from the pulpit were equally pleafmg and profita-
ble ; a beautiful intermixture of the clcareft reafon-
ing with the pureft didlion, attended with all the graces
of a jull elocution. The good Chriftian, the folid di.
vinq, and the fine gentleman, in him were happily uni-
ted. His converfation was polite and delicate, grave
without precifenefs, facetious without levity. His piety-
was real and rational, his charity great and univerfal,
fruitful in afts of mercy, and in all good works. H^
died March i8th 1728, aged 68 years ; and was buried
in the chancel of the church at Lewifham. The dean^
was twice married : i, to Olivia Cotton, by whom he-
had one fon and four daughters. His fecond lady, who
wa.<» filler to Sir Charles Wager, furvived him, dying
Odober I ft 1730, aged about 54. One of the dean'a
daughters was married to a fon of bifhop Burnet. Bi-
fhop Moore of Ely died the day before Queen^nne ;
who, it has beeq faid, defigned our dean for that
S T A [7
\h(i\^e, fee when it fhould become vacant, Dr Fclton fays,
iu8. f The late dean of Canterbury is excellent in the
■"^ whole. His thouiThts and reafoning are bright and
fglid.; , His llyle is juft, both for the purity of the Ian-
guage and for the ftrength and beauty of expreffion ;
"but the periods are formed in fo pcct4Iar an order of
the words, that it wss an obfcrvation, nobody could
pronounce them with the fame grace and advantage as
himfelf." His writings, which are an ineflimable trea-
fure of piety and devotion are, A Paraphrai'e and
Comment upon the Epiftles and Gofpels, 4 vols, 1705,
8vo. Sermons at Boyle's Le6tures, 1706, 4to. Fif-
teen Sermons, 1700, 8vo. Twelve Sermons on fe-
vera! Occafions, 1727, 8vo. Thomas a Kempis 1696,
8vo. Epicletus's Morals, with Simplicius's Com-
ment, and the Li'e of Epiaetus, 17CO, 8vo. Parfon's
Ghrillian Direftory, 1716, 8vo. Rochefoucault's
Maxims, i 706, 8vo. A Funeral Sermon on Mr Rich-
ard Sare bookfeller, 1724 ; two editions 4to. Twen-
ty Sermons, publirtied fmgly between the years 1692
and 1724. Private Prayers for every Day in the
Week, and for the feveral Parts of each Day ; tranfla-
ted from the. Greek Devotions of Bifhop Andrews,
with Additions, 1730. In his tranOations, it is well
known, Dr Stanhope did not confine liimfelf to a ftrift
and literal verfion : he took the liberty of paraphrafmg,
explaining, and improving upon his author ; as will evi-
dently appear (not to mention any other work) by the
flighteft perufal of St Auguiline's Meditations, and the
Devotions of Bifhop Andrews.
STANISLAUS (Leczinflci), king of Poland, was
born at Leopold the 2cth of Oftofter 1677. His fa-
ther was a polifli nobleman, diflinguifhed by his rank
and the important offices which he held, but ftill more
by h's firmnefs and courage. Staniflaus was fent am-
baflador in' 1704 by the aflembly of Warfaw to
Charles XII. of Sweden, who had conquered Poland.
He was at that time 27 years old, was general of great
Poland, and had been ambaffador extraordinary to the
Grand Signior in 1699. Charles was fo delighted with
the franknefs and fincerity of his deportment, and with
the firmnefs and fweetnefs which appeared in his coun-
tenance, that he offered him the crown of Poland, and
ordered him to be crowned at Warfaw in 1 705. He
accompanied Charles XII. into Saxony, where a treaty-
was concluded with King Auguftus in 1 705, by which
that prince refi2;ned the crown, and acknowledged Sta-
niflaus king of Poland. The new monarch remained
in Saxony with Charles till 1707, when they returned
into Poland and attacked the iluflians, who were obli-
ged to evacuate that kingdom in i 708. But Charles
being defeated by Peter the Great in 1709, Auguftus
returned into Poland, and being affifted by a Ruffian
army, obliged Staniflaus to retire firft into Sweden,
and afterwards into Turkey. Soon after he took up
his refidence at Weiflenburg, a town in Alface. Au-
guftus difpatched Sum his envoy to France to complain
of this ; but the duke of Orleans, who was then re-
gent, returned this anfwer : " Tell your king, that
France has always been the afyhim of unhappy princes."
Staniflaus lived in obfcurity till 1725, when Louis XV.
efpoufed the princefs Mary his daughter. Upon the
death of King Auguftus in 1733, he returned to Po-
land in hopes of remounting the throne ©f that king-
dom. A large party declared for him ; but his com-
25 ] S T A
petitor the young cletlor of Saxony, being lupportcd
by the Emperor Charles VI. and the Emprefs of Ruf- -
fia, was chofen king, though the majority was againil
him. Dantzic, to which Staniflaus had retired, was
quickly taken, and the unfortunate prii:ce made his efcape
in difguife with great difficulty, after hearing that a price
was fet upon his head by the Ruffians. When peace
was concluded in 1 736 between the.Emperor and France,
it was agreed that Staniflaus fhould abdicate the throne,
but that he fhould be acknowledged king of Poland
and grand duke of Lithuania, and continue to bear
thefe titles during life ; that all his effefts and thofe of
the queen his fpoufe fhould be reftored ; that an amnefty
fhould be declared in Poland for all that was paff, and
that every petfon fhould be reftored to his poffeffions,
rights, and privileges : that the eletlor or Saxony fliould
be acknowledged king of Poland by all the powers who
acceded to the treaty : that Staniflaus fhould be put in
peacable pdffeffion of the duchies of Lorrain and Bar;
but that immediately after his death thefe duchies
fhould be united for ever to the crown of France,
Staniflaus fucceeded a race of princes in Lorrain^ who-
were beloved and regretted ; and his fubjefts found their
ancient foveieigns revived in him. He tafted then the
pleafure which he had fo long delired, the pleafure of
making men happy. He affifted his new fubjefta ; he
embelliflied Nancy and Luneville ; he made ufeful efta-
blifhments ; he founded colleges' and built hofpitais.
He was engaged in thefe noble employments, v/hen an
accident occafioned his death. Kis night-gown caught
fire and burnt him fo feverely before it could be ex-
tinguiflicd, that he was felzed with a fever, and died
the 23d of February 1766. His death occafioned a
public mourning : the tears of his fubjefts indeed are
the belt eulogium upon this prince. In his youth he
had accuftomed himfelf to fatigue, and had thereby
ftrengthened his mind as well as his conftitution. He lay
always upon a kind of mattrefs, and feldom required any
fervice from his domeftics. He was temperate, liberal),
adored by his vaffals, and perhaps the only nobleman in
Poland who had any friends. He was in Lorrain what
he had been in his own countiy, gentle, affable, com-
paffionate, treating his fuhjeds like equals, participating
their forrows and alleviating their misfortunes. He
refembled completely the pidlure of a philofopher v?hich
he himfelf has drawn. "The tiue philofopher (faid
he) ought to be free from prejudices, asd to know the
value of reafon : he ought neither to think the higher
ranks of life of more value than they are, nor to treat
the lower orders of mankind with greater contempt
than they deferve ; he ought to enjoy pleafures with-
out being a flave to them, riches without being attach-
ed to them, honours without pride or vanity : he
ought to fupport difgraces without either fearing or
courting them : he ought to reckon what he poffeffes
fufficient for him, and to regard what he has not as ufe-
lefs: he ought to be equal in every fortune, always
tranquil, always gay : he ought to love order, and to
obferve it in all his adfions : he ought to be fevere to
hinafelf, but indulgent to others : he ought to be frank
and ingenuous without rudenefs, polite without falfe-
hood, complaifant without bafenefs : he ought to have
the courage to difregard every kind of glory, and to
reckon as nothing even philofophy itfelf." Such was
Slaniilaus in every fituation. His temper was afFedion-
ate,.
3'a: Iflawr*
S T A
[ 7^6 ]
S T A
Stannary.
Staiiiflau? ate- He told his treafurer one day to put a certain
officer on his lift, to whom he was very much attached :
^ " In what quality (faid the treafurer) (hall I mark
him down?" " As my friend" (replied the monarch.)
A young painter conceiving hopes of making his for-
tune if his talents were made known to Staniflaus, pre-
fented hira with a pidlure, which the courtiers criticifed
feverely. 'i'he prince praifed the performance, and paid
the painter very generoufly ; then turning to his cour-
tiers, he faid, " Do ye not fee, gentlemen, that this poor
man muft provide for his family by his abihties ? if you
difcourage him by your cenfures, he is undone. We
ought always to aflift men ; we never gain any thing by
hurting them." His revenues were fmall; but were we
to judge of him by what he did, we fliould probably
reckon him the richeft potentate in Europe. A fmgle
inftance will be fufficient to fhow the well judged eco-
nomy with which his benevolent plans were condudled.
He gave 1 8,000 crowns to the magiftrates of Bar to be
employed in purchafing grain, when at a low price, to
be fold out again to the poor at a moderate rate when
the price (hould rife above a certain fum. By this ar-
rangement (fay the authors of D'tB'tona.re Hijiorique),
the money increafes continually, and its good effefts may
in a (hott time be extended over the whole province.
He was a ptoteftor of the aits and fciences :he wrote
feveral works of philofophy, politics, and morality,
which were collefted and publllhed in France m 1765,
in 4 vols, 8vo. under the title of Oeuvres du Phtlofophe
Bienfaifant, "the works of the Benevolent Philofopher."
STANITZAS, villages or fmall diftrifts of the
banks of the Don, inhabited by Coflacs.
STANLEY ( rhomas), a very learned Englifh
writer in the 1 7th ce.ntury, was the fon of Sir Thomas
Stanley of Cumberlow-Green in Herefordfhire, knight.
He was born at Cumberlow about 1644, educated in
his father's houfe, whence he removed to the univerfity
of Cambridge. He afterwards travelled ; and, upon
his return to England, profecuted his ftudies in the
Middle Temple. He married, when young, Dorothy,
the eldeft daughter of Sir James Engan of Flower,
in Northamptonfhire. He wrote, 1. A volume of
Poems. 2. Hiilory of Philofophy, and Lives of the
Philofophers. 3. A Tranflation of Efchylns, with a
"Commentary ; and feveral other works. He died in
1678.
STANNARIES, the mines and works where tin
is dug and purified ; as in Cornwall, Devonfliire, &c.
STANN.-iRY COURTS, in Devonfhire and Corn-
wall, for the adminiftration bf juftice among the tinners
therein. They are held before the lord-warden and
his fubflitutes, in virtue of a privilege granted to the
workers in the tin-mines there, to fue and be fued
enly in their own courts, that they may not be drawn
from their bufmefs, which is highly profitaole to the
public, by attending their law luiis in other courts.
The privilege* of the tinners are confirmed by a char-
ter, 33 Edw. I. and fully expoimded by a private fta-
-tute, 50 Edw. III. which has iince been explained by
a public aft, (6 Car. I. c. 15. What relates to our
prefent purpofe is only this : That all tinners and la-
bourers in and about the ftannaries fhall, during the
time of their working therein, bona Jide, be privileged
from fults of other courts, and be only pleaded in the
flannary court in all matters, excepting pleas of land,
"Blacljlone
Comment.
ToU iii.
>^ 79 and
life, and member. No writ oF error li^s from hence to S'anjiu
any coUrt in Weftminlter hall ; as was agreed by all , , "[^
the judges, in 4 Jac. I. But an appeal lies from the 1^*^
fteward of the court to the under-warden ; and from
him to the lord-warden ; and thence to the privy-coun-
cil of the prince of Wales, as duke of Cornwall, when
he hath had livery or inveftiture of the lame. And
from thence the appeal lies to the king himfelf, in the
laft refort.
STANNUM, TIN. See CHEMisTRY-Znd'fA-, and
Tin.
STANZA, in poetry, a number of lines regularly
adjufted to each other; fo much of a poem as contains
every variation of meafure or relation of rhyme ufed in
that poem.
STAPHYLEA, Bladder-nut, in botany: A
genus of plants belonging to theclafsof pentandria, and
order of trlgynia; and in the natural fyftem arranged
under the 23d order, trihi/ata. The calyx is quinque-
partite. There are five petals. The capfules are three,
inflated and joined together by a longitudinal future,
'i'he feeds are two, and are globofe with a fear. There
are two fpecie,s, the pinnata and trifolia. The />inrjata,
or bladder-nut-tree, is a tall fhrub or tree. The leaves
are pinnated ; the pinns are generally five, oblong,
pointed, and notched round the edges. The flowers are
vvhite, and grow in whirls on long pendulous foottlalks.
This plant flowers in June, and is frequent in hedges
about Pontefradl and in Kent. The trifolia, or three-
leaved bladdcr-nut, is a native of Virginia.
STAPHYLINUS, a genus of animals belonging to
the clafs of ivfeBx, and order of cokoptna. The an-
tennas are moniliform ; the feelers four in number ; the
elytra are not above half the length of the abdomen ;
the wings are folded up and concealed under the elytra;
the tail or extremity of the abdomen is fingle, is pro-
vided with two long veficles which the infeft can fhoot
out or draw back at pleafure. GmeHn enumerates 1 1 7
fpecies, of which five only are natives of Great Britain ;
the murinus, maxillofus, rut'us, riparius, chryfoinelinus.
I. Murinus. The head is deprefl'ed. The colour is
grey, clouded with black. The length is fix lines. It
lives among horfe-dung. 2. The maxillofus is black,
Avith afh-coloured ftripes, and jaws as-long as the head.
It inhabits the woods. 3. Rufus is of an orange-colour ;
but the pofterior part of the elytra and abdomen is
black, as are alfo the thighs at their bafe. 4. Riparius
is of a reddifli brown colour ; but the elytra are azure-
coloured ;^and the head, antennae, and two lafl: rings of
the abdomen, are black. It is frequent on the banks of
rivers in Europe. 5. Chryfomelinus ishl^ck ; the thorax,
elytra, and feet being teftaceous. It is found in the
north of Europe.
The iiifefts have a peculiarity to be met with in al-
moll every fpecies of this genus, which is, that they
fre(juently turn up their tail, or extremity of the abdo-
men, efpecially if you chance to touch them ; in which,
cafe the tail is feen to rife immediately, as if the infect
meant to defend itfelF by Hinging. Yet that is not
the place where the infeft's off"enfive weapons are fitua-
ted. Its tail has no iHng, but in recoinpenfe it bites
and pinches ftrongly with its jaws ; and care muft be Barbut't
taken, efpeciaUy in laying hold of the larger fpecies. <~^cneru It
Their jaws are ftrong, fhoot out beyond the head, and-^"'''"
are lubfervient to the animal in feizlng and deftroyiBg
its
S T A
t 7
p'e, Its prey- It feeds on all other InfeAs it can catch :
tar. gygn frequently two ftaphylini of the fame fpecies bite
^ and tear each other. Though this infefl has very fmall
elytra, yet its wings are larQ;e ; but they are cuiloufly
folded up, and concealed under the elytra. The infeft
unfolds and expands them when he choofes to fly, which
he does very liij^htly. Among the fmall fpecies of this
genus, tlicre are feveral whofe colours are lively and
Angularly intermingled.
Some of them are found upon flowers, but they
chiefly inhabit the dung of cows. Their larvae, which
refemble them fo much as to be fcarce diilinguLfliable,
live in damp places under ground. They are by fome
called Rove beetles.
STAPLE, primarily fignlfies a public place or mar-
ket, whither merchants, &c. are obliged to bring their
goods to be bouoht by the people ; as the Greve, or
the places alon_» the Seine, for fale of wines and corn,
at Paris, whither the merchants of other parts are obli-
ged to bring thofe commodities.
Formerly, the merchants of England were obliged
to carry their wool, cloth, kad, and other like ftaple
commodities of this realm, in order to expofe them
by wholefale ; and thefe ftaples were appointed to be
conftantly kept at York, Lincoln, Newcaftle upon
Tyne, Norwich, Weftminfter, Canterbury, Chichefter,
Winchefter, Exeter, and Briftol ; in each whereof a
public mart was appointed to be kept, and each of
them had a court of the mayor of the ftaple, for deci-
ding differences, held accsrding to the law-merchant, in
a fummary way.
STAR, in aftronomy, a general name for all the
heavenly bodies, which, like fo many brilliant ftuds,
are difperfed throughout the whole heavens. The
fiars are diftinguiihed, from the phenomena of their
motion, &c. into fixed, and erratic or wandering ftars :
thefe laft are again diftinguilhed into the greater lumi-
fiaries, viz. the fun and moon ; the planets, or wander-
ing ftars, properly fo called; and the comets ; which
have been all fully confidered and explained under the
article Astronomy. As to the fixed ftars, they are
(b called, becaufe they feem to be fixcH, or perfeftly at
reft, and confequently appear always at the fame diftance
horn each other.
Falling Stars, in meteorology, fiery meteors which
^Jart throir.^h the ficy in form of a ftar. See Meteor.
Twinkling of ihe Stars. See Optics, n° 21. et
Star, is alfo a badge of honoitr, worn by the knights
of the garter, bath, and thiftle. See Garter.
Star of BethLhemy in botany. See Orntthoga-
LUM.
Covrt of STARrjCHAMBFRf (camera flellata)^ a famous,
or rather infamous, Englifh tribunal, faid to have been
fo called either from a Saxon word fignifying to fleer
or govern ; or from its puniftung the crimen flellionatusy
or cofenage ; or becaufe the room wherein it fat, the
t>ld counciVnihamber of the palace of Weftminfter,
(Lamb 148.) which is now converted iiito the lottery-
office, and. forms the eaftern fide of New Palace-yard,
was full of windows,; or, (to which Sir Edward Coke,
4 Inft. 66. accedes)^, becaufe haply the roof thereof was
at the firft garniflied with gilded fliii^ As all thefe
are merely conjeflures, (for no ftars are now in the
foof, nor are any faid to have remained there fo late aa
27 ] S T A
the reign of queen Elizabeth), it may be allowable to St*'''
propofe another conjeflural etymology, as plaufible per-
haps as any of them. It is well known, that, before
the banifhment of the Jews under Edward I. their con-^^^^^
trafts and obligations were denominated in our ancient Comment.
records flarra or flarrs, from a corruption of the He-vol.iy.
brew vfori,fheiar,a covenant* (Tovey's ^ngl. Judaic*"^' ****
32. Selden. tit. of hon. li. 34. Uxor Ebraic. i. 14.)
Thefe ftarrs, by an ordinance of Richard the Firft, pre-
ferved by Hoveden, were commanded to be enrolled
and depofited in chefts under three keys in certain places;
one, and the moft confidcrable, of which was in the
kino's exchequer at Weftminfter : and no ftarr was al-
lowed to be valid, unlefs it were found in fome of the
faid repofitories. ( Memorand. in Scac' P. 6. Edw. I.
prefixed to Maynard's year-book of Edw. II. fol. 8.
Madox hift. exch. c, vii. § 4, ^, 6.) The room at the
exchequer, where the chefts containing thefe ftarrs were
kept, was probably called the far-chamber ; and, when
the Jews were expelled the kin^^dom, was applied to the.
ufe of the king's council, fitting in their judicial capa-
city. To confirm this, the firft time the ftar-chamber
is mentioned in any record, it is faid to have been fitua-
ted near the receipt of the exchequer at Weftminfter j
(the kin<j's council, his chancellor, treafurcr, juftlces>.
and other fages, were affembled en la chaumhre des ejhilles
pres la refteipt al Weflmirfler. Clauf. 41 Ediv, III. m,
13.) For in procefs of time, when the meaning of the
Jewifh flarrs were forgotten, the word flar-chamher
was naturally rendered in law French, la chaumbre det
efleilla, and in law Latin camera flellata ; which con-
tinued to be the ftyle in Latin till the diffolution of
that court.
This was a court of very ancient original ; but new-
modelled by ftatutes 3 Hen. VII. c. i. and 21 Hen,
VIII. c. 20. confiftlngof divers lords fpiritual and tem-
poral, being privy-counfellors, together with two judges
of the courts of common-law, without the intervention
of any jury. I'heir jurifdidlion extended legally over
riots, perjury, miftyehaviour of (heriffs, and other noto-
rious raifdenieanors, contrary to the laws of the land.-
Yet this was afterwards (as lord Clarendon informs us)
ftretched to the afferting of all proclamations and'
orders of ftate ; to the vindicating of illegal commif-
fions and grants of monopolies; holding for honour-
able that which pleafed, and for juft that which profit*
ed ; and becoming both a court of law to determine
civil rights, and a court of revenue to enrich the trea-
fury : the councU-table by proclamations enjoinmg ta
the people that which was not enjoined by the laws,
and prohibiting that which was not prohibited ; and
the ftar-chamber, which conirfted of the fame perfons ia-
difterent rooms, ccnfuring the breach and difobedience
to thofe proclamations by very great fines, imprifon-
ments, and corporal feverities : fo that any difrefpeA tea
any afts of ftate, or to the perfons of ftatefmen, was in
no time more penal,, and the foundations of right never
more in danger to be deftroyed." For which rcafons»
it was t-inally aboliflied by ftatute 16 Car. I. c. jo. to
the general joy of the whole nation. See King's Bench.
There is in the Britifh Mufeum (Harl. MSS. Vol. L
1 26 ) a very fivll, methodical, and accurate acconnt
of the conftltution and courfe of this court, compiled
by William Hudfon of Gray's Inn, an eminent prac..
titioner thcieln. A fhort account of the fame, with
S T A I 7
copies of all Its procefs, may alfo be found In 18 Rym.
Foed. 192, &c.
STJR-BonrJ, the right fide of the (hip when the eye
of the fpeftator is directed forward.
SrAR-Fifh. See AsTERrAs.
S^AnJIjoi, a p;elatinous fiibftance frequently found
in fields, and fuppofed by the vulgar to have been
produced fronn the meteor called a fafl'itig jlnr : but,
in reality, is the half-digcftcd food of herons, fea mews,
and the like birds ; for thefe birds have been found,
when newly (hot, to difgorge a fubftance of the fame
kind.
SrAR-Stone, in natural hiftory, a name given to cer-
tain extraneous foifd Itones, in form of fhort, and com-
•monly fomevvhat crooked, columns compofed of feveral
joints, each lefembling the figure of a radiated ftar, with
a greater or fmaller number of rays in the different
fpecies : they are ufually found of about an inch in
length, and of the thicknefs of a goofe-quill. Some of
them have five angles or rays, and others only four ;
and in fome the angles are cquidiftant, while in others
they are irregularly fo : in fome alfo they are fliprt and
blunt, while in others they are long, narrow, and point-
ed ; and fome have their angles very fhort and obtufe.
The fevei^al joints in the fame fpecimen are ufually all
of the fame thicknefs ; this, however, is not always the
cafe : but in fome they are larger at one end, and in
others at the middle, than in any other part of the body ;
and fome fpecies have one of the rays bifid, fo as to
emulate the appeatance of a fix-rayed kind. >
SrAR-ThiJi/e, in botany. See Centaurea.
S'TJR'fVorl, in botany. See Aster.
STARCH, a fecula or fediment, found at the bot-
tom of vefiels wherein wheat has been fleeped in water,
of which fecula, after fcparating the bran from it, by
palling it through fieves, they form a kind of loaves,
which being dried in the fun or an oven, is afterwards
cut into little pieces, and fo fold. The belt ftarch is
white, foft, and friable, and eafily broken into powder.
Such as require fine ftarch, do not content themfelves,
like the ftarchmen, with refufe wheat, but ufe tlie fineft
grain. The procefs is as follows : The grain, being
well cleaned, is put to ferment in veflels full of water,
which they expofe to the fun while in its greateft heat ;
changing the water twice a-day, for the fpace of eight
or twelve days, according to the feafon. AVhen the
■grain burfts eafily under the finger, they judge it fuffi-
ciently fermented. The fermentation perfefted, and
the grain thus fottened, it is put, handful by handful,
iato a canvas-bag, to feparate the flour from the huflcs ;
which is done by rubbing and beatinsf it on a plank
laid acfofs the mc-th of an empty veffel that is to re-
ceive the flour.
As the veflTels are fiSed with this liquid flour, there
is feen fwimming at top a reddifli water, which is to be
carefully fcummed off from time to time, and clean wa-
ter is to be put in its place, which, after ffirring the
whole together, is alfo to be fl:raihed through a cloth
or fieve, and what is left behind put into the vefftl with
new water, aiid expofed to the f un for fome time. As
the fediment thickens af the bottom, they drain off the
water four or five times, by inclirtfng. the vefitl, but
without paffmg it through the fieve. What remains at
fcottem is the ftarch, which, they cut in pieces to get
28 ] S t A
out, and leave it to dry in the fun. When dry, it is Sta
laid up for ufe.
STARK (Dr William), known to the public by
a volume containing Clinical and Anatomical Obfervattom^
with fome curious Experiments on Diet, was born at Maa-
chefter in the month of July 1740; but the family
from which he fprang was Scotch, and refpeftable for
its antiquity. His grandfather John Stark of Killer-
mont was a covenanter ; and having appeared in arms
againft his fovereign at the battle of Bothwell bridv;:e
in the year 1679, became obnoxious to the government,
and to conceal himfeU, withdrew into Ireland. There
is reafon to believe that he had not imbibed either the
extravagant zeal or the favage manners of the political
and religious party to which he adhered ; for a^'ter re-
fid ing a few years in the country which he had chofen
for the fcene of his banifhment, he married Elizabeth
daughter of Thomas Stewart Efq; of Balydrene in the
north of Ireland; who, being defcended of the noble
family of Galloway, would not probably have matched
his daughter to fuch an exile as a ruthlefs fanatic of the
laft century. By this lady Mr Stark had feveral chil-
dren ; and his fecond ion Thomas, who fettled at Man-
cheller as a wholefale linen-draper, and married Mar-
garet Stirling, daughter of William Stirling, Efq; of
Northwoodfide, in the neighbourhood of Glalgow, was
the father of the fubjeft or this article. Another of
his fons, the reverend John Stark, was miniftcr of Le-
cropt in Perthfhire ; and it was under the care of this
gentleman that our author received the rudiments of
his education, which, when we confider the charadter
of the mailer, and refleft on the relation between him
and his pupil, we may prefume was calculated to fioro
the mind of Dr Stark with thofe virtuous principles
which influenced his condu6l through fife.
From Lecropt young Stark was lent to the unlverfi-
ty of Glafgow, where, under the tuition of the Doftors
Smith and Black, with other eminent mafters, he learn-
ed the rudiments of fcience, and 'acquired that mathe-
matical accuracy, that logical precifion, and that con-
tempt of hypothefcs, vi^ith which he profecuted all his
future ftudies. ftaving chofen phyfic for his prpfeffion,
he removed from the univerfity of Glafgo'w to that of
Edinburgh, where he was foon difbinguifhed, and ho-
noured with the friendfhip of the late Dr Cullen ; a man
who was not more eminently confpicuous for the fap(f-
riority of his own genius, than quick-fighted in percei-
ving, and liberal in encouraging, genius in his pupils.
Having finiflied his ftudies at Edinburgh, though he
took there no degree, Mr Stark, in the year 1765,
went to London, and devoted' himfelf entirely to the
ftudy of phyfic and the elements of furgery ; and look-
ing upon anatomy as one of the priiicipal pillars of both
thefe arts, he endeavoured to coruplete with Dr Hufti
ter what he had begun with Dr Monro ; and undef
thefe two eminent profeffors he appears to have acqui-
red a high degree of anatomical kno wledge. He likev\'if(i
entered himfeU about this time a pupil at St George's
hofpital ; for being difgufted, as he often confefffedj
with' the inaccuracy or want of candour obfervable iii
the generality of pradlical writers, he determined to pb-
tain an acquaintance with difeafes at a better fchool and
from an abler maftcr ; and to have from his own expe-
licnce a ftandard, by which he might judge of the ci'-
7 perietiC^
S T A
C 729 1
S T A
perience of others. With what induftiy he profecuted tni/i ; afterwards he tried bread and tvater with ronjed
this plan, and with what fuccefs his labours were crown- goofe ; bread and <water with boiled beef ; Jlenved lean of
ed, may be feen in a feries of Clmical and Anatomical beef with the gravy and luater wit^hout bread ; fletved^
Obfervations^ which were made by him durino- his at- lean of beef with the gravy, oil oi fat or futt and water ;
tendance at the hofpital, and were piiblifhed after his Jlour,ollof fuet, water anH fait ; flour, wnter, zw^ fait ;
death by his friend Dr Carmichael Smyth. Thefe ob- and a number of others infinitely more difagreeable to
Stark
fervations give the public no caufe to complain of want
of candour in their author ; for whatever delicacy he
may have obferved, when relating the cafes of patients
treated by other phyllcians, he has related thofe treat-
ed by himfelf with the utmoft impartiality. Whilft at-
tending the hofpital, he likewife employed himfelf in
the ftomach than even thefe, fuch as bread, fat of bacon
ham, Infufion of tea with fugor ; and bread or flour with
honey and the infufion of rofemary. But though we con-
fider Dr Stark's experiments as whimfical, it cannot be
denied that they indicate eccentricity of prenius in the
perfon who mad^' them ; and fuch of our readers as think
making experiments on the blood, and other animal genius hereditary, may perhaps be of opinion, that he
fluids; and alfo in a courfe of experiments in chemical
pharmacy ; but though accounts of thefe experiments
were left behind him, we believe they have not yet been
given to the public.
In the year 1767 Mr Stark went abroad and obtain-
ed the defrree of M, D. in the univerfity of Leyden,
pubiifhing an inaugural differtation on the dyfentery.
On his return to London, he recommenced his ftudies
at the hofpital ; and when Dr Black was called to the
chemical chair in Edinburgh, which he has long filled
whh fo much honour to himfelf and credit to the uni
derived a ray from the celebrated Napier the inventor
of the logarithms, who was his anceftor by both pa-
rents. At any rate, thefe experiments, of which a full
account is given in the fame volume with his clinical
and anatomical obfervations, difolay an uncommon de-
gree of fortitude, perfeverance, felf-denial, and zeal for
the promoting of ufeful knowledge in their -author ;
and with refpeft to his moral character, we believe it 13
with great juftice that Dr Smyth compares him to Ca-
to by applying to him what was faid of that virtuous
Roman by Salluft. — " Non divitiis cum divitc, neque
verfity, Dr Stark was folicited by feveral members of faftione cum faftiofo; fed cum ftrenuo virtute, cum mo-
the univerfity of Glafgow to ftand a candidate for their " " ' ' ■ ■> ■■ • - t-
profeflbrfhip of the theory and praftice of phyfic, ren-
dered vacant by Dr Black's removal to Edinburgh.
This however Dr Stark declined, being influenced by
the advice of his Englifli friends, who wifhed to detain
iiim iii London, and having likewife fome profpe£ls of
an appointment in the hofpital.
In the mean time he had commenced (1769) a feries
of experiments on diet, which he was encouraged to un-
dertake by Sir John Pringle and Dr Franklin, whofe
friendfliip he enjoyed, and from whom he received many
hints refpeAing both the plan and its execution. Thefe
experiments, or rather the imprudent zeal with which
he pi-ofecuted them, proved in the opinion of his friends,
fatal to himfelf; for he began them on the izth of July
1669 in peifeft health and vigour, and from that day,
though his health varied, it was feldom if ever good,
till the 23d ©f February 1770, when he died, after
fnffering much imeafinefs. His friend and biographer
Dr Smyth thinks, that other caufes, particularly cha-
grin and difappointment, had no fmall fhare in haftening
liis death ; and as the Doftor was intimately acquaint-
ed with his character and diipofition, his opinion is pro-
bably well-founded, though the pernicious effefts of the
experiments are vifible in Dr Stark's own journal. When
he entered upon them, the weight of his body was 12
ifone 3 lb. avoirdupois^ which in a very few days was
reduced to ir ftone 10 lb 8oz: and though fome kinds
of food increafed it, by much the greater part of what
he ufed had a contrary effeft, and it continued on the
whole to decreafe till the day of his death. This in-
deed can excite no wonder. Though the profefied ob-
je6l of his experiments was to prove that a pleafant and
varied diet is equally conducive to health with a more
flrift and fimple one, moft of the difhes which he ate
during thefe experiments were neither pleafant nor
fimple, but compounds, fuch as every ilomach muft
Tiaufeate. He began with bread and waiet ; from which
he proceeded to bread, tvater, and fugar ; then to bread,
iv-cier, and oil of olives ; then to bread and water with
Vol. XVII. Part II.
defto pudore, cum innocente abftinentia certabat ; efle,
quam videri, bonus malebat *." * Belluin
STARLING. See Stdrnus. CMina.
STATE OF A CoNTROvERsy. See Oratory,
Part T. n^ 14.
STA TES, or Estates, a term applied to feveral or-
ders or clafTes of people aflembled to confult of matters
for the public good.
Thus ftates-general is the name of an affembly con-
fifling of the deputies of the feven United Provinces.
Thefe are ufually 30 in number, fome provinces fendiisg
two, others more; and whatever refolution the fl:ates-ge-
"neral take, muft; be confirmed by every province, and by
every city and republic in that province, before it* has
the force of a law. The deputies of each province, of
what number foever they be, have only one voice, and
are eftcemed as but one perfon, the votes being given by
provinces. Each province prefides in the affembly in
its turn, according to the order fettled among them.
Guelderland prefides firft:, then Holland, &c.
States o\ Holland are the deputies of eighteen cities,
arid one reprefentative of the nobiHty, ronftituting the
ftates ot the province of Holland : the other provinces
have likewife their ftates, reprefenting their fovereignty;
deputies from which make what they call the ftates-ge-
neral. In an afTembly of the ftates of a particular pro-
vince, one diffenting voice prevents their coming to any
relolutlon.
STA.TICE Thrift, in botany : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of pcntandrla, and order of penta-
gynla; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 48th
order, aggregalte. The calyx is monophyllons, entire,
folded, and fcariofe. There are five petals, with one fu-
perior feed. There are 22 fpecies, the armeria, pfend-
armeria, limonium, incana, cordata, reticulata, echioides,
fpeciofa, tatarica, echinus, flexuofa, purpurata, minuta,
fuffruticofa, monopetala, aurea, ferulacea, linifolia, prui-
nofa, finnata,- mucronata, and lobata. Three of thefe
are Britifti plants.
I. The armeriat thrift, or fca gilly. flower, has a fimple
4 Z ' naked
S T A
StatJos. naked flem about fix Inches high
""V"""' are h'ke grafs. The flowers are terminal, pale red, with
a round head, and not very large. This plant flowers in
July or Auguft, and grows in meadows near the fea.
2. L'lwonium, fea lavender. The ftem is naked, branch-
ed, and about a foot high. The radical leaves are long,
pointed, and grow on footftalks. The flowers are blue,
and grow on long fpikes on the tops of the branches.
It grows on the fea-coaft in South Britain.
3. Reticulata, matted fea-lavender. The fl:em is pro-
ftrate, and terminated by a panicle of flowers. The
branches are naked, barren, and bent back. The leaves
are wedge fliaped. This fpecies is alfo found on the
fea-coaft of South Britain.
STATICS, a term which the modern improvements
in knowledge have made it neccflary to introduce into
phyfjco-mathematical fcience. It was found conveni-
ent to diftribute the doftrines of univerfal m.echanics in-
to two claflts, which required both a different mode of
confideration and diflferent principles of reafoning.
Till the tiine or Archimedes little fcience of this
kind was pofiefled by the ancients, from whom we
have received the hrfl. rudiments. His inveftiga-
tion of the centre of gravity, and his theory of the
lever, are the foundations of our knowledge of common
mechanics; and his theory of the equihbriura of floating
bodies contains the greateft part of our hydroftatical
knowledge. But it was as yet limited to the fimpleft
■ cafes ; and there were fome in which Archimedes was
ignorant, or was mifl:aken. The marquis Guido Ubul-
di, in I 1^78, publifhed his theory of mechanic?, in which
tlie doftrines of Archimedes were well explained and
confiderably au gmented. Stevinus, the celebrated Dutch
engineer, publifhed about 20 years after an excellent
fyileni of mechanics, containing the chief principles
which now form the fcience of equilibrium among folid
bodies. In particular, he gave the theory of inclined
planes, which was unknown to the ancients, though it
is d^he very firft importance in almoft every machine.
He even flates in the mofl exprefs terms the principle
afterwards made the foundation of the whole of mecha
iiics, and publifhed as a valuable dilcovery by Varig-
non, viz. that three forces, whofc direftions and inten-
iities are as the fides of a triangle, balance each other.
His theory of the preflTure of flaids, or hydroftatiqg, is
no lefs eftimable, including every thing that is now re-
ceived as a leadmg principle in the fcience. When we
confider the iirnorance, even of the moft learned, of
that age in mechanical or phyfico-mathematical know-
Jgdge, we muft confider thofe performances as the vt-orks
of a great genius, a^nd we regret that they are fo little
known, being loft in a croud of good writings on thofc
fubjefts which appeared foon after.
Hitherto the attention had been turned entirely to
equilibrium, and the circumftances neceffary for produ-
cing it. Mechanicians indeed fa w, that the energy of a
machine might be fomehow meafured by the force
which could be oppofcd or overcome by its interven-
tion : but they did not remark, that the force which
prevented its motion, but did no more than prevent it,
was an exad meafure of its energy, becaufe it was in
immediate equilibrio with the preflure exerted by that
part of the machine with which it was conneiled. If
this oppofed force was lefs, or the force afting at the
other extremity of the machine was greater, the me-
, r 730 ] S T A
The radical loaves chanlclans knew that the machine would move, and
that work would be performed ; but what would be
the rate of its motion or its performance, they hardly
pretended to conjecture. They had not ftudied the ac-
tion of moving forces, nor conceived what was done
when motion was communicated.
The great Galileo opened a new field of fpeculation
in his work on Local Motion. He there confidera
a change of motion as the indication and exadl and ade-
quate meafure of a moving force; and he confidera every
kind of preffure as competent to the produftion o^' fuch
changes, — He contented himfclf with the application of
this principle to the motion of bodies by the aftion of
gravity, and gave the theory of projeftiles, which re-
mains to this day without change, and only improved
by confidering the changes which are produced in it by
the refiftance of the air.
Sir Ifaac Newton took up this fubjedl nearly as Ga-
lileo had left it. For, if we except the theory of the
centrifugal forces arifing from rotation, and the theory
of pendulums, publithed by Huygens, hardly any thing
had been added to the fcience of motion. Newton con-
fidered the fubjeft in its utmoft extent ; and in his ma-
thematical principles of natural philofophy he confiders
every conceivable variation of moving force, and deter-
mines the motion refulting from its adlion. — His firft
application of thefe doArines was to explain the celefti-
al motions ; and the magnificence of thi^ fubjeft caufed
it to occupy for a while the whole attention of the ma-
thematicians. But the fame work contained propofi-
fitions equally conducive to the improvement of common
mechanics, and to tlie complete underftanding of the me-
chanical aftions of bodies. Philofopherg began to make
thefe applications alfo, Theyfaw that every kind of work
which is to be perfornacd by a machine rriay be confidered
abftraftedly as a retarding force; that the impulfe of wa-
ter or wind, which are employed as moving powers, aft
by means of prcfTures which they exert on the impelled,
point of the machine ; and that the machine itfclf may
be confidered as an afftmblage of bodies moveable in
certain limited circumftances, with determined direc-
tions and proportions of velocity. From all thefe con-
fiderations refulted a general abftraft condition of a
body afted on by known powers. And they found,
that after all conditions of equilibrium were fatisfied,.
there remains a furplus of moving force. They could
now ftate the motion which will enfue, the new refiftance
which this will excite, the additional power which this
will abforb ; and they at laft determined a new kind of
equilibrium, not thought of by the ancient mechanici-
ans, between the refiftance to the machine performing
work and the moving power, which cxaftly balance
each other, and is indicated, not by the rej}, but by the
uniform motion of the machine, — In like manner, the
mathematician was enabled to calculate that precife
motion of water which would completely abforb, or, in
the new language, balance the fuperiority of preflTure
by which water is forced through a lluice, a pipe, or
canal, with a conftant velocity.
Thus the general dodlrlnes of motion came to be con-
fidered in two points of view, according as thcy balan-
ced each other in a ftate of reft or of uniform motion.
Thefe two ways of confidering the fame fubjeft requi-
red both diffeient principles and a differeot manner of
reafoning. Tiie firft has been named Statics, as ex«
prefTing
•S T A [ .
prefllng that reft which is the teft of this kind of eqni.
librium. The fecond has been called Dynamics or
Universal Mechanics, becaufe the different kinds
of motion are charadeiiftic of the powers or forces
which produce them. A knowledge* of both is indif-
penfably neceflary for acquiring any ufeful praflical
knowledge of machines : and it was ignorance of the
doftrines of acctlerated and retarded motions which
made the progrefs of praftical mechanical knowledge
fo very flow and imperfeft. The mechanics, even of
the moderns, before Galileo, went no further than to
ftate the proportion of the power and refiftance which
would be balanced by the intervention of a given
machine, or the proportion of the parts of a machine
by which two known forces may bafance each other.
This view of the matter introduced a principle, which
even Galileo confidered as a mechanical axiom, viz.
that ivhat is gained in force by means of a tnaihine is
exaSly ccmpenfaUd by the additional time ivhich it obliges
us to employ. This is falfe in every inftance, and not
only prevents improvement in the conftrudion of ma-
chines, but leads us into erroneous maxims of conftriic-
tion. ^ I he true principles of dynamics teach us, that
there is a certain proportion of the machine, dependent
on the kind and proportion of the power and reiiltance,
which enables the machine to perform the greatcfl pof-
fible work.
It is hiuhly proper therefore to keep feparate thefc
two ways of eonfidering machines, that both may be
improved to the utmoft, and then to blend them toge-
ther in every pr?.6lical dircuffion.
Statics therefore is preparatory to the proper ftudy
of mechanics ; but it does not hence derive all its im-
portance.' It is the fole foundatipn of many ufeful
parts of knowledge. This will be beft feen by a brief
enumeration.
1. It comprehends all the doArines of the excitement
and propagation of prefTure through the parts of folid
bodies, by which the energies of machines are produced.
A preffure is exerted on the impelled point of a machine,
fuch as the float- boards or buckets of a mill-wheel. This
excites a preflure at the pivots of its axle, which aft
on the points of fupport. This muft be underftood,
both as to direftion and intenfity, that it may be effeftu-
ally refifted. A preffure is alfo excited at the afting
tooth of the cog-wheel on the fame axle, by which it
iirges round another wheel, exciting fimilar prefTures on
its pivots and on the afting tooth perhaps of a third
wheel. — Thus a preffure is ultimately excited in the
working point of the machine, perhaps a wiper, which
lilts a heavy ftamper, to let it fall again on fome matter
to be pounded. Now ftatics teaches us the inten-
fities and direftion of all thofe pfeffures, and therefore
how much remains at the working point of the machine
unbalanced by refillance.
2. It comprehends every circumflance which influ-
ences the (lability of heavy bodies; the invcftigation and
properties of the centre of gravity ; the theory of the
conitruaion of arches, vaults, and domes ; the attitudes
of animals.
3. I'he ftrength of materials, and the principles of
conftruaion, fo as to make the proper adjuftment of
flrength and ftrain in every part of a machine, edifice,
or flrudlure of any kind. Statics therefore furnifhes
us with what may be called a theory of carpentry^ and
3t ] S T A
gives us proper inftriiflioRs for framing floors, roofs, ^''"''^
centres, &c. Statift:
4. Statics comprehends the whole doftrine of the ^
preffure of fluids, whether liquid or aetifonr, whether
ariling from their weight *or from any external aftion.
Hence therefore we deiive our knowledge of the flabt-
lity of fhips, or their power of maintaining themfclves in
a pofition nearly upright, in oppofition to the ailion of
the wind on their fails. We learn on what circumftances
of fijjure and ftovvage th^s quality depends, and what
will augment or dimiuifh it.
Very complete examples will be given in the remain-
ing part of this work of the advantages of this feparate
confideration of the condition of a m?.chine at relt and
in working motion ; and in what yet remains to be
delivered of the hydraulic dodrines in our account of
WATER-lVorks in general, will be perceived the propriety
of Hating apart the equihbrium which is indicated by
the uni'orm motion of the fluid. The obfervations tot>
which we have to make on the ftrength of the materi-
als employed in our edifices or mechanical ftru6lures,
will be examples of the invcftigation of thofe powers,
preffures, or flrains, which are excited in all their parts.
S TA nSTICS, a word lately introduced to exprefa
a view or furvey of any kin .^dorr, county, or parifh.
A Statift'cal view of Germany was publifhed in 1790
by Mr B. Clarke; giving an account of the imperial and
territorial conftitutions, forms of government, legifla-
tion, adminiftratlon of juffice, and of the ecclefiaftical
ftate ; with a Ikctch of the charader and genius of th'c
Germans ; a fhort inquiry into the flate of their trade
and commerce; and giving a dittind view of the domi-
nions, extent, number of inhabitants to a fquare mile ;
chief towns, with their fize and population ; revenues, ex-
pences, debts, and military ftrength of each ftate. In
Pruffia, in Saxony, Sardinia, and rnfcany, attempts have
alfo been made to draw up ftatiftical accounts; but they
were done rather with a view of aicertaining the prelent
ftate of thefe countries, than as the means of f uture im-
provement.
A grand and extenfive work of this kind, founded
on a judicious plan, conduded by the mod patrio-
tic and enlightened motives, and drawn up from the
communications of the whole body of the clergy, was
undertaken in Scotland in the year 1790 by Sir John
Sinclair of Ulbi^er, one of the moft ufeiul members of
his country. Many praifes are heaped upon genius and
learning; but to genius and learnin,? no p.pplaufe is due,
except when exerted for the benefit of mankind: but
gratitude and praife is due to him whofe talents fhine
only in great undertakings, whofe happinefs feems to
coiilift in patriotic exertions, and whofe judgment is
uniformly approved by his fuccefs. A work of this
kind, fo impoitant in its olrjcd, to comprehenfive in its
range, fo judicions in its plan, and drawn up by more
than 900 men of literary education, many of them men
of great genius and le^irning, muft be of immenfe value.
Sixteen volumes odavo are already publifhed ; and it is
fuppoied that the work will be completed in two or
three additional voluiT.es.
The great objed of this work is to give an accurate
view of the ftate of the country, its agiicultui-e, its
manufadnres, and its commerce; the means of improve-
ment, of which they are rcfpedivcly capable; the amount
t>f the population of a ftate, and the caufes ©t its ingreafe
4 Z 2 or
S T A [ 732 ] S T A
Statiftics, or decreafe; the manner in which the territory of a coun- fciences, viz. political or ftatiftical philofophy ; that is, Stati
"""V"""^ try is poffefied and cultivated ; the nature and amount the fcience, which, in preference to every other, ought ^ It
of the various produ6tions of the foil ; the value o\ the to be held in reverence. No fcience can fuinifli, to any
perfonal wealth or Hock of the inhabitants, and how it mind capable of receiving ufeful information, fo much
can be augmented; the difeafes to which the people are real entertainment; none can yield fuch important hmts,
fubjcft, their caufes and their cure ; the occupations of for the improvement of agriculture, for the exlenfion of
the people ; where they are entitled to encouragement, commercial Induftry, tor regulating the condudl of in-
and where they ought to be fupprelTed ; the condition dividuals, or for extending the projperity of the Hate ;
of the poor, the bell mode of maintaining them, and of none can tend fo much to promote the general happi-
givingthem employment ;'the ilate of fchools, and other nefs of the fpecies.
inltitiitionsjformed for purpofes of public utility; theftate - STATIUS (Publlus Papinius), a celebrated La-
oi the villages and towns, and the regulations bett. calcu- tin poet of the liril century, was born at Naples, and
lated for their police and good government; the ftate of was the fon of Statins, a native of Epirus, who went
the manners, the morals, and the religious principles of to Rome to teach poetry and eloquence, and had I>o-
the people, and the means by which their temporal and mitian for his fcholar. Statins the poet alio obtained
eternal intertfts can beft be promoted. the favour and fricndfliip of that prince ; and dedica-
To fuch of our readers as have not an opportunity ted to him his Thtbais and Achilleis ; the lirft in twelve
of perufmg this national work, or of examining its plan, books, and the lait in two. He died at Naples about
we will prefect the fcheme for the ftatiftical account of the year 100. Befides the above poems, there are
a- parochial diftri£t which Sir John Sinclair publifhed alfo ftill extant his Sj/va, in five books; the ftyle of
for the confideration of the clergy, and which has been which is purer, more agreeable, and more natural, than
generally followed by them, though often with great that of his Thebais and Achilleis.
improvements. STATUARY, a branch of fculpture, employed in
The name of tlie parifh and its origin ; fituation and the making of ftatues. See Sculpture and the next
extent of the parifh ; number of acres ; defcription of article.
the foil and fu.face*, nature and extent of the fea coaft; Statuary is one of thofe atts wherein the ancients
lakes, rivers, iflands, hills, rocks, caves, woods, orchards, fur-pafled the moderns ; and indeed it was much more
&c.; climate and difeafes ; inftances of longevity ; ftate popular, and more cultivated, among the former than
of property; number of pi-opn'etors; number of refidlng the latter. It is difputed betvs^een ilatuary and paint-
pr-oprietors ; mode of cultivation; implements of huftjan- ing, which of the two is the moft difficult and the mofl;
dry; manures; feedtime and harvtft; remarkable inftances artful.
of good and bad feafons; quantity and value of each fpe- Statuary is alfo ufed for the artificer who makes
cies of crop ; total value of the whole produce of the dif- ftatues. Phidias was the gr eateft ftatuary among the
tn&. ; total real and valued rent j price of grain and pro- ancients, and Michael Angelo among the moderns,
vifions; total quantity of grain and other articles confu- STATUE, is deCned to be a piece of fculpture in
Tned in the parifli; wages and price of labour ; fervices, ' full relievo, reprefenting a hum.an figure. Daviler more
■whether Pxafted orabolifhed; commerce; manufa£fui-es; fcienti ically defhies ftatue a reprefentation, in high re-
Tuanufaftureo' kelp, its amount, and tiie number of people lievo and iniulate, of fome peiion diftinguiflred by his'
employed in it; fiflreries; towns and viliagts; police; inns biilh, mei-it, or great actions, placed as an ornament in
and alehoufes; roads and bridges; harbours; ferries, and a fine building, or expofed in a public place, to preferve
theirftate; number of Hiips and veflels; number of feamen ; tlie memory of hi^ worth. In Greece one of the high-
ftate of the chm-ch ; ftipcnd, manfe, glebe, and patron ; ^eft honours to which a citizen could afpire was to ob-
number of poor ; parochinl funds, and the management tain a ftatue.
of them ; ftate of the fchools, and n'imbor of fcholars ; Statues are formed with the chifel, of feveral matters,
ancient ftate of populau'on ; cai.fcs of its increafe or de- as ftone, marble, plafter, &c. 'J'hey are alfo call of
cr-eafe ; number of families ; exa6f: amount of the num- various kinds of metal, particularly gold, filver, brafs,
ber of fouls now living; divifion of the inhabitants; and lead. For the method of calling ftatues, fee the
I. by the place of their birth ; 2. by their ages ; 3. by article FouNVEur 0/ Statues.
their religious perfuafions ; 4. by their occupations and Statues are ufually diftinguiftied into four general
fituation in Hfe; 5. by their refidcncc, whether in town, kinds. The firft ai-e thofe lefs than the life ; of which
village, or in the country ; number of houfes ; number kind we have feveral ft;atues of great men, of kings, and
of uninhabited houfes ; number of dove-cots, and to of gods themfelves. The fecond aie thofe equal to the
■what extent they are deftruftive to the crops ; number life ; in which manner it was that tbe ancients, at the
of horfes, their natui-e and value; number of cattle, their public expence, ufed to make ftatues of perfous emi-
nature and value; number of ftieep, their natui-e and va- nent for virtue, learning, or the fervices ihey had done,
iue ; number of fwine, their nature and value ; minerals The third are thofe that exceed the hfe ; among which
in general; mineral fprings; coal and fuel; eminent men; thofe that furpafled the life once and a half were for
antiquities ; parochial records ; mifcellaneous obferva- kings and emperors ; and thofe double the life, for he-
tions ; charafter of the people; their manner-s, cuftoms, roes. The fourth kind were thofe that exceeded the
fiature, &c. ; advantages and difadvantages ; means by life twice, thi'ice, and even more, and were called colof-
v'hich their fituation could be meliorated. f^fi^- Colossus.
If fimihr furveys (fays the public-fpiritcd editor of Every ftatue refembling the perfon whom it is intended
this work) were inftituted in the other kingdoms of to reprefent, is callcdy/a/wa if Statues acquir-e va-
Eui-ope, it might be the means of eftabliftiing, on fure rious other denominations, i. Thus, allegorical ftatue
foundations; the principles of that moft important of all is that which, under a human figure, or other fymbol,
" " ' repre-
S T A r 733 ] . ^
reprefents fomethlng of another kind ; as a part of the the hounds of the mam-maa
earth, a fealon, age, element, temperament, hour, &c.
2. Curule ftatues, are thofe which are reprefented in
chariots drawn by bigae or quadrigae," that is, by two
or four horfes ; of which kind there were feveral m the
circufes, hippodromes, &c. or in cars, as we fee fome,
with triumphal arches on antique medals. 3. Equeftri-
an ftatue, that which reprefents fome illuftrious perfon
on horfcback, as that famous one of I^ilarcus Auielms
at Rbme ; that of king Charles I. at Charing-crols ;
King George II in Lcicefter -Square, &c. 4. Greek
ftatue, denotes a figure that is naked and antique ; it
being in this maimei the Greeks reprefented their deities,
athletss of the olympIc games, and heroes ; the ftatues
of heroes were particularly called Acinlican JlatueSy ^hj
reafon of the great number of figures of Achilles in
jnoft of the cities of Greece. 5. Hydraulic ftatue, Is
any figure placed as an ornament of a fountain or grot-
to, or' that does the office of a jet d'eau, a cock, fpout,
or the like, by any of its parts, or by any attribute it
holds : the like is to be underftood of any animal ler-
ving for the fame ufe. 6. Pedeftrian ftatue, a ftatue
ftanding on foot ; as that of king- Charles II. in the
Royal Exchange, and of king James II. in the Privy-
Gardens. 7. Roman ftatue, is an appellation given to
iuch as are clothed, and which receive various names
from their various dreffes, Thofe of emperors, with
long gowns over their armour, were called pa-
ludate: thofe of captains-and cavaliers, with coats of
arms, thoracata ; thofe of foldiers with cuirafTes, lo-
ricaU; thofe of fenators and augurs, trabeata ; thofe of
niagiftrates with long robes, tcgata ; thofe of the people
with a plain tunica, tumcata ; and, laftly, thofe of wo-
men with long trains, 7?o^'^^'*-
In repairing a ftatue caft in a mould, they touch _ it
\ip with a chiiel, graver, or other inftrument, to finilh
the places which have not come well off : they alfo
clear off the barb, and what is redundant in the joints
and projeftiires.
STATURE. See Dwarf and Giant.
STATUTE, In its general fenfe, hgnifies a law,
ordinance, decree, &c. See Law, &c.
Statute, in our laws and cufloms, more immedi-
ately fignilies an aft of parliament made by the three
tilates of the realm ; and fuch llatutcs are cither gene-
ral, of which the courts at Weilminikr muft take notice
without pleading them ; or they are fpecial and private,
which laft muft be pleaded.
STAVE SAC RE, in botany ; a fpecies of Delphi-
nium.
STAY, a large ftrong rope employed to fupport the
maft on the fore -part, by extending Irom its upper end
towards the fore part of the Ihip, as the fhrouds are ex-
tended to the right and left, and behind it. See Mast,
Rigging, and Shroud.
The ftay of the fore-maft a, fig. 3. plate CCLXXVI.
which is called the fore-fay, reaches from the maft-
head towards the bowfprit-end : the main-ftay b ex-
tends over the forecaftle to the ^h!p's ftem ; and the
mizen-ftay c is ftretched down to that part of the maln-
maft which Ues immediately above the quarter-deck :
the fore-top-maft ftay d comes alfo to the end of the
bowfpirit, a little beyond the fore-ftay : the main-top-
maft ftay e is attached to the head or hounds of the
fore-toaftj and the mizen top-maft ftay comes alfo to
Stay,
Steam.
T E
^^^^ „ the fore- top-gallant ftay
CQmes to the outer end of the jib-boom ; and the main-
top gallant ftay is extended to "the head of the fore-top-
maft.
St AY- Sail, a fort of triangular fail extended upon a
ftay. See Sail. i
STEAM, is the name given in our language to the Definition.
vifible moift vapour which arifes from all bodies which
contain juices eafily expelled from them by heats not
fufficient for their combuftlon. Thus we lay, the fteam
(if boiling water, of malt, of a tan-bed, &c. It is dii-
tingulfhed from fmoke by its not having been produced
by combuftion, by not containing any foot, and by its
being condenfible by cold into water, oil, inflammable
fplrlts, or liquids compofed o{ thefe. ^
We fee it rife in gi-eat abundance from bodies when Appears^'
they are heated, forming a white cloud, which diffules like a
itfeli and difappears at no very great diilance from the "^^^^^
body from which it was produced. In this cafe the
furrounding air is found loaded with the water or other
juices which feem to have produced it, and the fteam
feems to be completely foluble in air, as fait Is in water,
compofing while thus united a tranlparent elaftic fluid. ^
But in order to its appearance in the form of an When dif-
opaque white cloud, the mixture with or dlffemination rcmmp.tcd-
in air feem abfolutely neceftary. If a tea-kettle boils'^'""'
violently, fo that the fteam is formed at the fpout in
great abundance, it may be obferved, that the vifible
cloud is not formed at the very mouth of the fpout,
but at a fmall diftance before it, and that the vapour is
perfeftly tranfparent at its tirft emiffion. Tifis is ren-
dered ftill more evident by fitting to the fpout of the
tea-kettle a glafs pipe of any len-th, and of as large a
diameter as we pleafe. 'i'he fteam is produced as co-
pioufly as without this pipe, but the vapour is tranfpa-
rent through the whole length of the pipe. Nay, if
this pipe communicate with a glafs vcfiel terminating
in another pipe, and If the veflel be kept fuf&clenlly
hot, the fteam will be as abundantly produced at the
moiuh of this fecond pipe as before, and the veflel will
be quite tranfparent. i he vifibility therefore o^ the
matter which conftitutes the fteam is an accidental or
extraneous ciicumftance, and requires the admixture
with air ; yet this quabty again leaves it when united
with air by folutlon. It appears therefore to require a
aijjeminathn in the air. llie appearances are quite
agreeable to this notion : for we know that one pei--
fedtly tranfparent body, when minutely divided and
diftuled among the parts of another tranfparent body,
but not diffolved in it, makes a mafs which is vifible,
Tlrus oil beat up with water makes a white opaque
mafs. 4
In the mean time, as fteam is produced, the water h airain
gradually waftes in the tea kettle, and will foon be to-|onverted
tally expended, if we continue It on the fire. _ It is rea- jj^' /"^^^j; "
fonable therefore to fuppofe, that this fteam is nothing
but water changed by* heat into an aerial or elaftic
form. If fo, we flrould expeft that the privation of
this heat would leave it in the form of water again.
Accordingly this is fully verified by experim.ent ; for if
the ploe fitted to the fpout of the tea-kettle be furround-
cd with cold water, no fteam will iflue, but water will
continually trickle from it in drops ; and ir the procefs
be condudted with the proper precautions, the water
which we thus obtain from the pipe will be found
equal
S T E
8tcatn,
C 734 1
Its appear
ances < x-
plaiiiet!,
6
And the
'caufe of its
con verfion,
by Dr
Ulack's dif
covery (,[
latent Jieat,
equal in quantity to that which dlfappeavs from the tea.
kettle.
, This is evidently the common procefs for diftilllnf ;
and the whole appearances may be explained by fayinV,
that the water is converted by heat into an elaflic va-
pour, and that this, meeting with colder air, imoarts to
it the heat which it carried off as it arofe from the heat-
ed water, and being deprived of its heat it is a^ain wa-
ter. The particles of this water being vaftly more re-
mote from each other than when they were in the tea-
kettle, and thus being difleminated in the air, become
vifible, by reflefting light from their anterior and pofte-
rior furfaces, in the fame manner as a tranfparent fait
becomes vifible when reduced to a line powder. This
diffeminated water being prefented to the air in a very
-extended furface, is quickly diffolved by it, as pounded
fait is in water, and again becomes a tranfparent fluid,
but of a different nature from what it was before, be-
ing no longer convertible into water by depriving it of
its heat.
Accordingly this opinion, or fomething very like it,
has been long entertained. Mufchenbroeck exprefsly
fays, that the water in the form of vapour carries off ,
with it all the heat which is continually thrown in by*
the fuel. But Dr Black was the firil who attended
minutely to the whole phenomena, and enabled us to
form diftinft notions of the fubjeft. He had difcdvered
that it was not fufficient !or converting ice into water
that it be raifed to that temperature in which it can no
longer remain in the form of ice. A piece of ice of
the temperature 32** of Fahrenheit's thermometer will
remain a very long while in air of the temperature 50°
before it be all melted, remaining all the while of the
temperature 32*^, and therefore continually abforbing
heat from the farroundtng air. By comparing the time
in which the ice had its temperature changed from 28°
to 32 « with the fubfequent time of its complete lique-
faftion, he found that it abforbed about 130 or 140
times as much heat as would raife its temperature one
degree ; and he found that one pound of ice, when
mixed with one pound of water 140 degrees warmer,
was juft melted, but without rifing in its temperature
above 32°.^ Hence he juftly concluded, that water dif-
fercd froTTi ice of the fame temperature by containino-,
as a conftituent ingredient, a great quantity of fire, or
of the caufe of heat, united with it in fuch a way as
r.ot to quit it for another colder body, and therefore fo
as not to go into the hquor of the thermometer and ex-
^)and it. Confidered therefore as the pofEble caufe of
heat, it was latent, which Dr Black expreffcd by the
abbreviated term latent heat. If any more heat
was added to the water it was not latent, but would
readily quit it for the thermometer, and, by expanding
the thermometer, would fhow what is the deirree of
this tedundmt heat, while fluidity alone is the indica-
tion ot the combined and latent heat.
Dr Black, in like manner, conchided, that in order to
convert water into an elaftic vapour, it was neceffary,
not only to increafe its uncomb'iied heat till its tempe-
rature is 212% in which ftate it isjull ready to become
elaftic ; but alfo to pour into it a great quantity of rire,
or the caufe or heat, which combines with every parti-
cle of it, fo as to make it repel, or to recede from, its
adjoining parf.cles, am! thus to make it a particle ot an
daftic fluid. He fuppoled that this additional heat
S T E
Sfeatt
might be combined with it fo as not to quit it for the
thermometer; and therefore fo as to be in a latent ftate v
having elaftic fluidity for its folc indication. *
This opinion was very conliftent with. the phenome-The teir
non ot boding off a quantity of water. The appllca- P^''^'"'^
tion of heat to it caufes it gradually to rife in its tern ^^'^^
pcrature till it reaches the temperature 2 1 2°. It then ard "he
begms to fend off elaftic vapour, and is llowly expend- quantity
ed in this way, continuing all the while of the fame
temperature. The fteam alfo is of no higher tempera-
tui-e, as appears by holding a thermometer in it. We
muft conclude that this fteam contains all the heat
which IS expended in its formation. Accordingly the
fcalding power of fteam is well known ; but it is ex-
tremely difBcult to obtain precife meafures of the quan-
tity of heat abforbed by water during its converfion in-
to fteam. Dr Black endeavoured to afcertain this point,
by comparing the time of raifing its temperature a cer-
tain number of degrees with the time of boilin^r it ofF
by the fame external heat ; and he found that the heat
latent in fteam, which balanced the preffure of the at-
mofphere, was not lefs than 800 degrees. He alfo di-
red^ed Dr Irvine of Glaigow to the form of an exoeri"
ment for meafuring the heat adually extricated from
fuch fteam during its condenfation in the refrigeratory
of a ftill, which was found to be not lefs than Y74 de-
grees. Dr Black was afterwards iufoimed by Mr
}\^att, that a courfe of experiments, which he had made
in each of thefe ways with great precifion, determined
the latent heat ot fteam under the ordinary preffure of
the atmofphcre to be about 948 or 950 degrees. Mr
Watt alfo found that water would diftil with great eafe
tn vacuo when of the temperature 70"; and that in this
cafe the latent heat of the fteam is not lefs than 1200
or 1300 degrees : and a train of experiments, which he
had made by diftiUIng in diftcrent temperatures, made
him conclude that the fum of tJie fenfible and latent
heats IS a conftant quantity. This is a curious and not
an improbable circumftance ; but we have no informa-
tion of the particulars of thefe experiments. The con-
chiiion evidently prefuppofes a knowledge of that par-
ticular temperature in which the water has no heat ;
but diis is a point which is ftill fub judice.
This converfion of liquids (tor it is not confined tORteam bJ
water, but obtains alfo in a. dent fpirits, oils, mercur>^,bein^ co™
occ.) 13 the caufe of their boihng. . The heat is applied '''"ed wit
to the bottom and fides of the veffel, and gradually ac-^'^^^'
cumulates in the fluid, in a fenfible ftate, uncombined,ftri^d'*"
and ready to quit it and to enter into any body that is light,
colder, and to diffufe itfelf between them. I hus it en-
ters into the fluid of a thermometer, expands it, and
thus gives us the indication of the degree in which it
has been accumulated in the. water ; for the thermome-
ter fwells as long as it continues to abforb fenfible heat
from the water : and when the fenfible heat in both is
in equilibrio, in a proportion depending on the nature
of the two fluids, the thermometer rifes no more, becaufe
it abiorbs no more heat or fire from the water ; for the
particles of water which are in immediate contad with
the bouom,are now (by this gradual expanfion of liqui-
dity) a' luch di!*ance from each other, that their laws
of attiadlion for each other and for heat are totally
changed Each particle ei her no longer ailrads, 01*
peihaps it repels its adjoining particle, and now accu-
muUtes round itielf a great number of the particles of
^ heat,
5 tho
ome-
)f boil
, • .S T E [ ] S T
heat, and forms a particle of elaftic fluid, fo related to way, (See EdRTHCiUAKE, n° 88
' the adjoining new formed particles, as to repel them
to a dillance at leail a hundi-ed times greater than their
diftances in the ftaie of v/ater. Thus a mafs of elaftic
vapour of fenfible magnitude is formed. Beincr at leaft
ten thoufaiid times h'ghter than an equal bulk of wa-
ter, it muft rife up through if, as a cork would do, in
form of a tranfparent ball pr bubble, and getting to
the top, it difiipates, filling the upper part of the velTel
with vapour or fleam. Thus, by tofling the liquid in-
to bubbles, w hich are produced all over the bottom and
. fides of the vefiel, it produces the phenomenon of ebulli-
tion or boiling. Obferve, that during its paffage up
through the water, it is not changed or condenfed ; for
the furrounding water is already fo hot that the fenfible
or uncombined heat in it, is in equilibrio with that in the
vapour, and therefore it is not difpofed to abforb any
of that heat which is combined as an ingredient of this
vapour, and gives it its clafticity. For this reafon, it hap-
pens that water will not boil till its whole mafs be heat-
ed up to 212° ; for if the upper part be colder, it
robs the rifing bubble of that heat which is neceffary
for its elailicity, fo that it immediately coUapfes aealn,
and the furface of the water remains ftill. This may
be perceived by holding water in a Florence flaflc over
a lamp or chofFer. It will be obferved, fome time be-
fore the real ebullition, that fome bubbles are formed
at the bottom, and get up a very little way, and then
difappear. The diftances which they reach before col-
lapfing increafe as the water continues to warm farther
vp the mafs, till at laft it breaks cut into boiling.
If the handle of a tea-kettle be grafped with the hand,
a tremor will be felt for fome little time before boihng,
arifing from the little fuccuflions which are produced by
the collapfing of the bubbles of vapour. This is much
more violent, and is really a remarkable phenomenon, if
we fuddenly plunge a lump of red hot iron into a veflcl
of cold water, taking care that no red part be near the
furface. If the hand be now applied to the fide of the
veftel, a moft violent tremor is felt, andfometimes ftrong
thumps: thefe arife from the collapfing of very large
bubbles. , If the upper part of the iron be too hot, it
warms the furrounding water fo much, that the bubbles
from below come up through it uncondenfed, and pro-
duce ebullition without this fuccuffion. The great
refemblance of this tremor to the feeling which we
have during the- fhock of an earthquake has led many
to fuppofe that thefe laft are produced in the fame
_ , 98)5 and their hy- Sfeim,
pothefis, notwithftanding the objeftions which we have .'"--v—
clfewhere ftated to it, is by no means unfeafible.
It^^ is owing to a fimilar caufe that violent thumps are The noifc
fometimes felt on the bottom of a tea-kettle, efpe'cially one'^bfc vcd in
which has been long in ufe. Such are frequently cruft-'^*^ boiling.,
ed on the bottom with a ftony concretion. This fome- ^^^^^1^^^^.
times is detached in little fcales. When one of thefe is plained.''"
adhering by one end to the bottom, the water gets be-
tween them in a thin film. Here it may be heated
confiderably above the boiling temiperature, and it fud-
denly rifes up in a large bubble, which coUapfes imme-
diately. A fmooth ftiilling lying on the bottom will
produce this appearance very violently, or a thimble
with the mouth down.
In order to make water boil, the fire muft be ap- Wat" will
plied to the bottom or fides of the veflel. If the ""t toil un-
heat be applied at the top of the water, it will wafte'^^* the fire
away without boiling ; for the very fuperficial particles J'q ^hTbof
are firft fupplied with the heat neceflary for rendering torn or fidc's
them elaftic, and they fly oft" without agitating theofthevef-
reft (a). fcl.
Since this difengagement of vapour is the eff"ea of^„
its elafticity, and fince this clafticity is a determined can boil till
force when the temperature is given, it follows, that the elaftici-
fluids cannot boil till the clafticity of the vapour over-^y "^"^^^
comes the preflTure of the incumbent fluid and of the at-ygf"^^""
mofphere. Therefore, when this prefl"ure is removed orthe p'reiTurc
dioiiniftied, the fluids muft fooner overcom.e what re-<>fthein-
mains, and boil at a lower temperature. Accordingly it*^""^.!^^"^
is obferved that water will boil in an exhaufted receiver
when of the heat of the human body. If two glafs
balls A and B (fig. 1.) be conneaed by a flender tube,
?.nd one of them A be filled with water (a fmall open-'"'"^"""' "
ing or pipe b being left at top of the other), and this
be made_ to boil, the vapour produced from it will drive
all the air out of the other, and will at laft come out
itfelf, producing fteam at the mouth of the pipe. When
the ball B is obferved to be occupied by tranfparent va-
pour, we may conclude that the air is completely ex-
pelled. Now ftiut the pipe by fticking it into a piece
ot tallow or bees-wax ; the vapour in B will feon ccn~
denfe, and there will be a vacuum. 1 he flame of a
lamp and blow-pipe being dlreded to the httle pipe, ■.
will caufe it immediately to clofe and feal hermetically .
We now have a pretty inftrument or toy called a Fu lse
GLASS. Grafp the ball A in the hollow of the hand ; .
the heat of the hand will immediately expand the- bub-
ble
(a) We explamed the opaque and cloudy appearance of fteam, by faying that the vapour is condenfed by co^ -
miHg into contaa with the cooler air. I'here is fomething in the form of this cloud which is very inexplicable
J he particles of it are fometimes very diftinguiftiable by the eye ; but they have not the fmart fiar hke brilUancy
of very imall drops of water, but give the fainter refleftion of a very thin film or veficle like a foap-bnbble. If'
we attend alio to their motion, we fee them defcending very flowly in comparifon with the defcent of a folid^
drop ; and this veficular conftitution is eftabliiTied beyond a doubt by looking at a candle through a cloud of
fteam. It is feen furrounded by a faint halo with prifmatical colours, precifely fuch we can demonftrate by
optical laws to belong to a coUeftion of veficles, but totally different from the halo which would be produced
by a colleftion of fohd drops.. It is very difficult to conceive how thefe veficles can be formed of watery parti-
cles, each of which was furrounded with many particles of fire, now communicated to the air, and how each of
thefe vefides ftiall include within it a ball of air ; but we cannot refufe the faft. We know, that if, while linfeed-
oil is boiling or nearfy boilmg, the furface be obliquely ftruck with the ladle, it will be daflied into a prodi->ious
number of exceedingly fmall veficles, which will float about in the air for a long while. Mr Saufl'ure was" (we-
tbink) the firft who diftindly obferved this veficular form of mifts and cloudf 3 .^and he makes confiderablc ufe of .
it.in explaming feveral phenomena of the atmofphere.
I
I
S T E [
Steam, tic of vapour which may be in it, and this vapour will
^■"—y^ (li-ive the water into B, and then will blow up through
it for a long while, keeping it in a ftate of violent ebul-
lition, as long as there remains a drop or film of water
in A. But care mull be taken that B is all the while
kept cold, that it may condenfe the vapour as fad as it
rifes through the water. Touching B with the hand,
or breathing warm on it, will immediately ftop the ebul-
lition in it. When the water in A has thus been difPipa-
ted, grafp B in the hard ; the water will be driven in-
to A, and the ebullition will take place there as it did
in B. Putting one of the balls into the mouth will
make the ebullition more violent in the other, and the
one in the mouth will feci very cold. This is a pretty
illuitration of the rapid abforption of the heat by the
particles of water which are thus converted into elaftic
vapour. We have feen this little toy fufpended by the
middle of the tube like a balance, and thus placed in
the infide of a window, having two holes a and b -cut
in the pane, in fuch a fituation that when A is full of
•water and preponderates, B is oppofite to the hole L
Whenever the room became fufficiently warm, the va-
pour was formed in A, and immediately drove the wa-
ter into B, which was kept cool by the air coming in-
to the room through the hole b. By this means B was
made to proponderate in its turn, and A was then op-
pofite to the hole a, and the pi'ocefs was now repeated
in the oppofite direftion ; and this amufement continu-
I ^ ed as long as the room was warm enough.
Xiquolsdif- We know that liquors differ exceedingly in the tem-
for much '"peratures neceffary for their ebullition. I'his forms the
..u. ^^^^^ chemical diftinftion between volatile and fixed bo-
dies. But the difference of temperature in vvhich they
boil, or are converted into permanently^ elaftic vapour,
under the preflfure of the atmofphere, is not a certain
meafure of their differences of volatility. _ The natural
boiling point of a body is that in which it will be con-
verted into elaftic vapour under no preffure, or in vacuo.
The boiling point in the open air depends on the law of
the elafticity of the vapour in relation to its heat. A
fluid A may be lefs volatile, that is, may require more
heat to make it boll in vacuo, than a fluid^ B : But it
the elafticity of the vapour of A be more increafed by
an increafe of temperature than that of the vapour of
B, A may boil at as low, or even at a lower tempera-
ture, in the open air, than B does ; for the Increafed
elafticity of the vapour of A may fooner overcome the
preffure of the atmofphere. Few experiments have been
made on the relation between the temperature and the
elafticity of dift"erent vapours. So long ago as the year
1765, we had occafion to examine the boiling points &i
all fuch liquors as we could manage in an air-pump ;
that is, fuch as did not produce vapours which deftroy-
ed the valves ?.:id the leathers of .the piftons : and wc
thought that the experiments gave us reafon to conclude,
that the elafticity of all the vapours was affeded by heat
nearly in the fame degree. For we found that the dif-
ference between their boiling points in the air and in
vacuo was neatly the fame in all, namely, about 120 de-
grees lof Fahrenheit's thermometer. It is exceedingly
difficult to make experiments of this kind : The va-
t>ours are fo condenfible, and change their elafticity fo
prodigiouny by a trifling change of temperature, that
it is almoft'irapoffible to examine this point with precL-
-fion. It is, however, as we ihall fee by and by, a fub-
Stean
736 ] S T E
jeft of confiderable pradical importance In the mechanic
arts ; and an accurate knowledge ot tlie relation would
be of great ufe alfo to the diftiller : and it would be
no lefs important to difcover the relation of their elaftici-
ty and denfity, by examining their compreffibility, in
the fame manner as we have afcertained the relation in
the caie of what we call aerial fluids, that is, fuch as we
have never obferved in the form of liquids or folids, ex'
cept in confequence of their union with each other or
with other bodies. In the article Pneumatics we
took notice of it as fomething Uke a natural law, that
all thefe airs, or gafes as they are now called, had their
elafticity very nearly, if not exaftly proportional to their
denfity. This appears from the experiments or Achard,
of Fontana, and others, on vital air, inflammable air,
fixed air, and fome others. It gives us fome prefump-
tion to fuppofe that it holds in all elaftic vapours what-
ever, and that it is connefted with their elafticity ; and
it renders it fomewhat probable that they' are all elaftic,
only becaufe the caufe of heat (the matter of fire if you
will) is elaftic, and that their law of elafticity, in refpeft
of denfity, is the fame with that of fire. But it muft Powhai
be obferved, that although we thus affign the elafticity c^^ft": it
the tern
jierature
-tieceflary
for their
t^uUition
14
SjlfTerence
between
'their boil-
ing points
in air and
in njatuo a-
i)OUt 110°.
of fire as the immediate caufe of the elafticity of vapour, ||^"^^.
in the fame way, and on the fame grounds, that we a-
fcribe the fluidity of brine to the fluidity of the water
which holds the iolid fait In folution, it does not follow
that this Is owing, as is commonly fuppofed, to a repul-
fion or tendency to recede from each other exerted by
the particles of fire. We arc as much entitled to infer
a repulfion of unlimited extent between the particles of
water ; for we fee that by its means a fingle particle of
fea-falt becomes diftemlnated through the whole of a
very large veflel. If water had not been a vifible and
palpable fubftance, and the fait only had been vifible
and palpable, we might have formed a fimilar notion of
chemical folution. But we, on the contrary, have
confidered the quaquaverfum motion or expanfion of the
fait as a diflemlnation among the particles of water; and
we have afcvibed it to the ftrong attraftlon of the atoms
of fait for the atoms of water, and the attraction of
thefe laft for each other, thinking that each atom of fait
accumulates round itfelf a multitude of watery atoms,
and by fo doing muft recede from the other fahne
atomtj. Nay, we farther fee, that by forces which we
naturally confider as attractions, an expanfion may be
prodaced of the whole mafs, which will a£l againfl ex-
ternal mechanical forces, It is thus that wood fwells
with almoft iniuperable force by imbibing moifture ;
it is thus that a fponge immerfed in water becomes
really an elaftic compreffible body, refembling a blown
bladder; and there ate appearances which warrant us
to apply this mode of conception to elaftic fluids. —
When air is fuddenly compreffed, a thermometer In-
cluded in it ftiows a rife of temperature ; that is, an
appearance of heat now redundant which was former-
ly combined. The heat feems to be fqueezed out as
the water from the fponge.
Accordingly this opinion, that the elafticity .of fteara Afcribe
and other vapours is owing merely to the attraction for ^V ^' ™
fire, and the confeqUent diflemlnation oF their particles ^"^^
through the whole mafs of fire, has been entertained peny
by many naturahfts, and it has been afcribed entirely to
attraClIon. We by no means pretend to decide ; but
we think the analogy by far too flight to found any
I con-
16
S T E
»7
re pro-
o\v-
to a
tual re-
ion be-
en the
teles
wc.
confident opinion on it. The aim h to folve phenomena
by attraftlon only, as if it were of more eafy concep-
tion than repulfion. Confidered merely as fafts, they
are quite on a par. The appearances of nature in
which we obferve aftual recedes of the parts oF body
from each other, are as diftinft, and as frequent and fa-
ttiihar, as the appearances of aftual approach. And if
we attempt to go farther in our contemplation, and to
conceive the way and the forces by which either the
approximations or receffes of the atoms are produced,
we muft acknowledge that we have no conception of
the matter ; and we can only fay, that there is a caufe
of thefe motions, and we call it a force, as in every cafe
of the produftion of motion. We call it attraction or
repulfion juft as we happen to contemplate an accefs or
a recefs. But the analogy here is not only flight, but
imperfeft, and fails moft in thofe cafes which are moft
fimple, and where we fhould expert it to be moft com-
plete. We can fqueeze water out of a fponge, it is
true, or out of a piece of green wood ; but when the
white of an egg, the tremella, or fome guriis, fweU to
a hundred times their dry dimenfions by imbibing water,
we cannot fqueeze out a particle. If fluidity (for the
reafoniug muft equally apply to this as to vaporouf-
nefs) be owing to an accumulation of the extended
matter of fire, v/hich gradually expanded the folid by
its very minute additions; and if the accumulation round
a particle of ice, whieh is neceffary for making it a par-
ticle of water, be fo great in comparifon of what gives
it the expanfion of one degree, as experiment obliges
us to conclude — it feems an inevitable confequence that
all fluids fhould be many times rarer than the folids from
Vvhich they were produced. But we know that the dif-
ference is trifling in all cafes, and in fome (water, for
inRance, and iron) the folid is rarer than the fluid.
Many other arguments (each of them perhaps of little
weight when taken alone, but which are all fyftemati-
cally connected) concur in rendering it much more
probable that the matter of fire, in caufing elafticity,
aets immediately by its own elafticity, which we cannot
conceive in any other way than as a mutual tendency in
its particles to recede [from each other ; and we doubt
not but that, if it could be obtained alone, we fliould
find it an claftic fluid like air. We even think that
there are cafes in which it is obferved in this ftate. The
claftic force of gunpowder is very much beyond the
elafticity of all the vapours which are produced in its
deflagration, each of them being expanded as much as
we can reafonably fuppofe by the great heat to which
they are expofed. f he Writer of this article exploded
fome gunpowder mixed with a confiderable portion of
iincly powdered quartz, and another parcel mixed with
fine filings ®f copper. The elafticity was meafured by
the penetration of the ball which was difcharged, and
was p,reat in the degree now mentioned. The experi-
ment was fo conducted, that much of the quartz and
copper was coUeCted ; none of the quartz had been
hitlted, and fome of the copper was not melted. I'he
■heat, therefore, could not be fuch as to explain the
-elafticity by expanfion of the vapours ; and it became
not improbable that fire was adting here as a detached
chemical fluid by its own elaflicity. But to return to
our fubjeCt.
There is one circumftance in which we think our
own experiments ftiow a remarkable difference (at leafl
in degree) between the condenfible ajid incondeulibk
VoL.XVil. Part II.
I 737 ]
S T E
vapours. It is well known, that v^hen air is very fud* Steam<
denly expanded, cold is produced, and heat when it is """^^"^
fuddenly condcnfed. When making experiments vvitbpj.Q^,^^jjiy.
the hopes of difcovering the connexion between the a threat dif-
elaf^:icity and denfity of the vapours of boiling water, ference be*
and alfo of boiling fpirits of turpentine, we found the
change of denfity accompanied by a change of tempe-^^" in^on-
fature Vaftly greater than in the cafe of incoercible gafes. denfible va.
When the vaponr of boiHng water was fuddenly allow- pours j
ed to expand into five times its bulk, we obferved the
deprefliou of a large and fenfible air thermometer to be
at leafl four or five times greater than in a fimilar ex-
panfion of common air of the fame temperature. The
chemical reader will readily fee reafons for expecting,
on the contrary, a fmaller alteration of temperature,
both on account of the much greater rarity of the fluid,
and on account of a partial condenfation of its water,
and the confequcnt difcngagement of combined heat.
This difference in the quantity of fire which is com- And'a^lb
bined in vapours and gafes is fo confiderable as to au- fome dif-
thorize us to fuppofe that there is fome difference in the ft;rence in
chemical conf^itution of vapours and gafes, and that the*^*^^^^^^'*
conneftion between the fpecific bafes of thevapourandthe tudon'of*
fire which it contains is not the fame in air, for inftance, vapour,
as in the vapour of boiling water ; and this diflereiKe
may be the reafon why the one is eafily condenfible by
cold, while the other has never been exhibited in a li-
quid or folid form, except by means of its chemical
union with other fubftances. In this particular inflance
we know that there is an cfTential difference — that in
vital or atmofpheric air there is not only a prodigious
quantity of fire which is not in the vapour of water, but
that it alfo contains light, or the caufe of light, in a
combined ftate. This is fully evinced by the great dif-
Govery of Mr Cavendifli of the compcfition of water.
Here we are taught that water (and confequently its
vapour) confifts of air from which the li;^ht and
greateft part of the, fire have been feparated. And the
fubfequent difcoveries of the celebrated Lavoifier fhow,
that almoft all the condenfible gafes with which we are
acquainted confift either of airs which have already lofl
much of their fire (and perhaps light too), or of mat-
ters in which we have no evidence of fire or light being
combined in this manner.
This confideration may go far in explaining this dif-
ference in the condenfibility of thefe different fpecies of
aerial fluids, the gafes and the vapoui-s ; and it is with
this quahfication only that we. are difpofed to allow that
all bodies are condenfible into liquids or folids by ab-
flraCting the heat. In order that vital air may become
liquid or folid, we hold that it is not fufficient that a
body be prefented to it which fliall firaply abffradt its
heat. This would only abftracl its uncombined fire. —
But another, and much larger portion remains chemi-
cally combined by means of light. A chemical aflinity
muft be brought into aCcion which may abflradt, not
the fire from the oxygen (to fpeak in the lang-uage of
Mr Lavoifier), but the oxygen from the fire and li>;ht.
And our production is not the detached baf:s of air, but
detached heat and light, and the formation of an oxyd
of lome kind.
To profecute the chemical confideration of Steams General
farther than thefe general obfervations, which are ap-oBsERVA*
plicablc to all, would be almoft to wTite a treatife of^'°^^*
chemiftry, and would be a repetition of many things
which have been treated of in fufficient detail in other
5 A article*
S T E
[ 73S ]
S T E
20
Steam rifes
at different
tempera-
ture?, ac-
C(.rcUnsi as
the air is
heavy or
IT
As fluids
boil under
Steam, articles of this work. We fhall therefore conclude this
article with iome other obfervations, which are alfo cre-
neral, witli refpeft to the difFcent kinds of coercible
vapours, but which have a particular relation to the
following article.
Steam or vapour is an elaftic fluid, whofe elafticity
balances the preffure of the atmofphere ; and it has been
produced from a folid or liquid body raifed to a fufficient
temperature for giving it this elafticity ; that is, for
caufing the fluid to boil. This temperature muft vary
with the preflure of the air. Accordingly it is found,
that when the air is Kght (indicated by the barometer
being low), the fluid will boil fooner. When the ba-
rometer ftands at 30 inches, water boils at the tempe-
rature 212°. If it ftand fo low as 28 inches, water
will boil at 208^. In the plains of Quito, or at Gon-
dar in Abyfli-nia, where the barometer ftands at about
21 inches, water will boil at 195°. Highly reftificd
alcohol will boil at 1 60°, and vitriolic aether will boil
at 88° or 89". This is a temperature by no means un-
common in thefe places ; nay, the air is frequently
■warmer. Vitriolic aether, therefore, is a liquor which
can hardly be known in thofe countries. It is hardly
|)oflible to preferve it in that form. If a phial have not
Its ftopper firmly tied down, it will be blown out, and
the liquor will boil and be difiipated in fteam. On the
top of Chimboracao, the human blood muft be difpofed
to give out air-bubbles.
We faid fome time ago, that we had concluded, from
fomc experiments made in the receiver of an air-pump,
the preflure fluJ^s boil in iiacuo at a temperature nearly 120
of the va- 1^ ^^^g j^^gj. ^^^^ ^.j^^j. neceflary for their boiline in
rour which h - -n r 1 1 - n 1 P
afcends tlie open air. Jbut we now lee that this muft have been
from them, but a grofs approximation ; for in thefe experiments
the con- the fluids'were boiling under the preffure of the vapour
mendoned '^'hich they produced, and which could not be abftraft-
in 14. is ^d by working the pump. It appears from the experi.
only a grofs ments of Lord Charles Cavendifh, mentioned in the ar.
approxima- tide Pneumatics, that water of the temperature 72°
tion. ^jjg converted into elaftic vapour, which balanced a pref-
fure of jths of an inch of mercury, and in this ftate it
occupied the receiver, and did not allow the mercury in
the gauge to fink to the level. As faft as this was ab-
ftrafted by working the air-pump, more of it was pro-
duced from the furface of the water, fo that the preffure
continued the fame, and the water did not boil. Had
it been poffible to produce a vacuum above this water,
it would have boiled for a moment, and would even have
continued to boil, if the receiver could have been kept
very cold.
Upon reading thefe experiments, and fome very curi-
ous ones of Mr Nairne, in the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii.
the writer of this article was induced to examine more
particularly the relation between the temperature of the
between "vapour and its elafticity, in the following manner :
the ttr.ipe- ABCD (fig. 2.) is the feaion of a fmall digefter
rature of made of copper. Its hd, which is faftened to the body
its'elaftici"'^ with fcrews, is pierced with three holes, each *f which
* had a fmall pipe foldered into it. The fir ft hole wa»
furnlfhed with a brafs fafety-valve V, nicely fitted to it
by grinding. The area of this valve was exaftly ^th of
an inch. There refted on the ttalk at top of this valve
t-he arm of a fteelyard carrying a Aiding weight. 'I'his
arm had a fcale of equal parts, fo adjufted to the weight
that the number on the fcale correfponded to the inches
of mercury, whofe preffure on the under furface of tbe
1%
Account of
experi-
ments to
determine
the relation
valve is equal to that of the fteelyard on Its top 5 fo that
when the weight was at the divifion 10, the preffure^
of the fteelyard on the valve was juft equal to that of a
column of mercury 10 inches hi,t;h and 4th of an inch
bafe. The middle hole contained a thermometer T
firmly fixed into it, fo that no vapour could efcape by
its fides. The ball of this thermometer was but a little
way below the lid. The third hole received occafional-
ly the end of a glafs-pipe S G F, whofe defcending leg
was about 36 inches long. When this fyphon was not
ufed, the hole was properly ftiut with a plug.
The veffel was half filled with diftilled water which
had been purged of air by boiling. The lid was then
fixed on, having the third hole S plugged up. A lamp
being placed under the vefltl, the water boiled, and the-
fteam iffued copioufly by the fafety-valve. The ther-
mometer ftood at 213, and a barometer in the room at
29,9 inches. The weight was then put on the fifth di-
vifion. The thermometer immediately began to vife ;
and when it was at 220, the fteam iffued by the fides
of the valve. The weight was removed to the i oth
divifion; but before the thermometer could be diftinftly
obferved, the fteam was iffuing at the valve. The lamp
was removed farther from the bottom of the veffel, that
the proTrefs of heatiag might be more moderate ; and
when the fteam ceafed to iffue from the valve, th'e ther^
mometer was at 227. The weight was now fhifted to
15 ; and by gradually approaching the lamp, the fteam
again iffued, and the thermometer was at 1324-. This
mode of trial was continued all the way to the 75th
divifion of the fcale. The experiments were then re-
peated in the contrary order ; that is, the weight being
fufpended at the 75th divifion, and the fteam iffuing
ftrongly at the valve, the lamp was withdrawn, and the
moment the fteam ceafed to come out, the thermome-
ter was obferved. The fame was done at the 70th, 65th,
divifion, &c. Thefe experiments were feveral times re-
peated both ways ; and the means of all the refults for
each divifion are expreffed in the following table, where
column ifl expreffes the elafticity of the fteam, being
the fum of 29,9, and the divifion of the fteelyard ; co-
lumn 2d expreffes the temperature of the ft;eara corre-
fponding to this elafticity.
1.
Stea
35
40
45
JO
55
60
65
70
75
80
8T
90
95
100
105
inches.
ir
219''
226
232
237
242
247
251
255
259
263
267
270^
2 74r
278
281
A very different procefs was neceffary for afcertainmo'
the elafticity of the fteam in lower temperatures, and
confequently under fmalkr preffures than that of the
atniofphere. The glafs fyphon SGF was now fixed iir-
t© its hole in the lid of the digefter. The water was
made to boil fmartly for fome time, and the fteam iffued
eopiouily both at the valve and at the fyphon. /Fhe
lower
S T E
[ 739 1
S T E
bwer end of the fyphon was naw immerfed into a broad
faucer of mercuiy, and the lamp inftantly removed,
and every thing was allowed to grow cold. By this
the fteam was gradually condenfed, and the mcrcuiy
rofe in the fyphon, without fenfibly finking in the fau^
cer. 7'he valve and all the joints were fmeared with a
thick clammy cement, compofed of oil, tallow, and ro-
iin, which effcftually prevented all ingrefs of air. The
weather was clear and frofty, the barometer ftanding at
29,84, and the thermometer in the veflel at 42°. The
mercury in the fyphon ftood at 29,7, or fomewhat
higher, thus fhowing a very complete condenfation.
The whole veSel was furrounded with pounded ice, of
the temperature 32^. This made no fenfible change
in the height of the mercury. A mark was now made
at the furface of the mercury. One obferver was fta-
tioned at the thermometer, with inftruAions to call out
as the thermometer reached the divifions 42, 47, 52,
57, and fo on by every five degrees till it fliould attain
the boiling heat. Another obferver noted the corre-
fponding defcents of the mercury by a fcale of inches,
which had its beginning placed at 29,84 from the fur-
face of the mercury in the faucer.
The pounded ice was now removed, and the lamp
placed at a confiderable diftance below the velfel, fo as
to warm its contents very flowly. Thefe obfervations
being very eafily made, were feveral times repeated, and
their mean rtfults are fet down in the following table :
Only obferve, that it was found difficult to note down
the defcents for every fifth degree, becaufe they fuc-
ceeded each other fo faft. Every loth was judged fuf-
ficient for eftablifhing the law of variation. The firft
column of the table contains the temperature, and the
fecond the defcent (in inches) of the mercury from the
mark 29,84.
3*°
40
0,1
50
0,2
60
o,3§
70
o,SS
80
0,82
90
1,18
100
1,61
110
2,25
120
3»oo
130
3>95
140
5»i5
150
6,72
160
8,65
170
11,05
180
14,05
190
200
22,62
210
28,65
numbers at the top of the column of
clafticities are not fo accurate as the others, becaufe the
mercury paffed pretty quickly through thefe points.
But the progrefs was extremcly regular through the re-
maining points ; fo that the clafticities correfponding to
temperatures above 70° may be confidered as very ac-
curately afcertained.
Not being altogether fatisfied with the method em-
ployed for meafuringthe elafticity in temperatures above
that of boiling water, a better form of experiment was
adopted. { Indeed it was the want of other apparatus
which made it neceffary to employ the iormer). Aglafg
tube was procured of the form reprefcnted in fig. 3. ha- ^
ving a little cillern L, from the top and bottom of
which proceeded the fyphons K and MN. The ciftern
contained mercury, and the tube MN was of a flender
bore, and was about fix feet two inches long. The end
K was firmly fixed in the third hole of the lid, and the
long leg of the fyphon was futnilhed with a fcale of
inches, and firmly faftened to an upright poft.
The lamp was now applied at fuch a diftance from
the veffel as to warm it flowly, and make the water
boil, the fteam efcaping for fome time through the fafe-
ty valve. A heavy weight was then fufpended on the
fteelyard ; fuch as it was known that the veflel would
fupport, and at the fame time, fuch as would not aHow
the fteam to force the mercury out of the long tube.
The thermometer began immediately to rife, as alfo the
mercury in the tube MN. Their correfpondent ftations
are marked in the following table :
Steam.
Temp.
Elafty.
212''
0,0
220
5.9
230
14,6
240
25,0
250
36,9
260
270
64,2
280
106,0
This form of the experiment is much more fufceptible
of accuracy than the other, and the meafures of elafticity
are more to be depended on. In repeating the experi-
ment, they were found much more conftant ; whereas,
in the former method, differences occurred of two inches
and upwards.
We may now conne£t the two fets of experiments into
one table, by adding to the numbers in this laft table
the conftant height 29,9, which was the height of the
mercury in the barometer during the laft fet of obfer-
vations.
Temp.
Elaftv.
0,0
40
0,1
50
0,2
60
o»35
70
OfSS
80
o,8e
90
lOO
t,6
liO
^,25
120
3.0
130
S.95
140
5.15
6,72
160
8,65
170
11,05
180
14,05
190
17,85
200
22,62
210
28,65
220
3 5.8
230
44.7
240
54>9
250
66,8
260
80,3
270
94.1
105,9.
c A 2
lo
s r E
Steam.
*3
Which a-
gree well
chard.
In the memoirs of the Royal Academy of Berlin for
1782, there is an account of fome experiments made by
Mr Achard on the elaftic force of fteam, from the tem-
grcewen P^'^'"''^ to 2f2 , They agree extremely well
with thofe ^^^^ ^hoit mentioned here, rarely diflering more than
of Mr A- two or three tenths of an inch. He alfo examined
the elailicity of the vapour produced from alcohol
and found, that when the elafticity was equal to that of
the vapour of water, the temperature was about 35"
lower. Thus, when the elafticity of both was meaiu-
red by 28,1 inches of mercury, the temperature of the
watery vapour was 209°, and that of -the fpirituous va^
pour was. 173^ When the elaflicity was 18,5, the
temperature of the water was 189,5, that of the
alcohol 154,6. When the elailicity was 11,05, the
water was 168°, and the alcohol 13 4", 4. Obferving
the difference between the temperatures of equally elaf.
tic vapours of water and alcohol not to be conftant, but
gradually to diminifh, in Mr Achard's experiments,
along with the elailicity, it became intereiling to difco-
ver whether and at what temperature this difference
would vanifh altogether. Experiments were according-
ly made by the writer of this article, limilar to thofe
made with water, 'I'hey were not made with the fame
fcrupulous care, nor repeated as they deferved, but they
furnifhed rather an unexpeiled reiult. The following
[ 1
S T E
An unex
pecflcd re
Temp.
Elaft.
32*?
0,0
40
0,1
60
80
G,8
100
120
6,9
140
12,2
J 60
180
34>
200
5M
220
78,5
240
IJ5,
^ ^..^ ......... ■^.i.-.n.jjys.v-n.ci , lyji aa lilt iiatu-
. ral boiHng point feemed by former experiments to be
fult incom-in all fluids about 1 20° or more below their boihng
tcmpfrl- P"'"^ ^" ordinary preflure of the atmofphere, it was
; of g. reafonable to cxpeA ti^at the temperature at which they
tures
qually elaf.ceafed to emit fenfibly elaitic fleam would have fome
%ic vapours relation to their temperatures when emitting fleam of
andalcohol.^"^ determinate elaflicity. Now as the vapour of alco-
'hoi of elaflicity 30 has its temperature about 36" low-
er than the temperature of water equally elaftic, it was
to be expecled that the temperature at which it ceafed
to be fenfibly affefted would be feveral degrees lower
than 32^ It is evident, however, that this is not the
cafe. But this is a point that deferves more attention,
becaufe it is clofely connefted with the chemical rela-
tion between the element (if fuch there be) of fire and
the bodies into whofe compofition it feems to enter as a
conftltuent part. What is the temperature 32°, to
make it peculiarly conncdled with elaflicity ; It is a
temperature affumed by us for our own conveniency,
on account of the familiarity of water in our experi-
ments. ^ther, we know, boils in a temperature far
below this, as appears from Dr Cullen's experiments
narrated in the EfTays Phyfical and Literary of Edin-
burgh. On the faith of former experiments, we may
be pretty certain that it will boil ia vacuo at the tern.
rtan
ion
perature -^14*, becaufe in the air it boils at -f 106* Steam
Therefore we may be certain, that the fleam or vapour
of sether, when of the temperature 32", will he very fen.
fibly tlailic Indeed Mr Lavoifier fays, that it it be
expofed in an exhauited receiver, in winter, its vapour
wiU fupport mercury at the height of ro inches. A
feries of experiments on this vapour hmilar to tlie above
would be very iiiilj-uaive. We even wifh that thofe on
alcohol were more carefully repeated. If we draw a
curve line, of which the abicifla is the line of tempera-
tures, and the ordinates are the correfponding heights of
the mercury in thefe experiments on water and alcohol,
vs^e fhall obferve, that although they both fenfibly coin-
cide at 32 , and have the abfciffa for their common tan-
gent, a very fmall error of obfervation may be the caufe
of this, and the curve which expreffes the elailicity of
fpirituous vapour may really interfeft the other, and go
backwards confiderably beyond 32".
This range of experiments gives rife to fome curious Thif/e*
and important refleaions. We now fee that no parti- per .nent
cular temperature is neceffary for water affuming the^i 'e rife
form of permanently elaflic .vapour ; and that it is high-"",' '^'"^
ly probable that it affumes this form even at the tempe-'
rature 32^ ; only its elailicity is too fmall to afford'us
any fenfible meafure. It is well known that even ice
evaporates (fee experiments to this purpofe by MrWil-
fon in the Philofophical Tranfadiong, when a piece of Vol. Ixi
pohfhed metal covered with hoar-frofl became perfedly
clear by expofing it to a dry frofly wind).
Even mercury evaporates, or is converted into elaftic
vapour, when all external preffure is removed. The diiTi
film which may frequently be obferved in the upper
part of a barometer which flands near a flream of air,
16 found to be fmall globules of mercury flicking to the
infide of the tube. They may be feen by the help of
a magnifying glafs, and are the heft tefl of a well made
barometer. I'hey will be entirely removed by caufing
the mercury to rife along the tube. It will lick them
all up. They confill of mercury which had evaporated
in the void fpace, and was afterwards condenfed by the
cold glafs. But the elailicity is too fmall to occafion a
fenhble depreffion of the column, even when confider-
ably warmed by a candle.
Many philofophers accordingly imagine, that fponta- ^6
neous evaporation in low temperatures is produced in
this way. But vve cannot be of this opinion, and mufl?ado,rpn
ftiU think that this hind of evaporation is produced byduced by
the diffolving power of the air. When moill air is'fud-^^'^ •^'^^'^I'
denly rarefied, there is always a precipitation of water, "1"? ^
This is moft diflindly feen w hen we work an air-pump ° ^
brifldy. A mift is produced, which we fee plainly fall
to the bottom of the receiver. But by this new doc-
trine the very contrary Ihould happen, becaufe the ten-
dency of water to appear in the elaftic form is promo-
ted by removing the external preffure ; and we really
imagine that more of it now adlually becomes fimplc
elaflic watery vapour. But the mill or precipitation
fhows incontrovertibly, that there had been a previous
folution. Solution is performed by forces which aft in
the way of attradion ; or, to exprefs it more fafely, fo-
lutions are accompanied by the mutual approaches of
the particles of the menftruum and folvend : all fuch tcn=
dencies are obferved to increafe by a diminution of di-
flance. Hence it mujl follow, that air of double denfi-
ty will difTolve more than twice as much water. There-
fore when we fuddealy rarefy fatur-atcd air (even tho»
S T E [ 741
its heat fhould not diminifh ; fome water muft be let ^th,
go. What mny be its quantity we know not ; but it
may be mo'c than what would now become elaftic by
this diminution oF furtounding- preffure ; and it is not
unlikely but this may have fome effetl in producing
the veliclt's which we found fo dificiilt to explain.
Thefe may be filled with pure watery vapour, and be
floating in a fluid compoled of water diflblved in air.
An experiment of Foutana's feems to put this matter
out oi doubt. A diftiiiing apparatus AB (fig. 4.)
was fo contrived, that the he:'.t was applied above the
furface of the water in the alembic A. This was done
by inclofing it in another veffel CC, filled with hot wa-
ter. In the receiver B there was a fort of barome-
ter D, with an open ciftern, in order to fee v/hat
preffure there was on the furface of the fluid. While
the receiver and alembic contained air, the heat applied
at A produced no Xejjfible diftillation during feveral
hours : But on opening a cock E in the receiver at
its bottom, and making the water in the akmbic to boil,
flieam was produced which foon expelled all the air,
and iollowed it through the cock. The cock was now
ihut, and the v/hole allowed to grow cold by removing
the fire, and jipplying cold water to the alembic. The
barometer fell to a level nearly. Then warm water
was allowed to get into the outer veffel CC. The ba-
rometer rofe a little, and the diftillation went on briflily
without the fmalleft ebullition in the alembic. The con-
clttfion is obvious : while there was air in the receiver
and communicating pipe, the diftillation proceeded en-
tirely by the diffolving power of this air. Above the
water in the alembic it was quickly faturated; and this
faturation proceeded flowly along the ftiU ai^^i the
communicaiing pipe, and at laft might take place thro'
the whole of the receiver. The fides of the receiver
being kept cold, fhould condenfe part of the water dif-
folvcd in the air in contadl with them, and this ftiould
trickle down the fides and be colletled. But any per-
fon who has obferved how long a cryftal of blue vi-
triol will lie at the bottom of a glafs of ft ill water be-
fore the tinge will reach the furface, will fee that it
muft be next to impoffible for diftillation to go on in
thefe circumftances ; and accordingly none was obfer-
ved. But when the upper part of the apparatus was
filled with pure watery vapour, it was fup])lied from
the alembic as fatl as it was condenfed in the receiver,
juft as in the puUe glafs.
Another inference which may be drawn from tliefe
the experiments is, that Nature feems to affeft a certain
ionoflaw in the dilatation of aeriform fluids by heat. They
feem to be dilatable nearly in proportion of their pre-
^ fent dilatation. For if we fuppofe that the vapours
refemble air, in having their elafticity in any given tem-
perature pi-oportional to their denfity, we mull fuppofe
that if fteam of the elafticity 60, that is, fupporting 60
inches of mercury, were fubjetled to a preffure of 30
inches, it would expand into twice its prefent bulk.
The augmentation of elafticity therefore is the mea-
fure of the bulk into which it would expand in order
to acquire its former elafticity. Taking the increafe
of elafticity therefore as a meafure of the biilk into
which it would expand under one conftant preffure,
we fee that equal increments of temperature pro-
duce neatly equal multiplications of bulk. Thus if a
certain dimiautioQ of temperature diainiflies its bulk
7 .
] S T E
another equal dimuiuti n of temperature will
diminifti this new bulk \ th very nearly. Thus in our
experiments, the temperatures ik/', 140*' 170^, 200%
230 , are in arithmetical progreffion, having equal diffe-
rences ; and we fee that the correfponding elafticities
2,25, 5,15, 11,-^5, 22,62, 44,7, are very neaily in
the continued proportion of i to 2. The elafticity
correfpondinj^i; to the temperature 260 deviates confide-
rably from this law, which would give 8S or 89 in-
ftead of b ^ ; and the deviation increafes in the higher
temperatures. But ftili we fee that there is a confider-
able approximation to this law ; and it v/iU frequently
affift us to recclled, thac whatever be the prefent tem-
perature, an increafe of 30 degrees doubles the elaftici"
ty and the bulk of watery vapour.
That 4° will increafe the elafticity from
Stsatn.
10
jB
22
24
26
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
If
It
This is fufficiently exaft for moft practical purpofes.
Thus an engineer finds that the injedlion cools the cy-
linder of a fteam-engine to 192". It therefore leaves
a fteam whole elafticity is |ths of its full elafticity,
= 18 inches ^. But it is better at all times to have
recourfe to the table. Obierve, too, that in the lower
temperatures, i.e. below 1 10°, this increment of tem-
perature does more than double the elafticity.
This law obtains more remarkably in the incoercible
vapours j fuch as vital air, atmofpheric air, fixed air,
See. all of which h^ve alio their elafticity proportional
to their bulk inverfely : and perhaps the deviation from
the law in fteams is connected with their chemical dif-
ference of conftitiition. If the bulk were always aug-
mented in the fame proportion by equal au Lamentations
of temperature, the elafticities would be accuratelv re-
prelentcd by the ordluates of a logarithmic curve, of
which the temperatures are the corrtfponding abfciff<e ;
and we might contrive fuch a fcale for our thermome-
ter, that tlie temperatures would be the common loga-
rithms of 'tlie elafticities, or of the bulks having equal
elafticity ; or, with our prefent fcale, we may find fuch
a multiplier m for the number of degrees of our ther-
mometer (above that temperature where the elafticity
is equal to unity), that this m.ultiple fiiall be the com-
mon logarithm of the elafticity j ; fo that m:< =z log.jy.
But our experiments are not fufficiently accurate for
determiiring the temperature where the elafticity is mea-
lured by j inch ; becaufe in thefe temperatures th*
elafticities vary by exceedini^jly fmall quantities. But
if we take 1 1 ,04 for the unit of elafticity, and number
our temperature from 170", and make m =z 0,010035,
we ftiall find the produc'.l m x to be very nearly the lo-
garithm of the elailicity. The deviations, however,
from this law, are too great to make this equation of
any ufe. But it is very praAicable to frame an equa-
tion which fiiall correfpond with the experiments to
any degree of accuracy ; and it has been done for air
in a tranflation of General Roy's Meafurement of the
Bafe at Hounflow Heath into French by Mr Prony.
It is as follows ; Let x be the degrees of Reaumur's
5 . tlier*
as
Olitains
more re-
markably
ir.. the inco=»
ercible va-
pour?,
S T E [742
SteKftv, t^ienTrometer ; let y be the expanfioa ©f 10,000 parts fuel
v^"^ of air ; let e be =r 10, m =. 2,7976, n z=. 0,01768 1
then _y e + " — 627,5. Now <? being = 10, it 19
plain that e + " " Is the number, of which m n x h
the common logarithm. This formula is very exaft as
far as the temperature 60°: but beyond this it needs a
x;orreCl!on ; becaufe air, like the vapour of water, does
49 not expand In the exaft proportion of its bulk.
And is con- We obferve this law (X)nfiderably approximated to In
fulerably augmentation of the bulk or elafticity of elaftic va-
ted' tl'n P*^"''^ > ^^'^^ '^^^ ^ ^^"^ ^^^^ ^ given increment of
the aug- temperature makes very nearly the fame proportional
mentation augmentation of bulk and elafticity. This gives us fome
©f the bulk notion of the manner in which the fuppofed expandinsf
^J^I^JJi^'^caufe produces the efFeft. When vapour of the bulk
vaijoufi. 4 is expanded into a bulk 5 by an addition of 1 o de-
grees of fenfible heat, a certain quantity of fire goes in-
to it, and Is accumulated round each particle, in fuch a
manner that the temperature of each, which formerly
was m, is now tn-\-io. Let it now receive another equal
augmentation of temperature. This is nowm-|-2C, and
5X5
the bulk Is — or 64, and the arithmetical increafe of
bulk is 1;^:. The abfolute quantity of fire which has
entered it is greater than the former, both on account
of the greater augmentation of fpace and the greater
temperature. Conlequently if this vapour be compref*
fed into the bulk 5, there muft be heat or fire in it
which is not neceflary for the temperature m -f- 20, far
iefs for the temperature m -^^ 10. It muft therefore
emerge, and be difpofed to enter a thermometer which
has already the temperature m 4- 20: that is, the va-
pour muft grow hotter by comprefilon ; not by fquee-
Eing out the heat, like water out of a fponge, but be-
caufe the law of attraftion for heat is deranged. It
would be a very valuable acquifition to our knowledge
to learn with prccifion the quantity of fenfible heat pro-
duced in this way ; but no fatisfaftory experiments have
yet been made. M. Lavoifier, with his chemical friends
and colleagues, were bufily employed in this inquiry ;
but the wickednefs of their countrymen has deprived
the world of this and many other important additions
which we might have expefted from this celebrated and
unfortunate philofopher. He had made, in conjunc-
tion with M. de la Place, a numerous train of accurate
and expenfive experiments for meafuring the quantity
of latent or combined heat in elaftic vapours. This is
evidently a very important point to the diftiller and
praftical chemift. This heat muft all come from the
] S 1' E
anJ it Is greatly worth while to know whethef Steaj
any faving may be made of this article. Thus we know
that diftiUation will go on either under the prefTure of
the air, or in an alembic and receiver from which the
air has been expelled by fteam ; ar;d we know that this
laft may be condu&ed in a very low temperature, even
not exceeding that of the human body. But it is un-
certain whether this may not employ even a grtatef
quantity of fuelj as well as occafion a great expence of
time. We are difpofed to think, that when there is no
air in the apparatus, and when the condenfation can be
fpeedily performedj the proportion of fuel expended to
the fluid which comes over will diminifh continually as
the heat, and confequently the denfity of the fteam, is
augmented ; becaufe in this cafe the qiaantlty of com-
bined heat muft be lefs. In the mean time, we earneft-
ly recommend the trial of this mode of diftillation in
veflels cleared of air. It is undoubtedly of great advan-
tage to be able to work with fmaller fires; and it would
fccure us againft all accidents of blowing off the head
of the ftill, often attended with terrible confeqiiences ( b).^
We muft not conclude this article without taking
notice of fome natural phenomena which feem to owe
their origin to the a6lion of elaftic fteam.
We have already taken notice of the rcfemblance of
the tremor and fuccuflions obferved in the Ihocks of ma-
ny earthquakes to thofe which may be felt in a veffel
where water is made to boil internally, while the break-
ing out of the ebullition is ftifled by the cold of the up-
per parts ; and we have hkewife ftated the objeilions
which are ufually made to this theory of earthquakes.
We ma^ perhaps refume the fubjeft under the article
VoLQidj^o ; but in the mean time we do not hefitate to
fay, tnat the wonderful appearances of the Geyzer
fpring in Iceland (fee Huer ; and Iceland, n'^3 — 5.)
are undoubtedly produced by the expanfion of fteam In
ignited caverns. Of thefe appearances we fuppofe the
whole train to be produced as follows.
A cavern may be fuppofed of a fhape analogous tOExplana
CBDEF (fig. 5.), having a perpendicular funnel AB-io iofi
iffulng from a depreffed part of the roof. The part Fphe"om(
may be lower than the reft, remote, and red-hot. Such*'^^*'|P.'^
places we know to be frequent in Iceland. Water may {ct\u
be continually trickhng into the part CD. It will fill by tlie
it up to B, and even up to E^^, and then trickle flowly force of
along into F. As foon as any gets into contad: with^^^""°
an ignited part, it expands into elaftic fteam, and is
partly condenfed by the cold fides of the cavern, which
it gradually warms, till it condenfes no more. This
produG
(b) We eafneftly recomm.end this fubjeft to the confideration of the philofopher. The laws which regulate
the foi-matlon of elaftic vapour, or the general phenomena which it exhibits, give us that link which connefts che-
mirtry with mechanical philofophy. Here we fee chemical affinities and mechanical forces fet in immediate op-
pofition to each other, and the one made the indication, charafteriftic, and meafure of the other. We have not
the leaft doubt that they make but one fcience, the Science of Univerfal Mechanics; nor do we defpair of feeing
the phenomena of folution, precipitation, cryftaUization, fermentation, nay animal and vegetable fecretion and
aflimilation, iuccefsfully inveftigated, as cafes of local motion, and explained by the agency of central forces. Some
thing of this kind, and that not inconfiderable, was done when Dr CuUen firft fiiowed how the double affini-'
ties might be illuftrated by the afliftance of numbers. Dr Black gave to this hint (for it was httle more)
that elegant precifon which charafterizes all his views. Mr Kirwan has greatly promoted this ftudy by his
numerous and ingenious examples of its application ; and the moft valuable paffages of the writings of Mr
ijavoifier, are thofe where he traces with logical precifion the balancings of force vvhich appear In the chemical
phenomena. It is from the fimilar balancings and confequent meafurements, which may be obferved and obtained
in the prefent cafe, that we are to hope for admiffion into this almoft unbounded fcience of contemplation. Wc
have another link equally interefting and promifing, viz. the produdion of heat by fridlion. This alfo highly
deferves the confideration of the mathematical philofopher.
S T E
I 743 3
S T E
n- produfticn of fleam Hinders not in the fmalleft decree
the tricklinpf of more water into F, and the continual
pvoduftton of more fteam. This now preffes on the
lurface of the water in CD, and caufes it to rife gra-
dually in the funnel BA ; but flowly, becaufe its cold
furface is condenUng an immenfe quantity of fteam. We
may eafily fuppofe that the water trickles falter into F
than it is expended in the produilion of fteam; fo that
it reaches farther into the iijnited part, and may even
fall in a ftream into fome deeper pit highly ignited. It
will now produce fteam in vaft abundance, and of pro-
digious elafticity; and at once pufh up the water thro'
the funnel in a foHd jet, and to a great height. This
muft continue till the furface of the water finks to BD.
If the lower end of the funnel have any inequalities or
notches, as is moft likely, the fteam will get admiffion
along with the water, which in this particular place is
beiling hot, being fuperficial, and will get to the mouth
of the funnel, while water is ftill prefTed in below. At
laft the fteam gets in at B on all fides ; and as it is con-
verging to B, along the furface of the water, with pro-
digious velocity it fweeps along with it much water, and
blows it up through the fimnel with great force. When
this is over, the remaining fteam blows out unmixed
with water, growing weaker as it is expended, till the
bottom of the funnel is again ftopped by the water in-
creafing in the cavern CB,t). All the phenomena above
ground are perfeftly conformable to the neceflary con-
fequences of this very probable conftruftion of the ca-
vern. The feeling of being lifted up, immediately be-
fore the jet, in all probability is owing to a real heaving
up of the whole roof of the cavern by the firft expanfion
of the great body of fteam. We had an accurate defcrip-
tion of the phenomena from perfons well qualified to
judge of thefe matters who vifited thcfe celebrated
fprlngs in 1789.
STKJiM-Engine, is the name of a machine which de-
rives its moving power from the elafticity and conden-
fibility of the fleam of boiling water. It is the moft
valuable prefent which the arts of life have ever received
from the philofopher. The mariner's compafs, the te-
lefcope, gunpowder, and other moft ufeful fervants to
human weaknefs and ingenuity, were theprodudllons of
chance, and we do not exaftly know to whom we arc
indebted for them ; but the fteam-englne was, in the
very beginning, the refult of refleftion, and the produc-
tion of a very ingenious mind ; and every improvement
it has received, and every alteration in its conftrudlion
and principles, were alfo the refults of plrilofophlcal
I ftudy.
lam-en- The fteam- engine was beyond all doubt invented by
invent- marquis of Worcefter during the reign of Cha. IL
^^>'^||^^^^This nobleman publifhed in 1663 a fmall book intitled
rquis o ^ Century of Inventions ; giving fome obfcure
and enigmatical account of an hundred difcoverles or
contrivances of his own, which he extols as of great
importance to the public. He appears to have been a
perfon of much knowledge and great ingenuity : but
his defeription or accounts of theic inventions feem not
£0 much intended to inftruA the public, as to raife won-
der ; and his encomiums on their utility and Impor-
tance are to a great degree extravagant, refembling more
the puff" of an advertifing tradefman than the patriotic
communications of a gentleman. The marquis of Wor-
Engir
- » -
ccfter was indeed a projeftor, and very importunate and
myfterious withal in his applications for public encou-
ragement. His account, however, of the fteam-engine,
although by no means fit to give us any diftlnft notions
of its ftruiture and operation, is exaft as far as it goes,
agreeing precifely with what we now know of the fub-
jeft. it is N' 68. of his inventions. His words are as
follow : " This admirable method which I propofe of
raifing water by the force of fire has no bounds If the
veffels be ftrong enough : for I have taken a cannon,
and having filled it ^ths full of water, and fliut up its
muzzle and touch-hole, and expofed it to the fire for
24 hours, it burft with a great explofion. Having af-
terwards difcovered a method of fortifying veffels inter-
nally, and combined them in fuch a way that they fill-
ed and afted alternately, I have made the water fpout
in an uninterrupted ftream 40 feet high ; and one veffel
of rarefied water raifed 40 of cold water. The perfoii
who condufted the operation had nothing to do but
turn two cocks; fo that one vefTel of water being confu-
med, another begins to force, and then to fill itfelf with
cold water, and fo on In fuccefGon." »
It does not appear that the noble inventor could ever But firft rc^
intereft the public by thefe accounts. His charafter as'^"^^4^'J'j^
3 projeAor, and the many failures which perfons of this^'^^^^j^-j^
turn of mind daily experience, probably prejudiced peoivary.
pie againft him, and prevented all attention to his pro-
jefls. It was not till towards the end of the century,
when experimental phllofophy was profecuted all over
Europe with uncommon ardour, that thefe notions again
engaged attention. Captain Savary, a perfon alfo of
great ingenuity and ardent mind, faw the reality and
pradllcablllty of t-he marquis of Worcefter's projeft.
He knew the great expanfive power of fteam, and had'
dllcovcred the inconceivable rapidity with which it Is-
reconverted into water by cold ; and h^? foon contrived
a machine for raifing water, in which both of thefe
properties were employed. He fays, that it was en*
tirely his own invention. Dr Defagulienf infifts that
he only copied the marquis's invention, and charges
him with grofs plaglarifm, and with having bought up'
and burned the copies of the marquls's book, in order
to fecure the honour of the difcovery to himfelf. This
is a very grievous charge, and fhould havO» been fub-
ftantlated by very diftindl evidence. Defagullers pro-
duces none fuch ; and he was much too late to know
what happened at that time. The argument which he
gives is a very foolifh one, and gave him no title to.
eonfider Savary's experiment as a falfehood ; for it
might have happened precifely as Savary relates, and not
as it happened to Defaguiliers* The faft is, that Sa-
vary obtained his patent of invention after a hearing of
objections, among which the difcovery of the. marquis
o[ Worcefter was not mentioned : and It is certain that
the account given in the Century of Inventions could
inftruft no perfon who was not- fufficlently acquainted'
with the properties of fteam to be able to invent the
machine himfelf. ^.
Captain Savory obtained his- patent a/jf^r having aBuallyVz'fin
ereSed feveral machines, of which he gave a defeription '-^ claim to
in a book intitled The Miner's^ Friend, publifhed ii^tioVastke
1696, and in another work pubhfhed in 1699. Much French pi
about this time Dr Papin, a Frenchman and fellow of tend,
the Royal Society, invented a method of dlffolving
bones and other animal folids in water,., by confining
6 thsm-
Steam*
S T E t 744 ] S T E
tliem in cicfe i^flele, which he dallecl digesters, fo as The Engh'A engineers had by this time fo m
to acquire a great degree of heat. For it muft be ob- proved Savary's firft invention, that it fiippb!
ferved in this place, that it had been difcovered long
before (in 1684) by Dr Hooke, the mo't inquilkive
experimental phiiofopher of that inquifitive age, that
water could not be made to acquire above a certain
temperature in the open air ; and that , as foon as it be-
gins to boil, its temperature remains fixed, and an in-
creafe of heat only produces a more violent ebullition,
and a more rapid wafte. But Papin's experimeuts made
the claftic power of fteam very familiar to him : and
when he left England and fettled as profeffor of mathe
othei's. We have therefore no hefitation in*gi
honour of the firft and complete invention to \a~^
quis of Worceller ; and we are not difpof^ .
Captain Savary's claim to originality as to
tion of the machine, and even think it piuodL .
his own experiments made him fee the whole indepen-
dent of the marquis's account.
Captain Savary's engine, as improved and fimplified
by himfelf, is as follows.
A ( fig. 6. ) reprefents a ftrong copper boiler proper- Captfii
matics at Marpurgh, he made many aukward attempts ly built up in a furnace. There proceeds from its topiary's
to employ this force in mechanics, and even for raifing a large fteam-pipe B,'' which enters into the top of an-^?^°^"'
water. It appears that he had made experiments with other ftrong veffel R called the receiver. This pipe^'-L
this view in 1698, by order of Charles Landgrave of has a cock at C called the steam-cock. In the bot-
Heffe. For this reafon the French affeft to confider
him as the inventor of the fteam-engine. He indeed
pubhfhed fome account of his invention in 1707; but
he acknowledges that Captain Savary had alfo, and
without any communication with him, invented the
fame thing. Whoever will take the trouble of looking
torn of the receiver is a pipe F, which communicates
fidewife with the rifmg pipe KGH. The lower end
Place
CCCCLXX
H of this pipe is immerfed in the water of the pit or
v/ell, and its upper part K opens into the ciftern into
which the water is to be delivered. Immediately be-
low the pipe of communication F there Is a valve G,
at the defcription which he has given of thefe Inven- opening when preffed from below, and (hutting when
tions, which are to be feen in the j^Sa Eruditorumy ---'i'''' J a r m , • , .
Lipftett and In Leupold's Theatrum Mathinarunty will
fee that they are moft aukward, abfurd, and impratli-
cable. His conceptions of natural operations were al-
ways vague and imperfeA, and he was neittier phiio-
fopher nor mechanician.
We are thus anxious about the claim of thofe ©entle-
men, becaufe a moft refpeftablc French author, Mr Bof-
fut, fays in his Hydrod)nannque, that the firft noti.m of
the fteam-engine was certainly owing to Dr Papin, who
had not only invented the digefter, but had in 1695
publifhed a little performance defcribing a machine for
raifing water, in which the piftons are moved by the
vapour of boiling water alternately dilated and condtn-
fed. Now the faft is that Papin's firft publication was
in 1707, and his pifton is nothing more than a floater
on the furface of the water, to prevent the wafte of
prelfed downwards. A fimilar valve, is placed at I,
immediately above the pipe of communication. LaiUy,
there is a pipe ED which branches oft' from - the rifing
pipe, and enters into the top of the receiveri; This
pipe has a cock D called the injection- cock. The
mouth of the pipe ED has a nozzle / pierced with
fmall holes, pointing from a centre in every direftion.
The keys of the two cocks C and D are united, and the
handle^ A is called the regulator.
Let the regulator be fo placed that the fteam-cock C
is open and the injeftlon cock D Is fhut ; put water in.
to the boiler A, and make it boil ftrongly. The fteam
coming from it will enter the receiver, and gradually
warm it, much fteam being condenfed in producing this
effeft. When it has been warmed fo as to condenfe no
more, the fteam proceeds Into the rifing pipe ; the
valve G remains (hut by its weight ; the fteam lifts the
fteam by condenfation ; and the return of the pifton is valve I, and gets into the rifing pipe, and gradually
^ .4
Mr Anion
tons's fire
■wheel.
not produced, as in the fteam-engine, by the condenfa
tion of the fteam, but by admitting the air and a co-
lumn of water to prefs it back into Its place. The
whole contrivance is fo aukward, and fo unlike any
diftlndl notions of the fubjeLt, that it caniiot do credit
to any perfon. We may add, that much about the
fame time Mr Amontons .ontrived a very in j enious now to balance the preffure of the atmofphere ; the
but intricate machine, which he called a fire-ivheel. . It valve I remains (hut by Its weight ; but the air Incum-
confifted of a number of buckets placed in the circum- bent on the water In the pit prefles up this water
ference of a wheel, and communicating with each other -through the fuAion-pIpe H G, and caufes it to lift the
by very Intricate circuitous paffages. One part of this valve G, and flow into the receiver R, and fill it to the
warms it. When the workman feels this to be the cafe,
or hears the ratthng of the valve I, he immediately turns
the fteam-cock fo as to (hut it, the Injeftlon-cock ftlU
remaining ftiut (at leaft we may fuppofe this for the
prefent). The apparatus muft now cool, and the fteam
in the receiver collapfes into water. There is nothing
circumference was expofed to the heat of a furnace, and
another to a ftream or ciftern of cold water. The
-communications were fo difpofed, that the fteam pro-
duced in the buckets on one fide of the wheel drove
the water into buckets on the other fide, fe that one
fide ot the wlieel was always much heavier than the
other ; and It muft. there fore turn round, and may ex-
ecute fome work. The -death of the Inventor, and the
intricacy of the macliine, craifed It. to be negledltd.
Another member of the Parilian academy of fclences '
(Mr Dcflandes) alfo prciented to the aciidemy a project
of a ft tarn- wheel, where the Impuliive force of the va-
pour wat' employed; but it met with no encouragement.
top, If not more than 20 or 25 feet above the furface of
the pit water.
'i he fteam-cock Is now opened. The fteam which,
during the cooling of the receiver, has been accumula-
tins( in the boiler, and acquit ing a great elafticlty by the
adlion ot the fire, now rufhes in with great violence, and,
preffing on the furface of the water in the receiver,
caufes it to ftiut the valve G and open the valve I by
its weli^ht alone, and It now flows into the rifing pipe,
and would ftand on a level if the clailicity of the fteam
were no more than what would balance the atmofpherical
prefhn e. But it is much more than this, and therefore
is jOrr^x the water out of the receiver into the rifing
pipe.
S T E
• pipe, and will even caufe it to come out st K, if tlie
elafticity of the fteam is fufficiently great. In order to
enfure thk, the boiler has another pipe in its top,
covered with a fafety-vzUe V, which is kept down by a
weight W fufpended on a ftcelyard L M. 'I'his weight
is fo adjuiled that its preffure on the fafety-valve is fome-
what greater than the preffure of a column of water
Vi as high as the point of difcharge K. The fire is
fo regulated that the tteam is always iffuing a little by
the loaded valve V. The worknnan keeps the fleam-
valve open till he hears the valve I rattle. This tells him
that the water is all forced out of the receiver, and
that the fteam Is now foUowinj^ it. He immediately
' turns the regulator which (huts the fteam-cock, and
now, for the firft time, opens the injeftion-cock. The
cold water trickles at firft through the holes of the noz-
zle f, and falling down throutrh the fteam, begins to
condenfe it ; and then its elafticity being lefs than the
preffure of the water in the pipe K E D/, the cold wa-
ter fpouts in all diredlions through the nozzle, and,
quick as thought, produces a complete condenfation.
The valve G now opens again by the preffure of the
atmofphere on the water of the pit, and the receiver is
foon filled with cold water. The injeftion-cock is now
fhut, and the fteara-cock opened, and the whole opera-
tion is npw repeated ; and fo on continually.
This^ the fimplc account of the procefs, and will
ferve to pive the reader an introduAory notion of the
operation ; but a more minute attention muft be paid
to many particulars before we can fee the properties and
6 defeAs of this ingenious machine,
(flsof The water is driven along the rifing pipe by the
"I*' elafticity of the fteam. This muft in the boiler, and
' eveiy part of the machine, exert a preffure on every
fquare inch of the veffels equal to that of the upright
column of water. Suppofe the water to be ralfed lOO
feet, about 2 ? of this may be done in the fuftion-pipe ;
that is, the upper part of the receiver may be about
2 5 feet above the furface of the pit-water. The re-
maining 75 muft be done by forcing, and every fquare
inch of the boiler will be fqueezed out by a preffure of
more than 30 pounds. This very moderate height
therefore requires very ftrong veffels ; and the Marquis
of Worcefter was well aware of the danger of their biirft-
ing. A copper boiler of fix feet diameter muft be -r%ths
of an inch thick to be juft in equilibrio with this pref-
fure : and the foldered jeint will not be able to with-
ftand it, efpecially in the high temperature to which
the water muft be heated in order to produce fteam of
fiifficient elafticity. By confulting the table of the
elafticity of fteam deduced from our experiments men-
tioned in the precedintr article, we fee that this tem*
pcrature muft be at leaft 280° of Fahrenheit's thermo-
meter. In this heat foft folder is juft ready to melt,
and has no tenacity ; even fpelter folder is confiderably
weakened by it. Accordingly, in a machine ereded
by Captain Savary at York Buildings in London, the
workman having loaded the fafety-valve a little more
than ufual to make the engine work more brifkly, the
boiler burft with a dreadful explofion, and blew up
the furnace and adjoining parts of the building as if it
4iad been gunpowder. Mr Savary fucceedcd pretty
■well in raifing moderate quantities of water to fmall
heights, but could make nothing of deep mines. Many
attempt! were made, on the Marquis'a principle, to
Vox. XVII. Part II.
r 145 1
S T E
ftrengthen the veffels from within by radiated bars and Steam-
by hoops, but in vain. Very fmall boilers or evapora- ^''g'"**-
tors were then tried, kept red-hot, or nearly fo, and '~~~*
fupplied with a flender ftream of water trickling into
them ; but this afforded no opportunity of making a
coUeftion of fteam during the refrigeration ef the re-
ceiver, fo as to have a magazine of fteam in readinefs
for the next forcing operation ; and the working of
fuch machineJ was always an employment of great
danger and anxiety. _ 7,
The only fituation in which this machine could be "^^^^ it c&r%
employed with perfedl fafety, and with fome effeft, was^^
where the whole lift did not exceed 30 or 35 feet. Ina.ivantage
this cafe the greateft part of it was performed by the only in cer-
fu<aion-pipe, and a very manageable preffure was fuffi- t»in fitua^
cient for the reft. Several machines of this kind were
crefted in England about the beginning of this cen-
tury. A very large one was erefted at a falt-work in
the fouth of France. Here the water was to be raifed
no more than 18 feet. The receiver was capacious,
and it was occafionally fupplied with fteam from a fmall
falt-pan conftruAed on purpofe with a cover. The
entry of the fteam into the receiver merely allowed the
water to run out of it by a large valve, which was open-
ed by the hand, and the condenfation was produced by
the help of a fmall forcing pump alfo worked by the hand.
In fo particular a fituation as this (and many fuch may
occur in the endlefs variety of human wants), this is a
very powerful engine ; and having few moving and rub-
bing parts, it muft be of great durabihty. This circum-
ftance has occafioned much attention to be given to this
firft form of the engine, even long after it was fupplant-
ed by thofe of a much better conftruftion. A very in-
genious attempt was made very lately to adapt this con-
ftruftion to the ufes of the miners. The whole depth
of the pit was divided into lifts of 15 feet, in the fame
manner as is frequently done in pump-machines. In
each of thefe was a fuAion-pipe 14 feet long, having
above it a fmall receiver hke R, about a foot high, and
its capacity fomewhat greater than that of the pipe.
This receiver had a valve at the head of the fuftion-
pipe, and another opening outwards into the little cif-
tern, into which the next fudion-pipe above dipped ta
talce in water. Each of thefe receivers fent up a pipe
from its top, which all met in the cover of a large vef-
fel above ground, which was of double the capacity of
all the receivers and pipes. This veffel was clofe on all
fides. Another veffel of equal capacity was placed im-
mediately above it, with a pipe from its bottom paffmg
through the cover of the lower veffel and reacliin,^ near
to its bottom. This upper veffel communicates with
the boiler, and conftitutes the receiver of the fteam-en-
gine. The operation is as follows : The lower veffel
is full of water. Steam is admitted into the upper vef-
fel, which expels the air by a valve, and fills the veffel.
It is then condenfed by cold water. The preffure of
the atmofphere would caufe it to enter by all the fuc-
tion-pipes of the different hfts, and prefs on the furface
of the water in the lower receiver, and force it into the
upper one. But becaufe each fuftion-pipe dips in a
ciftern of water, the air preffes this water before it,
raifes it into each of the Httle receivers which it fills,
and allows the fpring of the air ( which was formerly
in them, but which now paffes up into the lower recei-
ver) to force the water out of the lower receiver into the
5 B upper
S T E
Steam-
Enj^ine.
S T E
8
Occafions
great wale
of fleam
and fuel.
The at-
tempts
made to
dimiiiifh
this wafle
unfuccc&-
fui.
upper one. When this has been completed, the fteam is
ajrain admitted into the upper receiver. This allows
the water to run back into the lower receiver, and the
air returns Into the fmall rcceivet s in the pit, and allows
the water to run out of each into its proper ciftern.
By this means the water ot each pipe has been raifed
1 5 feet. The operation may thus be repeated continu-
aUy.
The contrivance is ins^eniousj and fimilar to fome
which are to be met with in the hydrauhcs oF Schottus,
Sturmius, and other German writers. But the opera-
tion muft be exceedingly flow ; and we imagine that
the expence of Ueam miift be great, becaufe it muft hll
a very lar^e and very cold vefTel, which muft wafte a
great portion of it by condenfation. We fee by fome
iate publications of the very ingenious Mr Blackcy,
that he is ftill attempting to maintain the reputation of
this machine by fome contrivance of this kind ; but
we. imagine that they will be incffeftual, except in fome
very particular fituations.
For the great defedl of the machine, even when we
can fecure it againft all rifl< of burfting, is the prodigi-
ous wafte of ileam, and confequently of fuel. Daily
experience fhows, that a few fcattered drops or cold wa-
ter is fufficient for producing an almoil inftantaneous
condenfation of a great quantity, of fteam. '{ herefore
when the fteam is admitted into the receiver of Savary's
engine, and comes into contaft with the cold top and
cold water, it is condenied with great rapidity ; and the
water does not begin to fubfide till its furf ace has become
fo hot that it condenfes no more fteam. It may now
begin to yield to the prcfliire of the incumbent fteam ;
but as foon as it deicends a little, more of the cold fur-
face of the receiver comes into contaft with the fteam,
and condenfes more of it, and the water can defcend no
farther till this addition of cold furface is heated up to
the ftate of evaporation. This rapid condenfation goes
on all the while the water is defcending By fome ex-
periments frequently repeated by the writer of this arti-
cle, ic appears that no lefs than -r4'ths of the whole fteam
is ufelefsly condenfed in this manner, and not more than
TTth is employed in allowing the water to defcend by
its own weight ; and he has reafon to think that the
portion thus wafted will be confiderably greater, if the
fteam be employed to force the water out of the receiver
to any confiderable height.
Obferve, too, that all this wafte muft be repeated in
every fucceeding ftroke ; for the whole receiver muft
be cooled again in order to fill itfelf with water.
Many attempts have been made to diminifh this
wafte ; but all to little purpofe, becaufe the very fill-
ing of the receiver with cold water occafions its fides
to condenfe a prodigious quantity of fteam in the fuc-
ceeding ftroke. Mr Blackey has attem{>ted to leflen
this by ufing two receivers. In the firft was oil ; and
into this only the fteam was admitted. This oil pafTcd
to and fro between the two receivers, and never touched
the water except in a fmall fiirface. But this hardly
produced a fenfible diminution of the wafte : for it muft
now be obferved, that there is a neceffity for the firft
cylinder's being cooled to a confiderable degree below
the boiling point ; otherwife, though it will condenfe
tnuch fteam, and allow the water to rife into the receiver,
there will be a great diminution of the height of fudtion,
mnlels the veflel be much cooled. This appears plainly
by infpefting the table of elafticity. Thas, if the veflel
be cooled no lower than 180", we fhould lofe one half,
of the preffure of the atmofphere ; if cooled to 120,
we fhould ftill lofe -j^-^th. The infpeftion of this table
is of great ufe for underftanding and improving this no-
ble machine ; and without a conftant recolleftion of the
elafticity of fteam correfponding to its aftual heat,
we ftiall never have a notion of the niceties of its opera-
tion.
The rapidity with which the fteam Is condenfed l8'^'''c;a(]
really aftonifhing. Experiments have been made on"i'^|"^'
fteam-veffels of fix feet in diameter and feven feet high; vv},;,.!^
and it has been found, that about four ounces of water, c r.i i
as warm as the human blood, will produce a complete '^'^"'^e^*'
condenfation in Icfs than a fecond ; that is, will pro-
duce all the condenfation that it is capable or producing,
leaving an elafticity about ^fth of the elafticity of the
air. In another experiment with l}»e fame fteam- velfcl,
no cold water was allowed to get into it, but it was
made to communicate by a lom^ pipe four inches in
diameter with another veflel immerfed in cold water.
The condenfation was fo rapid that the time could not
be meafured : it certainly did not exceed half a fecond.
Now this condenfation was performed by a very trifling
furface of contadl. Perhaps we may explaia it a little
in this way : When a mafs of iteam, in immediate con-
tact with the cold water, is condenied, it leaves a void,
into which the adjoining fleam inftantly expands ; and
by this very expanlion its capacity for heat js incieafed,
or it grows cold, that is, abftradls the heat from the
fteam iituated immediately beyond it. And in this ex-
panlion and refrigeration it. is itfelf partly condenfed or
converted into water, and leaves a void, into which the
circumjacent fteam immediately expands, and produces
the fame effeA on the fteam beyond it. And thus it may
happen that the abftraftion of a fmall quantity of heat
from, an inconfiderable mafs o^ fteam may produce a
condenfation which may be very cxteafive. Did we know
the change made in the capacity of fteam for heat by a
given change of bulk, we ftiould be able to tell exadtly
w^hat would be the eft'eft of this local ai-hia! condenfa-
tion. But experiment has not as yet given us any pre-
cife notions ©n this fubjeft. We think that this rapid
condenfation to a great diflance by a very moderate
aftual abftraftion of heat is a proof that the capacity of
fteam for heat is prodigioufly increafed by expanfion.
We fay a very moderate aStual abjirtidk n of heat, becardie
very little heat is neceffary to raife four ounces of blood-
warm water to a boihng tempetature, which ^i!l unfit
it for condenfing fteam. The remarkable phenomeuon-
of fnow and ice produced in the Hungarian machine,
when the air condenfed in the receiver is allowed to
blow through the cock (fee Pneumatics), ftvows this
to be the cafe in moift air, that is, in air holding water
in a ftate of chemical folution. We fee fomething very
like it in a thunder-ftorm. A fmall black cloud fome-
times appears in a particular fpot, and in a very few fe-
conds fpreads over many hundred acres of llcy, that is^
a precipitation of water goes on with that rapid diffu-
fion. We imagine that this increafe of capacity or de-
mand for heat, and the condenfation that muft enfue if
this demand is not fupplied, is much more remarkable
ia pure watery vapours,, and that this is a capital dif.
tindion of their conftitutioa from vapours diflolved ia
air»
5 TKc
S T E
[ 747 1
S T E
mpts
prove
cam-
le.
ription
The reader mud now be fo well acquainted with what
pafTes in the fteam-vefiel, and with the exterior refults
from it, as readily to comprehend the propriety of the
chang-es which we ftiail now defcribe as having been
made in the conftruction and principle of the ileam en-
gine.
Of all places In England the tin-mines of Cornwall
flood moft in need of hydraulic aflillance ; and Mr Sa-
vaiy was much engaged in projedls for draining them
by his fteam-engine. This made Its conftrudlion and
principles well known among the machinifts and engi-
neers of that neighbourhood. Among thefe were a
Mr Ncwcomen, an iron-monger or blackfmith, and Mr
Cawley a glazier at Dartmouth in Devonfhire, who had
dabbled much with this machine. Newcomen was a
perfon of fome reading, and was in particular acquaint-
ed v^ith the perfon, writings, and projedts of his coun-
tryman Dr Hooke. There are to be found among
Hooke's papers, in the pofleflion of the Royal Society,
fome notes of obfervations, for the ufe of Newcomen his
countryman, on Papin's boafted method of tranfmitting
to a great diftance the a<?tioii of a mill by means of pipes.
Fapin's projeA was to employ the mill to work two air-
pumps of great diameter. The cylinders of thefe pumps
were to communicate by means ot pipes with equal cy-
linders furnifhed with piftons, in the neighbourhood of
a diftant mine, lliefe piftons were to be connefted,
by rneans of levers, with the pifton-rods of the mine.
Therefore, when the pifton of the air-pump at the mill
was drawn up by the mill, the correfponding pillon at
the fide of the mine would be prcfled down by the at-
mofphere, and thus would raife the pifton- rod in the
mine, and draw the water. Tt would appear from thefe
notes, that Dr Hooke had diiTuaded Mr Newcomen
from erefting a machine on this principle, of which
he had expofed the fallacy in feveral difcourfes before
the Royal Society. One paffage is remarkable. " Could
he (meaning Papin) make a fpeedy vacuum under your
fecond piiton, your work is done."
It is highly probable that, in the courfe of this fpe-
culation, it occurred to Mr Newcomen that the va-
cuum he fo much wanted might be produced by fteam,
and that this gave rife to his new principle and conllruc-
tion of the fteam-engine. The fpecific defideratum was
is Newcomen's mind; ^ud therefore, when Savary's en-
gine appeared, and became known in his neighboui'^hood
many years after, he would readily catch at the help
which it promlfed.
Savary however claims the invention as his own ;
but Switzer, who was perfonally acquainted with both,
is pofilive that Ntwcomen was the inventor. By his
principles (as a quaker) leing averfe from contention,
he was contented to fhare the honour and the profits
with Savary, whofe acquaintance at court enabled him to
procure the patent in 1 705, in which all the three were
afiociated. Pofterity has done juftice to the modeft in-
ventor, and the machine is univerfally called Newco-
men's Engine. Its principle and mode of ©peration
may be clearly corctived as follows.
Let A (fig. 7.) rcprefent a great boiler properly
built in a furnace. At a fm§ll height above it is a
cylinder CBBC of metal, bored vety truly and fmooth-
ly. The boiltr communicates with this cylinder by
means of the throat or fteam pipe NQ_^ The lower
aperture of this pipe is fli-ut by the plate N, which is
Steam-.
Engine.
ground very flat, fo as to apply very accurately to
the whole circumference of the prifice. This plate is .
called the regulator or fteam-cock, and it ttirns hori-
zontally round an axis l>a which pafies throuirh the top
of the boiler, and is nicely fitted to the focket, like the
key of a cock, by grinding. The upper end of this axi»
is furnifhed with a handle l> T.
A pifton P is fufpended in this cylinder, and made
air-tight by a packing of leather or foft rope, well fill-
ed with tallow ; and, for greater fecurity, a fmall quan-
tity of water is kept above the pifton. The pifton-rod
PD is fufpended by a chain which is fixed to the uppetf
extremity F of the arched head FD of the great lever
or Working Beam HK, which turns on the gudgeon,
O. There is a fimilar arched head EG at the other
end of the beam. To its upper extremity E is fixed a
chain carrying the pump-rod XL, which raifes the water
from the mine. The load on this end of the beam Is
made to exceed confiderably the weight ot the pifton
P at the other extremity.
At fome fmall height above the top of the cylinder
Is a ciftern W called the Injection Cistern. From
this defcends the Injection Pipe ZSR, which enters
the cylinder througk its bottom, and terminates In a
fmall hole R, or fometlmes in a nozzle pierced with
many fmaller holes diverging from a centre in all di-
reftions. This pipe has at S a cock called the In-
jection Cock, fitted with a handle V.
At the oppofite fide of the cylinder, a little above Its
bottom, there Is a lateral pipe, turning upwards at the
extremity, and there covered by a clack-valve jT, call-
ed the Snifting Valve, which has a Httle difti round
it to hold water for keeping It air-tight.
There proceeds alto from the bottom of the cylinder
a pipe deg h (pafling behind the boiler), of which the
lower end is turned upwards, and is covered with a valve
h. This part is immevfed In a ciftern of water Y, call-
ed the Hot Well, and the pipe itfelf Is called the
Eduction Pipe. I^aftly, the boiler Is furniihed with
a fa^ety-valve called the Puppet Clack (which is not
repreiented in this Iketch for want ot room), in the fame
manner as Savary's engine. This valve is generally load-
ed with one or two pounds on the fquare Inch, ie that
It allows the fteam to efcape when Its elaftlcity is T°th
greater than that of common air. Thus all rifle of
burftingthe boiler Is avoided, and the prefl'ure outwards
Is very moderate ; fo alfo Is the heat. For, by infpec-
tlng the table of vaporous elaftlcity, we fee that the
heat correfponding to 3 2 inches of elaftlcity is only
about 216*^ of Fahrenheit's thermometer.
'J hefe are all the eflential parts of the engine, and
are here drawn In the moft finiple form, till our know-
ledge of their particular offices ftiall ftiow the pro-
priety of the peculiar forms which are given to thenru
Let us now fee how the machine is put in motion,
and what Is the nature of its work.
The water in the boiler being fuppofed to be In a How the
ilate of ftrong ebulhtion, and the fteam iffuing by theP"'^'^'"^
fafety-valve, let us confider the machine in a ftate ofl^^j^f"^,!"
reft, having both the fteam-cock ^nd inje£tion cock.ftiut. Aud the na-
The reifing pofition or attitude of the machine muft be'"'^ of the
f jch as appears In this flcetch, the pump rods preponde-^""^^*
rating, and the great pifton being drawn up to the top
of the cyHnder. Now open the fteam cock by tarning
the handle T of the legulator. The fteam from the
5 B 2 boiler
S T E
r 74S ]
S T E
boiler will immediately rufh ir, and flying all over the
^ cylinder, will mix with the air. Much of it will be con-
denfed by the cold fnrface of the cylitider and piilon,
and the water produced from it will trickle down the
fides, and run off by the eduftion-pipe. This conden-
Tation and wafle of fteam will continue till the whole cy-
linder and pifton are made as hot as boilins^ water*
When this happens, the ftcam will begin to open the
fnifting valve /, and iflue through the pipe ; flowly at
firft and very cloudy, being mixed with much air. The
blaft at / will grow Itronger by degrees, and more tranf-
parent, having already carried off the greateft part of
the common air which filled the cylinder. We fuppo-
fed that the water was boiling brifidy, fo that the fteam
was iffuing by the fafety-valve which is in the top of the
boiler, and through every crevice. The openin,?^ of the
fteam-cock puts an end to this at once, and it has fomc*
times happened that the cold cylinder abftrafts the
fteam from the boiler with fuch aftonifliing rapidity,
that the prefTarc of the atmofphere, has burft up the
bottom of the boiler. We may here mention an ac-
cident of which we were witneffes, which alfo fhows
the immenfe rapidity of the condenfation. The boiler
"was in a frail fhed at the lide of th« engine-houfe ; a
fhoot of fnow from the top of the houfe fell down and
broke through the roof of the (hed, and was fcattered
over the head of the boiler, which was of an oblong or
oval Ihape. In an inftant the lidcs of it were fqueczed
together by the preffure of the atmofphere.
When the manager of the engine perceives that not
only the blaft at the faifting valve is ftrong and tteady,
but that the boiler is now fully fupplied with fteam of
a proper ftrength, appearing by the renewal of the dif-
charge at the fafety-valve, he fhuts the fteam- cock, and
opens the injcftion cock S by turning its handle V.
'Jlie preffure of the column of water in the injeftion-
pipe ZS immediately forces fome water through the
fpout R. This coming in conta6t with the pure va-
pour which now fills the cylinder, condenfes it, and thus
makes a partial void, into which the more diftant fteam
immediately expands, and by expanding collapfes (as has
been already obferved ) . What remains in the cylinder
no longer balances the atmofpherical preffure on the fur-
face of the water in the injedlion-ciftern, and therefore
the water fpouts rapidly through the hole R by the
joint adlion of the column ZS and the unbalanced pref-
fure of the atmofphere ; at the fame time the fnifting
valve / and the eduftion-valve h are fhut by the unba-
lanced preffure of the atmofphere. The velocity of the
injection water muft therefore rapidly increafe, and the
jet will dafh (if fingle) againft the bottom of the pifton,
and be fcattered through the whole capacity of the cy-
linder. In a very ftiort fpace of time, therefore, the con-
denfation of the fteam becomes uni verfal, and the elafti-
city of what remains is almoft nothing. The whole
pi effure of the atmofphere is exerted m the upper furface
of the pifton, while there is hardly any on its under
fide. Therefore, if the load on the outer end E of the
working beam is inferior to this preffure, it muft yield
to it. The pifton P muft defcend, and the pump pifton
L muft afcend, bringing along with it the water of the
mine, and the motion muft continue till the great pifton
reaches the bottom of the cylinder ; for it is not like
the motion which would take place in a cylinder of air
i^relied to the fame- degree. la this laft cafe, the im-
pelling forre would be continually diminiflicd, becaufe i 4
the capacity of the cylinder is diminlfhed by thedefcent -^"^i'
of the pifton, and the air in it is contiimally becoming
more denfe p.nd elaftic. The pifton would ftop at a cer-
tain height, where the elafticity of the included air, to-
gether with the load at E, would balance the atmofphe-
rical preffure on the pifton. But when the contents of
the cylinder are pure vapour, and the continued ftreain
of injefted cold water keeps down its temperature to
the fame pitch as at the beginning, the elafticity of the
remaining fteam can never increafe by the defcent of the
pifton, nor exceed what correfponds to this temperature.
The impelling or accelerating force therefore remains
the fame, and the defcent of the pifton will be uniform-
ly accelerated, if there is not an increafe of refiftance
ariling from the nature of the work performed by the
other end of the beam. This circumftance will come
under confideratlon afterwards, and we need not attend
to it at prefent. It is enough for our prefent purpofe
to fee, that if the cylinder has been completely purged
of common air before the fteam-cock was ftjut, and if
none has entered fince, the pifton will defcend to the
very bottom of the cyhnder. And this may be frequent-
ly obferved in a good fteam-engine where every part is
air-tight. It fonaetimes happens, by the pit pump
drawing air, or fome part of the communication be-
tween the two ftrains giving-way, that the pifton comes
down with fuch violence as to knock out the bottom of
the cylinder with the blow.
The only obfervation which remains to be made on'j'^g pj^j
the motion of the pifton in defcending is, that it does iue^ no!
not begin at the inftant the injedlion is made. The t)egin ta
pifton was kept at the top by the preponderancy of the|^^^^^|^^
outer end of the working beam, and it muft remain i,,jg^
there till the difference between the elafticity of the tion is .
fteam below it and the preffure of the atmofphere "^^'i^"
exceeds this preponderancy. There muft therefore be
a fmall fpace of time between the beginning of the
condenfation and the beginning of the motion. This
is very fmall, not exceeding the third or the fourth part
of a fecond ; but it may be very diftinftly obferved by
an attentive fpedlator. He will fee, that the inftant the
injedlion-cock is opened, the cylinder will fenfibly rife
upwards a little by the preffure ot the air on its bottom.
Its whole weight is not nearly equal to this preffure j
and inftcad of its being neceffary to fupport it by a ftrong
floor, we muft keep it doivn by ftrong joifts loaded by
heavy walls. , It is ufual to frame thefe joifts into the
pofts which cafry the axis of the working-beam, and
are therefoie loaded with the whole ftrain of the ma-
chine. This rifing of the cylinder (hows the inftant .
taneous commencement of the condeniation ; and it i»
not till after this has been diftinftly obferved that the
pifton is feen to ftart, and begin to defcend.
When the manager fees the pifton as low as he thinks phe cip
proper, he ftiuts the injeftion-cock, and opens thecumftar
tteam-cock. The fteam has been accumulating ^^^"^^ '^^^ ^^J^*^
the water in the boiler during the whole time of thejgfj,g^j*
pifton's defcent, and is now rufliing violently , through the pid<
the puppet clack. The moment therefore that the
fteam-cock is opened, it rufhes violently into the cylin-
der, having an elafticity greater than that of the air.
It therefore immediately blows open the fnifting valve,
and allows (at leaft) the water which had come in by
the former injedion, »nd what arofe fr©m the condeii-
T E
[ 749 ]
S T E
rl6
^etft- of
e I'lrft
fff of en
fed ftcam, to defcend by its own weight through the
edu6;Ion-pipe d e g h to open the valve and to run
out into the hot well. And we muft eafily fee that this
water is boilisg hot ; for while lying in the bottom of
the cvlinder, it will condenfe fteam till it acquires this
temperature, and therefore cannot run dewn till it con-
den fes no more. There is ftiU a wafte of ileam at its
firft admiffion, in order to heat the infide of the cylin-
der and the injeftcd water to the boiling temperature :
but the fpacc being fmall, and the whole being already
very warm, this is very foon done ; and when things
are properly conftrufted, little more fleam is wanted
than what will warm the cylinder ; for the eduftion-
pipe receives the injeftion water even during the de-
fcent of the pillon, and it is therefore removed pretty
much out of the way of the fteam.
This tirft pufF of the entering fteam is of great fer-
vice : it drives out of the cylinder the vapour which
it finds there. This is feldom pure watery vapour : all
water contains a quantity of air in a ftatc of chemical
union. The union is but feeble, and a boiling heat is
fufficient for difengaging the greateft part of it by in-
creafmg its elafticity. It may alfo be difengaged by
fimply removing the external preffure of the atmo-
fphere. This is clearly feen when we expofe a glafs
of water in an exhaufted receiver. Therefore the fmall
fpace below the pifton contains watery vapour mixed
with all the air which had been difengaged from the
water in the boiler by ebullition, and all that was fepa-
rated from the injeftion water by the diminution of ex-
ternal preffures. All this is blown out of the cylinder
by the firft puff of fteam. We may obferve in this
place, that waters differ exceedingly in the quantity of
air which they hold in a ftate of folution. All fpring
water contains much of it : and water newly brought
up from deep mines contains a great deal more, becaufe
the folution was aided in thefe fituations by great pref-
fures. Such waters fparkle when poured into a glafs.
It is therefore of great confequence to the good per-
formance of a fteam-engine to ufe water containing
little air, both in the boiler and in the injeftion-ciftern.
The water of running brooks is preferable to all others^
and the freer it is from any faline impregnation it ge-
nerally contains lefs air. Such engines as are fo un-
fortunately fituated that they are obliged to employ
the very water which they have brought uy^ from great
depths, are found greatly inferior in their performance
to others. The air coUefted below the pifton great-
ly diminifties the accelerating force, and the expul-
lion of fuch a quantity requires a long continued blaft
of the beft fteam at the beginning of every ftroke. It
is advifable to keep fuch water in a large ftiallow pond
for a long while before ufing it.
Let us now confider the liate of the pifton. It is
ifton rifes. evident that it will ftart or begin to rife the moment
the fteam-cock is opened} for at that inftant the ex-
cels of atmofpherical preffure, by which it was kept
down in oppoiition to the preponderancy of the outer
end of the beam, is diminiftied. The pifton is therefore
dragged upwards, and it will rife even although the fteam
which is admitted be not fo elaftic as common air. Sup-
pofe the mercury in the barometer to ftand at 30 inches,
and that the preporwkrancy at the outer end of the beam
k ^th of the preffure ol the air on the pifton, the pifton
will act rife if the elafticity of the fteam is not equal to
Sf cam-
Engine.
37
Dl'it-
Ueice to
le p;()od
Erfo! m -
ice of a
eam-en-
iiie, that
le water
aiployed
»iitain
tile air.
low the
30 — y, that is, to 26,7 inches nearly ; but if it Isjuft
this quantity, the pifton will rife as Faft as this fteam
can be fupplied through the fteam-pipe, and the velo-
city of its afcent depends entirely on the velocity of
this fupply. I'his obfervation is of great importance ;
and it does not feem to have occurred to the mathema-
ticians, who have paid moft attention to the mechanifm.
of the motion of tl>is engine. In the mean time, we
may clearly fee that the entry of the fteam depends chiefly
©n the counter weight at E : for fuppofe there was
none, fteam no ftronger than air would not enter the
cylinder at all ; and if the fteam be ftronger, it will en-
ter only by the excefs of its ftrengtb. Writers on the
fteam-engine (and even fome of great reputation) fami-
liarly fpeak of the fteam giving the pifton a pufh : But
this is fcarcely poffible. During the rife of the piftoa
the fnilting valve is never obferved to blow ; and we
have not heard any well atceitcd accounts of the pifton-
chains. ever being llackened by the upward preffure cvf
the fteam, even at the vei-y beginning of the ftroke. Du-
ring the rifing of the pifton the fteam is (according to
the common conception and manner of fpeaking)
fucked in, in the fame way that air is fucked into a com-
mon fyringe or pump when we draw up the pifton ;
for in the fteam-engine the pifton is really drawn up by
the counter weight. But it is f-till more fucked in, and
requires a more copious fupply, for another reafon. As
the pifton defcended only in confequence of the infide of
the cyhnder's being fufficiently cooled to condenfe the
fteam, this cooled iurface mufl again be prefented ta
the fteara during the rife of the piflon, and muft con-
denfe fteam a fecond time. The pifton cannot rife an-
other inch till the part of the cylinder which the piftoa
has already quitted has been warmed up to the boiling
point, and fteam mufl be expended in this warming.
The inner furface of the cylinder is not only of the
heat of boiling water while the pifton rifes, but is alfo
perfe£lly dry ; for the film of water left on it by the af-
ccnding pifton muft be completely evaporated, other-
wife it will be condenfing fleam. I'hat the quantity
thus waited is confiderable, appears by the experiments:
of Mr Beighton. He found that five pints of water were
boiled off in a minute, and produced 16 ftrokes of an en-
gine whofe. cylinder contained 1 13 gallons of 282 inches
each ; and he thence concluded that fteam was 2886
times rarer them water. But in no experiment made
with fcrupulous care on the expanfion of boiling water
does it appear that the denfitv of fteain exceeds tk
^ io,oco
ef the denfity of water. Defaguliers fays that it is above
14,000 times rarer tlian water. We have frequently
attempted to meafure the weight of fteam wfiich filled a
very light veffel, which held 12,600 grains of water,
and found it always lefs than one grain ; fo that we have
no doubt of its being much more than io,occ times rarer
than water. T his being the cafe, we may fafely fup-
pofe that the number of gallons of fteam, inftead of be-
ing 16 times 1 13* were nearly five times as much ; and
that only -fth were employed in allowing the pifton to
rife, and the remaining |^ths were employed to warm the
cylinder.
The moving force during the afcent of the pifton ^ts afcent
muft be confideted as rcfulting chiefly, if not fblely, l^'^'^^y^""^
from the preponderating weight of the pit pifton-rods. height of
The office of this is to retOrn the fteam-pifton to the the pit
4 topftoa-i^ods.
S T E
[ 750 ]
S T E
Stcam-
Enpiiie.
10
The afccnt
of the ■ i
top of the cylinder, where it may again be prefled down
by the air, and make another workinj^r ftroke by rai-
fing the pump rods. But the counter-weight at E has
another i'ervice to perform in this ufe of the ensTlne ;
fjamely, to return the pump piftons into theii places at
the bottom of their refpeftive workinj^ barrels, in order
that they alfo may make a ^ working ftroke. This re-
quires force independent oi the friftion and inertia of the
moving parts ; for each pifton mull be pulhed down
through the water in the barrel, which muft rife through
the pifton with a velocity whofe proportion to the velo-
city of the pillon is the fame with that of the bulk of
the pifton to the bulk of the penoration through which
the water rifes through the pifton. It is enough at
prefent to mention this in general terms : we fhall con-
fider it more particularly afterwards, when we come to
calculate, the per'^urmance of the engine, and to deduce
from our acquired knowledge maxims of conftruftion
and improvement.
From this general confideration of the afcent of the
pifton, we may fee that the motion diff'crs greatly from
*^reatly the defcent. It can hardly be fuppofed to accelerate,
fi-nm thii *^ven if the fteam in the cylinder were in a moment anni-
dcfcent. lated. For the refiftance to the defcent of the pifton
is the fame with the weight of the column oF water,
which would caufe it to flow through the box of the
pump pifton with the velocity with which it really riles
through it, and muft therefore increafe as the fquare of
that velocity increafes ; that is, as the fquare of the ve-
locity of the pifton increafes. Independent o^" friction,
therefore, the velocity of defcent through the water
muft foon become a maximum, and the motion become
uniform. We ftiall fee by and by, that in fuch a pump
as is generally ufed this will happen in lefs than the
10th part of a fecond. The friftion of the pump will
diminifti this velocity a little, and retard the time of its
attaining uniformity. But, on the other hand, the fup.
ply of fteam which is neceffary for this motion, being
fufccptible of no acceleration from its previous motion,
and depending entirely on the briflcnels of the ebulli-
tion, an almoft inftantaneou ftop is put to acceleration.
Accordingly, any perfon who obferves with atten-
tion the working of a fteam-engine, will fee that the
rife of the pifton and defcent of the pump-rods is ex-
tremely uniform, whereas the working ftroke is veiy
fenfibly accelerated. Before quitting this part of the
41 fubjeft, and left it fhould afterwards e/cape our recol-
Thc coun- leftion, we may obferve, that the counter weight is dif-
ter ■
is (•
the ftate of the moving forces in every period of the Stcai...
operation. It is by no means fufficient that we know Eugin*
in general that the injeftion of cold water makes a void
which allows the air to prefs down the pifton, and that
the readmiffion of the fteam allows the pifton to rife
again. This lumping and flovenly way of viewing- it
has lang prevented even the philofopher from feeing tlie
defefts of the conftrudlion, and the methods of remo-
ving them. 2%
We now fee the great difference between Savary's DiiFeren
and Newcomen's engine in refpedl of principle, Sava-'^'^^^^'^'^,"
ry's was really an engine which raifed water by the^^l^^^^^^
force of fteam j but Newcomen's raifes water entirely comen's
by the preffiire of the atmoiphere, and fteam is em- machiuc
ployed merely as the moft expeditious method of pro-
ducing a void, into which the atmotpherical preffure
may impel the Jir/f mover of his machine. The elafticity
of the fteam is not the firft mover. 3,^
We fee alfo the great fuperiority of this new ma-Suponor
chlne. We have no need of fteam of great and dange-*^^ Ntw-
rous elafticity ; and we operate by means of very mode-''***^^^"
rate heats, and confequently with much fmaller quan-
tities of fuel ; and there is no bounds to the power
of this machine. How deep foever a mine may be, a
cyhnder may be employed of fuch dimenfions that the
preflure of the air on its pifton may exceed in any de-
gree the weight of the column of water to be raifed*
And laftly, this form of the machine renders it appli-
cable to almoft every mechanical purpofe ; becaule a
fliilful meclianic can readily find a method of convert-
ing the eciprocating motion of the working beam
into a motion of any kind which may fuit his purpofe.
Savary's engine could hardly admit of inch an imme-
diate application, and feems almoft reftridled to railing
-water.
Inventions improve by degrees. This engine wasGraduall
firft off'ered to the public in 1705. But many difficul- improve!
ties occurred in the execution, which were removed one
by one ; and it was not till 1712 that the engine feem-
ed to ;ave confidence in its efficacy. The moft exadl
and unremitting attention of the manager was required
to the precife moment of opening and fhutting the
cocks ; and negledt might frequei>tly be ruinous, by
beating out the bottom of the cylinder, or allowing the
pifton to be wholly drawn out of it. Stops were con-
trived to prevent both of thefe accidents ; then ftringg
were ufed to connedl the handles of the cocks with the
beam, fo that they ft\ould be turned whenever it was in 45
14
■^^'cnt ^^^^^^ during the two motions of the pump-rods, certain pofitions. Thefe were gradually changed and ^"d fitn.
during the While the machine is making a working ftroke, it is
two mo- lifting not only the column of water in the pump, but
tions of the the abfoliite weight of the piftons and pitton-rods alfo :
pump-rods. while the pump-rods are delcending, there is a di-
mintition of the counter weight by the whole weight
loft by the immerlion of the rod in water. 'I'he wood-
en rods which are generally ufed, foaked in water, and
joined by iron ftraps, are heavier, and but a little hea-
vier than water, and they are generally about one third
of the bulk of the water in the pumps.
Thefe two motions complete the period of the ope-
ration ; and the whole may be repeated by fhutting the
fteam- cock and opening the Injeflion-cock whenever the
pifton has attained the proper height. We have been
yery minute in our attention to the different clrcum-
&SM(XSf that the reader may have a diltiji^ notion of
improved into detents and catches of different lhapes -P^'^sd.
at laft, in syiy, Mr Beighton, a very ingenious and
well informed artift, fimplified the whole of thefe fub-
ordinate movements, and brought the mach'ne into
the form in which It has continued, without the fmall-
eft material change, to the prefent day. We fhall now
defcribe one of thefe improved engines, copying almoft
exadlly the drawings and defcription given by Boffut
in his Hydrodynamique ; thefe being by far the mofl
accurate and perfpicuous of any that have been pub-
lifhed..
Fig. 8. n' I. is a perfpeftive view of the boiler cy-
linder, and all the parts neceffary for turning the cocks.
Fig. 8. n° 2. is a vertical feftion of the fame ; and the
fame pieces of both are marked with the fame letters of
reference.
The
Plate
T E [ 751 3 . . S T E
pillon P is fufpended from the holes, and a pin is put through them which unites them
by a joint. The motion ot the handle may be increa-
fed or diminiflied by choofing for the joint a hole near
to the axis or remote from it ; and the exaft pofition at
which the regulator is to ftop on both lide& is deter-
mined by pins ftuck in the horizontal bar on which the
end of the handle appears to rell.
This alternate motion of the regulator to the right
and left i? produced as follows : There is fixed to the
axis BC a piece of iron /, called the Y, on account
of its refemblance to that letter of the alphabet invert-
ed, i he ftalk 0 carries a heavy lump/» of lead or iron j
and a long leather ftrap qpr is faftened to /> by the
middle, and the two ends are faftened to the beam above
it, in fuch a manner that the lump may be alternately
catched and held up to the right and left of the per-
pendicular. By adjuftinw the length of the two parta
of the ftrap, the Y may be ftopped in any defiredL
pofition. The two claws i and / fpread out from each
other, and from the line of the ftalk, and they are of
f.»ch length as to reach the horizontal bolt e, which
croffes the ftirrup below, but not to reach the bottorxi
of the fork A /g. Now fuppofe the ftirrup hanging
perpendicularly, and the ftalk of the Y alfo held per-
pendicular ; carry it a little outward from the cylinder>
and then let it go. It will tumble farther out by its
\veit!,ht, without affecting the ftirrup till the claw /
ftrikes on the horizontal bolt e, and then it pufties the
ftirrup and the fork towards the cylinder, and opens
the regulator. It fets it in motion with a fmart jerk,
which is an effeftual way of overcoming the cohefion
and friftion of the regulator with the mouth of the
fteam-pipe. This pufti is adjufted to a proper length-
by the ftrap qp^ which ftops the Y when it has gone
far enough. If we now take hold of the ftalk of the
Y, and move it up to the perpendicular, tjie width be-
tween its claws is fuch as to permit this motion, and
fomething more, without afFe<^ing the ftirrup. But
when pufhed ftill nearer to the cylinder, it tumbles to-
wards it by its own weight, and then the claw i ftrikes
the bolt e, and drives the ftirrup an<l fork in the ©ppo-
fite diredtion, till the lump /) is catched by the ftrap
now ftretched to its full length, while q p han^s flack.
Thus by the nwtion of the Y the regulator is opened
and fhnt. Let us now fee how the motion of the Y
is produced by the machine itfelf. To the horizontal
axis IjC aie attached two fpanners or handles m and n.
The fpanner m paftes through a long flit in the plug-
beam, and is at liberty to move apwards or down-
wards by its motion round the axis BC. A pin *
which goes through the plug- beam catches, hold of tn
when the beam rifes along with the pifton; and the pin
is fo placed, that when the beam is within an inch or two
ot its higheft rife, the pin has lifted m and thrown the
ftalk of the Y paft the perpendicular. It therefore
tumbles over with great force, and gives a fmart blow
to the fork, and immediately fliuts the regulator. By
this motion the fpanner m is removed out of the neigh,
bourhood of the plug-beam. But the fpanner w, mo-
ving along with it in the lame dlreftiou; now comes in-
to the way of the pins of the plug-beam. I hereforcj
when the pifton defcends again by the condeofation of
the fl^am in the cylinder, a pin marked is' in the fide
of the plug-beam catches hold of the tail of the fpan.
ner », aiid by prefling it dowa raifes the lump on the
ftalk
s
The rod X of the
arch of the working-beam, as was reprefented in the
preceding flcetch (fig. 7). An upright bar of timber
FG is alfo feen hanging by a chain. This is fufpend-
ed from a concentric arch of the beam, as may be leen
alfo in the flcetch at i 'i'his bar is called the f Jug-
deam, and it muft rife and fall with the pifton, but
with a flower motion. The ufe of this plug-beam is
to give motion to the different pieces which turn the
cocks.
. The fteam-pIpe K Is of one piece with the bottom
of the cylinder, and rifes within it an inch or two, to
prevent any of the cold injeftion water from falling in-
to the boiler. The lower extremity Z of the fteam-
pipe penetrates the head of the boiler, pr jefting a
little way. A flat plate of brafs, in ftiape refembling a
racket or battledore, called the rei^viato:- , applies itfelf
exactly to the whole circumference of the fteam-pipe,
and completely excludes the fteam from the cylinder.
Being moveable round an upright axis, which is repre-
fented by the dotted hnCvS at the fide of the fteam-pipe
in the profile, it may be turned afide by the handle ?*,
n' I. The profile fliows In the feftion of this plate a
protuberance in the middle. This refts on a ftrong
fiat ipring, v/hicli is fixed below it athwart the mouth
of the fteam-pipe. This fpring preffes it ftrongly to-
wards the fteam-pipe, caufing it to' apply very clofe ;
and this knob Aides along the fpiing, while the regula-
tor turns to the right or left.
We have laid that the injeftion water is furniflied
from a ciftern placed above the cylinder. When this
ciftern cannot be fupplied by pipes from fome more
elevated fou.-'ce, its water is raifed by the machine it-
felf A fmall lifting pump ii (fig. 7.), called the jnri-
head ox jacqiiette^ is worked by a rod y ', fufpended from
a concentric arch t y near the outer end of the work-
ing beam. This forces a fmall portion of the pit water
along the rifing pipe / LM into the injeftion ciftern.
In figure 8. n • i. and 2. the letters Q^I 3' repre-
fent the pipe which brings down the water from the
injeftion -ciftern. This pipe has a cock at R to open
or fliut the paffage of this water. It fpouts through
the jet 3', and dafhing againft the bottom or the pifton,
it is difperfed into drops, and fcattered through the
whole cap:!city ©f the cyhnder, fo as to produce a ra-
pid condenfation of the fteam.
An upri)^ht poft A may be obferved In the perfpec-
tive view of the cyfinde'r, &c. This fuppopts one end
B of a horizontal iron axis BC. I'he end C is fup-
ported by a fimilar poft, of which the place only is
Hiarked by the dotted lines A, that the pieces connec-
ted with this axis may not be hid by it. A kind of
ftirrup a^c J hangs from this axis, fupported by the
hooks a and d. This ftirrup is croffed near the bottom
by a round bolt or bar e, which pafles through the eyes
or rings that are at the ends of the horizontal Jork hfg^
•whofe long tail h is double, receiving between its
branches the handle i of the regulator. It is plain from
this conftrudtion, that when the ftirrup is made to vi-
brate round the horizontal axis BC, on which it hangs
freely by its hooks, the bolt e muft pifll or pufli the
long fork hfg backwarks and forwards horizontally,
and by fo doing will move the regulator round its axis
by means ef the handle i. Both the tail of tho fork
and the handle of the regulator are pierced with leveral
Sfeam-
Engine.
Engiiie.
S T E [ 75
ftalk of the Y till it pafTes the perpendicular, and it
.then falls down, outwards from the cylinder, and the
claw / again drives the fork in the direftion h t\ and
opens the fteam valve. This opening and fhutting of
the fteam valve is executed in the precife moment that
is proper, by placing the pins ^ and fe* at a proper
height in the plus-beam. For this reafon, it is pierced
through with a great number of holes, that the places
•of thefe pins may be varied at pleafure. This, and a
prbper curvature of the fpanners m and «, make the ad-
juftment as nice as we pleafe.
The injeftlon-cock R is managed in a fimilar man-
tier. On its key may be obferved a forked arm s ty
like a crab's claw ; at a little diftance above it is the
gudgeon or axis a of apiece yu%\ called the hammer
or the F, from its refemblance to that letter. It has
ft lump of metal y at one end, and a fpear « s projefts
from its middle, and pafles between the claws s and t
of the arm of the inje£lion-cock. The hammer y is
held up by a notch in the underfide of a wooden lever
X)E, moveable round the centre D, and fupportcd at
8 proper height by a firing r E made fall to the joift
above it.
Suppofe the injedion-cock lliut, and the hammer in
the pofitioa reprefented in the figure. A pin /S of
the plug-frame rifes along with the piflon, and catch-
ing hold of the detent DE, raifes it, and difengages
the hammer y from its notch. This immediately falls
^own, and ftrikes a board L put in the way to ilop it.
The fpear u s takes hold of the claw t, and forces it
afide towards x, and opens the injeAion-cock. The
pillon immediately defcends, and along with it the
plug-frame. During its defcent the pin p, meets with
the tail u %' of the hammer, which is now raifed confi-
^erably aliove the level, and brings it down along with
it, railing the lump y, and gradually (hutting the injec-
tion-cock, becaufe the fpear takes hold of the claw s of
its arm. When the beam has come to its loweft fituation,
the hammer is again engaged in the notch of the de-
tent DE, and fupported by it till the piflon again
reaches the top of the cylinder.
In this manner the motions of the injeftion cock are
alfo adjufted to the precife moment that is proper for
them. The different pins are fo placed in the phig-
frame, that the fleam-cock may be completely fhut be-
fore the injeftion cock is opened. The inherent mo-
tion of the machine will give a fmall addition to the
afcent of the piflon without expending fleam all the
while ; and by leavlngf the fleam rather lefs elaflic than
before, the fubfeqnent defcent of the piflon is promoted.
There is a confiderable propriety in the gradual fhut-
ting of the inje6l!on-cock. For after the fartl dafh of
the cold water atjalnfl the bottom of the piflon, the
condenfation is nearly complete, and very little more
water is needed-; but a continual accefTion of fome is
abfolutely neceffary for completing the condenfation, as
the capacity of the cylinder diminifhes, and the water
warms which is already injedled.
In this manner the motion of the machine will be
repeated as long as there is a fupply of Heam from the
boiler, and of water from the injeftion ciflern, and a
difcharge procured for what has been injefted. We
proceed to confider how thefe conditions alfo are provi-
ded by the machine itfelf.
The iniedtioa ciftern is fupplicd with water by tke
2 ] S T K
jackhead-p\trap, «8 we have slrcadjr obferved. From
this fource all the parts of the machine receive their re- ^"i^"
fpe£live fupplies. In the firil place, a fmall branch
13, 13, is taken off from the inje£lion-pipe Immediately
below the ciflern, and condufiled to the top of the cy-
linder, where it is furniflied with a cock. The fpout ia
fo adjufted, that no more runs from it than what will
keep a conftant fupply of a foot of water above the pi-
flon to keep it tight. Every time the pillon comes to
the top of the cylinder, it brings this water along witb
it, and the furplus of it* evaporation and leakage runs
off by a wafte pipe 14, 14. This water neceffarily bC'
comes almoil boiling hot, and it was thought proper to
employ its overplus for fupplying the wafte of the boiL
er. This was accordingly praftifed for fome time.
But Mr Beighton improved this economical thought,
by fupplying the boiler from the eduftion-pipe 2, 2»
the water of which muft be fliil hotter than that above
the pifton. This contrivance required attention to ma^
ny circumftances, which the reader will underftand by
confidering the perfpeftive and profile. The education
pipe comes out of the bottom of the cyhnder at i with
a perpendicular part, which bends fidcwife below, and
is fliut at the extremity r. A deep cup 5 communi-
cates with it, holding a metal valve nicely fitted to
it by grinding, like the key of a cock. To fecure its
being always air-tight, a (lender ftream of water trickles
into it from a branch 6 of the wafte pipe from the top
of the cylinder. The eduftion-pipe branches off at 2,
and goes down to the hot well, where it turns up, and
is covered with a valve. In the perfpeftive view may be
obferved an upright pipe 4, 4, which goes through the
head of the boiler, and reaches to within a few inches
of its bottom. This pipe is called the feeder, and rifes
about three or four feet above the boiler. It is open
^t both ends, and has a branch 3, 3, communicating
with the bottom of the cup 5, immediately above the
metal valve, and alfo a few inches below the level of
the entry 2 of the eduftion-pipe. This communicating
branch has a cock by which its paflage may be dimi-
nlfhed at pleafure. Now fuppofe the fteam in the boil-
er to h^ very ftrong ; it will caufe the boiling water
to rife in the feeding pipe above 3, and coming along
this branch, to rife alfo in the cup 5, and run over.
But the height of this cup above the furface of the wa-
ter in the boiler is fuch, that the fleam is never flrong
enough to produce this efFeft. Therefore, on the con-
trary, any water that may be in the cup 5 will run off
by the branch 3,3, and go down into the boiler by the
feeding pipe. %j
Thefe things being underftood, let us fappofe a An inj^e
quantity of injefted water lying at the bottom of the
cylinder. It will run into the eduftion pipe, fill the
crooked branch 1,1, and open the valve in the bottom
of the cup (its weight being fupported by a wire hang-
ing from a flender fpring), and it will fill the cup to the
level of the entry 2 of the eduftion-pipe, and will then
flow along 3, 3, and fupply the boiler by the feeder 4, 4..
What more water runs is at i will now 'go along the
eduftion-pipe 2, 2, to the hot well. By properly adjufl-
ing the cock on the branch 3,3, the boiler may be fup-
pHed as faft as the wafte in fteam requires. This is a
moft ingenious contrivance, and does great hoi]^our t»
Mr Beighton It is not, however, of much impar-
tance. The fmall quantity which the boiler requires
may
48
HThich en-
S T E [ 75
may be iirmediatdy taken even from a cold cIRern,
without fenfibly diminifhing the produAion of ftcam :
for the quantity of heat neceffary for raifmg the fcn-
fible heat of cold water to the boiling temperature is
quite infignificant, when compared with the quantity of
heat which muft then be combined with it in order to
convert the water into fteam. No diiference can be ob-
ferved in the .performance of fuch engines and of thofe
which have their boilers fupplied from a brook. It has,
however, the ddvantap,e of being purged of air ; and
L when an engine muft derive all its fupplies from pit
I . water, the water from the eduAion-pipe is vaftly pre-
ferable to that from the top of the cylinder.
We may here obferve, that many writers (among
lliem the Abbe Boflut), in their defcriptions of the
fleam-engine, have drawn the branch of communication
3, 3, from the feeding pipe to a part of the brooked pipe
1,1, lying below the valve in the cup 5. But this is
quite erroneous ; for, in this cafe, when the injeftion
is made into the cylinder, and a vacuum produced, the
water from the boiler would immediately rufh up through
the pipes 4, and fpoiit up into the cylinder : fo would
the external air coming in at the top of the feeder.
- This contrivance has alfo enabled us to form fome
D^m f*me j"^.-"^^"*^ internal flate of the engine during the
Lidj'tnent performance. Mr Belghton paid a minute attention to
if the in- the fituation of the water in the feeders and eduAion-
enial (Irate pipe of an engine, which feems to have been one of
'[ne^dur' which has yet been erefted. It was lifting a co-
hc per- Jut"" of water whofe weight was 4th8 of the preflure of
the air onlts pifton, and made 16 ftrokes, of 6 feet
each, in a minute. This is acknowledged by all to be
a very great performance of an engine of this form. He
concluded that the elaflicity of the fteam in the cylin-
der was never more than one-tenth greater or lefs than
the elafticity of the air. The water in the feeder never
rofe more than three feet and a half above tlie furface of
the boiling water, even though it was nov/ lighter by
i-^ih than cold water. The cduftion-pipe was only 4-^
feet loflg (vertically), and yet it always difchar^ed the
injedlion water completely, and allowed fome to pafs
into the feeder. This could not be if the fleam was
much more than r'^th weaker than air. By grafping this
pipe in his hand during the rife of the piflon, he could
guefs very well whereabouts the furface of the hot wa-
ter in it refled during the morion, and he never found
It fupported fo high as four feet. Therefore the fteam in
the cylinder had at leaft -ths of the elafticity of the air.
Mr Buat, in his examination of an engine which is
tre£led at Montrelaix, in France, by an Englifh engi-
neer, and has always been confidered as the pattern in
that country, finds it neceffary to fuppofe a much greater
variation iii the ftrength of the fteam, and fays that it
muft have been-f th ftronger and -fth weaker than common
air. But this engine has not been nearly fo perfeft.
Its lift was not more than ^ of the preffure of the at-
mofphere, and it made but nine ftrokes In a minute. —
At W is a valve covering the mouth of a fmall pipe,
and funounded with a cup containing water to keep
it air-tight. This allows the air to efcape which had
been extricated from the water of laft injection. It is
driven out by the firft ftrong puff of fteam which is
admitted into the cylinder, and makes a nolfe in its
«xit. This valve is therefore called the fniftini^ valve.
To finifh our deicription, we obferve, that befides
Vol. XVII. Part IL
Ste^Bi-
Engine,
59
3 1 , S T E
the fafcty valve 9 (called the pupp pT clack), which
is loaded with about 3 pounds on the fquare inch
(though the engine will work very well with a load of
I or 2 pounds), there is another discharger 10, ^o,
having a clack at its extremity fupported by a cord.
Its ufe is to difcharge the fteam without doors, when the
machine gives over working. There is alfo a pipe S I
near the bottom of the boiler, by which it may be emp-
tied when it needs repairs or cltanfing.
There are two fmall pipes i(,ii,and i 2, 12, with cocka
called GAGE-piPESi The firft defcends to within two
inches of the furface of the water in the boiler, and the
fecond goes about 2 inches below that furface. If both
cocks emit fteam, the water is too low, and requires a
recruit. If neither give fteam, it is too hi ^h, and there
is not fufficient room above it tor a colleftion of fteam.
Laftly, there is a filling pipe by which the boiler
may be filled when the machine is to be let to work.
The engine has continued in this form for m?.ny years. Tliisf .rmof
The only remarkable change introduced has been the - he engine
manner of placing the bo ler. It is no longer placed '
below the cylinder, but at one lide, and the fteam is f ;i^a"ny
Introduced by a pipe from the top o ' the boiler into a yean, the
flat box immediately below the cylinder. I'he ufe of "ily change
this box is merely to lodge the regulator, and give room '^"^'^"^ ^'^^^
for its motions. This has been a very confiderable if"' the boiler,
provement. It has greatly reduced the hei:Tht of the
building. This was formerly a tower. The wall which
fupported the beam could hardly be built with fufficient
ftrength for withftanding tlie violent (hocks which were
repeated without ceafing ; and the buildings feldom
lafted more than a very few years. But the boiler is
now fet up in an adjoining fhed, and the gudgeons of
the main beam reft on the top of upright pofts, which
are framed into the joifts which fupport the cylinder.
Thus the whole moving parts of the machine are con-
tained in one compai^t frame of carpentry, and have ht-
tle or no connexion with the flight walls of the build-
ing, which is merely a cafe to hold the machine, and
proteft it fram the weather. 0
It is now time to inquire what Is to be expefted from How to
this machine, and to afcertaiii the moll advantageous afnertain
proportion between the moving power~and the h)ad'''^™°^
that is to be laid on the machine. ourpn^por-
It may be confidered as a preat pulley, and Is indeedtion be-
fometime* fo conftrufted, the arches at the ends of the twceu the
workinf beam being completed to a circle. It muft be ^'"'"'''"5
unequally loaded that It may move. It is loaded, ^i^' [ii^foa^"
ring the working ftroke, by the prefTu'-e of the atrao-
fphcre on the piflon fide, and by the column of water
to be raifed and the pump-gear on the pump fide. —
During the returning ftroke it is loaded, on the pifton
fide, by a fmall part of the atmofpheric preffure, and
on the pump fide by the pump gear afting as a coun-
ter weight. The load during: the working ftroke muft
therefore confift of the column of water to be raifed
and this counter weight. The performance of the ma-
chine is to be meafured only by the quantity of water
railed in a given time to a given heigiit. It varies, there-
fore, in the joint proportion of the weiglit ef the co-
lumn of water in the pumps, and the number of ftrokes
made by the machine in a minute. Each ftroke confiits
of two parts, which we have called the workitig and
the returning ftroke. It does not, there'ore, depend
fimply on the velocity of the working ftroke and the
5 C quantity
Steam,
Engine.
St«arn
Engine
S T E [ ] 8 T E
If this were ail that is cylinder 13 cooled by" tlie injedlon to the degree that k
every day pradicable, and the pifton really bears during
its defcent a prefTure very near to 14 pounds oij the inch.
The load mull be diraiaiflied, not on account of the im-
perfed vacuum, but to give the machine a reaibnable
motion. We mult confider not only the moving force,
but alfo the quantity of matter to be put in motion. Thia
is f ) f^rcat in the fteani engine, that even if it were balan-
ced, that is, if there were fufpended on the plilon arm a
weight equal to tlie whole column of water and the coun-
ter weight, the full prefhire of the atmofpliere on the
fteampilton would not make it move twice as fail as it does.
This equation by Mr BofTut is moreover effentially And fanl
faulty in another refpeft. 'i"he W in the firft member^y i
is not the fame with the W in the fecond. In the fjrftV'^f.''
it is the column of water to be raifed, together with ^'^'^
the counter weight. In the fecond it is the counter
weight only. Nor is the quantity H the fame in both
cafes, as is moft evident.
31
quantity of water railed by it
^ to be attended to, we know that the weight of theco
lumn of water ihoald be nearly |ths of the prcffure of
the atmofphere, this being the proportion which gives
the maximum in the common pulley. But the time of
the returning iiroke is a neccffary part of the whole
time elapfed, and therefore the velocity of the return-
ing llroke equally merits attention. This is regulated
by the counterweight. The number of ftrokes per
minute does not give an immediate proof of the good-
nefs of the engine. A fmall load of water and a great
counter weight will enfure this, becaufe thele condi-
tions will produce a briilc motion iy both direftions. —
Tlie proper adjuftment of the preffure of the atmofphere
on the pillon, the column of water to be raifed, and the
counter weight, is a problem oF very great difSculty ;
and mathematicians have not turned much of their at-
tention to the fubjed, although it is certainly the moil,
interefting quelUou that pra&ical mechanics affords
them.
MrBoffut's Mr Bofliit has folved it very fliortly and fimply,
folution, upon this fuppofition, that the working and return-
ing ftroke flioulJ be made in equal times. This, in-
deed, is generally aimed at in the eredion of thefe ma-
chines, and they are not reckoned to be well arranged if
it be otherwife. We doubt of the propriety of the
maxim. Suppofmg, however, this condition for the
prefent, Vv-e may cqmpute the loadings of the two ends
of the beam as follows. Let a be the length of the
inner arm of the working beam, or that by which the
great piiion is fupported. Let b he the outer arm car-
rying the pump rods, and let W be a weight equivalent
to all the load which is laid on the machine. Letc* be
the area of the pillon ; let H be the height of a column
of water having for its bafe, and being equal in weiglit
to the prelTure exerted by the fteam on the under (ide of
the piiion ; and let be the prelTure of the atmofphere
ftn the fame area, or the hei. ht of a column of water
of equal weight. It is evident that both Itrokes will be
performed in equal times, if i a — W be equal to
(A — H) « -f W b. The firft of thefe quantities
is the energy of the machine during the working flroke,
and the fecond exprefles the fimilar energy during the
returning flroke. This equation gives us W =:
2 he' a — He' a _{zh~- H)
The proper equation for en
furing the equal duration of the two llrokes may be had
in the following manner. Let it be determined by ex-
periment what portion of the atmoi'pheric preffure is
exerted on the great pifton during its defccnt. Thi&^
depends on the remaining elail'city of the fteam. Sr.p-
poie itT^ths: this we may exprefs by^^, a being rrT^^ths.
Let it alfo be determined by experiment what portion
©f the atmoipheric preffure on the piiion remains un-
balanced by the fteam below it during its afcent. Sup-
pole this yV th, we may exprefs this by b h. Then let
W be the weight of the column of Water to be raifed,
and c the counter weight. Then, if the arms of the
be^m are equal, we have the energy during the work-
ing ftroke — ah — W — and during the returning
ftroke it is =: c — bh. Therefore c — b h zz a h
W — f ; and ^ — ^ i'^ + b)-^W _ ^^j^j^j^^ ^^^^^^
gives us c =z
fuppofition of the values of a and b,
h — W "
— - — . We lhall make fome ufe of this equation af-
terwards ; but it affords us no information concerning
the moft advantageous proportion of h and W, which
the material point.
2 b zb
the arms of the lever equal and H =r we have W
= — ; that is, the whole weight of the outer end
2
of the beam fhould be half the preffure of the air on
the great phlon. This is nearly the ufual pradice ; and
the engineers exprefs it by faying, that the engine is
loaded with feven or eight pounds on the fquare inch.
This has been found to be nearly the moft advantage-
Founded on ous load. This way of expreffing the matter would
an errone- do well enough, if the maxim were not founded on er-
roneous notions, which hinder us from feeing the ftate
of the machine, and the circumftances on which its im-
provement depends. The pifton bears a preffure of 1 5
pounds, it is laid, on the fquare inch, if the vacuum
below it be perfecTt ; but as this is far from being the
cafe, we muft not load it above the power of its vacuum,
which very little exceeds eight pounds. But this is
very far from the truth. When the cylinder is tight,
the vacuum is cot more than i^ih, deficient, when the
34.
Wc muft confider this matter in another way : And Another
that we may not involve ourfelves in unneceffary diffi- i^'-^ .^'^ '^^'^
If we fuppofe culties, let us make the cafe as fimple as poflible, and nfaYtex?
fuppofe the arms of the working-beam to be of equal
length.
We fhall firft confider the adjuftment of things at the
outer end of the beam.
3*
ous maxim:
Since the fole ufe of the fteam is to give room for the Adjutt-
aftion of the atmofpheric preffure by its rapid conden-"^^"^
fibility, it is admitted into the cylinder only to allow
the pifton to rife again, but without giving it any im^nj oaTe
pulfe. The pump-rods muft therefore be" returned to beam con
the bottom of the working barrels by means of a pre-f"i"^>
ponderancy at the outer end of the beam. It may be
the weight of the pump, rods themfelves, or may be con-
fidered as making part of this weight. A weight at
the end of the beam will not operate on the rods which
are fufpended there by chains, and it muft therefore be
attached to the rods themfelves, but above their refpec-
tive pump-barrels, fo that it may riot lofe past of its-
efficacv by immerfion in the water. We may confKler
the wnole under the notion of the pump-gear, and call
it./'. Its office is to deprefa the-pomp-rod« with fuff>>
7 cieat'
S T E
[ 755 ]
clent velocity, by overcoming the refillanccs arlfing from
the following caufes.
1 . From the inertia of the beams -and all the parts of
the apparatus which are in motion during the defcent
of the punnp*rods.
2. From the lofs of weight fuftalned by the immer-
fion of the pump-iods in water.
3. From the friftion of all the plllons and the weight
of the plug-frame.
4. From the refiftance to the piflon's motion, arifing
from the velocity which muft be generated in the wa-
ter in paffinty throuerh the defcending pilions.
The fnm of ail thefe refiftances is equal to the prcf-
fure of fome weight (as yet unknown), which we may
call rtt.
When the pump-rods are brought up again, they
bring along with them a column of water, whofe weight
we may call nv.
It is evident that the load which muft be overcome
by the preffure of the atmofphere on the fteam pifton
confifts of lu and p. Let this load be called L, and the
preffure of the air be called P.
If/) be = L, no water will be raifed ; if /> be = 0,
the rods will not defcend : therefore there is fome in-
termediate value of /> which will produce the greateft
In order to difcover this, let^ be the fall of a heavy
body in a fecond.
The defcending mafs is p : but it does not defcend
with its full weiglit ; becaufe it is overcoming a fet of
refiilances which are equivalent to a weight w, and the
moving force is /> — m. In order to difcover the fpace
through which the rods will defcend in a fecond, when
iirged by the force p — m ( fuppofcd couftant, notwith-
ftantling the increafe of velocity, and confequently of
m J, we muft inilitute this proportion p :p — m z= g :
P
The fourth term of this analogy is the fpace re-
quired.
Let t be the whole time of the defcent in feconds.
Then \ ^:f^ :
This laft term is
balanced weights en the beam and the weight (Jf the
water in the pumps. Then m~-^.
Alfo we have the weighf of the column of water
=rL— />, rrL— VLm.
Whert therefore we Kave determined the load v/hich
is to be on the outer end of the beam during the work-
ing ftroke, it muft be diflributed into two parts, which
have the proporticon of \^\^ m to L — a/Ltk. The firft
is the counter weight, and the fecond is the weight of
the column of water.
If m is a fraction of L, fuch as an aliquot part of It j
that is, if
_L L L L JL
L L L L L
^ 1*345
The circumftance which Is commonly obtruded ont
us by local coilfiderations Is the quantity of water, and
the depth from which it is to 5e raifed; that is, nu: and
it will be convenient to determine every thing in con-
formity to this,
We faw that w=:L — V'Lm. This gives tis L =
P P . ^
the whole defcent or length of the flroke accomphlhed
in the time t.
Tlie weight of the column of water, which has now
^ot above the pifton, is w, = L — p. This mufl
be lifted in the next working ftroke through the fpace
— Therefore the performance of the engine
muft be A
P
That this may be the greateft pofiible, we muft con-
fider p as the variable quantity, and make the fluxion of
1 r n- /' WXL p
the fraction i Lz=o.
This will be found to give us p=\/L,m ; that is,
the l ounter weight or prepondcrancy of the outer end
of the beam is zzX^l^n,, *
This gives us a method of determining m experimen-
tally. We can difcover by a6lu?.l meal'uremcnt the
^juantity L in any engine, it being equal to the un-
Stcitft-
J
IV m + 1 — -■
4 2
.-J-w, and
the counter weight
lum-^- j — ^,
42 ... ,6
Having thus afcertained that diftribution of the load Y^r^at pr».
on the outer end of the beam which produces the great- portion oi
eft effeft, we come now to confider what proportion of moving
movins- force we muft apply, fo that it may be employ- ^^^J"" "j/*^
ed to the beft advantage, or fo that any expence of lo\he
power may produce the greateft perfot mance. It will greateft ad*
be fo much the greater as the work done is greater, vantage
and the power employed is lefs ; and will therefore be
properly meafured by the quotient of the work done di- ^
vided by the power employed.
The v/ork immediately done is the lifting up the '
weight L. In order to accomplifh this, we muft em-
ploy a preffure P, which is greater than L. Let it be
— L -f- J ; alfo let s be the length of the ftroke.
If the mafs L were urged along the fpace s by the
force L-fj', it would acquire a certain velocity, which
we may exprefs by ; but It is impelled only by the
force y, the reft of P being employed in balancing L.
The velocities which different forces generate by inipel-
ling a body along the fame fpace are as the fquare roots
of the forces. Therefore ^ L. -\- y : y ^ s :
^ " . The fourth term of this analogy expreffes the
VL-Vy
velocity of the pifton at the end of the ftroke. The
quantity of motion produced will be had by multiply-
ing this velocity by the mafs L. This gives ■ —
and this, divided by the power expended, or by L-fj,
gives us the meafure of the performance j namely,
L
L-fj-x -^L-t-j'
That this may be a maximum, conhder y as the va-
5 C 2 riable
S T E
Engine.
[ 75<5 }
S T K
riable quantity, and make the fluxion of this formula
= 0. This will give us v— — .
Now Y—l^-\-y, =L+
L. Therefore the
37
The'e re-
fults agree
with the
moll fuc-
cefsful
praiJlice.
<whok load on the outer end of the beam, confiftinir of
the water and the counter weight, mufi: be yds of the
prtffure of the atmofphere on the fteam pifton.
We have here fuppofed that the expenditure is the
atmofpheric prefTure ; and fo it is if we confider it me-
chanically. But the expenditure of which we are fen-
fible, and which we are anxious to employ to the beft
advantage, is fuel. Suppofing this to be employed with
the fame judgment in all cafes, we are almoft intitled,
by what we now know of the produftion of fteam, to
fay that the fteam produced is proportional to the fuel
expended. But the fteam requifite for merely filling
the cylinder is proportional to the area of the pifton,
and therefore to the atmofpheric prefluve. The refult
©f our inveftJgation therefore is ftill juft ; but the fteam
wafted by condenfation on the fides of the cylinder does
not follow this ratio, and this is more than what is ne-
ceffary for merely filling it. This deranges our calcu-
lations, and is in favour of large cylinders; but this ad-
vantage muft be in a great meafure compenfated by a
ftmilar variation in the produAion of the fteam ; for in
fimilar boilers of greater dimenfions the fuel is lefs ad-
vantaoeoufly employed, becaufe the furface to which
the futl is applied does not increafe in the ratio of the
capacity, juft as the furface of the cylinder which waftes
the fteam. The rule may therefore be confided in as
pretty exaft.
It is a fatisfa£lory thing to obferve thefe refults
agree very well with the moft fuccefsful praftice. By
many changes and trials engineers have eftabliftied ma-
xims of conftruftion, which are probably not. very far
from the beft. It is a pretty general maxim, that the
load of water ftiould be \ of the atmofpheric prefTure.
They call this loading the engine with 74 pounds on
the inch, and they fay that fo fmall a load is neceffary
on account of the imperfeft vacuum. But we have
now feen that it is neceflary for giving a reafonable \e-
vlocity of motion. Since, in this pra6tice, tv is ma ^
or -r^tbs of P, and L fhould be /jths of P, and L is
w -f- /) ; it follows, that the counter weight fhould be
^th of P; and we have found this to be nearly the cafe
in feveral very good engines.
It muft be remarked, that in the preceding Inveftiga-
tion we introduced a quantity M to exprefs the rehft-
ances Jo the motion of the engine. This was done in
order to avoid a very troublefome inveftigation. The
refiftances are of fuch a nature as to vary- with the ve-
locity, and moft of them as the fquare of the velocity.
This is the cafe with the refiftance arifmg from the mo-
tion pf the water through the piftons of the pumps, and
that arifing from the fridion in the long lift during the
working ftrokc. Had we taken the dircft method,
which is fimilar to the determination of the motion thro*
a medium which refifts in the duplicate ratio of the ve-
locity, we muft have ufed a very intricate exponential
calculus, which few of our readers would have the pa-
tience to look at.
But the greateft part of the quantfty m fuppofes a
JUGtioiT already kaown., and its determination depends
on this motion. We muft now ftiow how its different Sta^ixi
component parts may be computed. Engin
I. What arifes from the inertia of the moving parts 'r
is by far the moft confiderable portion of it. To ob-RenLn
tain it, we muft find a quantity of matter which, when to tke n
placed at the end of the beam, will have the fame mo-^''^" of '
mentum of inertia with that of the whole moving parts In''"^*^"
their natural places. Therefore (in the returning ftroke)
add together the weight of the great pifton with its
rod and chains ; the pit pump-rods, chains, and any
weight that is attached to them ; the arch-heads and
iron-work at the ends of the beam, and ^ths of the
weight of the beam itfelf ; alfo the plug-beam with its
arch-head and chain, multiplied by the fquare of its di-
ftance from the axis, and divided by the fquare of half
the length of the beam ; alfo the jack-head pump-rod,
chain, and arch-head, multiplied by the fquare of its di-
ftance from the axis, and divided by the fquare of the
half-length of the beam. Thefe articles added into one
fum may be called M, and may be fuppofed to move
with the velocity of the end of the beam. Suppofe this
beam to have made a fix-foot ftroke in two feconds,
with an uniformly accelerated motion. In one fecond
it would have moved i\ feet, and would have acquired
the velocity of three feet per fecond. But in one fe-
cond gravity would have produced a velocity of 32 feet
in the fame mafs. Therefore the accelerating force
which has produced the velocity of three feet is nearly
M
rVth of the weight. Therefore — is the firft conftl-
tuent of m in the above invcftigation. If the obferved
velocity is greater or lefs than three feet per fecond, this
value muft be increafed or dimluifhed in the fame pro-
portion.
The fecond caufe of refiftance, viz. the Immcrfion of
the pump rods in water, is eafily computed, being the
weight of the water which they difplace.
The third caufe, the friftiou of the piftons, &c. is
almoft infignificant, and muft be difcovered by experi-
ment.
The fourth caufe depends on the ftru<fture of the
pumps. Thefe pumps, when made of a proper ftrength,
can hardly have the perforation of tlie pifton more than
a fourth part of the area of the working barrel ; and
the velocity with which the water pafl};s through it Is
increafed at leaft |th by the contradlion (fee Pimp).
The velocity of the water is thei efore five times great-
er than that of the pifton. A pifton i 2 Inches diame-
ter, and moving one foot per fecond, meets with a re-
fiftance equal to 20 pounds; and this increafes as the
fquare of the diameter and as the fquare of the velocity.
If the whole depth of the pit be divided into feveral
lifts, this refiftance muft be multiplied by the number of
lifts, becaufe it obtains in each pump,
Thu§ we make up the value of m ; and we muft ac-
knowledge that the method is ftill indiredl, becaufe it
fuppofes the velocity to be known.
We may obtain it more eafily in another way, bat
ftill with this circumftance of being indiredl. We found.
that p was equal to V'Lw, and confequently m =z
Now in any engine L and p can always be had ; and
unlefs / deviates greatly from the proportion which w^
determined to be the beft, the value of m thus obtainc4
will not be very erroneoua.
It
S T E [757
It was farther prefumed in this inveftlgatibn, that the
motions both up and down were uniformly accelerated ;
but this cannot be the cafe when the refiftances increafe
with the velocity. This circumftance makes very little
change in the working-ftroke, and therefore the theo-
rem which determines the beft relation of P to L may
be confided in. The refiftances which vary with the
velocity in this cafe are a mere trifle vi-hen compared
with the moving power y. Thefe refiftances are, ift,
The ftranijliniT of the water at the entry and at the
ftanding valve of each pump. This is about 3 7 pounds
for a pump i 2 inches diameter, and the velocity one
foot per fccond, increafing in the duplicate ratio of the
diameter and vekclty ; and, 2d, The friction of the
water along the whole lift. This for a pump of the
fame fize and v/ith the fame velocity, lifting 20 fathoms,
k only about 24- pounds, and varies in the fimple pro-
portion of the diameter and the depth, and in the du-
plicate proportion of the velocity. The refiftance ari-
iing from inertia is greater than in the returning! ftroke;
becaufc the M in this cafe muH contain ihe momentum
of the water both of the pit-pumps and the jackhead-
pump : but this part of the refiitance does not affe£t
the uniform acceleration. We may therefore confide
L
in the propriety of the formula y — — . And we may
obtain the velocity of this ftroke at the end of a fecond
with great accuracy as follows. Let 2 g ht the veloci-
ty cemmunicated by gravity in a fecond, and the velo-
city at the end of the tirft fecond of the fteam pifton's
y
defcent will be fomevvhat lefs than j^2^; where M ex-
prefles the inertia of all the parts which are iu motion
during the defcent of the fteara pifton, and therefore in-
cludes L. Compute the two refiitances jufl mentioned
for this velocity. Call this r. Then 2 g will
give another velocity infinitely near the truth.
But the cafe is very different in the returning ftroke,
and the proper ratio of p to L is not afcertained with
the fame certainty : for the movin ^ force p is not fo
great in proportion to the refiftance tn ; and therefore
the acceleration of the motion is confiderably affefted
by it, and the motion Itftlf is confiderably retarded, and
in a" very moderate time it becomes fenfibly uniform :
for it is prtcifely limilar to the motion of a heavy body
falling through the air, and may be determined in the
manner laid down in the article Rf.sistamcf. of Flwdsy
viz. by an exponential calculus. We fhall content our-
fclves here with faying, that the refiftances in the pre-
fent cafe are fo great that the motion would be to all
fenfe uniform before the piftons have defcended ^d of
their ftroke, even although there were no otlier circum-
ftance to affeft it.
But this motion is affefted by a circumftance quite
unconnefted with any thing yet confidered, depeading
on conditions not mechanical, andfo uncertain, that we
are not yet able to afcertain them with any precifion ;
yet they are of the utmoft importance to the good per-
formance and improvement of the engine, and therefore
deferve a particular confideration.
The counter weight has not only to pulh down the
pump-rods, but alfo to drag up the great piftpn. This
it cannot do tmkfs the fteam be adm.itted into the cy-
Engine.
1 S T E
Under. If the fteam be no ftronger than common air,
it cannot enter the cylinder except in confequence of the
pifton's being dragged up. If common air were admit- ^
ted into the cylinder, fome force would be required to
drag up the pifton, in the fame manner as it is required
to draw up the pifton of a common fyringe ; for the
air would rufh through the fmall entry of the cylinder
in the fame manner as through the fmall nozzle of the
fyrinr^e. Some part of the atmofpheiic prefTure is em-
ployed in driving in the air with fufficient velocity to
fill the fyringe, and it is only with the remainder that
the admitted air prefies on the under furface of the fy-
ringe. I'herefore fome of the atmofpheric prefTurc on
its upper furface is not balanced. This is felt by the
hand which draws it up. The fame thing muft happen
in the fteam-engine, and fome part of tlie counter weight
is expended in drawing up the fteam pifton. We could
tell how much is thus expended if we knew the denfity
of the fteam ; for this would tell us the velocity with
whicli its elafticity would caufe it to fill the cylinder.
If we fuppofe it 12 times rarer than air, which it cer-
tainly is, and the pifton rifes to the top of the cylinder
in two feconds, we can demonftrate that it will enter
with a velocity not lefs than 1 400 feet per fecond, where-
as 500 feet is enough to make it maintain a denfity Tsths
of that of fteam in cquihbrio with the air. Hence it
follows, that it& elafticity will not be lefs than 4|ths of
the elafticity of the air, and therefore not more than-5-'j,th
of counter weight will be expended in drawing up the
fteam-pifton.
But all this Is on the fuppofition that there is an un-
bounded fupply of fteam of undiminifhed elafticity. This
is by no means the cafe. Immediately before opening
the fteam cock, the fteam was ifluing through the fafe-
ty. valve and all the crevices in the top of the boiler,
and (in good engines) was abeut rc^h ftronger or more'
elaftic than air. This had been gathering during fome-
thing more than the defcent of the pifton, viz. in about
three feconds. The pifton rifes to the top in about two
feconds; therefore about twice and a half as much fteam
as frills the dome of the boiler is now fhared between the
boiler and cylinder. The dome is commonly about fix
times more capacious than the cylinder. If therefore no '
fteam is condenfed in the cylinder, the denfity of the
{team, when the pUton has reached the top, muft be a-
bout If ths of its former denfity, and ftill more elaftic than - ■ ■
air. But as much fteam is condenff d by the cold cv-»
linder, its elafticity muft be Itfs than this. We cannot
tell how much lefs, both becaufe we do not know how
much is thus condenfed, and becaufe by this diminution
of its prefTurc on the furface of the boiling water, it muft
be more coploufly produced in the boiler; but an atten-
tive obfervation of the engine ^'111 give us fome infor-
mation. The moment the fteam-cock is opened we have
a ftrong puff of fteam through the fnifting valve. At
this time,, therefore, it is ftill more elaftic than air ; but
after this, the fnifting valve remains fhut during the
whole rife of the pifton, and no fleam any longer iffues
through the fafely-valve or crevices; nay, the whole
dome of the boiler may be obferved to fink. xiij. daft/-.
Thefe fafts give abundant proof that the elafticity. of city of the
the fteam during the alcent of the pifton is greatly di- ^^^"^
minifhed, and therefore much of the counter weight i»ce"u oflhe'
expended in dragging up the fteam-pifton in oppofition jufton
to the unbalanced part of the atmofpheric preffure. The gteatly di—
4^
iiow to
Icnow the
S T E [ 758 ]
motion of the returning ftroke is therefore Co rauch dc- horfe mill
r3n_;Ted by this torei<rn and inappreclated circumftaace,
that it would have been quite ufelefs to engajre in the
intricate exponential invelligatlon, and we mull fit down
contented with a lefs perfe6l adjiiftment of the counter
>veight and weight of water. — Any -perfon who attends
to the motion of a fteam-engine will perceive that the
tlefcent of the pump-rods is fo far from bein<T accelera-
ted, that it is nearly uniform, and frequently it: is fenfi-
bly retarded towards the end. We learn by the way,
that it is of the utmoft im.portance not only to have a
quick production of fteam, but alfo a very capacious
dome, or empty fpace above the water in the boiler. In
engines where this fpace was but four or five times the
capacity of the cylinder, we have always obferved a very
lenfible check given to the defcent of the pump-rods
after having made half their {lrol<;e. This obliges us to
employ a greater counter ■weii;;ht, which diminiflies the
column of water, or retards the working ftroke ; it alfo
obli_s;es us to employ a ftronger fteam, at the rifle of
burftingthe boiler, and increafes the expence of fuel.
It would be a moft defirable thing to get an exaft
knowledge of the elafticity of the fteam in the cylinder;
Statu
Engin
44
-the. fleam
in the cy.
iinder.
elafticity of and this is by no means difScuIt. Take a long glafs
tube exaftly callbered, And clofe at the farther end. Put
a fmall drop of fome coloured fluid into it,'fo as to ftand
at the middle nearly. — Let it be placed in a long box
filled with water to keep it of a conftant temperature.
Let the open end communicate with the cyhnder, with
a cock between. The moment the fteam-cock is open-
ed, open the cock of this inftru.Tient. The drop will
be puftied towards the clofe end, of the tube, while the
fteam in the cylinder is more elaftic than the air, and it
will be drawn the other way while it is lefs elaftic, and,
by a fcale properly adapted t© it, the elafticity of the
fteam correfponding to every pofition of the pifton may
be dilcovered. The fame thing may be done more ac-
curately by a barometer properly conftrufted, fo as to
prevent the ofcillations of tlie mercury.
It is equally neceffary to know the ftate of tlie cylin-
der during the defcent of the ftcam-pifton. We have
hitherto fuppofcd P to be the full prefTure of the atmo-
^fphere on the area of the pifton, fuppofinc^ tlie vacuum
43
Neccfiary
alfo to
Itnow the
It ate « f th
cylinder
during the
rfefcent of
piftoi;.
below it to be complete. But the infptdlion of our
table of elafticity ftiows that this can never be the cafe,
becaufe the cylinder is always of a temperature far above
32'. We have made many attempts to difcover its tem-
perature. We have employed a thermometer in clofe con-
tail with the fide of the cylinder, which foon acquired a
fteady temperature ; this was never lefs than 145^. We
have kept a thermometer in the water which lies on the
pifton: this never funk below 1 35°. It is probable that the
cylinder wiihln may be cooled fomewhat lower; but for
this opinion we cannot give any veiy fatisiaClory reafon.
Suppofe it cooled down to 120"; this will leave an elaf-
ticity which would lupport three inches of mercury. We
cannot think therefore that the unbalanced preflure of
the atmofphere exceeds that of 27 inches of mercury,
which is about i^-^d pounds on a fquare inch, or io{ on
a circular inch. And this is the value which we ftiould
employ in the equation P = L -{-_)'. This qucftion may
be decided in the fame way as the other, by a barometer
connected with the infidc of the cyhnder.
And thus we fliall learn the ftate of the moving forces
in every moment of the performance, and the machine
iwill then be as open to our examination as any water or
S T E
and till this be done, or fomething eqalva-
lent, we can only guefs at what the machine is aftuaUy
performing, and we cannot tell in what particulars we
can lend it a helpincr hand. We are informed that
Mcflrs Watt and lioulton have made this addition to
ft«ne of their engines ; and we are perfuadcd that, from
the information which they have derived from it, they
have been enabled to make the curious improvem.ents
from which they have acquired fo-much reputation and
profit.
Thei-e is a circumftance of which we have as yet ta-Qnantu
ken no notice, viz. the quantity of cold water injected. < f c -id x
Here we confefs ourfelves unable to give any precife in-^ '^ '■'^ ^*
ftruaions. It is clear at firft ftght that no more than'"-'^'^'^^*^
is abfolutely neceftary fliould be injefted. It muft ge-
nerally be fupplied by the engine, and this expends part
of its power. An excefs is much more hurtful by cool-
ing the cylinder and pifton too much, and therefore
wafting fteam during the next rife of the pifton. But
the determination of the proper quantity reqiiir-es a
knowledge, which we have not yet acquired, of the
quantity of heat contained in the fteam in a latent
form. As much water muft be injefted as will abforb
all this without. riftng near to the boiling temperature.
Buf it is of much more importance to know how far
we may cool the cylinder with advantaiije ; that is,
when will the lofs ot fteam, duriu'r the next rife of the
pifton, compenfate for the diminution of its elafticity
during its prcfcnt defcent ^ Our table of elafticities
fhows us, that Hy cooling the cylinder to 120"^, we
ftill leave an elafticity equal to y'gth of the whole power
of the engine; if we cool it only to 140, we leave
an elafticity of |th ; if we cool it to a blood-heat, we
Jeave an elafticity of -^^th. It is extremely difficult to
choofe among thefe varieties. Experience, however, in-
foi-ms us, that the beft engines are thofe which ule the
fmalleft quantities of injtftion water. We know an
exceedintrly good engine having a cylinder of inch-
es and a fix-foot ftroke, which works with fomething
lefs than -fth of a cubic foot of water at each injedion ;
and we imagine that the quantity fhould be nearly iti
the proportion of the capacity of the cylinder. Def-
aguliers obferved, that a very good engine, with a cy-
linder of 32 inches, worked with 300 inches of wa-
ter at each injedlion, which does not mirch exceed |th
of a cubic foot. Mr Watt's obfervations, by means of
the barometer, muft have given him much valuable in-
formation in this particular, and we hope that he will
not always withhold them from the pubHc.
We have gone thus far in the examination, in order Thls^exyj
feerningly to afcertain the motion of the engine when mination
loaded and balanced in any known manner, and in or-'^^'?"^^'^
der to difcover that proportion between the iTiovinjr|^*^^'*^'^"^°'
power and the load which will produce the preateft "h^atti
quantity of work, 'i he rcfult has been very unfatis-tion to tJ
fadlory, becaufe the computation of the retur-niutr ftroke l^""<^'P3i
is acknoxUedged to be beyond our abilities. But it has^'^'^^"'"
given us the opportunity of direCling the reader's atten-
tion to the leading circumftances in this inquiry. By
knowing the internal ftate of the cylinder in m'achines
of very different goodnefs, wc learn the conneftion be-
tween the ftate of the fteam and the performance of the
machine; and it is very polhble that the refuh of a
fuirexammation may be, that in frtuations where fuel
is expenfive, it may be pr-oper to employ a v/eak fteam
which will expend lefs fuel, although lefs work is per-
formed
S T E
ro
m. ' farmed by it. We fliall fee this confirmed In the clear-
eft manner in fome particular employments of the new
engines invented by Watt and Boulton.
In the mean time, we fee that the cqtratlon which we
gave from the celebrated Abbe Boffut is in every re-
fpeft erroneous even for the purpofe which he had in
view. We alfo fee that the equation which we fublH-
tuted in Its place, and which was intended for determi-
ning that proportion between the counter-wei<?ht and
the mo via,* force, and the load which would render the
■working ftroke and returning ilroke of equal duration,
is alfo erroneous, becaufe thefe two motions are ex-
tremely different in kind, the one being nearly uniform,
and the other nearly uniformly acceleratec[. This being
fuppoftd true, it fhould follow that the counter weight
fhould be reduced to one half ; and we have found
this to be very nearly true in fome good engines which
we have examined.
We lhall add but one obfervation more on this head.
inast-The praftical engineers have almoft made it a maxim,
itthcjjj^j. ji^g j^^j motions are of equal duration. But
dre of °"^y reafon which we have heard for the maxim, is,
dura- that is aukward to fee an enoine go otherwife. But
we doubt exceedin;ily the truth of this maxim, and,
without being able to give any accurate determination,
we think that the engine will do mott work If the
working ihoke be made flower than the returning ftroke.
Suppofe the engine fo conftrufted that they are made in
equal times ; an addition to the counter weight will ac-
celerate the returning ftroke and retard the working
ftroke. But as the counter- weight is but fmall in pro-
portion to the unbalanced portion of the atmofpheric
prtffure, which is the moving force of the machine, It
is evident that this addition to the counter weight muft
bear a much greater proportion to the counter weight
than it does to the moving force, and mull therefore ao-
eelerate the returning ftroke much more than it retards
the vvorkirig ftroke, and the time of both ftrokes taken
together nriuft be diminiftied by this addition and the
performance of the machine improved ; and this muft
be the cafe as long as the machine is not extravagantly
loaded. The beit machine which we have feen, in re-
fpeft of performance, raifes a column of water whofe
weight is very nearly ydsof the preflure of the atraofphere
on the pifton, making 1 1 ftrokes of fix feet each^tr mi-
nute, and the working ftroke was aimoft twice as flow
as the other. This engine had worked pumps of 12
inches, which were changed for pumps of 14 inches, all
other things remaining the fame. In its former ft^te it
made from i li to 1 3^- ftrokes per minute, the working
flroke being confiderably flower than the returning
ftroke. The load was encreafed, by the change of the .
pumps, nearly in the proportion of 3 to 4. This had
retarded the working ftroke ; but the performance was
evidently increafed in the proportion of 3X13 to 4X 1 1 ,
or of 39 to 44. About 300 pounds were added to the
counterweight, which increafed the number of ftrokes
to more than i 2 per minute. No fenfible change could
be obfcrved in the time of the working ftroke. The
performance was therefore increafed in the proportion
of 39 to 48. We have therefore no hefitation in faying,
that the feemly equality of the two ftrokes is a facriiice
to fancy. The engineep- who obferves the working
ftroke to be flow, fbars that his engine may be thought
feeble and unequal to its work; a fimilar notion has long
t 759 ]
S T E
mlfled him In the conRriiftion of water-rallls, efpeclally Sfeam-
of overfhot mills; and, even now, he is fubmitting Engme. ^
with hefitation and fear to the daily corre<S;ion of ex- ^ -
perience.
It is needlefs to engage more deeply In fcientific cal-
culations in a fubjedt where fo many of the data are fo
very Imperfetlly underftood. 47
. We venture to recommend as a maxim of conftruftion ' ''^
(fuppoiing always a large boiler and plentiful fupply of Ij^^p^j*^''^^^.
pure fteam unmixed with air), that the load of work be be icfs thani;
not lefs than 10 pounds for every fquare inch of the 10 pounds
pifton, and the counterweiglit fo proportioned that the for every
time of the returning ftroke may not exceed -f ds of that[^^|.*j[^
of the working ftroke. A ferious objedion may bej^oj^^''
made to this maxim, and it deferves mature confidera-
tion. Such a load requires the utmoft care of the ma-
chine, that no admlfiion be given to the common air ;
and it precludes the pofEbility of its working in cafe
the growth of water, or deepening the pit, fhould make
a greater load abfohittly necelTary. Thefe confidera-
tions muft be left to the prudence of the enginneer.
The inaxim now recommended relates only to the beft
adtual perlormance of the engine. ^g.
Before quitting this machine, it will not be amifs to Rules for
give fome eafy rules, fantlioned by fuccefsful practice, •^o'"P"'ii>gF
for coraputiriiT- its performance. Thefe will enable anvr^^
artilt, who can go through limple calculations, to fuit^f th©
the fize of his engine to the taflc which it is to per-Iteam-en"
form. ghie.^-
The circnrnftance on which the whole computation
muft be founded is the quantity of water which muft
be drawn in a minute and the depth of the mine ; and
the performance which may be expected from a good
engine is at leaft 1 2 ftrokes per minute of fix feet each,
working againft a column of water whofe weight is
equal to half of the atmofpheric preflure on the fteam-
pifton, or rather to 7,(54 pounds on every fquare inch of
its furface.
It is moft convenient to eftimate the quantity of wa-
ter in cubic feet, or its weight in pounds, recolledting
that a cubic foot of water weighs 62 f pounds. The
depth of the pit is ufually reckoned in fathoms of fix
feet, and the diameter of the cylinder and pump is ufu-
ally reckoned in inches'.
Let QJ>e the quantity of water to be drawn per
minute in cubical ket, and /' the depth of the mine in
fathoms ; let c be the diameter of the cylinder, and p
that of the pump ; and let us fuppofe the arms of the
beam to be of equal length.
lit, To find the diameter of the pump, the area of
0,7854
the pifton m fquare feet Is />^X — -^^ •. The length
of the column drawn In one minute is 12 times 6 or 72
72X0,7854
feet, and therefore Its foKdxontents is p^X — -
- 144
cubical feet, or p^Xo,^g2j cubical feet. This muft be ^
a
equal to Q ; therefore 6^ muft be ^ or nearly
QX2f. Hence this praftical rule : Multiply the cu-
bic feet of water which muft be drawn in a minute by
2i-, and extraft the fquare root of the produ6l: thi*
will be the diameter of the pump in inches.
Thus fuppofe that 58 cubic feet muft be drav/n every
minute; 58 multiplied by 2i gives 145, of which the
fquars
Sfeam-
Engine.
S T E r 7^0
fqnare root is 1 2, which is the required diameter of the
pump.
2. To find the proper diameter of the cylinder.
The pifton is to be loaded with 7,64 pounds on every
fquare inch. This is equivalent to fix pounds on a cir-
cular inch very nearly. The weight of a cylinder of wa-
ter an inch in diameter and a fathom in height is 2^^
pounds, or nearly 2 pounds. Hence it follows that
6 c* mull be made equal to 2/f>*t and that is equal to
— , or to Y
1
S T E
Hence the following rule : Multiply the fquare of
the diameter of the pump-pifton (found as above) by
the fathoms of lift, and divide the produft by 3, the
fquare root of the quotient is the diameter of the cy-
linder.
Suppofe the pit to which the foregoing pump is to
24X144
be applied la 24 fathoms deep} then — ~ gives
1152, of which the fquare root is 34 inches very
nearly.
This engine conftrudled with care will certainly do
the work.
Whatever is the load of -water propofed for the. en-
gine, let 10 be the pounds on every circular inch of the
2/
fteam-pifton, and make c*r=/)*X— , and the fquare root
will be the diameter of the fteam-pifton in inches.
To free the praftical engineer as much as poflible from all trouble of calculation, we fubjoin the foUowinjr
Table of the Dimenjions and Poiver of the Steam Engine, drawn up by Mr Beighton in 17 17, and fully verified
by praftlqe fmce that time. The meafure is in Englifh ale gallons of 282 cubic inches.
49
Mr Bciph-
ton's table
of the di-
menfions
and power
of the
fteatn-en-
gir-e.
Diam
of
pump
Inch
12
1 1
10
9
84
8
7
e\
6
Si
5
4^
4
Holds
in ( He
yard.
Draws by
a 6 feet
ftroke.
Gall.
^4,4
12,13
10,02
8,12
7,26
6,41
6,0 1
3,66
4»9«
4,23
3»6i
3'i3
2,51
2,02
1,6
Gall.
28,8
24,26
.20,04
16,24
14,52
12,82
12,02
9,82
8,46
7,2
6,2
5,0
4,04
3.2
Weighs
in one
yard.
l.b. avoir
146
123,5
102
82,7
73,9
65,3
61,2
57,6
50,0
43
36,7
3i>8
25>5
20,5
t6,2
At 16
firoket
per in in.
G-ll.
462
338
320
259,8
232,3
205,2
'92,3
i8x,i
157,1
135.3
t'5»5
99,2
80,3
64,6
5',2
Ditto T-,- . ^
• , r Ditto per
, P hour,
nesds.
Hd.|Gal
7.21
6.20
5-5
4-7
3-43
3.16
3-2
2.55
2.31
2.9
1.52
1.36
1-7
I.I
0.51
Hd. Gall.
The depth to be drawn in yard?.
440.
369-33
304.48
247.7
221.15
195.22
182.13
172.30
149.40
I 28.54
1 10. 1
94-3°
66.61
60.60
48.51
^5
17
i5t
M
134
I2i
12
1 I
10
9t
20 25
2ll
18
24
22
20
i6ii8
i5il'7i
Hi-:^6i
'4
^3
12
1 1
10
30 35
26f
22
20
28i
26i
23-i
2li
19 20^
i8fi9
>7i^8i
i6ij8
I5ti6|
^5i
14
13
40 (■ 45 50; 60 [ 70
3-i:32f
28 129^
25i!'^7
34i37i4o
3it34l37
2 8|l3it34
;
244
25
28
304
1
23
24
26-
28I
Ji-
2lf
23
25
27
)|
2l
22
24t
26
>
20
2li
23 i-
25
\
^9
20i-
22
24
ii
IS
^9
20
22
X
X
16
17
19
204
15
'5l
17
^9
J
^3l
14
'5i
«6-l
12
i3i
14
'5
i3i
)
1 1
lit
12
8c
43I
36
33
31
29
28
27
23
22
20
i8t
16
14
90
35
32i
<Pi
29t
1
27
24i
23^
21
19-
'7
'5
The firft part of the table gives the fize of the pump
fulted to the growth of water. The fccond gives the
fize of the cylinder fulted to the load oF wate-. If the
depth is greater than any in this table, take its fourth
part, and double the diameter of the cylinder. Thus if
J 50 hogfheads are to be drawn in an hour from the
depth of 100 fathoms, thelaft column of part firft gives
for 149.40 a pump of 7 inches bore. In a line with
this, under the depth of 50 yards, which is ^th. of roo
fathoms, we find 204, the double of which 1341 inches
for the diameter of the cylinder.
It is almoA impoflible to give a general rule for
ftrokes of different lengths, &c. but any one who pro-
feffes the ability to ereft an engine, (hould furely know
as much arithmetic as will accommodate the rule now
given to any length of ftroke.
We venture to fay, that no ordinary engineer can
tell a priori the number per minute which an engine
will give. We took i z ftrokes of fix feet each for a
ftandard, which a careful engineer may eafily accom-
pliftii and which an employer has a right to expe£t, the
engine being loaded with' water to half the preffure of
the atmolphere : if the load be lefs, there ia fome fault —
I
an improper counter weight, or too little boiler, or
leaks, &c. &c.
Such is the ftate in which Newcomen's fteam-enginf ^'
had continued in ufe for 60 years neglefted by the phi- raia'J
lofopher, although it is the moft curious objeA which thod (
human ingenuity has yet offered to his contemplation, convei
and abandoned to the efforts of the unlettered artift.
Its ufe has been entirely confined to the raifing of water.
•Mr Keane Fitzgerald indeed publifhed in the Philofophi- contir
cal TraiTfaftlons a method of converting its recipiocating rotart
motion into a continwed rotatory motion by employing '"^Jtio
the great beam to work a crank or a train of wheel- work.
As the real aftion of the machine is confined to Its work-
ing ftroke, to accompllfti this, it became neceffary to
connedl with the crank or wheeled work a very large
and heavy fly, which fhould accumulate in itfelf the
whole pieffure of the machine during its time of aftion,
and therefore continue in motion, and urge forward
the working machinery v/hile the fteam engine was go-
ing through its inaftive returning ftroke. This will
be the cale, provided that the refiftance exerted by the
working machine during the whole period of the work-
ing and returning fttoke of the fteam-engine, together
8 ' ' with
8 T E [7
with'the frlAtorj of both, do^g not exceed the whole
prefTure exerted by the fteam-enpjine durhifif its work-
ing ftroke ; and provided that the momentum of the
fly, ariling from its great weight and velocity, be very
great, fothat the refiftance of the vi^orkduring one return-
ing ftroke of the tteam engine do not make any very
fenfible diminution of the velocity of the fly. This is evi-
dently poflible and eafy. The fly may be made of any
magnitude ; and being exaftly balanced round its axis,
it will foon acquire any velocity conliftcnt with the mo-
tion of the fteam-engine. During the working ftroke of
the engine it is uniformly accelerated, and by its ac-
quired momentum it produces in the beam the movement
of the returning- ftroke; but in doing this, its momen-
tum is fliared with the inert matter of the fteam-engine,
and confequently its velocity diminifhed, but not entire-
ly taken away. The next working ftroke therefore,
by prefling on it afrefli, increafes its remaining velo-
city by a quantity nearly equal to the whole that it
acquired during the firft ftroke. We fay nearlyy but
not quite equal, becaufe the time of the fecand working
ftroke muft be fliorter than that of the firft, on account
of the velocity already in the machine. In this manner
the fly will be more and more accelerated every fucceed-
ing ftroke, becaufe the prefl"ure of the engine during
the working ftroke does more than reftore to the fly
the momeritum which it loft in producing the returning
movement of the fteam-engine. Now fuppofe the
working part of the machine to be added. I'he acce-
leration of the fly dut Ing each working ftroke of the
ftenm-engine will be lefs than it was before, becaufe the
impelling preffure is now partly employed in driving the
working machine, and becaufe the fly will lofe more of
its momentum during the returning ftroke of the fteam-
etigine, part of it being expended in driving the work-
ing machine. It is evident, therefore, that a time will
come when the fucceflive augmentation of the fly's velo-
city will ceafe ; for, on the one hand, the continual acce-
leration diminiflies the time of the next working ftroke,
and therefore the time of a£lionof the accelerating power.
The acceleration mnft diminifti in the fame proportion ;
and on the other hand, the reiiftance of the working
machine generally, though not always, increafes with its
velocity. The acceleration ceafes whenever the addi-
tion made to the momentum of the fly during a work-
ing ftroke of the fteam-enixine is juft equal to what it
lofcs by driving the machine, and by producing the re-
turning movement of the fteam-engine.
This muft be acknowledged to be a very important
addition to the engine, and though fufficlently obvious,
it is ingeniotis, and requires confiderable fltill and ad-
drefs to make it effeftive ( b).
The movement of the working machine, or mill of
whatever kind, muft be in fome degree hobbling or
Vol. XVII. Part II.
Sfeam-
.Engine,
J3
] S T E
unequal. But thi'a may be made quite infenfible, by ma.
kinrr the fly exceedingly large, and dilpofing the great-
eft part of its weight in the rim. By ihefe means its mo-
mentum may be made fo great, that the whole force
requii-ed for driving the mill and producing the return-
ing movement of the engine may bear a very fmall pro-
portion to it. The diminution of its velocity will then
be very trifling.
No counter weight is neceflary here, becaufe the re-
turning movement is produced by the iiiertia of tli«
fly. A counter weight may, however, be employed,
and fhould be employed, fiz. as much as will produce
the returning movement of the fteam-engine. It will
do this better than the fame for-ce accumulated in the
fly ; for this force muft be accumulated in the fly by
the Intervention of rubbing parts, by which fome of it
is loft ; and it muft be afterwards returned to the en*
gine with a fimilar lofs. But, for the fame reafoft, it
would be improper to make the counter weight alfo
able to drive the mill during the returning ftroke.
By this contrivance Mr Fitzgerald hoped to render ^""^ feldom
the fteam-engine of moft extenfive ule; and he, or others
aff'ociatcd with him, obtained a patent excluding all
others irom employing the fteam-engine for turning a '
crank. They alfo publilhed propoi'als for eredling miHj
of all kinds driven by fteam-engines, and ftated very
fairly their powei-s and their advantages. But their pro-
pofals do not feem to have acquired the confidence of '
the public ; for we do not know of any mill ever having
been erefted under this patent, ,
The great obftacle to this extenfive ufe of the fteam- The great
engine is the prodigious expenfe of fuel. An engine <=^penfe of
having a cyhnder of four feet diameter, working night ^"^^
and day, confumes about 3400 chaldron (London) of
good coals in a year.
This circumftance limits the ufe of fteam-engines ex- Limits the
ceedlngly. To draw water from coal-pits, where they "^'^ °^
can be ftocked with unfaleable fmall coal, they are of
unlverfal employment : alfo for valuable mines, for^"^^^'
fupplying a great and wealthy city with water, and a
few other purpofes where a great expence can be borne,
they are very proper engines 5 but In a thoufand cafes
where their unHmited powers might be vaftly ferviceable,
the enormous expenfes of fuel completely excludes
them. We cannot doubt but that the attention of en-
gineers was much direfted to every thing that could pro-
mife a diminution of this expenfe. Every one had his
particular noftrum for the conftruftion of his furnace,
and fome were undoubtedly more fuccefsful than others.
But fclence was not yet fufficlently advanced : It was not
till Dr Black had made his beautiful difcovery of latent
heat, that we could know the intimate relation between
the heat expended in boiling off a quantity of water
and the quantity of fteam that is produced. .
5 D Much
(b) We do not i-ecolkft at prefent the date of this propofal of Mr Fitzgerald ; but in 1781 the Abbe Arnal,
canon of Alais in Languedoc, entertained a thought of the fame kind, and propofed it for working lighters
in the inland navigations ; a fcheme which has been fuccefsfuUy praitifed (we are told) in America. His bro-
ther, a major of engineers in the Auftrian fervice, has carried the thing much farther, and applied it to manu-
faftures ; and the Aulic Chamber of Mines at Vienna has patronized the projedl : ( See Journal Encyclopedtque,
1 781 ). But thefe fchemes are long pofterlor to Mr Fitzgerald's patent, and are even later than the creftion of feveral
machines driven by fteam engines which have been ere<5ied by Meflrs Watt and Boulton. We think it our duty
to ftate thefe particulars, becaufe it i$ very ufual for our neighbours en th€ continent to ajfume the credit of Bril
tifii inventions.
55
Mr Watt
^ifcovers
In his at-
tempts to
fitid out a
way to
huliand
this heat,
S T R [76
Mitch about the time of this difcovery, viz. 1763,
Mr James Watt, eftablifhed in Ghfgow in the com-
mercial line, was amufing himfelf with repairing a
working^ model of the fteam-eno;ine which belonged to
the philofophlcal apparatus of the univcrfity. Mr Watt
was a perfon of a truly philofopliical mind, eminent-
ly converfant in all branches of natural knowledge,
and the pupil and intimate friend of Dr Black. In
the courfe of the above-mentioned amufement many
curious fails in the produftion and condenfation of
fleam occurred to him; ani. among others, that remark-
that fteam able faft which is always appealed to by Dr Black as
imme'nfe*" proof of the immenfe quantity of heat which is
quantity of contained in a very minute quantity of water in the
fceat form of claftic fteam. When a quantity of water is
heated feveral degrees above tlie boiling point in a clofe
digefter, if a hole be opened, the fteam ruflies out with
prodigious violence, and the heat of the remaining wa-
ter is reduced, in the courfe of three or four feconds,
to the boiling temperature. The water of the fl;eam
which has iffued amoutits only to a very few drops ;
and yet thefe have carried ©ff with them the whole ex-
cefs of heat from the water in the digefter.
Since then a certain quantity of fteam contains fo
great a quantity of heat, it muft; expend a great quan-
tity of fuel ; and no conftru£lion of furnace can pre-
vent this. Mr Watt therefore fet his invention to work
to difcover methods of hufbanding this heat. The cy-
linder of his little model was heated almoft in an inftant,
fo that it could not be touched by the hand. It could
not be otherwife, becaufc it condenfed the vapour by
8bft:rafllng its heat. But all the heat thus communica-
ted to the cylinder, and wafted by it on furrounding
bodies, contributed nothing to the performance of the
engine, and muft be taken away at every injeflion, and
again communicated and waflied. Mr Watt quickly
undcrftood the whole procefs which was going on with-
in the cylinder, and which we have confidered fo mi-
nutely, and faw that a very confiderable portion of the
fteam muft be wafted in warming the cylinder. His
firfl; attempts were made to afccrtain how much was
thus wafted, and he found that it was not lefs than
three or four times as much as would fill the cylinder
and work the engine. He attempted to diminifti this
wafte by ufing wooden cylinders. But though this
produced a fenfible diminution of the wafte, other rea-
fons forced him to give them up. He then cafed his
metal cylinders in a wooden cafe with light wood afties
between. B^y this, and ufmg no more injeftion than
■was abfolutely neceffary for the condenfation, he redu-
ced the wafte almoft; one half. But by ufmg fo fmall a
<jpantity of cold, water, the infide of the cylinder was
bardly brought below the boiling temperature j and
there con fequeintly remained in it a fteam of very con-
ftdeiable elafticity, which robbed the engine of a pro-
portional part of the atmofpherical prefl'ure* He faw
that this was unavoidable as long as the condenfation
was performed in the cylinder,; The thought ftruck.
a him to attempt the condenfation in another place. His .
method (i firft experiment was naade in the fimplefl: manner. A
the'ft^eam^ globular Meffei communicated by mean& of a long pipe,
at a little of one incL diameter with the bottom of hi» little cy-
diflance Under of four inches, diameter and 30 inches long,
fioin the This pipe had a ftop-eock, and the globe was immerfed
cyUndet, i„_a velTa of cold water. When the piftoawas at the top,
S T E
57
liifcover
58
And ra
and the cylinder filled with ftrong fteam, he turned the Sfr
cock. It was fcarccly turned, nay he did not think ^"s
it completely turned, when the fides of his cylinder
(only ftrong tin-plate) were crulhed together like aa
empty bladder. I'his furprifed and delighted him. A
new cylinder was immediately made of brafs fufliciently
thick, and nicely bored. When the experiment was
repeated with this cylinder, the condenfation was fo ra-
pid, that he could not fay that any time was expended in
it. But the moft valuable difcovery was, that the vacuum
in the cylinder was, as he hoped, almoft perfeft. Mr
Watt found, that when he ufed water in the boiler pur-
ged of air by long boiling, nothing that was very fenfibly
inferior to the preffiire of the atmofphere on the pillon
could hinder it from coming quite down to the bottom
of the cylinder. This alone was gaining a great deal,
for in moft engines the remaining elafticity of the fteam
was not lefs than fth of the atmofphei-Ical preffure, and
therefore took away ith of the power of the engine.
Having gained this capital point, Mr Watt found
many difficulties to ftruggle with before he could get nr,ves
the machine to continue its motion. The water pro difficul
duced from the condenfed fteam, and the air which was^*^"^^
extricated from it, or which penetrated through un-^^"^^*^
avoidable leaks, behoved to accumulate in the con-'t^nH
denfing veflel, and could not be voided in any way fimi- means
lar to that adopted in Newcomen's engine. He tookP^'"''?^'
another method : He applied pumps to extraft both,,
which were worked by the great beam. The contri-
vance Is eafy to any good mechanic ; only we muft ob-
ferve,that the pifton of the water-pump muft be under the
furface of the water in the condenfer, that the water
may enter the pump by its own weight, becaufe there is
no atmofpherical preflure there to force it in. We muft
alfo obferve, that a confiderable force is neceffkrily ex-
pended here, becaufe, as there is but one ftroke for rare-
fying the air, and this rarefadion muft be nearly com-,
plete, the air-pump muft be of large dimenfions, and ,
its pifton muft aft agalnft the whole preflure of the at-
mofphere. Mr Watt, however, found that this force
could be eafily fpared from his machine, already fo much
improved in refpefl of power.
Thus has the tteam-engine received a very confider-
able improvement. The cylinder may be allowed to ^"^^"^
, 1 -I- 1 1 , tionsor
remam very hot ; nay, boihng hot, and yet the con- advanrs
denfation be completely performed. The only elaftic of cht.f<
fteam that now remains is the fmall quantity in the pipe "'^"c
of communication. Even this fmall quantity Mr Watt
at iaft got rid of, by admitting a fmaU jet of cold water
up this pipe to meet the fteam in its paflage to the con-
denfer. This both cooled tlils part of the apparatus-
in a fituation where it was not neceffary to warm it
again, and it quickened the condenfation. He found
at laft that the fmall pipe of communication was of it-
felf fufficiently large for the condenfation, and that no
feparate veflel, under the name of condenfer, was necef-
fary. This circumftance fhows the prodigious rapidity
of the condenfation. We may add, that unlefs this
had been the cafe, his improvement would have been
vaftly dimlnlfhed j for a large condenfer would have
required a much larger air-pump, which, would have
expended much of the power of the engine. By thefe
means the vacuum below the pifton 15 greatly Improved ;
for it will appear clear to any perfon who underftands .
thcfubjeft, that as long as any part of the oondfnfcr is
kept
59
Obfcrvi
S T E I 1
kept of a low temperature, it will abfl;ra£l and con-
denfe the vapour trom the warmer parts, till the whole
acquires the elafticity correfpondiog to the coldeft part.
By the fame means much of the walte is prevented, be,
caufe the cylinder is never cooled much belov? the boil-
ing temperature. Many engines have been erefted by
Mr Watt in this form, and their performance gave uni-
verfal fatisfaftion.
We have contented ourfelves with giving a very
flight defcription without a figure of this improved en-
gine, becaufe we imagine it to be of very eafy compre-
henlion, and becaufe it is only a preparation for ftill
greater improvements, which, when underftood, will
at the fame\ime leave no part of this more fimple form
unexplained.
DurinfT the progrefs of thefe Improvements Mr Watt
tes the made many experiments on the quantity and denfity of
T|f ^* the fteam of boiling water. Thefe fully convinced him,
for7e of that although he had gieatly diminlihed the wafte of
fteam, a great deal yet remained, and that the fteam
expended during the rife of the pifton was at leaft three
times more than what would fill the cylinder. The
caufe of this was very apparent. In the fubfequent
defcent of the pifton, covered with water much below
the boiling temperature, the whole cylinder was ncceTa-
rily cooled and expofed to the air. Mr Watt's fertile
genius immediately fuggefted to him the expedient of
employing the elafticity of the fteam from the boiler
to impel the pifton down the cylinder, in place of the
preffure of the atmofphere ; and thus he rettored the
engine to its firft principles, making it an engine reaf/y
moved by Jeam. As this is a new epoch in its hiftory,
we {hall be more particular in the defcription ; at the
fame time ftlU reftiifting ourfelves to the effential clr-
cumftances, and avoiding every peculiarity which is
to be found in the prodigious varieties which Mr Watt
has introduced into the machines which he has erefted,
every individual of which has been adapted to local clr-
cumftances, ordlverfified by the progrefs of Mr Watt's
improvements.
pj Let A (fig. 9.) reprefent the boiler. This has re-
Lxxvni.ceived great improvements from his complete acqualn-
61 tance with the procedure of nature in the produdtion of
fcriptioD fteam. In fome of his engines the fuel has been placed
in the midft of the water, furrounded by an iron or
fe im^.^*^ copper vefTel, while the exterior boiler was made of
vementswood, which tranfmits, and therefore waftes the heat
very flowly. In others, the flame not only plays round
the whole outfide, as in common boilers, but alfo runs
along feveral flues which are conduced through the
midft of the water. By fuck contrivances the fire is
applied to the water in a moft extenfive furfacc, and for
a long time, fo as to impart to it the greateft part of
its heat. So flcilfully was it applied in the Albion Mills,
that although it was perhaps the large ft engine in the
kingdom, its unconfumed frnoke was inferior to that of
a very fmall brew-houfe. In this fecond engine of Mr
Watt, the top of the cylinder is fhut up by a ftrong
metal plate g h, in the middle of which is a collar or box
of leathers k /, formed in the ufual manner of a jack-
head pump, through which the pifton rod PD, nicely
turned and pohftied, can move up and down, without
allowing any air to pafs by its fides. From the dome
of the boiler proceeds a large pipe B C I O which,
after reaching the cylinder with its horizontal part BC,
6j ] S T E
defcends parallel to its fide, finding off two branches, Steam*
viz. t M to the top of the cylinder, and O N to its . ^"^'""^
bottom. At I is a puppet valve opening from be* " *
low upwards. At L, immediately below this branch,
there is a fimllar valve, alfo opening from below upwards. ♦
The pipe defcends to near the bottom of a large
ciftern c d e f, filled with cold water conftantly renew-
ed. The pipe is then continued horizontally along the
bottom of this ciftern (but not in contad), and ter-
minates at R in a large pump S T . The piiton S has
clack valves opening upwards, and its rod S s, pafiing
through a collar of leathers at T, Is fufpended by a
chain to a fmall arch head on the outer arm of the beam.
There is a valve R In the bottom of this pump, as ufual,
which opens when preffed in the diredlon Q^R, and
ftiuts againft a contrary preffure. This pump delivers
its contents Into another pump X Y, by means of the
fmall pipe t X, which proceeds from its top. This fe-
cond pump has a valve at X, and a clack in its pif-
ton Z as ufual, and the pifton rod Z z is fufpended
from another arch head on the outer arm of the beam.
The two valves I and L are opened and fhut by means
of fpanneis and handles, which are put in motion by a
plug frame, in the fame manner as in Newcomen's en.
gine.
Laftly, there may be obferved a crooked pipe a l> o,
which enters the upright pipe laterally a little above
This has a fmall jet hole at 0 ; and the other end u, which
is confiderably under the furface of the water of the
condenfing ciftern, is covered with a puppet valve v,
whofe long ftalk v u rifes above the w^ater, and may be
railed or lowered by hand or by the plug beam. The
valves R and X and the clacks In the pillons S and Z
are opened or fliut by the preffures to which they are
immediately expofed.
This figure is not an exaft copy of any of Mr Watt's
engines, but has its parts fo difpoi'ed that all may come
diltinftly into view, and exaftly perform their various
funftions. It is drawn in its quiefcent pofition, the
outer end of the beam preponderating by the counter
weight, and the pifton P at the top of the cylinder,
and the piftons S and Z in their loweft fituations.
In this fituation let us fuppofe that a vacuum is (by
any means) produced in all the fpace below the pifton,
the valve I being fhut. It Is evident that the valve R
will alfo be fhut, as alfo the valve v. Now let the valve
I be opened. The fteam fram the boiler, as elaftic as
common air, will rufh into the fpace above the pifton,
and will exert on it a preffure as great as that of the
atmofphere. V It will therefore prefs it down, raife the
outer end of the beam, and caufe it to perform the
fame work as an ordinary engine.
When the pifton P has reached the bottom of the
cylinder, the plug frame fhuts the valve I, and opens
L. By fo doing the communication is open between
the top and bottom of the cylinder, and nothing hin-
ders the fteam which is above the pifton from going along
the pafTage M L O N. The pifton is now equally af-
fefted on both fides by the fteam, even though a part of
it is continually condenfed by the cylinder, and in the
pipe I O Q. Nothing therefore hinders the pifton
from being dragged up by the counter weight, which
aftb with its whole force, undiminlfhed by any remain-
ing unbalanced elafticity of fteam. Here therefore this
form of the engine has an advantage (and by no means
5 D 2 a
S T E
a fmallone) over the common engines. In which a great
part of the counter weight is expended in overcoming
unbalanced atmofpheric preflNre.
Whenever rhe pifton P arrives at the top of the cy-
Hnder, the valve L is (hpt by the plug frame, and the
valves T and v are opened. All the fpace below the
pifton Is at this .time occupied by the fteam which came
from the upper part of the cylinder. This being a lit-
tle wafted by condenfation, is not quite a balance for
the ^ preffure of the atmofphere. 'i'herefore, during
the afcent of the pifton, the valve R was ftiut, and
it remains fo. When, therefore, the valve v is opened,
the cold water of the ciftern muft fpout up thi-ough the
hole 0, and condenfe the fteam. To this muft be added
the coldnefs of the whole pipe O QJi. As faft as it is
condenfed, its place is fupplicd by iieam from the lower
part of the cylinder. We have already remarked, that
this fucceflive cwidenfation is accompliflied with afto-
iiifliing rapidit;^. In the mean time, fteam from the
boiler prefles on the upper furface of the pifton. It
jnuft therefore defcend as before, and the engine muft
perform a lecond working ftroke.
But in the mean time the injection water lies in the
bottom of the pipe O Q^R, heated to a confideiable de-
gree by the condenfarion of the fteam ; alfo a quanti-
ty of air has been difengaged from it and from the
water in the boiler. How is this to be difcharged ? —
This is the office of the pumps S T and X Y. . The
capacity of ST is very great in proportion to the fpace
in which the air and water ar e lodged. When, therefore,
the pifton S has got to the top of its cour fe, there muft
be a vacuum in the barrel of this piunp, and the water
and air mull open the valve R and come into it. When
the pifton S comes down again in the next returning
ftroke, this water and air gets through the valve of the
pifton ; and in the next working ftroke they are dif-
charged by the pifton into the pump X Y, and raifed by
its piilon.^ The air efcapes at Y, and as mucli of the
lyater as is neceffar-y is delivei-ed into tlve boiler by a
{tmW pipe Y ^ to fupply its wafte. It is a matter of indif-
ference whether the piftons S aud Z. rife with the outer
or inner end of the beam, but it is rather better that
they rife witli the inner end. They are otherwife drawn
bere, in order to detach tkem from the reft and ihow
them more diftindtly.
Such is Mr Watt's fccond engine. Let us examine
jts principles, that we may fee the caufes of its avowed
?md great fuperiority ever the common engines.
We have already feen one ground of fuperiority, the
full operation of the counter v/eight. We are autho-
rized by careful examination to fay, that in the com-
mon engines at leaft one-half of the counter weight is
the full ope- efpcuded in counterafting an unbalanced prefiure of the
ration of air on the pifton during its afcent. In many engines,
the couiuer^^bich are not theworft, this extends to -^th of the whole
T
E
61
Caufes of
its fupcrio-
lity over
conunon
c-rrjfincs. aie,
63
And gfcat
laving ot
LtAm.
preffure. This is evident from the examination of the
engine at Montreiais by Bofl"ut. This makes a very
gr-eat counter weight neceffary, which cxhaufts a pro-
portional part of the moving force.
But the great advantage of Mr Watt's form is the
almoft total annihilation of the wafte of fteam by con-
deiifation in the cylinder. The cyhnder is always boil-
iirg hot, and therefore perfedly dry. 'i his muft be evi-
dent to any perfon who undei-ftands the fuhje£f. By the
Umc that Mr Watt had completed his improvements, his
experiments on the produaion of fteam had given him a
pretty accurate knowledge of its denhty ; and he found
himfelf authorized to fay, that the quantity of fteam
employed did not exceed twice as much as would fill the
cylinder, fo that not above oue half was unavoidably
wafted. But before he could bi-ing the engine to this
degree of perfeftion, he had many difficulties to over-
come : He inclofed the cylinder in an outer wooden
cafe at a fmall diftance from it. This diminifhed the
expence of heat by communication to furrounding bo-
dies. Sometimes he allowed the fteam fi-om the boiler
to occupy this intei-val. This undoubtedly prevented
all diffipation from the inner cylinder ; but in its turn it
diffipated much heat by the outer cafe, and a very fe.n-
fible condenfation was obfer-ved between them. This
has occahoiaed him to omit this ciicumftance in fom.e of
his bcft engines. Wc believe it was omitted in the
Albion Mills. -
The greateft difficulty was to make the gr-eat pifton
tight. The old and effedual method, by water lying
on it, was inadmiffible. He was therefor-e oblig-ed to
have hi,s cylinders moft nicely bored, perfe6fly cylindri-
cal, and finely poliftred; and he made numberlefs trials
of different foft fubftances for packing his pifton, which
ftiould be tight without enormous fricftion, and which
ftiould long remain fo, in a fituation perfeftly dry, and
hot almoft to burning.
After all that Mr Watt has done in this refpeft, he
thinks that the greateft part of the wafte of iieam which
he ftill perceives in his engines arifes fi-om the unavoid-
able efcape by the fides of the pifton during its de-
fcent. °
But the faft is, that an engine of this conftruftion,
of the fame dimenfions with a common engine, making
the fame number of ftrokes of the farrie extent, does
not confume above one fourth part of the fuel that is
con fumed by the heft enfjines of the common for-m. It
is alfo a very fortunate circumftante, that the perform-
ance of the engine is not immediately deitroyed, nor in-
deed fenlibly diminidied, by a fmaJl want of tightnefs
in the pifton. In the common engine, if air get, in, in
this way, it immediately puts a ftop to the work ; but
although even a conf:derable quantity of fteam get paft
the pifton during its dcfcent, the rapidity of condenfa-
tion is fuch, that hardly any diminution of preffure can
be obferved, and the wafte of fteam is the only ineen-
venience.
Mr Watt's penetration foon difcovered another moft
valuable property of this engine. When an engine of
the common form is erccfted, the engineer itiuft make an property
accurate eftimate of the wor-k to be performed, and of it
muft proportion his engine accordingly. He muft be
careful that it be fu//y able to execute its talk ; but its
power muft not exceed its load in any extravagant de-
gree. This would produce a motion which is too ra-
pid, and which, being alternately in oppofite direftions,
would Gccafion jolta which no building or machinery
could withftand. Many engines have been fliattered by
the pumps drawing air, or a pump-rod breaking; by
which accidents the ftcatTi-pifto|i defcends with fueh ra-
pidity that every thing gives way.- Biit in moft ope-
rations of mining, the taflc of the engine increafes, and
it muft be fo conftrudted at firft as to be able to bear
this addition. It is very difficult to raanape an engine
that is much fupcrior to its tailcj and tlie eafieft way is,
to
Anothej
S T E
r 765 ]
S T E
65
hat it
alway
d to
load
to have it almod full loaded, and to work it only during
a few hours each day, and allow the pit water to ac-
cumulate durinor its repofe. This increafes the firft coft,
and waftes fuel durincr the inaftion of the engine.
But this new engine can at all times be exaftly fitted
{at leaft duiin,^ the workinsr ftroke) to the load of
work -that then happens to be on it. We have only to
adminifter fteam of a proper elafticity. At the firft
drhap.ereftion the engine may be equal to twice its tafl<, if
8 to be the fteam admitted above the cylinder be equal to that
of common boihng water ; but when once the ebullition
is fairly commeBced, and the whole air expelled from all
parts of the apparatus, it is evident, that by damping
the fire, fteam of half this elafticity may be continually
fupplied, and the water will continue boiling although
its tempeiatute does not exceed 185" of Fahrenheit's
thermometer. This appears by InfpeAing our table of
vaporous elafticity, and afi"ords another argument for
rendering that table more accurate by new experiments.
We hope that Mr Watt will not withhold from the pub
lie the knowled»!;e which he has acquired on this fubjeft.
It may very pofiibly refult from an accurate inveftiga-
tion, that it would be advifable to work our fteam-en-
gines with weak fteams, and that the diminution of
Work may be more than compenfated by the diminution
of fuel. It is more probable indeed, and it is Mr
Watt's opinion, that the contrary is the cafe, and that
it is much more economical to employ great heats. At
any rate, the decifion of this qucftion is of great im-
portance for improving the engine ; and we fee, in the
ihcan time, that the engine can at all times be fitted fo
as to perform its taflc with a moderate and manageable
rtiGtion, and that as the taflc increafes we can increafe
the power of the engine.
But the method now propofed has a great inconve-
Steani
66
incon-
ience
67,
nedied
ome
ree.
nience. While the fteam is weaker than the atmofphere,
there is an external force tending to fqueeze in the fides
md bottom of the boiler. This could not be refifted
tvhen the difference is confiderable, and common air
would rulh in through every crevice of the boiler and
foon choke the engine : it muft therefore be given up.
But the fame effeft will be produced by diminlfhing
the paflage for the fteam into the cyhnder. For this
pui-pofe, the puppet valve by which the fteam enters the
cylinder was made in the form of a long taper fpigot,
&nd it was lod;4ed in a cone of the fame ftiape ; confe-
quently the paifTage could be enlarged or contrafted at
pleafure by the diftance to which the inner cone was
drawn up.
In this way feveral engines were conftrufted, and the
general purpofe of fuiting the power of the engine to its
taflc was completely anfwered ; but { as the mathemati
6al reader will readily perceive) it was extremely diffi-
if'i'^i"^* ; cult to make this adjuftment precife and conftant. In
a great machine like this, going by jerks, it was hardly
jvofBble that every fuccefiive motion of the valve ftiould
be precifely the lame. This occafioned very fenfible ir-
regularities in the motion of the engine, which increafed
and became hazardous when the joints worked loofe by
long uie.
Mr Watt's genius, always fertile in refources, found
*ut a complete remedy for all thefe inconveniences.
ge!;;iis |y^aking the valve of the ordinary form of a puppet
wv^'^^ clack, he adjufted the button of its ftalk r.r tail io that
it (hould alway-s- open full to the fame height. He then
It the re-
:dy at-
Bdod
•th fome
69
\\ch M
att's I'ei
regulated the pins of the plug-frame, in fuch a manner
that the valve fhould fhut tlie moment that the piftou
had deicended a certain proportion (fuppofe one-fourth, ^
one-third, one-half, &c. ) of the cylinder. So far the
cylinder was occupied by fteam as elaftic as common
air. In prcfling the pifton farther down, it behoved
the fteam to expand, and its elafticity to diminifh. It
is plain that this could be done in any degree we pleafe,
and that the adjuftment can be varied iff a minute, ac-
cording to the exigency of the cafe, by moving the plug
pins.
In the mean time, it muft be obferved, that the pref-
fiire on the pifton is continually changing, and confe-
qucntly the accelerating force. The motion therefore
will no longer be uniformly accelerated : it will ap- •
proach much fafter to uniformity ; nay, it may be re-
tarded, becaufe although tlie prefiure on the pifton at
the beginning of the -ftroke may exceed the reuft'ance
of the load, yet when the pifton is near the bottom "the
refiftance may exceed the prefiure. V/hatever may be
the law by which the preffure on the pifton varies, an
ingenious mechanic may contrive the connefling ma-
chinery in fuch a way that the chains or rods at the
outer end of the beam fhall continually exert the fauit
preffure, or fhall vary their preffure according to ar.y
law he finds moft convenient. It is in this manner that
the watchmaker, by the form of the fuzee, produces an
equal preffure on the wheel-work by means of a very
unequal aftion of the main-fpring. In hke manner, by
making the outer arch heads portions of a proper ipiral
inftead of a circle, we can regulate the force of the
beam at pleafure.
Thus we fee how much more manageable an en-
gine is in this form than Nev.'comen's v/as, and alfo
more eafily inveftigated in refpedl of its power in its va-
rious pofitions. The knowledge of this lail circura-
ftance was of mighty confequence, and without it no
notion could be formed of what it could perform. This
fuggefted to Mr Watt the uf&, of the barometer com'-
municating with the cylinder ; and by the knowledge
acquired by thefe means has the machine been fo much
improved by its ingenious inventor.
We muft not omit in this place one deduftion made
by Mr Watt from his obfervations, which may be call-
ed a difcovery of great importance in the theory of the
engine. _ yo
Let ABCD (fig. 10.) reprefent a feftion of the cy*A difcovery
linder of a fteam-engine, and EF the furface of its pi-cf Mr
fton. Let us fuppofe that the fteam was admitted
while EF was in contadl with AB, and that as foon 33^^^^^^!^ ;^
it had preffed it down to the fituation EF the fteam ;hg tl.eory
cock is flrat. The fteam will continue to prefs it down, of the tu-
and as the fteam expands its prefiure diminiflres, WeS"'*-
may expiefs its prefiure (exerted aU the while the pi-
fton moves from the fituation AB to the fituation EF)
by the line EF. If we fuppofe the elafticity of the
fteam propcitional to its denlity, as is nearly the
cafe with air, we may expreis the preffure on the pi-
fton in any other pofitioh, fuch as KL or DC, by K/
and D c, the ordinates of a" reftangular hyperbola F /cy
of vC'hich AE, Af> are the aflyrhptotes, and A the
centre. The accumulated preffure during the motion
of the pifton froWi EF to DC will be expieffed by the
area EF ^ DE, and tht pfcfTure during the whole mo-
tion by the area AhFcJJA,
S T E r 766
Now It 13 well knqwn that the area EF^ DE Is
equal to ABFE multiplied by the hypcrbolig loa:a.
. ■ ,AD AD
mhm of =; L. -^y^ whole area ABF
AD
AE
DA
Thus let the diameter of the pillon be 24 inches,
.^nd the preffure of the atmofphere on a fquare inch be
14 pounds ; the preffure on the pifton is 6333 pounds.
Let the whole ftroke be 6 feet, and let the fteam be
flopped when the pifton has defcended 18 inches, or 1,5
feet. The hyperbolic logarithm of is 1,3862943.
Therefore the accumulated preflure ABFfDAi3 =
^333 X 2*3^62943, =r 151 14 pounds.
As few profeflional engineers are pofTelTed of a table
of hyperbolic logarithms, while tables of common lo-
garithms are or fliould be in the hands of every perfon
who is much engaged in mechanical calculations, let
•the following method be pradifed. Take the common
logarithm of and multiply it by 2,3026 } the pro-
AD
-dud is the hyperbolic logarithm of
The accumulated preffure while the pifton moves
from AB to EF is 6333 X i, or fimply 6333 pounds.
Therefore the fteam while it expands into the whole
cylinder aflds a preffure of 8781 pounds.
Suppofe that the fteam had got free admiflion during
the whole defcent of the pifton, the accumulated pref-
fure would have been 6333 X 4, or 25332 pounds.
Here Mr Watt obferved a remarkable refult. The
fteam expended in this cafe would have been four times
greater than when it was ftopped at ^th, and yet the
accumulated preffure is not twice as great, being nearly
•fds. One-fourth of the fteam performs nearly -fths of
the work, and an equal quantity performs more than
twice as much work when thus admitted during ^th of
the motion.
This is a curious and an important information, and
the advantage of this method of working a fteam-engine
increafes in proportion as the fteam is fooner ftopped ;
but the increafe is not great after the fteam is rarefied
four times. The curve approaches near to the axis,
and fmall additions are made to the area. The ex-
penfe _ of fuch great cylinders is confiderable, and may
fometimes compenfate this advantage.
i.ct the fteam be ftopped at its performance is mult,
t " - »»7
T " - 2,1
t " -2,4
T - ' 2,6
^ - • 3,8
t
T • ■ 3>
T - - 3,2
&c. &c.
It is very pleafing to obferve fo many unlooked-
for advantages refulting from an improvement made
with the fole view of leffening the wafte of fteam by
condenfation. While this purpofe is gained, we learn
how to huft)and the fteam which is not thus wafted.
The engine becomes more manageable, and is more
eafily adapted to every variation in its tafk, and all its
powers arc more eafily computed.
Tlig adl{v€ mind of its ingeniQua inventor did not
ftop here : It had ajwayg be^u matter of reqret that
one- half of the motion was unaccompanied^ by any
work. It was a very obvious thing to Mr Watt, that
as the fteam admitted above the pifton preffed it down,
fo fteam admitted below the pifton preffed it up with
the fame force, provided that a vacuum were made on
its upper fide. This was eafily done, by conneding
the lower end of the cylinder with the boiler and the
upper end with the condenfer.
Fig. 1 1, is a reprefentation of this conftrudion ex- ^ja
adly copied from Mr Watt's figure accompanying his cccct:
fpecification. Here BB is a fedion of the cylinder, 7"
furroiinded at a fmall diftance by the cafe 11 1 1. The^^^"*'
fedion of the pifton A, and the collar of leathers which Wau''
embi-ace8_ the pifton rod, gives a diftind notion of its fteam-
conftrudion, of the manner in which it is conneded^'"*^
with the pifton rod, and how the packing of the pifton
PIi
and collar contributes to make all tight.
tal
From the top of the cylinder proceeds the horizon
ftate.
pipe
Above the letter D is obferved the feat of
the fteam valve, communicating with the box above it.
In the middle of this may be obferved a dark fhadei
circle. _ This is the mouth of the upper branch of the
fteam pipe coming from the boiler. Beyond D, below
the letter N, is the feat of the upper condenfing valve.
The bottom of the cylinder is made fpherical, fitting the
pifton, fo that they may come into entire contad. An-
other horizontal pipe proceeds from this bottom. A-
bove the letter E is the feat of; the lower fteam valve,
opening into the valve box. This box is at the extre-
mity of another fteam pipe marked C, which branchej
off from the upper horizontal part, and defcends ob-
liquely, coming forward to the eye. The lower part
IS reprefented as cut open, to fliow its interior confor-
mation. Beyond this fteam valve, and below the letter
F, may be obferved the feat of the lower conden.
fing valve. A pipe defcends from hence, and at a fmall
diftance below unites with another pipe GG, which
comes down from the upper condenfing valve N.
Thefe two edudion-pipes thus united go downwardsj
and open at I, into a redangular box, of which the
end IS feen at_L. This box goes backward from the
eye, and at its farther extremity communicates with
the air pump K, whofe pifton is here reprefented in
fedion with its butterfly valves. The pifton delivers
the water and air laterally into another redangular box
M, darkly fliaded, which box communicates with the
pump I. The pifton-rods of this and of the air-pump
are fufpended by chains from a fmall arch head on the
inner arm of the great beam. The lower part of the
edudion-pipe, the horizontal box L, the air-pump K,
with the communicating box M between it and the
pump I, are all immerfed in the cold water of the con-
denfing ciftern. The box L is made flat, broad, and
lhallow, in order to increafe its furface and accelerate
the condenfation. But that this may be performed
with the greateft expedition, a fmall pipe H, open be-
low (but occafionally ftopped by a plug valve), is infert-
ed laterally into the edudion-pipe G, and then divides'
into two branches ; one of which reaches within a foot
or two of the upper valve N, and the other approaches
as near to the valve F.
As it is intended by this conftrudion to give the pi-
fton a ftrong impulfe in both dircftions, it will not be
' proper
S T E
[ 767 ]
S T E
am- proper to fufpend its rod by a chain from the great
ig'ne. {jeam ; for it mull not only pull down that end of the
beam, but alfo pufh it upwards. It may indeed be
fufpended by double chains like the piftons of the en-
gines for extinguifhing fires; and Mr Watt has accor-
dingly done fo in fome of his engines. But in his draw-
ing from which this figure is copied, he has communi-
cated the force of the pHlon to the beam by means of
a toolhed rack 00, which engages or works in the
toothed feftor QQ^on the end ot the beam. The rea-
der will underftand, without any farther explanation,
how the impulfe given to the pifton in either diredlion
is thus tranfmitted to the beam without diminution.
The fly XX, with its pinion Y, which alfo works in
the toothed arch Q2^» may be fuppofed to be removed
for the prefent, and will be confidered afterwards.
We fhall take the prefent opportunity of defcribing
Mr Watt's method of communicating the force of the
ileam-engine to any machine of the rotatory kind.
VV reprefents the rim and arms of a very latgc and
heavy metalhne fly. On its axis is the concentric
toothed wheel U. There is attached to the end of the
great beam a ftrong and ftiff rod TT, to the lower end
' of which a toothed wheel W is firmly fixed by two
bolts, fo that it cannot turn round. This wheel is of
the fame fize and in the fame vertical plane with the
wheel U ; and an iron link or fl;rap (which cannot be
fcen here, becaufe it is on the other fide of the two
wheels) conneAs the centres of the two wheels, fo that
the one cannot quit the other. The engine being in
the pofition reprefented in the figure, luppofe the fly to
be tunied once round by any external force in the di-
reftion of the darts. It is plain, that fince the toothed
wheels cannot quit each other, being kept together by
the link, the inner half (that is, the half next the cyHn-
der) of the wheel U will work on the inner half of the
wheel W, fo that at the end of the revolution of the
fly the wheel W muft have got to the top of the wheel
U, and the outer end of the beam muft be raifed to its
highelt pofition. The next revolution of the fly will
bring the wheel W and the beam connected with it to
their firlt pofitions ; and thus every two revolutions
of the fly will make a complete period of the beam's re-
ciprocating movements. Now, ioftead of fuppofmg the
fly to drive the beam, let the beam drive the fly. The
motions muft; be perfeftly the fame, and the afcent or
defcent of the piftsn will produce one revolution of
the fly.
A fide view of this apparatus is giv^n in fig 12.
marked by the fame letters of reference. This {howa
the fituation^ of parts which were fore-fliortened in fig.
1 1, particularly the defcending branch C of the flxam
pipe, and the fituation and communication* of the two
pumps K and I. 8, 8 is the horizontal part of the fteam
pipe. 9 is a part of it whofe box is reprefented by the
dark circle of fig. 11. D is the box of the fteam
clack, and the little circle at ita corner reprefents the
end of the a»is which turns it, as will be defcribed af-
terwards. N Is the place of the upper eduftion valve-
A part only of the upper eda6lion-pipe G is reprefents
ed, the reft being cut off, becaufe it would have covered*
the defcendin^i fteam pipe CC. When continued
down, it comes between the eye and the box E of the:
lower fteam valve, and the bojtE of the lower educ-
tion valve..
Let us now trace the operation of this machine 3
through all its fteps. Recurring to fig. 11. let us fup- i^"^'"^'
pofe that the lower part of the cyhnder BB is exhauft-
ed of allelaftic fluids; that the upper fteam valve D and
the lower eduftion valve F are open, and that the lower
fteam valve E and upper edudtion valve N are fl^ut. It is-
evident that the pifton muft be prefled toward the bottom-
of the cylinder, and muft pull down the end of the work-
ing beam by means of the toothed rack 00 and fe^tor
QC^caufing the other end of the beam to urge for--
ward the machinery with which it is connedled. Whca
the pifton arrives at the bottoiH of the cyhnder, the
valves D and F are fliut by the plug frame, and E and
N are opened. By this laft paflagc the fteam gets into
the eduftlon-pipe, where it meets with the injeftloa
water, and is rapidly condenfed. The fteam from the
boiler enters at the fame time by E, and prefling on
the lower fide of the pifton, forces it upwards, and by
means of the toothed rack OO and toothed fedor
forces up that end of the working beam, and caufes the
other end to urge forward the machinery with which
it is connefted : and in this manner the operation of the
engine may be continued for ever.
The injedlion water is continually running into the
eduflion-pipe, becaufe condenfation is continually go-
ing on, and therefore there is continual atniofpheric
preffure to produce a jet. The air which is difengajed
from the water, or enters by leaks, is evacuated only
during the rife of the pifton of the air-pump K. When
this is very copious, it renders a very large air-pump,
neceflary ; and in fome fituations Mr Watt has been
obliged to employ two air-pumps, one worked by each
arm of the beam. This in every cafe expends a very^
confiderable portion of the power, for the air-pump is-
always working agamft the whole preflure of the atmo-^
fphere.
Ic is evident that this form of the engine, by main-
taining an almoft conftant and uninterrupted impuU-
fion, is much fitter for driving any machinery of conti-
nued motion than any of the former engines, which>
were inactive during half of their motion. It docs not,^
however, feem to have this fupcriority when employed
to draw water ; But it is equally fitted for this taflc.
Let the engine be loaded with twice as much as would:
be proper for it if a fingle ftroke engine, and let a fly
be connetled vvith it. Then it is plain. that. the power
of the engine during: the rife of the fteam pifton will,
be accumulated in tire fly; and this, in conjun(Sion with
the power of the engine durin;jj the defcent of the fteam-.
pifton, will be equal to the whole load of water.
In fpeaking of the fteam and edudtlon-valves, wefaid
that they were all puppet valves. Mr Watt employed"
cocks, and alfo Aiding valves, fuch as the regulator or
fteam-valve> he old engines. But he found them
always lofe their tightnefs after a fliort time. This is
not furprlfing, when we confider that they are always,
perfectly .dry,^and almoft burning hot. He was therefore
obliged to change them all for puppet clacks, which, -
when truly ground and nicely fitted in their motions*
at firft, are not found to go out of order by any length
of time. Other engineers now univerfally ufe them in
the old form of tlie fteam-cngine, Avithout the fame.
reafons, and mere^ by fervile and ignorant imitation.
The way in which Mr Watt opens and ftiuts thefe.
valves, is as follows. Fig. 13. reprefents a clack with;
S T E
[ 7^8 1
S T E
J%8 feat and box. Suppofe it one of the «duftion valves.
H H is part of the pipe which introduces the fteam, and
GG is the upper part of the pipe which coinmunica'tes
with the condenfer. At EE maybe obferveda piece
more faintly fliaded than the furrounding parts- This
is the feat of the valve, and is a brafs or bell-metal ring
turned conical on the outfule, fo as to fit exa&ly into a
conical part of the pipe GG. Thefe two pieces are
fitted by grinding; and the cone being- of a long taper,
the ring- flicks firmly in it, efpecially after haviniy Keen
there for fome time and united by ruft. The clack it-
felf is a ftronw brafs plate D, turned conical on the
ed'je, fo as to fit the conical or Hoping inner edge oF
the feat. Thefe are very nicely ground on each other
with emery. This conical joining is much more obtufe
than the outer fide of the ring; fo that although the
joint is air-tight, the two pieces do not ftick rtrongly
together. The clack has a round tall DG, which is
freely moveable up and down in the hole of a crofs
piece FF, On the upper fide of the valve is a ft:rong
piece of metal DC firmly joiued to it, one fide of
w^iich is formed into a toothed rack. A is the feftion
of an iron axle which turns in holes In the oppofite
fides of the valve-box, where It is nicely fitted by
grinding, fo as to be air-tight. Collets of thick
leather., well foaked in melted tallow and rofin, are
fcrewed on the outfide of thefe holes to prevent all in-
grefs of air. One end of this axis projefts a good way
without the box, and carries a fpanner or handle,, which
is moved by the plug-frame. To this axis is fixed a
ilrong piece of metal B, the edge of which is formed
into an' arch of a circle having the axis A in its centre,
and is cut into teeth, which work in the teeth of the
rack DG". K- is a cover which is fixed by fcrews to
the top of the box H J J H, and may be taken off in
order to get at the valve when it needs repairs.
From this defcription it is eafy to fee that by turn-
ing the handle which is on the axis A, the fe£lor B
muft lift up- the valve by means of its toothed rack DC,
till the upper end of the rack touch the knob or but-
ton K. Turning the handle in the oppofite direftion
brings the valve down again to its feat.
This valve is extremely tight. But in order to open
it for the paffage of the fteam, we muft exert a force
equal to the prelTure of the atraofphere. This in a large
engine is a very great weight. A valve of fix inches
diameter fuftalns a preffure not lefs than 403 pounds.
But this force is quite momentary, and hardly impedes
the motion of the engine ; for the inftant the valve is de-
tached from its feat, although it has not moved the
tooth part of ''an inch, the preffure is over. Even this
little inconvenience has been removed by a dehcate
th<3Ught of Mr Watt, He has put the fpanner In fuch
a pofitlon when it begins to raife the valve, that its me-
chanical energy is almoft infinitely great. Let QJ^
(fig, 14.) be part of the plug-frame defcending, and P'
one of Its pins juft going to lay hold of the fpanfter NO
moveable round the axis N. On the fame axis is ano-
ther arm NM conneAed by a joint with the leader
ML, which is connefted alfo by a joint with the fpan-
ner L A that is on the axis A of the feftor within the
valve-box. Therefore when the pl^ P pufhes down
,the fpanner NO, the arm N M moves fidewife and pulls
4own the fpanner A L by means of the conneftlng rod.
'Tilings are fo difpofed, that when the cock is fhut, L M
1%
and M N are in one llvaight line. Thq intelligent me»
chanlc will perceive that, in this pofition, the force of
the lever O N M is infuperable. It has this further ad-
vantage, that if any thing fliouldtend to force open the
valve, it would be Ineffeftual ; for no force exerted at
A, and tranfmltted by the rod L M, can poffibly pufh
the joint M out of its pofitlon. Of fuch Importance is it
to practical mechanics, that its profeffors fhould beperfona
of penetration as well as knowledge, Yet this circum-
ftance Is unheeded by hundreds who have fervilely copiecj
from Mr Watt, as may be feea in every engine that is
puffed on the public as a difcovery and an improvement.
When thefe puppet valves have been introduced into thq
common engine, we have not feen one inftance where this
has been attended to ; certainly becaufe its utifity has not
been obferved : and there Is one fituatiou where it is of
more confequence than in Mr Watt's engine, viz. in the
inje6lIon-cock. liere the valve is drawn back into a box,
where the water is fo aukwardly difpofed round it that
it can hardly get out of its way, and where the preffure
even exceeds that of the atmofphere. Indeed this par-
ticular fubftitutlon of the button-valve for the cock ia
mod: injudicious.
We poftponed any account of the office of the fiy
X X (fig. I !■ )» as It is not of ufe in an engine regulated
by the fly V V. The fly X X is only for regulating
the reciprocating motion of the l>eam when the lleam I3
not admitted during the whole defccnt of the pilton.
This it evidently mull render mere uniform, accumula-
ting a momentum equal to the whole preffure of the full
fupply of fteam, and then fharing it with the beam
during the reft of thedefcent of the plfton.
When a perfon properly flcilled in mechanics andReview
chemifti-y reviews thefe different forms of Mr Watt's. '^'^i" ^'^^^^^
fteam-engine, he will eafily peixelve them fufceptlble of ^^'^'^'^
• ? J- ^ c • L- 1 -improve,
many intermediate lorms, m which any one or more of j^gjits.
the dlftlnguhhlng Improvements may be employed. The
firft great improvement was the condenfatlon in a fepa-
rate veffel. This increafed the oi-lginal powers of the
engine, giving to the atmofpheric preffure and to the
counter weight their full energy ; at the fame time
the wafte of fteam Is greatly diminiflied. The next im-
provement by employing the prefiure of the fteam in-
ftead of that of the atmofphere, aimed only at a ftlll.
farther diminution of the wafte ; but was fertile in ad-
vantages, raidcrlng the machine more manageable, and
particularly enabling us at all times, and without trou-
ble, to fuit the power of the engine to its load of work>
however variable and increafing ; and brought Into view
a very Interefting propofition In the mechanical theory^
of the engine, viz. that the whole performance of a.
given quantity of fteam may be augmented by admitting
it into the cylinder only during a part of the pifton's
motion. Mr Watt has varied the application of this
propofition in a thoufand ways ; and there Is nothinj^
about the machine which gives more employment to the-
fagacity and judgment of the engineer. The third,
improvement of the double irapulfe may be confidered
as the finlfliing touch given to the engine, and renders
it as uniform in its aftlon as any water-wheel. In the
engine In its moft perfeft form tliere does not feem to
be above one-fourth of the fteam wafted by warming
the apparatus ; fo that // is rwt poffible to make it one-fourth
part more powerful than it is at prefent. The only
thing that feems fufceptlble of confiderabje Improvement
l ig
The enormous (Iralns exerted on conftantly, and burns 3700 pounds of coals per day.
Is the great besim
tts arms require a proportional ttrength. This requires
a vaft mafs of matter, not lefs indeed in an engine with
a. cylinder of 5 4. inches than three tons and a half,
moving with the velocity of three feet in a fecond,
which muLl be communicated in about half a fecond.
.g^- jj^' This mafs muft be brought into motion from a ftate of
[c great reft, mull again be brought to reft, again into motion,
and again to reft, to complete the period of a ftroke.
This confumes much power ; and Mr Watt has not been
able to load an engine with more than 10 or i \ pounds
on the inch and preferve a fufficient quantity of motion,
fo as to make ii or 1 5 fix-feet ftrokes in a fecond.
Many attempts have been made to leiTeri this mafs by
ufing a light framed wheel, or a light frame of carpen-
try.'^in place" of a foiid beam. Thefe have generally
been conftrufted by perfons ignorant of the true fcien-
tific principles of carpentry, and have fared according-
ly. Mr Watt has made limilar attempts ; but found-,
that although at firft they were abundantly ftrong, yet
after a fhort time's employment the ftraps and bolts
with which the wooden parts were connefted cut their
way into the wood, and the framing grew loofe in the
joints, and, without giving any warning, weiit to pieces
in an inftant. A folid malfy fimple beam, of fufficient
ftrength, bends, and fenfibly complains (as the carpen-
ters exprefs it), before it breaks. In all great engines,
therefore, fuch only are employed, and in fmaller en-
gines he fometimes ufes caft-iron wheels or pulleys; nay,
be frequently ufes no beam or equivalent whatever, but
employs the fteam pifton-rod to drive the machinery to
which the engine is applied.
We prefume that our thinking readers will not be
difpleafed with this rational hiftory of the progrefs of
this engine in the hands of its ingenious and worthy in-
ventor. We owe it to the communications of a friend,
well acquainted with him, and able to judge of his
merits. The public fee him always aflbclated with the
no lefs celebrated mechanic and philofopher Mr Boulton
of Soho near Birmhigham (fee Sono). They have fha-
red the royal patent from the beginning ; and the al-
liance is equally honourable to both.
The advantages derived from the patent-right fhow
both the fuperiority of the engine and the liberal minds
of the proprietors. They ereft the engines at the ex-
pence of the employers, or give working drafts of all
the parts, with inftruftlons, by which any refident en-
gineer may execute the work. The employers feleft
the beft engine of the ordinary kind In the kingdom,
compare the quantities of fuel expended by each, and
pay to Meffrs Watt and Boulton one-third of the an-
nual favings for a certain -term of years. By this the
patentees are excited to do their utmoft to make the
engine perfect; and the employer pays in proportion to
the advantage he derives from It.
It may not be here improper to ftate the aftual per-
formance of fome of thefe engines, as they have been
afcertained by experiment.
An engine having a cylinder of 31 Inches in diame-
ter, and making 17 double ftrokes per minute, performs
'fome of the work of forty horfes working night and day (for
cfe cn- which three relays or 120 horfes mutt be kept), and
DCS is. burns 1 1 ,000 pounds of Staffordftiire coal per day. A
cylinder of 19 inches, making 25 ftrokes of 4 feet each
per minute, performs the work of 12 horfes working
Vol. XVII. Fart IL
Steam*
74
Watt
ci.ited
h Mr
iltun.
75
lence
if prn-
are de-
ed in c-
aing en-
les.
7<S
Tiat the
lual per
rniance
77
A cylinder of 24 inches, making 22 ftrokes of 5 feet,
burns 5500 pounds of coals, and is equivalent to the
conftant work of 20 horfes. And the patentees think
themfelves authorized by experience to fay in general,
that thefe engines will raife more than 20,000^ cubic
feet of water 24 feet high for every hundred weight of
good pit-coal confumed by them.
In confequence of the great fuperiority of Mr Watt's
engines, both with refped to economy aud manageable-
nefs, they have become of moft extenfive ufc ; and in
every demand of manufadure on a great fcale they of-
fer us an indefatigable fervant, whofe ftrength has no
bounds. The greateft mechanical projeft that ever en- Proi'ofed
gaged the attention of man was on the point of being to drain the
executed by this machine. The States of Holland were^^er^^m
treating with Meftrs Watt and Boulton for draining the ^j^^ "(j^^^,
Haerlem Meer, and even reduciiig the Zuyder Zee : engine,
and we doubt not but that it will be accomplifbed when-
ever that unhappy nation has fufficiently felt the diffe-
rence between liberty and democratic tyranny. Indeed
fuch unlimited powers are afforded by this engine, that the
engineer now thinks that no talk can be propofed to him
which he cannot execute with profit to his employer. 78
No wonder then that all claffes of engineers have The at-
turned much of their attention to this engine; and iee-*'^'"^! '^^ J**
ing that It has done lo much, that they try to make it watt's
do ftill more. Numberlefs attempts have been made to engine in
improve Mr Watt's en.)Ine ; and it would occupy a vo- general of
lume to give an account of them, whilft that account l^^^'l^^^^'
would do no more than indulge curlofity. Our engi-
neers by profeflion are In general miferably deficient In
that accurate knowledge of mechanics and of chemittry
which Is neceffary for underftanding this machine; and
\ve have not heard of one in this kingdom who can be
put on a par with the prefent patentees In this refpeft.
Moft of the attempts of engineers have been made with
the humbler view of availing themfelves of Mr Watt's
difcGveries, fo as to conftrutt a fteam-englne fuperior to
Newcomen's, and yet of a form fufficiently different
from Watt's to keep it without the reach of his patent.
This they have In general accomplifhcd by performing
the condenfation in a place which, with a little ftretch
of fancy, not unfrequent in a court of law, may be called
part of the cylinder. 79
The fuccefs of moft of thefe attempts has Interfered ^"'^
- , . , , . n r 1 1 1 fuccels or
fo httle with the intereft of the patentees, that they^jj^f^
have not hindered the eredlion of many engines which not irjured
the law would have deemed encroachments. We think the other,
it our duty to give our opinion on this fubjeft without
referve. Thefe are moft expenfive undertakings, and'
few employers are able to judge accurately of the me-
rits of a projed; prefented to them by an ingenious ar-
tift. They may fee the praftlcability of the fcheme, by
having a general notion of the expanfion and condenfa-
tion of fteam, and they may be mifled by the ingenuity
apparent In the conftruftion. The engineer himfelf is
frequently the dupe of his own ingenuity; and it Is not
always diftionefty, but frequently ignorance, which
makes him prefer his own invention or (as he thinks it)
Improvement. It is a moft delicate engine, and requires
much knowledge to fee what does and what does not
improve its performance. We have gone Into the pre-
ceding minute Inveftigatlon of Mr Watt's progrefs with
the exprefs purpofe of making our readers fully mafters
5 E «f
S T E
Sfeatn-
Eiigine.
, 80
Excel tion
it) favour
of Vli
Pkte
CCCCLXXX.
D,
3f
fteam.,en-
gine
of its principles, and have mere than once pointed out
, the real improven-;ents, that they may be firmly fixed
and always ready in the mind. By havimT recourfe to
them, the reader mny pronounce with confidence on the
merits of any new conilrudlion, and will not be decei-
ved by the puffs of an ignorant or diflioneft en'4:ineer.
We muft except from this (Tcneral criticifm a con-
ion by Mr Jonathan Hornblower near Briftol, on
Hornblow- ^^pount of its fingularity, and the ingenuity and real
er. lldll which appears in fome particulars of its conftruc-
tion. ^ The following fhort defcription will fufficiently
explain its principle, and enable our readers to appre-
ciate its merit.
A and B (fig. 15.) reprefent two cylinders, of which
A is the largeft. A pifton moves in each, havinw; their
Defcription ""^^^ ^ ^"."^ ^ moving through collars at E and F.
o(lii3 Thefe cylinders may be fupplied with fteam from the
^ boiler by means of the fquare pipe G, which has a flanch
to conned it with the rcfl of the fteam pipe. This
fquare pait is reprefented as branching off to both cy-
linders, c and c/ are two cocks, which have handles
and tumblers as ufual, worked by the plug-beam W.
On the fore-fide (that is, the fide next the eye) of the
cylinders is reprefented another communicating pipe,
whole feftion is alfo fquare or reftangular, having alfo
two cocks a, b. The pipe Y, immediately under the
cock ^, eftablifhes a communication between the upper
and lower parts of the fmall cylinder B, by opening
the cock I. There is a fimilar pipe on the other fide
of the cylinder A, immediately under the cock d.
When the cocks c and a are open, and the cocks b and
d are fhut, the fteam from the boiler has free admilTion
into the upper part of the cylinder B, and the fteam
from the lower part of B has free admiffion into the
upper part of A ; but the upper part of each cylinder
has no communication with its lower part.
From the bottom of the great cylinder proceeds the
edu£lion-pipe K, having a valve at its opening into the
cylinder, which bends downwards, and is connefted with
the conical condenfer L(c). The condenfer is fixed
on a hollow box M, on which ftand the pumps N and
O for extrafting the air and water ; which laft runs
along the trough T into a ciftern U, from which it is
raifed by the pump V for recruiting the boiler, being
already nearly boiling hot. Immediately under the
condenfer there is a fpigot valve at*S, over which is a
fmall jet pipe, reaching to the bend of the eduAion-
pipe, 'l"he whole of the condenfing apparatus is con-
tained in a ciftern R of cold water. A fmall pipe P
comes from the fide of the condenfer, and terminates on
the bottom of the trough T, and is there covered with
a valve Q^, which is kept tight by the water that is al-
ways running over it. Laftly, the piunp-rods X caufe
the outer end of the beam to preponderate, fo that the
quiefcent pofition of the beam is that reprefented in the
figure, the piftons being at the top of the cylinders.
. Suppofe all the cocks open, and fteam coming in
copioufly from the boiler, and no condenfation going on
in L ; the fteam muft dtive out all the air, and at laft
follow it through the valve Now ftiut the valves b
and d, and open the valve S of the condenfer. The
[ ]
S T E
condensation will Immediately commence. There is Steam
now no preffure on the under fide of the pifton of A,
and it immediately defcends. The communication be!
tween the lower part of B and the upper part of A
being open, the fteam will go from B into the fpacc
left by the pifton of A. It muft therefore expand,
and Its elafticity maift diminifh, and will no longer ba!
lance the preffure of the fteam above the pifton of B.
This pifton therefore, if not with-held by the beam^
would defcend till it is in equilibrio, having fteam of
equal denfity above and below it. But it cannot de-
fcend fo far ; for the cylinder A is wider than B, and
the arm of the beam at which its piflon hangs is longer
than the arm which fupports the pifton o^'B: thererore
when the pifton of B has defcended as far as the beam
will permit it, the fteam between the two piftons occu-
pies a larger fpace than it did when both piftons ivere
at the tops of their cylinders. Its denfity, therefore,
and Its elafticity, diminifti as its bulk increafes. It is
therefore not a balance ; for the fteam on the upper fide
of B, and the pifton B, pulls at the beam with all the
dift'erence of thefe prefiures. The flighteft view of the
fubjeft muft fhow the reader, that as the piftons de-
fcend, the fteam that is between them will grow conti-
nually rarer and lefs elaftic, and that both piftons will
pull the beam downwards.
Suppofe now that each has reached the bottom of its
cylinder. Shut the cock a and the eduftion cock at
the bottom of A, and open the cocks b and d. The
communication being now eftabliftied between the upper
and lower part of each cyhnder, nothing hinders the
counter weight from raifing the piftons to the top. Let
them arrive there.. The cyhnder B is at this time fill-
ed with fteam of the ordinary denfity, and the cylin-
der A with an equal abfolute quantity of fteam, but
expanded into a larger fpace.
Shut the cocks b and <1, and open the cock a, and
the edudion cock at the bottom of A ; the conden-
fation will again operate, and the piftons defcend. And^
thus the operation may be repeated as long as fteam is
fupphed ; and one full of the cylinder B^of ordinary
fteam is expended during each working ftroke.
Let us now examine the power of this engine. It is
evident, that when both piftons arc at the top of their
refpeftive cyhnders, the adive preffure (that is, tlie dif-
ference of the prefl"ure on its two fides) on the piflon
of B IS nothing, while that on the pifton of A is equal:
to the full prefi'ure of the atmofphere on its area. This,
multiplied by the length of the arm by which it is fuo-
ported, gives its mechanical energy. As the pifton*
defcend, the prefi'ure on the pifton of B increafes, while
that on the pifton of A diminifties. When both are at
the bottom, the prefi'ure on the pifton of B is at its-
maximum, and that on the pifton of A at its miniv
mum.
Mr Hornblower faw that this muft be a beneficial
employment of fteam, and preferable to the pradice of
condenfing it while its full elafticity remained ; but he
has not confidered it with the attention necefl'ary for af.
certairving the advantage with precifion.
Let a and b reprefent the areas of the piftons of A.
and
S T E
[ 771 ]
S T E
and B, and let « and 6 be the lengths of the arms by
which they are fuppovted. It is evident, that when
both piftons have arrived at the bottoms of their cylin-
ders, the capacities of the cylinders are as a and b /?.
Let this be the ratio of m to i. Let ghik (fig. 16. )
and I m no he two cylinders of equal length, communi-
cating with each other, and fitted with apifton-rod pq,
on which are fixed two piftons a a and b b, whofe areas
are as m and i. Let the diftance between the piftons
be precifely equal to the height of each cylinder, which
height we (hall call h. Let x be the fpace gb or b a,
through which the piftons have defcended. Let the
upper cylinder communicate with the boiler, and the
lower cylinder with the condenfer or vacuum V.^
Any perfon in the leaft converfant in mechanics and
pneumatics will clearly fee that the ftrain or prefliire
on the pifton rod pq is precifely the fame with the- uni-
ted energies of the two pifton rods of Mr Hornblower's
engine, by which they tend to turn the working beam
round its axis.
The bafe of the upper cylinder being i, and its height
its capacity or bulk is i /j or b; and this exprefles
the natural bulk of the fteam which formerly filled it,
and is now expanded into the fpace b h I aam ib. The
part bhibis plainly =1 h — x, and the part la am is
zz m X, The whole fpace therefore is mx ■\- h — x,
= h -{-mx — Xj Qv h '{•m — i x. Therefore the den-
fitv of the fteam between the piftons is ; ==— .
^ h m — IX
Let p be the downward preffure of the ftcam from
the boiler on the upper pifton b b. This pifton is alfo
h
preffed up with a force = p =-■=.- by the ftcam
^ ^ h -\- m — IX
between the piftons. It is therefore, on the whole,
/ h \
preffed downward with a force = /» I l • — . , ~ ) *
*^ \ h-tm — IX'
The lower pifton a a, having a vacuum below it, is pref-
m h
fed downwards with a force =/> — ■ There-
h m — I X
fore the whole prefiure on the pifton rod downwards is
— ^(1+ 'dL=:-—- =-), = /{ I +
^\ h m — IX h +■ m — t xf \
accumulated prefiures, that we may compare it with the
conttant preffure on a fingle pifton. ,
We may do this by confidering the momentary pref-
P ^
{uTC p -{- — , as equal to the ordinate GF,
Engine.
+ X
H or M c, of a curve F b c (fig. 10.), which has for
its axis the line GM equal to & the height of our cy-
linder. Call this ordinate y. We have y =z p +
p h p h
and J* — pzz — ^ . Now it is plain that
X
-1
ph
h
-J- X
is the ordinate of an equilateral hyperbola,
_ I h
ixf
P +
h m
p h m —
h •\- m — ixl ■ ' h-\-m — i« _ , ^
m — I '
This then is the momentary preffure on the pifton
rod correfponding to its defcent x from its higheft pofi-
tion. When the piftons are in their higheft pofition,
this preffure is equal to m p. When they are in their
loweft pofition, it is = / "~ — ^^^^ therefore is an
acct ffion of power. In the beginning the preffure is
greater than on a fingle pifton in the proportion of m to
1 ; and at the end of the ftroke, where the preffure is
wcakeft, it is ft ill much greater than the preffure on a
fingle pifton. Thus, if m be 4, the preffure at the be-
ginning of the ftroke Is 4 />, and at the end is l/", al-
moft double, and in all Intermediate pofitlons it is great-
er. It 13 worth while to obtain the fum total of all the
ph
of which ph i% the power or reftangle of the ordinate
and abfcifs, and of which the abfcifs reckoned from the
centre is — - — + x. Therefore make GE =: /, and
draw DEA parallel to MG, and make EA = »
zz. — - — . The curve 3 c Is an equilateral hyperbola,
m — 1 .
having A for Its centre and AD for Its affymptote.
Draw the other affymptote AB, and its ordinate FB.
Since the power of the hyperbola is = /> A, =. GEDM
(for GE =: />, and GM = h) j and fince all the infcri-
bed reftangles, fuch as AEFB, are equal to ph, it fol-
lows that AEFB is equal to GEDM, and that the
area ABFtDA is equal to the area GFrMG, which
expreffes the accumulated preffare in Hornblower's en-
gine.
We can now compute the accumulated preffure very
, ( T AD\
eafily. It is evidently =/> A X I i +I-'-^^^ )•
The intelligent reader cannot but obferve that this Is The accu-
precifely the fame with the accumulated preffure of a mulated
quantity of fteam admitted in the beginning, and ftop- Pj^^'^^^g
ped In Mr Watt's method, when the pitlon has deicen- ^^ j^j^ ^^^^
ded through the mt\\ part of the cylinder. In con- of Mr
fidering Mr Hornblowei's engine, the thing was pre- Watt's en'
fented in fo different a form that we did not perceive g'"^'
the analogy at firft, and we were furprifed at the refult.
We could not help even regretting it, becaufe it had the
appearance of a new principle and an improvement :
and we doubt not but that it appealed fo to the in-
genious author ; for we have had fuch proofs of his
liberality of mind as permit us not to fuppofe that he
faw it from the beginning, and availed hirafelf of the
difficulty of tracing the analogy. And as the thing
may miflead others in the fame way, we have done a
fervice to the pubHc by ftiowing that this engine, fo
coftly and fo difficult In its conftrutftion, is no way fu-
perior in power to Mr Watt's fimple method of ftop-
ping the fteam. It is even inferior, becaufe there muft
be a condenfation in the communicating paffages. We
may add, that if the condenfation is performed In the
cylinder A, which it muft be unlefs with the permif-
fion of Watt and Boulton, the en;rine cannot be much
fuperlor to a common engine ; for much of the fteam
from below B will be condenfed between the piftons by
the coldnefs of the cyUnder A; and this diminifties the
5 E « dowa-
V
S T E
S3
S'ii!, how-
ever, the
cjigine dif-
covers in-
genuity
aiid ikil].
<Iownwan5 preflure on A more than it Incre?.fes the
downward prefiiire on B. We learn however that, by
confininiy the condenfation to a fmall part of the cylinder
A, Mr Hornblower has eredled engines clear of Mr
V/att's patent, which are confiderahly fuperior to New-
comen's : fo has Mr Symington.
We faad tliat there was much ingenuity and real fkill
obfervable in many particulais of this engine. 'I'he
difpofition and conneftion of the cylinders^ and the
whole condenfing apparatus, are contrived with peculiar
•neatnefs. The cocks are very ingenioua^ they are
compofed of two flat circular plates ground very true
to each other, and one of them turns round on a pin
through their centres ; each is pierced with three lec-
toral apertures, exaftly correfponding with each other,
and occupying' a little Icfs than one half of their fur-
faces. By turning the moveable plate fo that the aper-
tures coincide, a large pafiage is opened for the lleam ;
and by turning it fo that the folid of the one covers the
aperture of the other, the cock is (hut. Such regula-
tors are now very common in the cail iron ftoves for
warming rooms.
Pvlr Hornblower's contrivance for making the collars
for the pifton reds air-tight is alfo uncommonly inge-
riious. This collar is in fa6t two, at a fmall diflaiice
from each other. A fmall pipe, branching off from the
main fteam pipe, communicates with the fpace between
the collars. This fteam, being a little ftroiiger than
the pieflure of tlie atmolphere, efFedlually hinders the
air from penetrating by the upper collar; and though a
little fteam ftiould get through the lower collar into
the cylinder A, it can do no harm. We fee many cafes
in which this pretty contrivance may be of hgnal fet-
vice.
But it is in the framing of the great working beam
that Mr Hornblower's fcientific knowledge is moit con-
fpicuous ; and we have no hefitation in affirming that it
i& ftronger than a beam of the common form, and con-
talning twenty times its quantity of timber. There is
hardly, a part of it expofed to a tranfverfe ftrarn, if we
except the ftrain of the pump V on the ftrutt by which
it is worked. Every piece is either puftied or pulled
in the direftion of its length. We only fear that the
bolts which conneft the upper beam with the two iron
bars under its ends will work loofe in their holes, and
tear out the wood which lies between them. We would
propofe to fubftitute an iron bar for the whole of this
upper beam. This working beam highly deferves the
attention of all carpenters and engineers. We have
that opinion of Mr Hornblower's ktiowledge and talents,
that we are confident that he will fee the faimefs of- our
examination of his engine, and we trutt to his candour
for an excufe for our criticilm.
The reciprocating motion of the fteam- engine has
procatjnp^ always been confidered as a great defeft ; for though it
the fteam- obviated by conneAing it with a fly; yet, un-
engine is a lefs it is an engine of double ftroke, this fly muft be an
<icfe<ft ftill enormous mafs of matter moving with great velocity,
to bercmc-^ny accident happening to it would produce dreadful
effeds : A part of the rim detaching itfelf would have
the force of a bomb, and no building could withftand it.
Many attempts have been made to produce a circular
motion at once by the fteam. It has been made to
blow on the vanes of a wheel of various forms. But
ihe rarity of fteam is fuch, that even if none is condenfed
r 772 1
S T E
84
The great-
eft im-
provement
i« the fra-
ming of
the work-
aftg beam.
S5
The feci
by the cold of the vanes, the impulfe is exceedingly
feeble, and the expence of fteam, fo as to produce any
ferviceable impulfe, is enormous. Mr Watt, amour
his :firft fpeculations on the fteam-engine, made fome
attempts of this kind. One in particular was uncom-
monly ingenious. It confifted of a drum turning air- ^^J" "^'^
tight within another, with cavities fo difpofed that there ^"^"P'
was a conftant and great prefl"ure urging it in one dii ec
tion. _ But no packing of the common kind could pre- motion
ferve it air-tight with lufficient mobility. He fucceed-^'^'*"^ "
ed by iramerfing it in mercury, or in an amalgam which
remained fluid in the heat of boiling water ; but the
continual trituration foon calcined the fluid and rendered
it ufelefs. He then tried Parent's or Dr Barker's mill,
inclofmg the arms in a metal drum, which was immer-
fed in cold water. The fteam ruflied rapidly alon^^ the
pipe which was the axis> and it was hoped that a great
reaction would have been exerted at the ends of the
aims ; but it was almoft nothing. The reafon feems
to be, that the greateft part or the (team was condenfed
in the cold aims. It was then tried in a drum kept
boiling-hot ; but the impulfe was now very fmall in
comparifon with the expence of fteam. This muft be
the cafe.
Mr Watt has defcribed in his fpecifieatlon to the pa-
tent office iome contrivances, for producing a circular
motion by the immediate adtion of the fteam. Some
of thefe produce alternate motions, and are perfeftly
analogous to his double ftroke engine. Others produce a
continued motion. But he has not given fuch a de-
fcri^tion of his valves for this purpofe" as can enable an
engineer to conftrud one of them. Ftomauyguefs
that we can form, we think the machine very imperfeft ;
and we do not find that Mr Watt has ever eredfed a g-
continuous circular engine. He has doubtlefs found Still the
all his atteiiipts inferior to the reciprocating engine with'^''^'^
a fly. A very crude fcheme of this kind may be feen^,^'' f'^^'*
in the Tranfaclions of the Royal Society of Dublin re;,t prhi
1787. But although our attempts have hitherto c.ples ms
failed, we hope that the cafe is not yet defperate : ''^ ^'"i''<
We fee different principles which have not yet been em-^*^'
ployed.
We ftiall conclude our account of this noble engine Mr Wat
with obferving, th-at Mr Watt's form fuggefts the con-enfjii-e fi
ftru£lion of an excellent air-pump. A large veflel-'efts
may be made to communicate with a boiler at one fide,'^?"^'""'^'
and with the pump -receiver on the other, and alfo witli"xTeUent
a condenfer. Suppofe this veflel of ten times the ca-air-pumj
pacity of the receiver : fill it with fteam from the boiler,
and drive out the air from it; then open its communica-
tion with the receiver and the condeuler. I'his will rarefy
the air of the receiver 10 times. Repeating the opera-
tion will rarefy it 100 times ; the third operation will
rarefy it 1000 times ; the fourth 10,000 times, &c. All
this may be done in half a minute.
S-TEAM'Kitrhen. Ever ftnce Dr Papin contrived his
digefter (about the year 169c ), fchemeshave been pro-
pofed for dreffing victuals by the fteam of boiling water.
A philofophical club ufed to dine at Saltero's coffee-
houfe, Chelfea, about 30 years ago, and had their
viftuals dreflTed by hanging them in the boiler of the
fteam-engine which raifes water for the fupply of Pi-
cadilly and its neighbourhood. They were complete^
ly drefled, and both expeditioully and with high fta»
vour.
4.
A-
S T E [ 7
!cam^ A patent was lately obtained for an apparatus for
this purpofe by a tin-man in London ; we think of the
narae of Tate. They are made on a much more effec-
tive plan by Gregory, an ingenious tradefman in Edin-
burgh, and are coming into very general ufe.
It is well known to the philofopher that the fteam
xjf boiling water contaiua a prodij;;iou8 quantity of heat,
which it retains in a latent Itate ready to be faithfully
accounted for, and communicated to any colder body..
Every cook knows the great fcalding power of fteam,
and is dilpofed to think that it is much hotter than
boiling- water. This, however, is a miftake ; for it
will raife the thermometer no higher than the water
from which it comes. But we can affure the cook, that
if he make the fteam from the fpout of a tea-kettle pafs
through a great body of cold water, it will be conden-
fed or changed into water; and when one pound of water
iias in this manner been boiled off, it will have heated
-the mafs of cold water as much as if we had thrown into
it feven or eight hundred pounds of boiling hot water.
If, therefore, a boiler be properly fitted up in a fur-
jiace, and if the fteam of the water boiling in it be con-
veyed by a pipe into a pan containing victuals to be
drefied, every thing can be cooked that requires no
liigher degree of heat than that of boiling water r And
this Avill be done without any rifle of fcorching, or any
kind of overheating, which frequently fpoils our difhes,
•and proceeds from the burning heat of air coming to
thofe parts of the pot or pan which is not filled with
liquor, and is covered only with a iilrn, which quickly
burns ai)d taints the whole difh. Kor will the cook
be fcorched by the great heat of the open Hre that is
neceflary for dreffing at once a number of dtlhes, nor
have his perfon and clothes foiled by the Imoke and
foot unavoidable in the cooking on an open lire. In-
deed "the whole procefs is fo neat, fo manageable,
lo open to infpeftion, and fo cleanly, that it need ifeither
fati.rue nor offend the delicacy of the niceft lady.
We had great doubts, when we firft heard of this as
a general mode of cookery, as to its economy ; vve had
jione as to its efficacy. We thouoht that the fteam,^
and confequently the fuel expended, muft be vaftly great-
er than by the immediate ufe of an open fire ; but we
liave feen a large tavern dinner expeditioufly dreffed in
this manner, feemingly with much lefs fuel, than in the
common method, 'i'he following fimple narration of
fadls will fhow the fuperiority. In a paper manufadlure
in this neighbourhood, the vats containing the pulp
into which the frames are dipped are about fix feet
diameter, and contain above 200 gallons. This is
brought to a proper heat by means of a fmall cockle
or furnace in the middle of the liquor. This is heat-
ed by putting in about one hundred -weight of coals
about eight o'clock in the evening, and continuing this
till four next morning, renewing (he fuel as it burns
away. This method was lately changed for a fteam
heater. A furnace, having a boiler of live or fix feet dia-
meter and three feet deep, is heated about one o'clock
in the morning with two hundred weight of coals, and
the water kept in briflc ebullition. Pipes go off from
this boiler to fix vats, fome of which are at 90 feet di-
ftance. It is conveyed into a flat box or veffel in the
midft of the pulp where it condenfes, imparting its heat
to the fides of the box, and thus heats the furrounding
f ulp. Thefc fix vata are as completely heated in three
'3 ] S T E
hours, expending about three hundred weight of coals, S^eam-
as they v.'ere formerly in eight hours, expending near Kitchen.
1 8 hundred weight of coals. Mr Gregory, the inven- *
tor ol this fteam heater, has obtained (in company with
Mr Scott plumber, Edinburgh) a patent for the inven-
tion ; and we are perfuaded that it will come into very
general ufe for many fimilar purpofes. The dyers,
hatmakers, and many other manufadlurers, have occa-
fion for large vats kept in a continual heat ; and there
feems no way fo effctiual.
Indeed when we refleft ferioufly on the fubjeft, we
fee that this method has iramenfe advantages confidered
merely as a mode of applying heat. The fteam may
be applied to the veffel containing the vidluals in every
part of its furfacc : it may even be made to enter the
veffel, and apply itfelf immediately to the piece of meat
that is to be dreffed, and this without any riik of fcorch-
ing or overdoing. — Ap.d it will give out about of
the heat which it contains, and will do this only if
it be wanted ; fd that no heat whatever is wafted
except what is required for heating the apparatus^
Experience fhows that this is a mere trifle in com-
panion of what was fuppofed necelfary. But with
an open fire we only apply the flame and hot air to the
bottom and part of the fides of oar boiling veffels : and
this apphcation is hui:ricd in the extreme ; for to make
a great heat, we muft have a great fire, which requires
a prodigious and moft rapid current of air. This air
touches our pans but for a moment, imparts to them:
but a fmall portion of its heat ; and, we are perfuaded
that three-tourths of the heat is carried up the chim-
ney, and efcapes in. pure wafte, while another great
portion beams out into the kitchen, to the, great an-
ixoyance ot the fcorched cook. We think, therefore,
that a paoe or two of this work, will not be thrown
avvay in the defcriptlon of a contrivance by which a fa-
ving may be made to the entertainer,, and the providing
the pleafures of his table prove a lefs fatiguing taflc co<
this valuable corps of practical chemifts.
Let A reprefent a kitchen-boiler, either properly fit- plate
ted up in a furnace, with its proper fire place, a[h-pit, ccccLxxuk.
and flue, or fet on a tripod on the open fi'^e, or built ^o- 5-
up in the general fire place. The fteam-pipe BC rifes
from the cover of this boiler, and then is led away with
a gentle afcent in any convenient diretlion. C repre-
fents the feftion of this condudling fteam pipe. Branch-
es are taken off from the fide at proper diftances. One-
of thefe is reprefented at CDE, furniflied with, a cock.
D, and having a taper nozzle E, fitted by grinding in-
to a conical piece F, which commuaicates with an up-
right pipe GH, which is foldered to the fide of the
ftewing veffel PQJiS, communicating with it by the.
fhort pipe I. The veffel is fitted with a cover OT,
having a ftaple handle V. The piece of meat M is laid
on a tin plate grate KL, pierced with holes hke a cuUe-n-
der, and Handing on three fliort feet nnn.
The fteam from the boiler comes in by the pipe I,,
and is condcnfed by the meat and by the lide^ of the
veffel, communicating to them all its heat. What ia-
not fo condenicd efcapes between the veffel and its co-
ver. The condenfed water lies on the bottom of the
veffel, mixed with a very fmall quantity of gravy and
fatty matter from the viftuals. Frequently^, inftead of
a cover, another ftew-veffel with a cullender bottom is,
fet on this one, the bottom of tlie one fitting the.mouth
o£
S T E
[ 774 ]
S T E
S'cam- of the other : and it Is ob/erved, that when this is done,
Ki chen. ^[([^ under vefTel is more expeditioufly and
" ' " ■* better drefled, and the upper difli is more flovvly, but as
•completely ftewed.
This defcription of one ftewingr vefTel may ferve to
give a notion of the whole ; only we muft obfervfe, that
when broths, foups, and difhes with made fauces or con-
taining liquids, are to be drefled, they muft be put in-
to a imaller veffel, which is fet into the vefTel PQjiS,
/ and is fupported on three ihort feet, fo that there may
be a fpace all roun-i it of about an inch or three quar-
ters of an inch. It is obferved, that difhes of this kind
are not fo expeditioufly cooked as on an open fire, but
as completely in the end, only requiiing to be turned
up now and then to mix the ingi-edients; becaufe as the
liquids in the inner veffel can never come into ebullition,
unlefs the fleam from the boiler be made of a danger-
ous heat, and every thing be clofe confined, there can-
not be any of that tumbling motion that we obferve in
a boiling pot.
.The performance of this apparatus is far beyond any
cxpeftation we had formed of it. In one which we ex-
amined, fix pans were flewing together by means of a
toiler I oi" inches in diameter, Handing on a bridle open
fire. It boiled very brifl<ly, and the fleam puffed fre-
quently through the chinks between the ftew-pans and
their covers. In one of them was a piece of meat con-
fiderably above 30 pounds weight. This required a-
bove four hours flewing, and was then very thoroughly
and equally cooked ; the outfide being no more done
than the heart, and it was near two pounds heavier than
•when put in, and greatly fwelled. In the mean time,
feveral diflies had been drefled in the other pans. As
/ar as we could judge, this cooking did not confume
one-third part of the fuel which an open fire would
have required for the fame eflPeft.
When we confider this apparatus with a little more
knowledge of the mode of operation of fire than falls
to the fhare of the cooks (we fpeak with deference),
and confider the very injudicious manner in which the
lleam is applied, we think that it may be improved fo
as to furpafs any thing that the cook can have a no-
tion of.
When the fleam enters the Ilew-pan, it is condenfed
on the meat and on the veffel ; but we do not want it
to be condenfed on the veffel. And the furface of the
veffel is much greater than that of the meat, and conti-
iiues much colder ; for the meat grows hot, and conti-
nues fo, while the veflTel, made of metal which is a
very perfeft conduflor of heat, is continually robbed of
its heat by the air of the kitchen, and carried off' by
it. If the meat touch the fide ©f the pan in any part,
no fleam can be applied to that part of the meat, while
it is continually imparting heat to the air by the inter-
medium of the veffeL Nay, the meat can hardly be
drefled unlefs there be a current of fleam through it ;
and we think this confirmed by what is obferved above,
that when another flew-pan is fet over the firfl, and thus
gives occafion to a current of fteam'-through its cullen-
der bottom to be condenfed by its fides and contents,
the lower difh is more expeditioufly dreffed. We ima-
gine, therefore, that not lefs than half of the fleam is
wafted on the fides of the different ftew-pans. Our firft
attejation is therefore called to this circumftance^ and we
wifli to apply the fteam more economically and efFec-
tually.
We would therefore cotiftruft the fleam-kitchen in the
following manner :
We would make a wooden cheft (which we fhall call
the Stew-ghest) A B C D. i'hls fhould be made of
deal, in verjr narrow flips, not exceeding an inch, that
it may not fhrink. This fhould be lined with very thin
copper, lead, or even ftrong tinfoil. This will prevent
it from becoming a condudlor of heat by foakini> with
fteam. For further fecurity it might be fet in another
chefl, with a fpace of an inch or two all round, and this
fpace filled with a compofition of powdered charcoal and
clay. This fhould be made by firft making a mixture
of fine potter's clay and water about as thick as poor
cream : then as much powdered charcoal muft be beat
up with this as can be made to ftick together. When
this is rammed in and dry, it may be hoc enough on
one fide to melt glafs, and will not dilcolour white pa-
per on the other.
This cheft muft have a cover L M N O, alfo of
wood, having holes in it to receive the ftew-pans P,
R. Between each pan is a wooden partition, covered
on both fides with milled lead or tinfoil. The whole
top muft be covered with very fpungy leather or felt,
and made very flat. Each ftew-pan muft have a bear-
ing or fhouldcr all round it, by which it is fupported,
reiling on the felt, and lying fo true and clofe that no
fteam can efcape. Some of the pans fhould be fimple,
like the pan F, for drefling broths and other liquid
difiies. Others Ihould be like E and G, having in the
bottom a pretty wide hole H, K, which has a pipe in
its upper fide, lifing about an inch or an inch and half
into the ftew-pan. The meat is laid on a cullender
plate as in the common way ; only there muft be no
holes in the cullender immediately above the pipe. —
Thefe ftew-pans muft befitted with covers, or they may
have others fitted to their mouths, for warming fauces
or other difhes, or ftewing greens, and many other fub-
ordinate purpofes for which they may be fitted.
The main-pipe from the boiler muft have branches,
(each furnifhed with a cock), which admit the fteam
into thefe divifions. At its firft entry fome will be
condenfed on the bottom and fides ; but we imagine
that thefe will in two rainntes be heated fo as to con-
denfe no more, or almofl nothing. The fteam will alfo
quickly condcnfe on the ftew-pan, and in half a minute
make it boiling hot, fo that it will condenfe no more ;
all the reft will now apply itfelf to the meat and to the
cover. It may perhaps be advifable to allow the cover
to condenfe fteam, and even to wafte it. This may be
promoted by laying on it flannel foaked in waten Our
view in this is to create a demand for fteam, and thus
produce a current through the ftew-pan, which will be
applied in its paffage to the vidtuals. But we are not
certain of the neceffity of this. Steam is not like com-
mon air of the fame temperature, which would ghde
along the furfaces of bodies, and impart to them a fmall
portion of its heat, and efcape with the reft. T© pro-
duce this effeft there muji be a current ; for air hot
enough to melt lead, will not boil water, if it be kept
ftagnant round the veffel. But fleam imparts the ivho/e
of its latent heat to any body colder than boiling water,
and goes no farther till this body be made boiling hot.
S T E [7
am- It is a moft faithful carrier of heat, and will deliver its
:hen. •whole charge to any body that can take it. Therefore,
although there were no partitions in the ftew-cheft, and
the fteam were admitted at the end next the boiler, if
the pan at the farther end be colder than the reft, it
will all g-o thither ; and will, in fliort, communicate to
every thing impartially according to the demand. If
any perfon has not the confidence in the fteam which
we exprefs, he may ftill be certain that there muft be a
prodigious faving of heat by confining the whole in the
ftew chcft ; and he may make the pans with entire bot-
toms, and admit the fteam into them in the common
way, by pipes which come throu;,^-h the fides of the
cheft and then go into the pan. There will be none
loft by condenfation on the fides of the cheft; and the
pans will foon be heated up to the boiling temperature ;
and hardly any of their heat will be wafted, becaufe the
air in the chcft will be ftagnant. The chief reafon for
recommending our method is the much greater eafe with
which the ftew pans can be ftiifted and cleaned. There
will be little difference in the performance.
Nay, even the common fteam-kitchen may be prodJ-
gioufly improved by merely wrapping each pan in three
or four folds of coarfe dry flannel, or making flannel
bags of three or four folds fitted to their fhape, which
can be put on or removed in a minute. It will alfo
greatly conduce to the good performance to wrap the
main fteam pipe in the fame manner in flannel.
We faid that this main-pipe is condufted from the
boiler with a gentle afcent. The intention of this is,
that the water produced by the unavoidable condenfa-
tion of the fteam may run back into the boiler. But
the rapid motion of the fteam generally fweeps it up
hill, and it runs into the branch-'pipes and defcends into
the ftew-pans. Perhaps it would be as well to give
the main-pipe a declivity the other way, and allow all
the water to coUeft in a hot well at the farther end, by-
means of a defcending pipe, having a loaded valve at
the end. This may be fo contrived as to be clofe by
the fire, where it would be fo warm that it would not
check the boiling if again poured into the boiler. But
the utmoft attention niuft be paid to cleanlinefs in the
whole of this paffage, becaufe this water is boiled again,
and its fteam paffes through the heart of every difti.
This circumftance forbids us to return into the boiler
what is condenfed in the ftew-pans. This would mix.
the taftes and flavours of every difli, and be very difa
greeable. All this muft remain in the bottom of each
flew-pan ; for which reafon we put in the pipe rifing
up in the middle of the bottom. It might indeed be
allowed to fall down into the ftew-cheft, and to be col-
lefted in a common receptacle, while the fat would float
at top, and the clear gravy be obtained below, perhaps
fit for many fauces.
The completeft method for getting rid of this con-
denfed fteam would be to have a fmall pipe running
along the under fide of the main conduftor, and com-
municating with it at different places, in a manner iimi-
lar to the air difcharger on the mains of water-pipes.
In the paper manufafture mentioned above, each fteam-
box has a pipe in its bottom, with a float- cock, by
which the water is difcharged ; and the main pipe being
of great diameter, and laid with a proper acclivity, the
water runs back into the boiler.
But thde precautions are of little monieat in a fteam-
75 1 S T E
kitchen even for a great table ; and for the general ufc Sfeam-
of private families, would hurt the apparatus, by ma- K'tcheti
king it complex and of nice management. For a fmall g^Jj^p
family, the whole apparatus may be fet on a table four ^ j
feet long and two broad, which may be placed on call-
ers, fo as to be wheeled out of the way when not in
ufe. If the main conduftor be made of wood, or pro-
perly cafed in flannel, it will condenfe fo little fteam^
that the cooking table may ftand in the remoteft corner
of the kitchen without fenfibly impairing its perform-
ance ; and if the boiler be properly fet up in a fmall
fumace, and the flue made fo that the flame may be ap-
plied to a great part of its fnrface, we are perfuadcd,
that three fourths of the fuel ufcd in common cookery
will be faved. Its only inconvenience feems to be the
indifpenfable neceflity of the moft anxious cleanlinefs in
the whole apparatus. The moft trifling negleft in thi&
will deftroy a whole dinner-
We had almoft forgotten to obferve, that the
boiler muft be furnifhed with a funnel for fupplying
it with water. This fliould pafs through the top, and
its pipe reach near to the bottom. It will be proper
to have a cock on this funnel. There fhould alfo be
another pipe in the top of the boiler, having a valve on
the top. If this be loaded with a pound on every ^
Iquare inch, and the fire fo reg iilated that fteam may-
be obferved to puff fometimes from this v^lve, we may
be certain that it is pafling through our difhes with fuf-
ficient rapidity ; and if we ftiiit the cock on the funnel^
and load the valve a little more, we fliall caufe the fteam
to blow at the covers of the ftew-pans. If one of thefe
be made very tight, and have a hole alfo futniflied with
a loaded valve, this pan becomes a digetter, and will>
diflTolve bones, and do many things which are imprac^
ticable in the ordinary cookery.
Si quid tiovjjTt reRius ijl'uy
Candtdus impertl ; — 3/? «on,. his utere nojiris.
STEATITES or Soap-earth, a genus of the mag^
nefian order of earths. Of this genus there are feveral
fpecics, for which fee Mineralogy. According to
the analyfis of Bergman, 100 parts of fteatites contain 80
of filcx, 17 of mild magnef a,. 2 of argillaceous earth,
and nearly i of iron in a femioxidated ftate.
This fubftancc may be formed into a pafte with water,
fufiiciently duClile to be worked on the potter's wheel ;
and by expoiure to a great heat it is hardened fo as to
ftrikc fire with fteel It has alfo the property of Ful^
lbr's Earth in cleanfing cloths from greafe : but it does
not diffufe in water fo well as clays do ; and when di-
gefted with vitriwlic acid, it does not form ahim, as clays
do, but a fait fimilar to Epfom fait. From its foftnefs
and dudlility it may be eafily formed into pots for the
kitchen ; and hence it has got the name of /apis ol/aris.
STEATOMA, a kind of encyfhed tumor, confifting
of a matter like fuet or lard, foft, without pain, and
without difcolouring the flcin.
STEEL, iron united with carbone. See Iron.
Steel has properties diftind from thofe of iron, which
render it of fuperior value. From its higher degree of
hardnefs' it admits a finer polifh and affumes a brighter
colour. When tempered, it pofteffes a higher degree of
elafticity, and is alfo more fonorous. It is more weak-
ly attrafted by the loadftone, it receives more flowly the
magnetic pov/er, but it prcfervcs it longer. When es-
pofcdto a moiftair, It does not contrad rufl; fo eafily as-
iron.
S T E
C >7^ 1
S T E
Stfel.
ChaptaPs
€temlftry,
vol. ii.
V' 347-
iron. It is alfo heavier, lucreafing in weight, according
ito Chaptal, one hundred and feventieth part. M. Rin-
man has given as the refult of feveral accurate experi-
ments on different kinds of tteel the following fpecific
gravity 7,795, while he makes dufiile iron 7,700, and
crude iron 7, 2 1; i .
All iron is convertible into (leel by expofmg- it to a
certain degree oF heat for a certain time alon^r with a
quantity of charcoah Chemifts differ in opinion con-
cerning the nature and effefts of this procefs. Some
lay that fteel is produced by abforbing a quantity of
caloric or heat in a latent Itate, as the older chemitls
had faid it; was formed by abforbing phlogillon. La-
voifier feems to have afcribed the qualities of fleel to a
flight decjree of oxidation, others to a combination with
plumbago or black lead, and others to a union with
carbone. In agreeing with thofe who fay the forma-
tion of fteel is owing to carbone, we do not differ effen-
tially from thofe who attribute it to plumbago ; for
the art of chemittry has now found that thcfe fub-
ftances are very nearly allied. Plumbago Is a true
charcoal combined with a little iron. The brilliant
charcoal of certain vegetable fubftances, more efpecially
when formed by diitillation in clofe veffels, poffeffes all
the charafters of plumbago. The charcoal of animal
fubftances poffeffes charafters ftiU more peculiarly refem-
bling it. Like it they are difficult to incinerate, they
leave the fame impreffion on the hands and upon paper;
they hkewafe contain iron, and become converted into
carbonic acid by combuftion. When animal fubllances
are dillilledhy a ftrong lire, a very fine powder lublinies,
which attaches itfelf to the inner part of the neck of the
retort, and this fubftance may be made into excellent
black lead pencils.
There are two ways of making fteel, namely, by fu-
fion and by cementation. The firft way is ufed to con-
vert iron into fteel immediately from the ore, or from crude
or caft-iron. By the fecond way, bar-iron is expofed
to a long continued heat furroimded by charcoah
Each of thefe ways has advantages peculiar to Itfelf ;
but the fame caufes in fa£l predominate in both, for
toth kinds of fteel are produced by heat and charcoal.
The only difference bet^^een the two methods is this;
in making fteel by fufion the charcoal is not f» equally
defended from the accefs of air as in the other way.
Swedcnborgius has given the following defcription
of the method ufed in Dalecarlla for making fteel from
caft-iron. The ore from which the crude iron to be
<:onverted into fteel Is obtained is of a good kind. It is
black, friable, and compofed of many fmall grains, and
it produces very tough iron. The converfion into fteel
is made upon a forge-hearth, fomething fmaller than
common. The fides and bottom are made of cail-iron.
The tuyere is placed, with very little inchnation, on one
of the fide-plates. The breadth of the fire-place is
fourteen inches ; its length is greater. The lower part
of the tuyere is fix inches and a half above the bottom.
In the Interior part of the fire-place there is an oblong
opening for the flowing of the fuperfluous fcorise. The
workmen firtl put fcorise on the bottom, then charcoal
and powder of charcoal, and upon thefe the caft-iron
run or cut into fmall pieces. They cover the iron with
more charcoal, and excite the fire. When the pieces
of iron arc of a red white, and before they begin to
melt, they ftop the bellows, and carry the mafs under a
large hammer, where they break it into plecea of three
or four pounds each. The pieces are again brought to
the hearth, and laid within reach of the workman, who
plunges tome of them into the fire, and covers them
with coal. The bellows are made to blow flowly till
the iron is liquefied- Then the fire is increafed ; and
when the fufion has been long enough continued, the
fcoriae are allowed to flow out ; and at that time the
Iron hardens. The workman adds more of the pieces
of crude iron, which he treats in the fame manner ; and
fo on a third and a fourth time, till he obtains a mafs of
ffeel of about a hundred pounds, which is generally
done in about four hours. This mafs is ralfed and
carried to the hammer, where it is forged, and cut in-
to four pieces, which are farther beat into fquare bars
four or five feet long. When the fteel is thus forged,
it Is thrown into water that it may be eafily broken ;
for it is yet crude and coarfe-grained. The fleel is then
carried to another hearth fimilar to the former, and
there broken in pieces. Thefe pieces are laid regularly
in the fire-place, firft two pai-allel, upon which feven or
eight others are placed acrofs ; then a third row acrofs
the fecond, in fuoh a manner that there is fpace left be-
tween thofe of the fame row. The whole is then
covered with charcoal, and the fii'e is excited. In about
half or three quarters of an hour the pieces are made hot
enough, and are then taken from the fire, one by one, to
the hammer, to be forged into little bars from half a
foot to two feet long, and while hot are thrown into
water to be hardened. Of thefe pieces fixteen or
twenty are put to.';ether fo as to make a bundle, which
Is heated and welded, and afterwards forged into bars
four inches thick, which are then broken into pieces of
convenient length for ufc.
The method of converting iron into fteel by cemen-
tation is a very fimple procefs. It confifts folely in ex-
pofing it for a certain time to a ftrong degree of heat,
while clofely covered with charcoal and defended from
the external air. The furnaces employed for convert-
ing iron into fteel (fays a manuFafturcr of this metal) are
of different fizes ; lome capable of converting only three
or four tons weight, while others are capacious enough
to contain from feven to eight or ten tons. The out-
fides of thefe furnaces rife up in the form of a cone, or
fugar-loaf, to the height of a very confiderable number
of feet. In the infide, oppofite to each other, are
placed two very long chefts, made either of ftpne, or
of bricks capable of bearing the ftrongeft fire ; which'
is placed between the two chefts. The bars of iron,
after the bottom is furnilhed with a neceffary quantity
of charcoal duft, are laid in Jlratum fuper Jiratum^ with
intermediate beds of the charcoal duft, to fuch a heiaht
of the cheffs as only to admit of a good bed at top ;
which is then all covered over, to prevent the admifSoa
of the common air ; which, could k procure an entrance,
would greatly injure the operation. The iron being
thus fituated, the fire is lighted ; which Is fome time
before it can be raifed to a fufficient degree of heat to
produce any confiderable effeft. After which it is con-
tinued for £0 many days as the operator may judge pro-
per ; only now and then drawing out what they call a
proof bar. This is done by openings fit for the pur-
pofe at the ends of the cheft, which are eafily and with
expedition flopped up again, without occafioning any
injury to the* contents left behind. When the opera-
tor
S T E [9
tor apprehends the converfion is fufficiently completed,
the fire is fuffered to go out, and the furnace, with its
contents, is left [Gradually to cool. This may take up
fcveral days : after which the furnace is difcharged, by
taking out the bars of ftecl and the remainder of the
charcoal duil.
There is a manufa<ftory eftablifhed in the parilh of Cra-
tnond, about five miles from Edinburgh, in which this
method is praftifed with great fuccefs. Great quanti-
ties of fteel are made there, which we have reafon to be-
h'eve is of as excellent a quality as any that can be pro-
cured from other countries.
When the charcoal is taken out, it is found as black
as before it was introduced into the furnace, unlefs by
accident the external air has got admittance. The
bars preferve their exterior form only ; the furface fre-
quently exhibits a great number of tumors or blifters,
whence they are called hl'ijlered JleeL
The hardnefs of fteel is much increafed by temper-
ing. This confifts in heating it to a red heat, and
then plunging it fuddenly into cold water. If it be al-
lowed to cool flowly, it ftill preferves its duAility ; or if
it be heated again after being tempered, it lofes its
hardnefs, and again becomes duftile. In heating fteel
for tempering it, the moft remarkable circumftance is,
the different colours it affumes, according to the degree
of heat it has received. As it is gradually heated, it
becomes white, then yellow, orange, purple, violet, and
at laft of a deep blue colour.
According to Reaumur, the fteel which is moft heat-
ed in tempering is generally the hardeft. Hence it is
believed, that the more violent the heat to which fteel
is expofed, and the more fuddenly it is plunged into
cold water, the harder the fteel will be. Rinman,
again, has deduced a conclufion diredly oppofite, that
the fteel which is naturally hardeft demands the leaft de-
gree of heat to temper it. Different methods have
been propofed to determine what degree of heat is moft
proper ; but the eafieft method is to take a bar of fteel,
lb long, that while one end is expofed to a violent heat,
the other may be kept cold. By examining the inter-
mediate portions, it may be found what degree of heat
has produced the greateft hardnefs.
By tempering, fteel is faid to increafe both in bulk
and in weight. Reaumur fays, that a fmall bar fix
inches long, fix lines broad, and halt an inch thick, was
increafed at leaft a line in length after being tempered
to a reddifti white colour ; that is, fuppofing the dilata-
tion proportional in all dimenfions increafing at the
rate of 48 to 49. Iron alfo expands when heated ; but
when the heat pafles off", it returns to its former dimen-
fions. That the weight of fteel is alfo augmented by
tempering, has been found by experiment. Rinman ha-
ving weighed exaftly in an hydroftatic balance two
kinds of fine fteel made by cementation, and not tem-
pered, found their denfity to be to that of water as
*r,99i to I ; after being tempered, the denfity of the
one was 7,553> and th?.t of the other 7,70^^. M. de
Morveau took three bars juft of a fize to enter a certain
caliber 28 lines long, and each fide two lines broad; oae
of the bars was foft iron, and the two others were taken
from the fame piece of fine fteel. In order to commu-
nicate an equal degree of heat to each, in an earthen
veffel in the midft of a wind furnace, the bar of foft
iron and one of the bars of fteel were thrown ipto
Vot. XVII. Part II.
77 ] S T E
cold water; the other bar of fteel was cooled flowly over
fome pieces of charcoal at a diftance from the furnace.
The bar of iron and the one of fteel that was allowed
to cool flowly pafTed eafily into the caliber again ; but
the bar of tempered fteel was lengthened almoft one-
ninth of a line.
There is no doubt but tempering changes the grain;
that is, the appearance of the texture of a piece of fteel
when broken. This is the mark which is ufually ob-
ferved in judging of the quality of fteel, or of the tem-
pering which fuits it beft. The tempered bar is bro-
ken in feveral places after having received different de-
grees of heat in different places. What proves com-
pletely the effeft of heat upon the grain, at leaft in
fome kinds of fteel, is, that a bar of fteel expofed to all
the intermediate degrees of heat, from the fmalleft fen-
fible heat to a red heat, is fsund to increafe in finenefs of
grain from the flightly heated to the ftrongly heated
end. The celebrated Ririman has made many experi-
ments on the qualities of fteel expofed to different de-
grees of heat in tempering, but particularly to three
kinds, viz. fteel heated to an obfcure red, to a bright
red, and to a red white. Hard brittle fteel, made by
cementation, and heated to an obfcure red and temper-
ed, exhibited a fine grain, fomewhat fhining, and was of
a "yellow white colour. When tempered at a bright
red heat, the grain was coarfer and more fhining ; when
tempered at a red white heat, the grain was alfo coarfe
and ftiining.
With a view to determine how far fteel might be
improved in its grain by tempering it in different ways,
M. de Morveau took a bar of bliftered fteel, and broke
it into four parts nearly of the fame weight. They
were all heated to a red heat in the fame furnace, and
withdrawn from the fire at the fame inftant. One of the
pieces was left at the fide of the furnace to cool in the
ail-, the fecond was plunged into cold water, the third
into oil, and the fourth into mercury. The piece of
fteel that was cooled in the air refilled the hammer a
long time be tore it was broken ; it was neceffary to
notch it by the Hie, and even then it was broken with
difficulty. It fliuwed in its tradure a grain fenfibly
more fine and more fhining than it was before. The
fecond piece, which had been plunged into water, broke
eafily : its grain was rather hner than the firft, and al-
moft of the fame white colour. The third piece, which
was tempered in oil, appeared very hard when tried by the
file ; it was fcarcely poflible to break it. Its qrain was
as fine, but not quite fo bri(';ht, as that which was tem-
pered in water. The fourth piece, which was dipped
into mercury, was evidently fuperior to all the reft in
the finenefs and colour of the grain. It broke into
many fragments with the firft ftroke of the hammer,
the fraftures being generally tranfverfe.
M. de Morveau was not altogether fatisfied with
thefe experiments, and therefore thought it neceffary to
repeat them with finer fteel. He took a bar of fteel
two fines fquare, fuch as is ufed in Germany for tools
by engravers and watchmakers ; he divided it into four
pieces, and treated them in the fame way as he had
done the bliftered fteel. I'he firft piece, which was
cooled in the air, it was very difficult to break : the
frafture appeared in the midft of the grain very fine,
but white and fhining. The fecond, which was tem-
pered in water, was broken into three fragments at the
S T E [77
Sit'l. firll blow ; its fjrain was perfeftly equal, of a grey aflir
SteeUyarr'.^ colour, and of remarkable finenefs. One of its iides was
' polifhed, and a drop of the nitrous acid which was pour-
ed upon it left a black fpot, but not deep. But when a
drop of the fame acid was poured on the middle of the
frafture, after it had been equally polifhed, it left a black
fpot much deeper. The third piece, which was plun-
ged in oil, bent as eafily as the piece which was cooled
in the air ; the file made an impreffion on it with diffi-
culty ; it was necefTary to break it with a vice : its grain
was inferior in-finenefs to the fecond, but it was of a
darker colour. The fourth, which was tempered in
mercury, exhibited a grain of an intermediate finenefs
between the fecond and the third. From thefe experi-
ments, it appears that fteel may be hardened by tem-
pering it, not only with water, but with any other liquid
which is capable of accelerating its cooling.
Steel may be unmade, or reduced to the ftate of
iron, by a management fimtlar to that by which it is
made, that is, by cementation. But the cement ufed
for this pnrpofe mu'l be compofed of fubftances en-
tirely free from inflammable matter, and rather ca-
pable of abforbing it, as calcareous earth or quicklime.
By a cementation with calc"-reous earth, continued
during eight or ten hours, fteel is reduced to the
ftate of ir6n. After ic has been tempered, it may be
again unfempered, and foftened to any degree that we
' think proper ; for which purpofe we have only to heat
it more or lefs, and to let it cool flowly. By ttfis me-
thod we may foften the hardeft-tempered fteel.
STEEL-Bofy' Tenants. See Tehure.
Sait of Steel. See Chemistry, 0=697.
SiEEL-Tard., is one of the moft ancient prefents
which fcience has made to fociety ; and though long in
defuetude in this country, is in moft nations of the
world the only inftrument for afcertaining the weight
of bodies. What is tranflated balance in the Penta-
teuch, is in fa£l fteelyard, being^ the word ufed by the
Arabs to this day for their inftrument, which is a fteel-
yard. It is in common ufe in all the Afiatic nations.
It was the Jlatera oi the Greeks and Romans, and feems
to have been more confidfed in by them than the ba-
lance ; for which reafon it was ufed by the goldfmiths,
while the balance was the inftrument of the people. —
Non aurlfids Jlatera Jed popular! trutina examinare. Cic.
de Or. 2'^8.
The fteelyard is a lever of unequal arms, and, in its
moft perfect form, is^ conftrudled much like a common
Plate balance. It hangs in flieers E (fig. i.) refling on the
^:?ccij5xxi. nail C, and the fcale L for holding the goods hangs by
a nail O on the ihort arm BC. The counter weight
P hangs by a ring of tempered fteel, made fharp in the
infidc, that it may bear by an edge on the l®ng arm
CA of the fteelyard. The under edge of the centre
nail C, and the upper edge of the nail D, are in the
ftraight line formed by the upper edge of the long arm.
Thus the three points of fufpenfion are in one ftraight
line. The needle or index of the fteelyard is perpen-
dicular to the line of the arms, and plays between the
flieers. The fhort arm may be made fo malTive, that,
together with the fcale, it will balance the long aim un-
loaded. When no goods are in the fcale, and the coun-
ter weight with its hook are removed, the fteelyard ac-
quires a horizontal pofition, in confequence of its centre
of gravity being below the axis of fufpenfion. The,
8 ] S T E
rules for its accurate conftruition are the fame as for §
a common balance. ^
The inftrument indicates different weights in the fol-
lowing manner : The diftance CD of the two nails is
confidered as an unit, and the lon.r arm ib divided into
a number of parts equal to it ; and thefe are fubdivided
as low as is thought proper : or in genei al, the long
arm is made a fcale ot equal parts, commencing at the
edge of the nail C; and the fhort ai-m contains lome de-
termined number of thofe equal parts. Suppofe, then;
that a weight A of 1 o pounds is put into the fcale
The counterpoife P muft be of fuch a weight, that,
when hanging at the divifion lo, it fhall bafuice this
weight A. Now let any unknown weight W be pat
into the fcale. Slide the hook of the counterpoife
along the long arm till it balances this weight- Suppofe
it then hanging at the divifion 38. We conclude that
there is 38 pounds in the fcale. This we do on the
authority of the fundamental property of the lever^
that forces aAing on it, and balancing each other, are
in the inverfe proportion of the diftances from the ful-
crum to their lines of direAion. Whatever weight the
couaterpoife is, it is to A as CD to 10, and it is to
the weight W as CD to 38 ; therefore A is to the
weight W as 10 to 38, and W is 38 pounds: and
thus the weight in the fcale will always be indicated
by the divifion at which it is balanced by the counter-
poife.
Our well informed readers know that this fundamen-
tal property of the lever was difcovered by the rendWn,-
ed Archimedes, or at leaft firlt demonflrated by him
and that his demonftration, befides the defeft of being
applicable only to commenfurable lengths of the arms,
has been thought by metaphyficians of the firft note to
proceed on a poilulate which feems equally to need a
demonftration. It has accordingly employed the ut-
mofl refinement of the firfl mathematicians of Europe
to furnifh a demonftration free from objeftion. Mr
D'Alembert has given two, remarkable for their inge-
nuity and fubtlety ; Foncenex has done the fame ; and.
ProfefTor Hamilton of Trinity-college, Dublin, has gi-
ven one which is thought the Icaft exceptionable. B'lt
critics have even objefted to this, as depending on a
populate which fhould have been denionftrated.
Since we publilhed the volume containing the article
Mechanics, there has appeared (Phil. Tranf. 1794)
a demonftration by Mr Vince, which we think unexcep-
tionable, and of fuch fimplicity that it is aitonifhing
that it has not occurred to any perfon who thinks on
the fubjeft. Our readcis will not be difpleafed with'
an account of it.
Let AE (fig. 2.) be a mathematical lever, or in-
flexible ftraight hne, refting on the prop A, and fup-
ported at E by a force afting upwards. Let two equaf
weights b and d be hung on at B and D, equidiftanc
from A and E. PrefFures ar? now exerted at A and
E ; and becaufe every cifcumftance of weight and di»
ftance is the fame, the preffura at E, arifing ftom the
a<S^ion of the weight b on the point B, muft be the fame
with the preffure at A, anfing from the "adlion of tise
weight d on the point D ; and the preffure at E, oc-
cafioned by the weight d, muft be the fime with thi::
preffure at A, occalioned by the weight b. This muft
be the cafe wherever the weights are hung, provided
Uiat the diftance AB and DE are equal. Mofeov<'ri
S T E r 779 1 S T
pifi- tlic fum of tKe preflures at A and E Is unqueftlonahly ed by fmall differefices of tveijrhl.
E
equal to the fum of the weights, becaufe the weights
are fupported folely at A and E. Let the two weights
be hung on at C the roiddie point ; the preffure at E
is ftill the fame. Therefore, in general, the preffkre
excited at the point E, by two equal weights hansjing
at any points B and D, is the fame as if they were hung
on at the middle point between them : but the pref-
fare excited at E is a juft meafure of the effort or ener-
gy of the weights b and d to urge the lever round the
point A. It is, at leaft, a meafsre of the oppofite force
Hvhich muft br applied at E to fuftain or balance this
preffure. A very faftidious metaphyfician may ftill fay,
that the demonftration is limited to a point E, whofe
diftance from A is twice \C, cr = AB + A.D. But
it extends to any other point, on the authority of a po-
:i;ulate which cannot be refufed, viz. that in whatever
proportion the preffure at E is augmented or diminifli-
ed, the preffare at this other point muft augment or di-
minifh in the fame proportion. This being proved, the
general theorem may be demonftratedin all proportions
of diftance, in the manner of Archimedes, at once the
moi\ fimpie, perfpicuous, and elegant of all.
We cannot help obfe5*ving> that all this diificutty
(and it is a real one to the philofopher who aims at ren-
dering mechanics a dcmonftrative fcience) has arifen
froifi an improper fearch after firapliclty. Had Archi-
medes taken a levef as it really exifts in nature, and
confidered it as materia/, confifting of atoms united by
cohefion 5 and had he traced the mtermediate preffures
by whofe means the two external weights are put in
oppofition to each other, or rather to the fupport given
to the fulcrum; all difficulty would have vanKhed. (See
ivhat is faid on this lubjedt in the article S-TKEf/GTH of
*T'tmher, &c. )
The quantity of goods wlilch may be weighed by
this inftrumeut depends on the weight of the counter-
poifo, and on the diftance CD from the fulcrum at
which the goods are fufpehded. A double counter-
poife hanging at the fame divilion will balance o\ indi-
)cate a double quantity of goods hanging at D ; and
«ny counterpoiie will balance and indicate a double quan-
tity of goods, if the diftance CD be reduced to-one-
half. Many tteelyards have two or more points of
fufpenfion D, to which the fcale may occafionally be at-
tached. Fig. 6. of Plate XCI. Vol. II. rcprefents one
of thefe. It is evident, that in this cafe the value or
indication of the divifions of the long arm will be diffe-
rent, according to the point from which the fcale is
lufpended. The fame divifion which would indicate
20 pounds when CD is three inches, will indicate 30
|)ounds when it is two inches. As it would expofe to
chance of miftakes, and be olherwife troublefome to
make this redu*?tion, it is ufual to make as many divi-
ded fcales on the long arm as there are points of fufpen-
fion D on the Ihort arm ; and each fcale having its
own numbers, all trouble and all chance of miftake is
avoided.
But the range of this inftrument is not altogether at
the pleafure of the maker. Befides the inability of a
ilender bea"m to carry a great load, the divifions of the
fcale anfwering to pounds or half-pounds become verj"-
minute when the diftance CD is very fticrt ; and the
balance becomes lefs delicate, that i&, lefs fenfibly affe<Iil-
This 13 becaufe m 'Steel-ywJ""
fuch cafes the thicknefs which It is neceffary to give ~ »
the edges of the nails does then bear a fcnfible propor-
tion to the diftance CD between them; fo that when
the balance inclines to one fide, that arm is fenfibly
fhortened, and therefore the energy of the prepondera-
ting weight is leffened.
We have hitherto fuppofed the fteelyard to be in
equilibrio when not loddtd. Bat this is not necJeffary,
nor is it ufual in thole which are commonly made.
The long arm commonly preponderates confiderably.
This makes no difference, except in the beginning of
the fcale. The preponderancy of the long arm is equi*
valent to fome goods already in the fcale, fuppofe fout
pounds. Therefore when there are really 10 pounds
in the fcale, the counterpolfe will balance it when hang-
ing at the divifion 6. This divifion is therefore rec-
koned 1 o, and the reft of the divifions are numbered ac-
cordingly.
A fcientific examination of the fteelyard will con-
vince us that it is inferior to the balance of equal arms
in point of fenfibility : But it h extremely compendi-
ous and convenient ; and when accurately made and at-
tentively ufed, it is abundantly exad; for moft commer-
cial purpofes. We have feen one at Leipzig which has
been in ufe frnce the year 17 18, which is very fenfiblc
to a difference of one pound, when loaded with nearly
three tons on the fhort arm ; and we faw a waggort
loaded with more than two tons weighed by it ii^. about
fix minutes.
The fteelyard in common ufe in the different coun-
tries of Europe is of a conftruftion ftill Ampler than
what we have defcribed. It confitts of a batten of
hSrd wood, having a heavy lump A (fig. 3.) at one
end, and a fv/ivel-hook B at Ihe other. The gooc^s to
be weighed are fufpended on the hook, and the whole
is carried in a loop of whip-cord C, in which it is Aid
backward and forward, till the goods are balanced by
the weight Of the other end. The weight of the goods
is eftimated by the place of the loop on a fcale of divi-
fions in harmonic progrefliorl. They are marked (we
prefume) by trial with known weights.
The chief ufe that is now made of the fteelyard in
thefe kingdoms is for the weighing of loaded waggons
and carts. For this it is extremely convenient, and
more than fufnciently exaft for the purpofe in view.
We ftiall defcribe one or two of the moft remarkable ^
and we fhall begin with that at Leipzig already men-
tioned.
This fteelyard is reprefented in fig. 4. as run out,
and juft about to be hooked fo/ litting up the load.
The fteelyard itfelf is OPQ^ and is about 1 2 feet long.
The (hort arm PQ^has two points of fufpeniion c and^;"
and the ftirrup which carries the chains for holding tlie
load is made with a double hook, inftead of a double
eye, that it may be eafily removed from the one pin to
the other. For this purpofe the two books are con-
nefled above by an hafp or ftaple, which goes over the
arm of the ttetlyard like an arch. This is reprefented
in the little figure above the fteelyard. The fufpenfion
is ftiifted when the fteelyard is nm in under cover, by
hooking to this ftaple the running block of a fmall
tackle which hangs in the door through which the
fteelyard is run out and in. This operation is eafy^
5 F 3 but
S T E [7
Steel.yart!. tjut neceffaty, becaufe the ftirrup, chains, and the
» ftage on which the load 13 placed, weigh lome hun-
dreds.
The outer pin 3 Is 14 inches, and the inner one c is
feven inches, diftant from the threat nail which refts in
the (heers. The other arm is about i o| feet long-,
formed with an obtufe edge above. On the inchned
plane on each fide of the ridge is drawn the fcale of
weights adapted to the inner pin c. The fcales corre-
fponding to the outer pin b are drawn on the upright
lides. The counterpoife Aides along this arm, hang-
ing from a faddle-piece made of brafs, that it may not
contraft ruft. The motion is made eafy by means of
rollers. This is neceffary, becaufe the counterpoife is
greatly above a hundred weight. This faddle piece has
like two laps on each fide, on which are engraved ver-
nier fcales, which divide their refpedlive fcalfs on the
arm to quarters of a pound. Above the faddle is an
arch, from the fumrait of which hangs a little plum-
met, which fhows the equilibriam of the fteelyard to
the weigher, becaufe the fheers are four feet out of the
houfe, and he cannot fee their coincidence with the
needle of the fteelyard. Laftly, near the end of the
long arm are two p'ns d and e, for fufpending occafion-
ally two eke weights for continuing the fcale. Thcfe
are kept hanging on adjoining hooks, ready to be lifted
on by a little tackle, which is alfo hooked immediately
above the pins d and e.
The fcales of weights are laid down on the arm as
follows. Let the eke weijjhts appropriated to the pins
d and e be called D and E, and call the counterpoife
C. Although the ftirrup with its chains and ftage
weigh fomc hundreds, yet the length and fize of the
.arm OP gives it a preponderancy of 300 pounds.
Here, then, the fcale of weights muft commence. The
counterpoife weighs about 125 pounds. Therefore,
1. When the load hangs by the pin h, 14 inches
from the centre, the diftance from one hundred to ano-
ther on the fcale is about 1 1 inches, and the firft fcale
(on the fide of the arm) reaches from 300 to 1200.
In order to repeat or continue this, the eke-weight E
IS hung on the pin ^, and the counterpoife C Is brought
back to the mark 300 ; and the two together balance
1 1 00 pounds hanging at b. Therefore a fecond fcale is
begun on the fide of the arm, and continued as far out
as the firft, and therefore its extremity marks 200D ;
that Is, the counterpoife C at 2000 and the eke-weight
E at f balance 2000 hanging at b.
2. To continue the fcale beyond 20CO, the load-muft
be hung on the inner pin c. The eke-weight E is
taken off, and the eke weight D is hung on its pin
d. The^general counterpoife being now brought clofc
to the ftieers, it, together with the weight D at t/, ba-
lance 2000 pounds hanging at c. A fcale is therefore
begun on one of the inclined planes a-top, and conti-
nued out to 400Q, which falls very near to the pin d^
each hundred pounds occupying about five inches on
the arm. To complete the fcale, hang on the eke-
weight E on its pin e, and bring back the counterpoife
to the ftieers, and the three together balance 3800
hanging at c. Therefore when the counterpoife Is
now Aid out to 4000, it muft complete the balance with
5800 hanging at c.
It required a little confideratlon to find out what
proportion of the three weights C, D; aod £; would
1 S T E
make the repetitions of the fcale extend as fai* as pof- Sfec!
fible, having very little of it exprefled twice, or upon
two fcales, as is the cafe here. We fee that the fpace
orrefpondlng to a fingle pound is a very fenfible quan-
tity on both fcales, beino one-ninth or an inch on the
firft two fcales, and one twentieth on the laft two.
This very ponderous machine, with its mafly weights,
cannot be eafily managed without fome afliftance From
mechanics. It is extremely proper to have it fufcep-
tible of motion out and in, that it may be protected
from the weather, which would foon deftroy it by ruft.
The contrivance here is very effedlual, and abundantly
fimple.
When the fteelyard is not In ufe, it is fupported at
one end by the iron- rod F, into which the upper end
of the ftieer?^^ is hooked. The upper end of this rod has
a ftron^^, hook E, and a little below at a it is pierced
with a hole, in which is a very ftrong bolt or pin of
tempered fteel having a roller on each end clofe to the
rod on each fide, 'i'hefe rollei-s reft on two joifts, one
of which is reprefented by M N, which traverfe the
building, with juft room enouph between them to al-
low the rod F to hang freely down. The other end O
of the fteelyard refts in the bight of a large fiat hook
at the end of a chain W, which hangs down between
the joifts, and is fupported on them by a frame with
rollers H. This is counefted with the rollers at G,
which carry the ftieers by means of two iron-rods, of
which one only can be feen. Thefe connedl the two
fets of rollers in fuch a manner that they muft always
move together, and keep their diftance Invariable. This
motion is produced by means of an endlefs rope HI
ZLKVH pafling over the pulleys I and K, which turn
between the joifts, and hanging down in a bight be-
tween them. It is evident that by puUIng on the part
LZ we pull the frame of rollers in the direction GH,
and thus bring the whole into the houfe in the pofitior*
marked by the dotted figuie. It is alfo plain, that by
pulling on the part LK we force the roller frame and
the whole apparatus out again.
It remains to ftiow how the load is ralfed from the \
ground and weighed. When the fteelyard li run out
for ufe, the upper hook E juft enters into the ring
which hangs from the end of the great oaken lever
BCA about 22 feet long, turning on gudgeons at G
about 5 feet from this end. From the other end A
defcends a long Iron-rod SR, which has one fide formed
into a toothed rack that is afted on by a frame of
wheel-work turned by an endlefs fcrew and winch
Therefore when the hook E is well engaged in the
ring D, a man turns the winch, and thus brings down
the end A of the great lever, and raifes the load two
or three inches from the ground. Every thing is now
at liberty, and the weigher now manages his weights
on the arm of the fteelyard till he has made an equi«
librium.
We need not defcribe the operation of letting dow!^.
the load, difengaging the fteelyard from the great
lever, and bringing It again under cover. The whole
of this fervice is performed by two men, and may be
done in fucceflion by one, and is over in five or fix mi«-
nutes.
The moft compendious and economical machine of
this kind that we have feen is one, firft. ufed (we hav4
heard) for weighing the riders of race-horfes, and af-
terward
S T E
[ 78
l^jivi. terwards applied to the more reputable fcrvicc of weigh-
ing loaded carriages.
Fi'T. 5. is a plan of the machine. KLMN is the
plan of a redanyular box, which has a platform lid or
cover, of fize fufficlent for placing the wheels of a cart or
waggon. The box is about a foot deep, and is funk
into the ground till the platform cover is even with the
furface. In the middle of the box is an iron lever fup-
ported on the fulcrum pin i i, formed like the nail of
balance, which refts with its edge on arches of hardened
fteel firmly faftened to the bottom of the box. This
lever ^oes through one fide of the box, and is fkirnifli-
ed at"^ its extremity with a hard fteel pin / m, alfo
formed to an edge below. In the very middle of the
box it is crofledi by a third nail of hardened fteel g h,
alfo formed to an edge, but on the upper fide. Thefe
three edges are in one horizontal plane, as in a well
made balance.
In the four corners A, A', E', E, of the box are
firmly fixed four blocks of tempered fteel, having their
upper furfaces formed into fpherical cavities, well polifh-
ed and hard tempered. ABCDE reprefents the upper
edge of an iron bar of confid^rable ftrength, which refts
on the cavities of the fteel blocks in A and E, by means
of two hard fteel ftuds projeding^ from its under edge,
and formed into obtufe angled points or cones. Thefe
points are in a ftraight line parallel to the fide KN of
the box. The middle part C of this crooked bar
is faced with hard-tempered fteel below, and is t]iere
formed into an edge parallel to AE and KN, by \yhich
it refts on the upper edge of the fteel pin g h which is
in the lever. In a line parallel to AE, and on the up-
per fide of the crooked bar ACE, are fixed two ftuds or
points of hardened fteel I and D projeding upwards
above half an inch. The platform-cover has four fhort
feet like a ftool, terminated by hard fteel ftuds, which
are rtiaped into fpherical cavities and well polifiied.
With thefe it refts on the four fteel points B, B',p',D.
The bar ACE Is kneed in fiich a manner vertically,
that the points A, B, D, E and the edae C are all in
a horizontal plane. Thefe particulars will he better un-
derftood by looking at the elevation in fig. 6. What
has been Taid of the bar ACE maft be underftood as
alfo laid of the bar A' C E'.
Draw through the centre of the box the line ahc
perpendicular to the line AE, BD. It is evident that
the bar ACE is equivalent to a lever ahc, having the
fulcrum or axis AE refting wit!: its extremity C on the
pin h g and loaded at b. It is alfo evident that a C is
to a as the load on this lever to the prefture which it
exerts on the pin ^^,and that the fame proportion lubfifts
between the whole load on. the platform and the prefr
fure which it exerts on the pin g h. It will alfo appear,
on an attentive confideratlon, that this proportion is no-
wife deranged in whatever manner the load is placed on
the platform. If very unequably, the two ends of the pia
may be unequally prefTed, andjthe lever wrenched and
ftrained a little; but the total preffure Is not changed.
If there be now placed a balance or fteelyard at
the fide LK, in fuch a manner that one . end of it may
be dIrecEfly above the pin / m in the end of the lever
EOF, they maybe connefted by a wire, or flender rod,
and a weight on the other arm of the balance or fteel-
yard may be put in equilibrio with any load tb^.t can
be laid on the platform. A fmall countcrpoife being
6
I ] S T E
firft hang on to balance the apparatus when unloaded,- Sfei=?-yarc!,,
any additional weight will meafure the load really laid ,f
on the platform. If a ^ be to a r as i to 8, and EO
to E F alfo as i to 8, and if a common balance be
ufed above, 64 pounds on the platform will be balanced
by one pound in the fcale, and every pound will be ba-
lanced by ^th of an ounce. This would be a very con-
venient partition for moft purpofes, as it would enable us
to ufe a common balance and common weights to com-
plete the machine : Or it may be made with a balance
of unequal arms, or with a fteelyard.
Some have thought to improve this inftrument by
ufing edges Hke thofe of the nails of a balance, inftead'
of points. But unlefs made with uncommon accuracy,
they win render the balance very dull. The fmall de-
viation of the two edges A and E, or of B and D,
from perfect parallelifm to KN, is equivalent to a broad.
furface equal to the whole deviation. We imagine
that, with no extraordinary care, the machine may be
made to weigh within of the truth, which is ex-
a6l enough for any purpofe in commerce.
It is neceflary that the points be attached to the.
bars. Some have put the points at A and E m the
blocks of fteel faftened to the bottom, becaufe the cavi-
ty there lodged water or dirt, which foon deftroyedl
the inftrument with ruft. But this occafions a change
of proportion in the firft lever by any fhifting of the
crooked bars ; and this will frequently happen whea-
the wheels of a loaded cart are pufhed on the platform..-
The cavity in the fteel ftud fiiould have a little rira
round it, and it rTiould be kept full of oil. In a nice
machine a quarter of an inch of quickfilvei- would effeftu-
ally prevent all thefe inconveniences.
The fimpleft and moft economical form of this ma-
chine is to have no balance or fecond fteelyard ; but
to make the firft fteelyard EOF a lever of the firlf.
kind, viz. having the fulcrum between O and F, and
allow It to projeft far. beyond the box. I'he long or
outward arm of this lever is then divided into a fcale of
wel.i;hts, commencing at the fide of the box. A coun-
terpoife muft be chofen, fuch as will, when at the begin-
ning oi the fcale, balance the fmalleft load that will
prolaably be examined. It will be convenient to carry
on this fcale by means of eke-weights hung on at the
extremity of the lever, and to ufe but one moveable
weight.. By this method the divifions of the fcale
will have always one value. The beft arrangement is
as follows.: Place the mark O at the beginning of the
fcale, and let it extend only to 100, if for pounds ; or to
1 12, if for cwts.; or to 10, if for ftsnes ;,and let the
eke-weights be numbered, i, 2, 3, &c. Let the
loweft weight be marked on the beam. This is al-
ways to be added to the weight fhown- by the opera-
tion. Let the eke-weights ftand at thie end of the
beam, and let the. general counterpoife always hang at
O. When the.cart is put on the platform, the end of the
beam tilts up. Hang on the heavieft eke-weight that is
not fufRcient to prefs it down. Now complete the ba--
lance by Aiding out the counterpoife. Suppofe the
conftant load to be 3x21b. and that the counterpoife
ftands at 86, and that the eke^ weight is 9 ; we have the
load=986+3 1 2,= I 298 lbs
STEELE (Sir Richard), was born about the year
1676 in Dubhn ; in which kingdom one branch of the
family was poffcffed of a confiderable eftate in the
county ^
s
1 782 ] S T E
mte\ cotmty of Wexford. His father, a counfellor at law mer; whrch eticoiir^ired him, before the clofe of it to
in Dublin, was private fecretary to James duke of proceed upon the fame defign in the chaiafter oF the
but he was of Enghfh extraftion : and his Guardian, This was opened in the beginning of the
Steele,
Ormond
fon, while very young, being carried to London, he
put him to fchool at the Charter- houfe, whence he was
removed to Merton College in Oxford. Our author
left the univerfity, which he did without taking any
degree, in the full rcfolution to enter into the army.
7'his ftep was highly difpleafrng to his friends ; but
Che ardour of his paffion for a military life rendered
him deaf to any other propofal. Not being able to
procure a better ftation, he entered as a private gen-
tleman in the horfe guards, notwithftanding he there-
by loft the fucceffion to his Iriih eftate. However, as
he had a flow of good-nature, a generous opennefs
and franknefs of fpifit, and a fparkling vivacity of wit,
thefe qualities rendered him the delight ot the foldiery,
and procured him an enfign's commifBon in the guards.
In the mean time, as he had made choice of a profef
fion which fet him free from all the ordinary reftraints
in youih, he fpared not to indulge his inclinations in
the wildeft excefles. Yet his gaieties and revels did
not pafs without fome cool hours of refleAion ; it was
in thefe that he drew up his little treatife intitled
The Chriftian HerOy with a defign, if we may believe
himfelf, to be a check upon his paffions. For this
purpofe it had lain fome time by him, when he print-
ed it in 1701, with a dedication to Lord Cutts, who
had not only appointed him his private fecretary, but
procured for him a company in Lord Lucas's regiment
of Fufilccrs.
The fame year he brought out his comedy called The
Funeral, or Grief a la mode. This play procured him the
regard of King William, who refolved to give him fome
eflential marks of his favour ; and though, upon that
prince's death, his hopes were difappointed, yet, in the
beginning of Queen Anne's reign, he was appointed to
the profitable place of gazetteer. He owed this poft
to the friendlliip of lord Halifax and the carl of Sun-
derland, to whom he had been recommended by his
fchool- fellow Mr Addifon. That gentleman alfo lent
him an helping hand in promoting the comedy called
The Tender Hujb md^ which was afted in 1 704 with
freat fuccefs. But his next play. The Lying Lover,
ad a very different fate. Upon this rebuff from the
ftage, he turned the fame humorous current into ano-
ther channel ; and early in the year 1709, he began to
publifh the Tatler : which admirable paper was under-
taken in concert with Dr Swift. His reputation was
perfcflly eftablrflicd by this work ; and, during the
courfe of it, he was made a commiffioner of the ftamp-
duties in 17 ic. Upon the change of the miniilry the
fame year, he jolaed the duke of Marlborough, wlio
had feveral years entertained a friendfhip for liim ; and
upon his Grace's difmiffion from all employments in
,1711, Mr Steele addrelTed a letter of thanks to him
for the fervices which he had done to his cu jntry.
However, as our author ilill continuetl to hold his
place in the ftamp-office under the new adminiftr?.';Iaii,
he forbore entering with his pen upon political ir.b-
jedts ; but, adhering more clofely to Mr Addiion, he
dropt tlie Tatler, and - afterwards, by the afilita ce
tihiefiy of thaf fteady friend, ^e carried on the iaine
^lan much improved,'' undt r the title of The SpeSator.
The f'.iccefs of this" paper'^va3 equal to thafof the for-
Guardian.
year 1713, and was laid down in Odober the fame
year. But in the courfe of it his thoughts took a
Itronger turn to politics: he engaged with great warmth
againft the miniftry ; and being determined to profe-
cute his views that way by procuring a feat in the
houfe of commons, he immediately removed all oblta-
cles thereto. For that purpofe he took care to pre-
vent a forcible difmiffion from his poft in the ftamp of-
fice, by a timely rcfignation of it to the Earl of Oxford j
and at the fame time gave up a penf;on, which had been
till this time paid him by the queen as a fervant to the
late prince George of Denmark. This done, he wrote
the famous Guardian upon the demolition of Dunkirk,
which was publifhed Aug. 7. 1 7 13; and the parlia-
ment being diflblved next day, the Guardian was foon
followed by feveral other warm political trads againft
the adminillration. Upon the meeting of the new par-
liament, Mr Steele having been returned a member for
the borough of Stockbrid,s>e in Dorfctfhire, took his
feat accordingly in the houfe of commons ; but was ei:-
pelled thence in a few days after, for writing the clofe
of the paper called the Engltjhman, and one of his, poli-
tical pieces intitled the Cr'ifu. Prefently after his ex-
pulfion, he pubhfhed propofals for writing the hiftory
cf the duke of Marlborough : at tlie fame time he alfo
wrote the Spinjler ; and, in oppofition to ^.c Examiner y
he fet up a paper called the Reader, and continued pub-
lifhing feveral other things in the fame fpirit till the
death of the queen. Immediately after which, as a re-
ward'for thefe fervices, he was taken into favour by
her fucceffor to the throne, king George L He was
appointed furveyor of the royaf ftables at Hampton-
Court, governor of the royal company of comedians,
put into the commiffion of the peace for the county
of Middlefex, and in- 1:715 received the honour of
knighthood. In the filft parliament of that king, he
was chofen member 'for Boroughbridge in Yorkfhire ;
and, after the fuppreffion of the rebellion in the north,
was appointed one of the commiffioners of the forfeited
eftates in Scotland. In 1718, he buried his fecond
wife, who had brought him a handfome fortune and a
good eftate in Wales ; but neither that, nor the ample
additions lately made to his income, were fufiicicnt to
anfwer his demands. The thoughtlefs vivacity of his
fpirit often reduced him to little fliifts of wit for its
fupport ; and the projeA of the Fifti-pool this year-
owed its birth chiefly to the projeAor's neceffitiea.
This veffel was intended to carry fifh ahve, and with-
out wafting, to any part of the kingdom:, but not-
withftauding all his towering hopes, the fcheme proved
very ruinous to him ; for after he had been at an im«
menfe expence in contriving and building his veffel,
befides the charge of the patent, which he had pr©-
cured, it turned out upon trial to be a mere projed.
His plan was to bring falmon alive from the coaft of
Ireland ; but thefe fifh, though fupplied by this contri-
vance with a continual ftream of water while at fea,
yet uneafy at their confinement, fhattered themfclves to
pieces againft the fides of the pool ; fo that when they
were brought to market they were worth very little.
The following year he oppofed the remarkable peer-
age bill in the houfe of commons j and, during the
5 courfe
S T E
[ 7^3 1
S T E
couri'e of this . oppofition to the court, his licence for
aftinu- plays was revoked, and his patent rendered in-
effefitual, at the inftance of the lord chamberlain. He
did his utn^oft to prevent fo great a lofs ; and finding
every dire£t avenue of approach to his royal mafter
efFeftually barred agaiuft him by his powerhil adver-
fary, he had recourfc to the method of applying to the
public, in hopes that his complaints would reach the
ear of his fom-eign, thouijh in an indiretl courfe, by
that canal. In this fpirit he fomied the plan of a pe-
riodical paper, to be publifhed twice B-week, under the
title of the Theatre ; the firft number of vy hich came
out on the 2d of January 1719-20. In the mean time,
the m.isfortune of being out of favour at court, like
other misfortunes, drew after it a train of more. Du-
ring the courfe of this paper, in which he had aflumed
the feigned name of Sir Johri Edgar, he was outrage-
©ufly attacked by Mr Dennis, the noted critic, in a
very abufive pamphlet, intitled The Charader and Con-
duit of Sir John Edgar. To this infult our author
made a proper reply in the Theatre.
Wliile he was ftruggling v/ith all his might to fave
himlelf from ruin, he found time to turn his pen againil
the mifchievous South- Sea fcheme, which had nearly
brought the nation to ruin in 1720 ; and the next year
he was rcftored to his ofiice and authority in the play-
houfe in Drury-Lane. Of this it was not long before
he made an additional advantage, by bringing his ce-
lebiated comedy called the Confcious Lovers upon that
ftage, where it was afted with prodigious fuccefs ; fo
that the receipt there muft have been very confiderable,
befides the profits accruing by the fale of the copy,
and apurfe of 5C0L given to him by the king, to whom
he dedicated it. Yet notwithflanding thefe ample fup-
plies, about the year following, being reduced to the
utmoil extremity, he fold his fliare in the play-houfe ;
and foon after commenced alaw-fv.it with the managers,
v/hich in 17 16 was determined to his difadvantage.
Having now again, for the laft time, brought his for-
tune, by the mod heedlefs profuHon, into a defperate
condition, he was i-endered altogether incapable of I'e-
trieving the lofs, by being feized with a paralytic dif-
order, which greatly impaired his undcritanding. In
tiiefe unhappy circumitances, he retired to his feat at
L-anguanor near Caermarthen in Wales, where he paid
the laft debt to nature on the 21ft of September 1729,
and was privately ihterred, according to his own de-
iire, in the church of Caermarthen. Among his pa-
pers were found the manulcripts of two plays, one
called The Gentlemen, founded upon the eunuch of
Terence, and the other intitled The School of ASion,
both nearly finilhed.
Sir Richard was a man of undlfTembled and extea-
five benevolence, a friend to the friendlefs, and, far
as his clrcumftances would permit, the father of every
orphan. His works are chafte and manly. He was
a ilranger to the ntoft diftant appearance of envy or
malevolence ; never jealous of any man's growing re-
putation ; and fo far from an-ogating any pralfe to
himfelf from his conjunflion with Mr Addifon, that
he was the firil who defired him to dii-linguifh his pa-
pers. His greateft error was want of economy : how-
ever, he was certainly the moft agreeable, and (if we
may be allowed the exprefllon) the moft innocent rake
Uiat ever trod the rounds of diffipatioa.
STEEPLE, an appendage ereSed generaHy on the Steeple,
weftern end of churches, to hold the bells. Steeples ,
are denominated from their form, either fpires or towers: , ^"-^^""ST*^
the firft are fuch as afcend continually diminifhing either
conically or pyfamidally ; the latter are raere parallelo-
pipeds, and are covered a-tgp platform-like.
STEERAGE, on board a fhip, that part of the
fhip next below the quarter-deck, before the bulk head
of the great cabin where the fteeriman Hands, in moil
{hips of war. See Steering.
STEERING, in navigation, the art of dircfting
the fnip's way by the movements of the helm ; or of
applying its efforts to regulate her courfe when (he ad-
vailces.
The perfection of fteerlng confifts in a vigilant at-
tention to the motion of the ihip's head, fe as to check
every deviation from the line of her courfe in the firft
inftant of its motion ; and in applying as little of the
power of the helm as poffible. By this fhe will run
more nniform.ly in a ftraight path, as declining lefs to
the right and left ; whereas, if a greater effort of the
helm is employed, it will produce a greater declination
from the courfe, and not only increafe the difficulty
of fteering, but alfo make a crooked and irregular
tra£t through the water. See Helm.— The helmfman
fhould diligently watch the movements of the head by
the land, clouds, moon, or ftars ; becaufe, although
the courfe is in general repulated by the compafs, yet
the vibrations of the needle are rot fo quickly per-
ceived as the failles of the (hip's head to the right or
left, which, if not imm.ediately reftrained, will acquire
additional velocity in every inftant of their motion, and
demand a more powerful impulfe of the helm to re-
duce them ; the application of which will operate to
turn her head as far on the contrary fide oPher courfe,
— The phrafes uftd in fteering a fhip vary according
to the relation of the wind to her courfe. T'hus, if
the wind is fair or large, the phrafes ufed by the pilot
or officer who fuperintends the ileerage are, p/?r/,y/(7/'
board ^ and jleddy. 'i'he firft is intended to diredt the
fnip's couri'e farther to the right ; the fecoud is to
guide her farther to the left; and the laft is defigned
to keep her exaClIy in the line whereoit fiie advances,
according to the courfe prcfcribed. The excefs of tht-
firft and fecond movement is called hard-a-porl, and
hard-a-jlarboard ; the former of which gives her the
prtaixft poffible Inclination to the right, and the latter
an equal tendency to the left. — If, on the contrary, the
v/lnd is foul or fcant, the phiafes are luff, thus, and n*
nearer : the fiift of which is the order to keep )ier cloft
to the wind ; the iecond, to retain her in her prefeut
fituation ; and the third, to keep her fails full.
lu a fliip of war, the exercife of fteering the Hiip it;
ufually divided amongft a nuinber of the moft experr
failors, who attend the helm in their turns ; and are ac
cording])" called timoneers, from the French term timo-
nier, which fignlhes " helmfman." The fteerage is
conftantly fupervlfed by the quarter-mafters, who alfo
attend the helm by rotation. In merchant fliips every
leaman takes his turn in this fervice, being directed"
therein by the mate of the watch, or fome other officer,
— As the fafety of a fhip, and all contained therein, de-
pends in a great meafure on the fteerage or effefts of '
the helm, the apparatus by which it is managed fhould'
often be diligently examined by the proper officers. In-
deed^
■Stem.
S T E [ 784 ]
sSteganiom (Jeed, a negligence in this important duty appears al- fruits, &c.
moil unpardonable, when the fatal elfedls which may re-
f fult from It are duly confidered.
STEGANIUM. See Slate.
STEG ANOGRAPHY, the art 6f fecret writing,
or of writing in ciphers, known only to the perfons cor-
refponding. See Cipher.
STELLARIA, Stichwort, in botany : A genus
cf plants belonging to the clafs of deiandria^ and order
«f tr'igynia ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under
the 2 2d order, Caryophyllea. The calyx is pentaphyl-
lous and fpreading. There are five petals, each divided
into two fegments. I'he capfuk is oval, unilocular,
and polyfpermous. There are nine fpecies, the nemo-
rum, dichotoma, radians, holoftea, graminea, ceraitoides,
undulata, biflora, and arenaria. Three of thefe are Bri-
tifh plants, i. Nemorum, broad -leaved flichwort. The
Italks are about a foot or eighteen inches high, and
branched in a panicle at the top. The leaves are heart-
fhaped, and of a paler green on the under than on the
upper ,fide ; the lower ones being fupported by foot-
ftalks which are hairy and channelled ; the upper ones
are feffile. Th« calyx is ereft, fomewhat hairy and
white on the margins. The petals are bifid almoft to
the bafe. There is a fmall neftarium between the
longer flamina and the calyx. — 2. Holoftea, greater
ilichwort. The flalks are about two feet long ; the
petals are nearly twice, the length of the calyx, and di-
vided half-way to the bafe. It is common in woods
end hedges.- — 3. Graminea^ lefs flichwort. The ftem
is near a foot high. The leaves are linear and entire,
and tVe flowers grow in loofe panicles. It is frequent
in dry paftures. There is a variety of this fpecies call-
ed bog jlichivort^ with fmooth, oval, feflile leaves, and
few leaves, which grows often in wet marfhy places.
The ftalk is quadrangular ; the petals fcarcely longer
than the calyx, and bifid to the bafe.
STELLATE, among botanifts, expreffes leaves
which grow not leis than fix at a joint, and are arran-
ged like the rays of a flar.
STELLERA, German Groundsel, in botany:
A genus of plants belonging to the clafs of oQandr 'ta^
and order of monvgynia ; and in the natural fyftem ar-
ranged under the 3 1 fl order, V epreiulie. There is no
calyx. The corolla is quadrifid. 'I'he ftamina are very
fhort. There is only one feed, which is black. The fpe-
cies are two in number, pafTerina and chamaejafme.
STELLIONATE, in the civil law, a kind of crime
committed by a fraudulent bargain, where one of the
parties fells a thing for what it is not ; as if I fell an
eftate for my own which belongs to another, or convey
a thing as free and clear which is already engaged to
another, or put off copper for gold, &c.
STEM, in botany, that part of a plant arifing out
of the root; and which fuftains the leaveS} flowers.
Stenil
S T E
By wafliing and rubbing the ftems of Stes
trees,, their annual, iucreafe is promoted; for the me-
thod of doing which, fee the article Tree.
Stem of a Shi/), a circular piece of timber into which
the two fides of a fhip are united at the fore end :
the lower end of it is fcarfcd to the keel, and the
bowfprit refls upon its upper end. The ftem is form-
ed of one or two pieces, according to the lize of the
veffel ; and as it terminates the fhip forward, the end*
of the wale& and planks of the fides and bottom are let
into a groove or channel, in the midll of its furface,
from th& top to the bottom ; which operation is called
rab'tting. The outfide of the ftem is ufually marked
with a fcale, or divifion of feet, according to its per-
pendicular height from the keel. The intention of
this is to afcertain the draught of water at the fore-
part, when the fhip is in preparation for a fea- voyage,
&c. The ftem at its lower end is of equal breadth and
thicknefs with the keel, but it grows proportionally
broader and thicker towards its upper extremity. See
Sh IP-Building.
STEMMATA, in the hiftory of infeds, are three
fmooth hemifpheric dots, placed generally on the top
cf the head, as in moit of the hymenoptera and other
clafles. The name was firfl introduced by Linnseus.
STEMODIA, in botany : A genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs of didynamioy and order of angio-
Jpermia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging, under the
40th order, Perfonata. The calyx is quinquepartite j
the corolla bilabiated ; there are four ftaraina ; each of
the filaments are bifid, and have two antherae. The
capfule is bilocular. There is only one fpecies, the ma-
ritima.
STEMPHYLA, a word ufed by the ancients to
exprefs the hufks of grapes, or the remains of the
preffings of wine. The fame word is alfo ufed by fome
to exprefs the remaining mafs of the olives, after the
oil is preffed out.
STEMPHYLITES, a name given by the ancients
to a fort of wine preffed hard from the huflcs.
STEMPLES, in mining, crofs bars of wood in the
fhafts which are funk to mines.
In many places the way is to fink a perpendicular
hole, or fhaft, the fides of which they ftrengthen from
top to bottom with wood-work, to prevent the earth
from faUing in : the tranfverfe pieces of wood ufed to
this purpofe they call Jiemples, and by means of thefe
the miners in fome places defcend, without ufing any
rope, catching hold of thefe with their hands and feet.
STEMSON, in a fhip, an arching piece of timber
fixed within the apron, to reinforce the fcarf thereof,
in the fame manner as the apron fupports the fcarf of
the ftern. In large fhips it is ufually formed of two
pieces.
STENO»
[ 785 1
STENOG RAPH Y (a).
C H A P. 1.
THE art of ftenography, or fhort writing, was
known and praAifed by moft of the ancient civi-
lized nations. The Egyptians, who were diftinguifhed
for learning at an early period, at firft expreffed their
words by a delineation of figures called hieroglyphics y
A more conclfe mode of writing feems to have been
afterwards introduced, in which only a part of the
fymbol or pifture was drawn. This anfwered the
purpofe of ftiort-hand in fome degree. After them
ldeZ?«x-th€ Hebrews,' the Greeks, and the Romans*, adopted
r/, Dlog. different methods of abbreviating their words and fen-
TJtanb tences, fulted to their refpeftive languages. The iai-
;c/'^ ' tials, the finals, or radicals, often ferved for whole
words ; and various combinations of thefe foraetimes
formed a fentencc. Arbitrary marks were likewife em-
ployed to determine the meaning, aHd to affift legi-
bility ; and it feems probable that every writer, and
every author of antiquity, had fome peculiar method
of abbreviation, calculated to facilitate the expreffion of
his own fentiments, and intelligible only to himfelf.
It is alfo probable, that fome might by thefe means
take down the heads of a difcourfe or oration ; but few,
\rery few, it is prefumed, could have followed a fpeaker
through all the meanders of rhetoric, and noted with
precifion every fyllable, as it dropt from his mouth,
in a manner legible even to themfelves.
To arrive at fuch confumniate perfeftion in the art
was referved for more modern times, and is ftill an ac-
qulfition by no means general.
In every language of Europe, till about the clofe of
the 16th century, the Roman plan of abbreviating (viz.
fubftltuting the initials or radicals, with the help of ar-
bitraries, for words) appears to have been employed.
Till then no regular alphabet had been invented ex-
prefsly for ftenography, when an Engllfh gentleman of
the name of Willts invented and publifhed one (b). His
plan was foon altered and improved, or at leaft pretend-
ed to be fo. One alteration luccecded another ; and at
intervals, for a ferlcs of years paft, fome men of inge-
nuity and appliccttibn have compofed and publiihed
Vol. XVII. Part II.
fyftems of ftenography, and doubtlefs have themfelves
reaped all the advantages that attend it. But among
the various methods that have been propofed, and the
different plans that have been adopted by Individuals,
none has yet appeared fortunate enough to gain gene-
ral approbation ; or proved fufficiently fimple, clear,
and conclfe, to be univerfally ftudicd and praftiied.
Some fyftems are replete with unmeaning fymbols,
perplexing arbitraries, and ill-judged contraftions ;
which render them fo difficult to be attained by a com-
mon capacity, or ordinary apphcation, that it is not
to be wondered at if they have funk into negle£l, and
are now no longer known (c). Other fyftems, by being
too prolix, by containing a multiplicity of charafters,
and thofe charafters not fimple or eafily remembered,
become ineffeftual to the purpofe of expedition, and are
only fuperior in obfcurity to a common hand. Some,
again, not only rejedf all arbitraries and contraftions,
but even prepofitions and terminations ; which laft, if
not too lavifhly employed and badly devifed, highly
contribute to promote both expedition and legibility ;
and though they reduce their charsfters to fewer than
can poffibly exprefs the various modifications of found,
yet they make nearly one half of them complex. la
the difpofition of the vowels, there is the greateft per-
plexity in moft fyftems. A dot is fometimes fubftltu-
ted for all the vowels indifcriminately, and the judgment
is left to determine which letter out of fix any dot is in-
tended to exprefs.; or a minute fpace is allotted them;
fo that unlefs they be arranged with mathematical pre-
cifion they cannot be diftinguifhed from one another ;
but fuch a minute attention is inconfiftent with the
nature of ftiort-hand, which fhould teach us to write
down in a (hort time, as well as in fmall bounds, what
we wilh to preferve of what we h«ar. Nor is the plaa
of lifting the pen and putting the next confonant in
the vowel's place, in the middle of words, lefs liable to
objeftions ; or that of reprefenting all the vowels by
diftindl charafters, being obvioufly ill calculated for
facihty and difpatch, and confequently inadmiflible into
any ufeful iyftem.
It is to be confeffed, that the perfon who firft pro*
5 G ■ pofed
(a) The value of ftenography is not unknown to the leanied; and the care and fuccefs with which it has been
lately cultivated in thefe kingdoms will, in all probability, foon render it an objea of general attention. No
one, however, appears to us to have fimplified and improved the art fo much as Dr Mavor, author of Univerfal
Stenography, w\iO has liberally permitted us to prefent our readers with a complete view of his fcheme. To
thofe^'who wrfh to become proficients in Short-writing, we earneftly recommend his entire publication (print-
ed for Cadell and Davis, Strand, London), which in many fchools of the firft reputation now forms a deferved
clafs book. . ... ^, ,
(b) Mr Locke fays, a retnilar mtrthod of fhort-writing feems to be known and prattiled only in bntain. Ihia
is not now the cafe ; and indeed there is no reafon to doubt whether charaders may not be invented to exprefs
the various lounds, or letters, employed in any language, either ancient or modern.
(c) A lift of writers on ftenography, Mr Add y, Aldridge, Atigell, Anuet, Blandemore, Bloffet, Botley,
Bridges Byrom, Coles, Crofs, Dix, Everardt, Ewen, Facey, Farthing, Gibbs, Gr«me, Gurney, Heath, Holdf-
worth, Hopkins, Jeake, Labourer, Lane, Lyle, Macauley, Mafon, Mavor, Metcalfe, Nicholas, Palmer, Rich,
«.idpath. Shekon* Steele, Tanner, Taylor, Thickneffe, Tiffen, Webfter, Wefton, Williamfou, Wilhs, B. D.
and Willis, &c
S T E N O G
pofed the omifTion of vowels in the middle of words
(d), which it is obvious are not wanted, and invented
letters, which could be connefted as in a ritnnins/ hand
\\ ithout lifting the pen in the middle of the word, made
a real impiovcnient on the works of his predeceflbrs.
But, in fine, moft fyilems, either in their plan or execu-
tion, labour under fome capital defeft, attended with
circumftances highly difcouraging to,the learner, and
which in a great meafure defeat the end of their in-
vention, by being too complicated to be learned with
eafe and remembered with accuracy, or to be praflifed
with the expedition which is requifite ; and fo difficult
to be deciphered, that a man can fcarcely read what he
hasjuft written.
To obviate thefe defefts ; to provide againft prolixity
and concifenefs, which might occafion obfcurity ; to ex-
hibit a fyftem founded on the fimplell principles, which
might be eafily learned and read, and yet be capable of
the utmoft expedition — were the motives that gave rife
to the prefent attempt.
This method will be found different from ^ny yet
publifhed, and fuperior to all in the difpofition of the
vowels and the facility of arranging them ; the confu-
fion in placing which feems to detraft from the merit
of the beil performances on the fubjeft ; and it may-
be affirmed, without oflentation, that charafters fimpler
in their form, and more perfedl in their union, have not
been applied to the art of ftenography.
As well as it could be determined, the fimpleft charac-
ters are appropriated to the letters moft ufually em-
ployed : indeed, as far as poffible, thofe which are com-
plex have been rejefted ; but as it was an objeft always
kept in view that the writing fhould be on a line, a few
are admitted into the alphabet for that reafon.^
The charafters for the double and triple confonants
are the eafieft that could be invented, confiftent with
perfpicuity (e); for care has been taken to provide
againft all obfcurity which might avife by adopting
letters too fimilar in their formation ; and with re-
fpe£l to the prepofitions arid terminations, thofe which
occur moft frequently are exprefled by the fimpleft cha-
rafters, which will be found perfeftly eafy in their appli-
cation.
The arbitraries are few in number (f), and the arbi-
trary abbreviations,^ as they are entirely from the letters
of the alphabet, and chofen from fome thoufands of
words in common ufe, will well repay the learner for
an hour's trouble in committing them to memory.
The laft chapter lays down a fcheme of abbreviation,
comprifed in a few rules, perfeftly eafy to be underftood
and praftifed by proficients in this art, which we hope
will anfwer the expeftation of the author, and will be
R A P H Y. Chap.
found free from the perplexity complained of in many
fyftems where abbreviation is admitted. The principal
rules are new, are fo eafy, fo extenfive in their ufe, and
fo confiftent with expedition and legibility, if applied
with judgment, that they alone might I'uffice. The
learner is however advifed by no means to adopt any
of them, till experience has convinced him that they may
be ufcd without error or injury to legibility. All ab-
breviating rules are fuited to thofe only who have made
fome progrefs in the ftenographic art ; - for although
they certainly promote expedition in a wondcriful
manner, and afford- the greateft eafe to a proficient,
yet a-learner, as expedition is not his firft, though his
ultimate view, fhould admit of nothing that in the
leaft render-s the reading difficult.
CHAP. II.
The Englifh alphabet confifts of twenty-fix letters ;Thc 'cn«
fix of which are vowels, fl, i, o, u, andy.; and the principle
ether twenty confonants, J>f c, d,/,^, h,jy k, /, my w,'^enogra.
/>, q, r, J, 1', w, X, and z. P^y-
This alphabet, as is obferved by the beft grammari-
ans that have written on the language, is both defeflive
and redundant in expreffing the various modifications of
found *.
Cuftom or prejudice has affigncd fome letters a place, * ^"''"'i''
when others would with much more propriety ex-p'^'^'^! ,
prefs the fame found: and to this may be added, that Gram7'
feveral letters, fometimes in one word, feem to be ad-SberlJan'
mitted for no other reafon than to perplex a young be-^,^'^"'^" "
ginner or a foreigner, as an obftruftion to true pronun-
ciation, and to add to the apparent length of the word,
when they are entirely quiefcent and ufelefs. That this
is the genius of the orthography of our language muft
be perceived by the moft fuperficial obferver ; but no
modern tongue is abfolutely free from the fame ex-
ceptions. In particular, the French has a great
number of dormant letters, which, it is obvious, render
the pronunciation more difficult and perplexing to
learners (g).
But as it is neither our bufinefs nor our intentio'n to
propofe a mode of fphelling different from that in com-
mon ufe, when applied to printing or long-hand writing
(fince feveral innovators in orthography have fallen into
contempt, and their plans have been only preferved as
beacons to warn others of the folly of endeavouring to
fubvert eftablifhed principles (J ) ; we fhall only obferve,
that in ftenography, where the moft expeditious andL^^^/'
concife method is the beft, if confiftent with perfpicuity,
the following fimple rules are ftudioufly to be regarded
and praftifed.
Rule I. All quiefcent confonants in words are to
be
(d) Mr Byrora rejefted vowels entirely in the nuddle of words, as others before him had only done partially.
Without critically examining the executive part of his performance, which is very defeftive, it muft be owned,
that it is above the reach of human ingenuity to exceed his general plan j which for ever muft be the bafis of
every future rational fyftem.
* (e) Thofe for th and ch may be either made upright, or floping to the right*
(f) Thefe are not by any means prefcribed ; they may be employed or not according to the. fancy of the
learner.
(g) The Latin and Greek claim a juft fuperiority over every modern tongue in this refpeft. In them no,
confufion or doubt can arife from the manner of fp^Jling j and the reader can fcarcely be wrong (unlefs in qua«-
tity) in founding all the letters he fees.
S T E N O G
for
onfo-
ie
.XXXII
3
rule
ipli fl-
ap. II.
be dropped ; and the orthography to be direfled only
by the pronunciation : which beina; known to all, will
render this art attainable by thofe who cannot fpell
with precifion in long hand.
Rule II. When the abfence of confonants, not en-
tirely dormant, can be eafily known, they may often be
omitted without the leaft obfcurity.
Rule IIT. Two or fometimes more confonants may,
to promote greater expedition, be exchanged for a fingle
one of nearly fimilar found; and no ambiguity as to the
meaning cnfue (h).
Rule IV. When two confonants of the fame kind
or fame found come together, without any vowel be-
tween them, only one is to be expreficd; but if a vowel
or vowels intervene, both are to be written : only ob-
ferve, if they are perpendicular, horizontal, or oblique
lines, they muft only be drawn a fize longer than ufual;
and charafters with loops muft have the fize of their
heads doubled |{ .
Might is to be written mit, fight ^t, machine ma/h'in,
enough enuf, laugh !af, prophet profet, phyfics Jijiksy
through thro\ foreign foren, {owtrtign foveren^ pfalmyiw,
t' receipt refet, write r/Ve, wright r/V, ifland Hand, knavery
p navery, temptation temtation, knife n'lfe, ftick Jllk, thigh
th'i, honour onour, indiftment tndttement, acquaint ayaa/n^,
chaos /'<30J, &c.
td rule Strength Jirenth, length lenth, frienddiip frenjh'ip,
iplifi- conneft contk, commandment comanment, conjundl con-
Junt, humble humie, lumber lumer, {lumber JIumer, number
numer, exemplary exemlary, &c.
Rocks fox, afts aks or ax, fafts faks or fax, diftrifts
d't/lriks or dijirix, affefte afeks or afex, affli<Sls qfliks or
qflix, conquer konkr, &c.
•5 Letter leter, little litle, command comand, error eror,
'^j.g"'^ terror teror, &c. But in remember, moment, Jtfter, and
fuch like words, where two confonants of the fame name
have an intervening vowel, both of them muft be writ-
ten.
Thefe four rules, with their examples, being care-
fully confidered by the learner, will leave him in no
doubt concerning the difpofition and management of
the confonants in this fcheme of fliort-writing ; we fhall
therefore proceed to lay down rules for the application
of the vowels with eafe and expedition.
Rule T. Vowels, being only fimple articulate founds,
irels though they are the conneftivee of confonants, and em-
ployed in every word and every fyllable, are not necef-
fery to be inferted in the middle of words ; becaufe the
confonants, if fully pronounced, with the afliftance of
connexion, will always difcover the meaning of a word,
and make the writing perfedtly legible.
Rule II. If a vowel is not ftrongly accented in the
incipient fyllable of a word, or if it is mute in the final,
it is likewife to be omitted ; becaufe the found of the
incipient vowel is often iraplied in that of the firft con-
fonant, which will coniequently fupply its place.
Rule III. But if the vowel conftitutcs the firft or
laft fyllable of a word, or is ftrongly accented at its
beginning or end, that vowel is continually to be writ-
ten.
S
J rule
plili.
R A P H Y. 787
Rule IV. If a word begins or ends with two or
more vowels though feparated, or when there is a coa-
lition of vowels, as in dipthongs and tripthongs ; only
one of them is to be exprefted, which muft be that
which agrees beft with the pronunciation.
Rule V. In monofyllables, if they begin or end
with a vowel, it is always to be inferted, unlefs the
vowel be e mute at the end of a word.
Such are the general principles of this art ; in vindi-
cation and fupport of which it will be needlefs to offer
any arguments, when it is confidered that brevity and
expedition are the chief objefts, if confiftent with legi-
bility; and the fubfequent fpecimens in the orthography
recommended will, we hope, be fufficient to fliow that
there is no real deficiency in the laft mentioned parti-
cular, g
He who md us mft be etrnl, grt, nd mnptnt. It is 'Specimen
ur dty, as rfnlbngs, to frv, Iv, nd oby hm.~A mn tht^^'^^^^'"'"^'*
wd avd blm, fhd be frkmfpk in al hs axns, nd ndvr wth°j^ ^'"^
al hs mt to pis evry bdy. — I wd nt frm any knxns wthphy.
a mn who hd no rgrd tr hmslf; nthr wd I blv a mn who
hd ons tld me a 11. — Onr is of al thngs the mft dfklt to
prfrv ntrnfhd ; nd whn ons mpchd, Ik the chftty of a
wmn, nvr fhns wth its wntd Iftr. — Wth gd mnrs,
kmplfns nd an efy pit adrs, mny fnk a fgr in the wrl,
whs mntl ablts wd flcrfly hv rsd thm abv the rnk of a
ftmn; — Tdlns is the prnt of a thfnd msfrtns, wch ar nvr
flc by the ndftrs : it is a pn nd a pnfhmnt of itslF, nd
brngs wnt nd bgry in itstrn. — Vrtu is the frft thng tht
fhd be rgrdd ; it is a rwrd of itslf ; mks a mn rfpktbi
hr, nd wl mk hm etrnly hpy hrftt. — Prd i? a mft prnfs
psn, wch yt ws plntd by hvn in ur ntr, to rs ur emlsn
to imtl grt nd wrthy krktrs or axns, to xt in us a si fr
wht is rt nd gft, nd a Idbl ndgnfn gnft oprfrs nd wrkrg
of any knd of nkty; in fhrt, to mk us st a prpr vlu upn
urflvs, nd dfps a wrthls flo, hu evr xltd. Ths fr prd is
a vrtu, nd my gftly be kkl a grtns of (1. Bt prd, Ik
othr pfns, gnrly fxs upn rng obgks, or is apld in rng
prprfns. Hu kmn is it to fe a rtch whm evry vs hs
rndrd mfrbl, nd evry fly kntmtbl, vlui^ hmllf on hs hi
brth, nd bftng ths ilftrs nffttrs, of whm he nhrts
nthng bt the nm or ttli nfftrs who if thy nu hm, wd
dfn thr dpndnt wth kntmt. But al prd of ths frt is
fly, nd evr to be avdd.
CHAP. HI.
As the whole of this art depends upon a regular me.
thod and a fimple alphabet, we have not only endea-
voured to eftablifh the former on fatisfaftory principles,
but have been careful to appropriate, according to the
comparative frequency of their occurrence, fuch charac-
ters for the letters as, after repeated trials and altera-
tions, were conceived to be the bdt adapted for dif-
P^^'^' . . . 0
The ftenographic alphabet confifts of 18 diftindl cha-gtenogrs-
railers (viz. two for the vowels and the reft for thephic alpha*,
confonants), taken from lines and femicircular curves
the formation and application of which we fhall now
explain, beginning with the vowels.
For the three firft vowels, a, and/*, a comma is ap.
5 G 2 propriated
(h) By this rule likewife q and u in the middle of words, but never in the beginning, may be exchanged
for k and/, when they admit of an eafier connediou with the following charadler, or will make the writing ap-
^88
STENOGRAPHY.
Chap. 1
10
II
Circles,
11
Curves
lines.
propriatcd I'n difierent pofitiors ; and for the other
three, o, u, and y, a point. The corama and point,
when applied to a and o, is tp be placed, as in Plate
CCCCLXXXII. at the top of the next charafter ; when
ior e and w, oppofite to the middle ; and when for t and
J, at the bottom.
This arrangrement of the vowels is the moft fimple
and diilindl that can eafily be imagined. Places at the
top, the middle, and the bottom of characters, which
make three different pofitions, are as eafily diftinguifhed
from one another as any three feparate charafters could
be ; and a comma is made with the fame facility as a
point.
Simple lines may be drawn four different ways ; per-
pendicular, horizontal, and with an angle of about 45
degrees to the right and left. An afcendihg oblique
line to the right,' which will be perfeftly diilindt from
the reft when joined to any other charafter, may like-
wife be admitted. Thcfe charaftcrs bein<7 the fimpleft
in nature, are affigned to thofe five conlonants which
moll frequently occur, viz. /, r, t, c hard or k, and c fofc
or J.
Every circle may be divided with a perpendicular and
horizontal line, fo as to form likewile four diitina c'ha-
rafters. I'hefe being the next to lines in the fimplicity
of their formation, we have appropriated them for dy
n, and m.
and The charafters expreffing nine of the confonants are
all perfeaiy diftina from one another ; eight only re-
main which are needful, viz. /, g orj, h, p, q, 'o, w,
and X. To find charafters for which we muft have _re-
courfe to mixed curves and lines. The charaaers which
we have adopted are the fimpleil in nature after thofe
already applied, admit oF the eafieft joining, and tend
to preferve lineality and beauty in the writing.
It muft be obferved tli^it we have no charaaer for c
when it has a hard found, as in a/fiL-' ; or foft, as in
city ; for it naturally takes the found of k or j, which
in' all cafes will be fufficient to fupply its place.
R likewife i5 reprefented by the fame charafter as / ;
only with this difference, r is written with an afcending
ftroke (i), and / with a defcending ; which is always
to be known from the. manner of its union with the
following charaaer ; but in a fcw^ monofyllables where
r is the only confonant in the word, and confequently
ftands alone, it is to be made as is fhown in the alpha-
bet for diftlnaion's fake.
Z, as it is a letter feldom employed in the Englifti
language, and only a coarfer and harder expreflion of j,
muft be fupplied by s whenever it occurs ; as for Zedc'
kiah write Sedeiiah, Sec.
CHAP. IV.
The prepofitlons and terminations in this fcheme are
fo fimple, that the greateft benefit may be reaped from
them, and very little trouble required to attain them ; 13
as the incipient letter or the incioient confonant of all ^"'"^^
the prepohtions and or leveral 01 the terminations ts^p^itgy,
ufed to exprefs the whole. But although in Plate nations,
CCCCLXXXII. fufficient fpecimens are given of the
manner of their application, that the learner of lefs in-
genuity or more flow perception may have every affift-
ance, we have fubjoincd the tollowing direaions.
Rule 1. The prepofition is always to be written
without joining, yet fo near as plainly to {how what
word it belongs to ; and the belt way is to obferve tiie
fame order as if the whole was to be conneaed.
Rule 11. A prepofition, though the fame letter?;
that conftitute it may be met with in the middle or end
. of a word, is never to be ufed, becaufe it would expofs
to obfcurity.
Rule III. Obferve that the prepofition omni is ex-
preffed by the vowel 0 in its proper pofition ; and for
anti, arita, ante, by the vowel a, which the radical part
of the word will eafily diftinguifh from being only fimple
vowels.
The fiift rule for the prepofitions is (allowing fuch
exceptions as may be feen in the Plate) to be obferved
for the terminations ; and alfo the fecond mutatis mutan-
dis ; except that whenever Jis, Jus, fys, cious, tious, and
ces occur, they ate to be expreffed as direacd in the
fourth rule for the conlonants, whe};her in the begin,
ning, middle, or end of words (k).
Rule IV. The terminative charaaer for tion, Jion,
cion, cian, tian, is to be exptefled by afmall circle joined
to the neareft letter, and turned to the right ; and the
plurals tions^ Jions, ctonsy dans, tians, tience, by a dot oa
the fame fide.
Rule V. The terminative charaaer for ing, is to be
expreffed likewife by a fmall circle, but drawn to the
left hand ; and its plural ings by a dot (l).
Rule VI. The plural fign s is to be added to the
terminative charaaers when neceflary.
Rule VII. The feparated terminations are never to
be ufed but in polyfyllables or words of more fyllablea
than one.
Thefe rules duly obferved will point out a method as
cencife and elegant as can be defired, for expreffing the
moft frequent and longeft prepofitions and terminations
in the Englilh language. If it fliould be thought ne-
ceffary to Increaie their number by the addition of
others, it will be an ealy matter for any one oi the leaft
difccrnment to do fo, by proceeding on the principles
before laid down.
CHAP. V.
Though a tnore concife method of writing, or more Rules
numerous abbreviations, may not be indifpenfably ne-a1ibre
ceflTary, if the foregoing direaions be praaifed for a^^*"»»
confiderablc time, yet contradlions will be found ex-
tremely
(0 The charaaer for h, whcnflineallty requires it, may be made from the bottom and ^^t^^.JJ" f^^^
CCCCLXXXII. ) And often h may be omitted entirely, or a vowel may be fubttituted in its ftead, without any
iniurv to legibility, it being rather a breathing than letter. r 1. /• e u
•^(7) But k a L words where three horizontal charaaers meet, it will^e better to exprefs the>, &c. by ths
femielliptical charaaer in Plate CCCCLXXXII. oppofite tious. ■ r fh. Ufter (fa-
(l) In horizontal charaaers, by the left hand is meant the top, and by the nght the ^P^.^rf ^
i«/joined, Plate CCCCLXXXUO I" other gharaaers the right and left pofitions will naturally be knowa.
V.
S T E N O G
tremely ufePiil and convenient to thofe who have attain-
ed a proper knowledge of the fubjeft, and lead to a
greater degree of expedition, at the fame time that they
diminifh the labour of writing. It has been obferved in
the introduftion, that abbreviations are only to be em-
ployed by proficients in this art ; becaiife expedition is
not the firft, though the ultimate, objeft in view : and
that an eafy legibility is of the utmoft confequence to
the learner ; which, however, cannet be preserved, if
he adopts too foon thofe very rules which in time will
afford him the greateft eafc when apphed with judge-
ment.
The following fiiort and praftical rules will be found,
we hope, fully adequate to every purpofe for which they
were intended, and are far fuperior in the facility of
their application to any which we have feen.
Rule I. The ufual abbreviations in long-hand are al-
ways to be followed; as Mr for Mafter, M. D. for Doc-
tor of Phyfic, and Abp. for Archbiftiop, &c.
Rule II. Subftantives, adjcftives, verbs, and parti-
ciples, when the fenfe will diredl to the meaning, are
to be expreffed by their initial confonant with the di-
ftinguifliing raarks exhibited in Plate CCCCLXXXII.
viz. a fubftantive muft have the dot exadlly over its ini-
tial confonant ; an adjedlive muft have a dot under it ;
a verb is to be expreffed by a comma over its initial con-
fonant; and a participle by a comma under (m). Thefe
being the four principal parts of fpeech will be fuffi-
cient ; and an adept will never be at a lofs to know
when he can with fafety apply this rule to them.
Rule III. To render the writing more legible, the
laft letter of the word may be joined to the firft, and
the proper mark applied.
Rule IV. The conftituent or radical part of words,
efpecially if they are long, will often ferve for the whole,
or fomet'imes the firft fyllable ; as, we ought to mode-
rate our ex, by our circum. ; a man's man. commonly
fliape his /or. _ •
Rule V. All long words without exception may
have their prepofitions or terminations exprefled by the
incipient confonant of fuch prepofition or termination.
Rule VI. When there is a great dependence be-
tween the parts of a fentence, the initial letter will often
fuffice ; as is the capital of Great B. ; the eldeft .S".
of the kin;.; of Great B is ftyled prince of W. Every
one, it is prefumed, will allow this to be perfeftly le-
gible in long- hand, then why may it not in ftenogra-
phy ?
Rule VTI. The terminatiens nefs and lefs may be
omitted ; as faithfulnefs is only to be written faithful ;
fornvardnefs^forivard; heedlefs, heed i Jiubbornnefsyjiub.
boriiy Sec.
Rule VIII. The fecond and third perfons of verbs,
ending in eth and ejl, may be expreffed by s ; as, he
ioves, thou teaches ; inftead of he kveth, thou teachefi :
or even without s ; as, he /ow, &c.
Rule IX. Words may often be entirely omitted,
and yet no ambiguity enfue ; as, In begtnntng God crea-
R A P H Y.
ted heaven and earth, for In the beginning God created
the heaven and the earth.
Rule X. When there is an immediate repetition of
a fentence or word, a line is to be drawn under the fen-
tence or word to be repeated ; as, Amen, Amen, is to
written Amen ; but if any words intervene before a
78?
word or fentence is to be repeated, the line muft be
drawn as before, and a a or mark of omiffion placed
where the repetition fhould begin; as. Is it jufl the tn-
n^jcents Poould he condemned a reviled \
The CoNTBNTS of the Stenographic Platks.
Fabricius's Reply to Pytrhus.
As to my poverty, you have indeed. Sir, been rightly Plate
informed. My whole eftate confills in a houfe of but="CLX}cxi«x
mean appearance, and a little fpot of ground, from
which by my own labour I draw my fupport. But if
by any means you have been perfuaded to think, that
this poverty makes me lefs confidered in my country,
or in any degree unhappy, you are extremely deceived.
I have no reafon to complain of fortup.e, Ihe fupplies me
with all that nature requires ; and if I am without fu •
perfluities, I am alfo free from the defire of them.
With thefe I confefs I Ihould be more able to fuccour
the neceffitous, the only advantage for \-ihich the weal-
thy are to be envied ; but as fmall as my poffeffions are,
I can ftill contribute fomething to the fupport of the
ftate and the affiftance of my friends. With regard to
honours, my country places me, poor as I am, upon a
level with the richett : for Rome knows no qualifica ■
tions for great employments but virtue and ablHty. She
appoints me to officiate in the moft auguft ceremonies
of rehgion ; Ihe entrufts me with the command of her
armies ; fhe confides to my care the moft important ne-
gotiations. My povertytdoes not leffen the weight and
influence of my counfels in the fenate ; the Roman
people honour me for that very poverty which you con-
fider as a difgrace ; they know the many opportunities
I have had in war to enrich myfelf without incurring,
cenfure ; they are convinced of my difinterefted zeal
for their proiperity ; and if I have any thing to com-
plain of in the return they make, it is only the excefs
of their applaufe. What value then can I fet upon
your gold and filver ! What king can add any thing to
my fortune ! Always attentive to difcharge the duties
incumbent on me, I have a mind free from felf-reproach,
and I have an honeft fame. Dodjley's Preceptor.
Letter to a Friend agatnji luajle of Time.
Convcrfe often with yourfelf, and neither lavifh your
time, nor fuffer others to rob you of it. Many' of our
hours are ftolen from us, and others pafs infenfibly away;
but of both thefe loffes the moft fliameful is that which
happens through our own negleA. If we take the
trouble to obferve, we fhall find that one confiderable
part of our life is fpent in doing evil, and the other in
doing
f The dot or comma being placed thua will never occafion them to be miftaken for vowels, becaufe they
fhould always be on one fide or other ; whereas the mark for parts of.fpeech muft eouftantly be placed exaiUj^
t>ver or under.
S T E N 0
dompr nothinw, or in doing what we fhouldnot do. We
dsn't feem to know the value of time, nor how precious
a day is ; nor do we confider that every moment brinirs
MS nearer our end. Refleft upon this, I entreat you,
and keep a ftnft account of time. Procraftination is
the moft dangerous thing in h'fe. Nothing is properly
outs but the inftant we breathe in, and all the reft is
nothing ; it is the only good we poffefs ; but then it is
fleeting, and the firft comer robs us of it. Men are fo
weak, that they think they oblige by giving of trifles,
and yet reckon that time as nothing for which the moft
grateful perfon in the world can never make amends.
X.et us therefore confider time as the moft valuable of
all things ; and every moment fpent, without fome im-
proyement in virtue or fome advancement in goodnefs,
as the greateft fublunary lofs.
St P aul's Speech before ^grlppa and Fejlus.
I think myfelf happy, king Agrippa, that I fhall an-
iwer for myfelf this day before thee, touching all things
whereof I am accufcd of the Jews : efpecially becaufe
i know thee to be expert in all cuftoms and queftions
which are among the Jews, wherefore I befeech thee to
hear me patiently. My manner of life from my youth,
which was at firft among mine own nation at Jerufalem,
know all the Jews, which knew me from the begin-
ning ( if they would teftify), that, after the ftraiteft feft
of our religion I lived a Pharifee. And now I ftand
and am judged for the hope of the promife made by
God unto our fathers : unto which promife our twelve
tribes inftantly ferving God day and night hope to
come ; for which hope's fake, king Agrippa, I am ac
cufed of the Jews. Why ftiould it be thought a thing
incredible with you, that God fhould raife the dead,
when God himfelf has given afTurance of it unto all
men, in that he hath raifed Chrift from the dead ? As
for my own part, moft noble Feft us, I own I once ve-
nly thought that even I myfelfought to do many things
cont^-ary to the name of Jefus of Nazareth. Which
thing I alfo did in Jerufalem. I punifhed the faints
oft in every fynagogue, and compelled them to blaf-
pheme>; and being exceedingly mad againft them, I
pcrfecuted them even unto ftrange cities. In purfuit
of which, as I went to Damafcus, with authority and
-commiffion from the chief priefts: At mid-day, 0 king,
I faw in the way a light from heaven, above the bright-
nefs of the fun, (hining about me, and them which jour-
neyed with me. And when we were all fallen to the
earth, I heard a voice fpeaking unto me, and faying in
the Hebrew tongue, Saul, Saul, why perfecuteft thou
me ? It IS hard for thee to kick againft the pricks.
And I faid. Who art thou, Lord ? And he faid, I am
Jefus whom thou perfecuteft. But rife, and ftand up-
on thy feet: for I have appeared unto thee for this pur-
pole, to make thee a minifter and a witnefs both of
thefe things which thou haft feen, and of thofe things
xn which I will appear unto thee. Whereupon, O king
Agrippa, 1 was not difobedient to the heavenly vifion •
tut ftiewed firft unto them of Damafcus, and at Jerul
lalem, and throughout all the coafts of Judea, and then
to the Gentiles, that they fhould repent and turn to
God. tor thefe caufes the Jews caught me in the
temple, and went about to kill me. Having therefore
rtotained help of God, I continue unto this day, wit-
adling both to fmall and great; faying none other things
G R A P H y. Ch
than thofe which the prophets and Mofes did fay fliould
come : That Chrift ftiould fuffer, and that he fhould be
the firft that fhould rife from the dead, and fhould fhow
light unto the people, and to the Gentiles. This is the
real truth : Believe me, I am no peftilent fellow, nor
mover of fedition ; but always endeavour all that lies
in me to preferve a confcience void of offence toward^
God and towards man : nor can the Jews prove the
things whereof they now accufe me. Neither am I,
Feftus, befides myfelf ; but fpeak thus freely before the
king, becaufe he knows thefe things to be fad ; yea, I
am fully perfuadcd the king knows them all to be faft;
for they vyere not done in a corner. King As^rippa,
beheveft thou the prophets? I know that thou believeft.
And would to God that not only thou but alfo all that
hear me this day, were altogether fuch as I am except
thefe bonds. Holmes's Rhetoric.
Pope to Atterhury.
Once more I write to you as I promifed, and this
once I fear will be the laft ; the curtain will foon be
drawn between my friend and me, and nothing left but
to wifti you a long good night ; may you enjoy a ftate
of repofe in this life not unlike that fleep of the foul
which fome have believed is to fucceed it, where we lie
utterly forgetful of that world from which we are gone,
and ripening for that to which we are to (ro. If you
retain any memory of the paft, let it only image to
you what has pleaftd you beft ; fometimes prefent a
dream of an abfent friend, or bring you back an agree-
ab e converfation. But, upon the whole, I hope you
will think lefs of the time paft than the future ; as the
former has been lefs kind to you than the latter infal-
libly will be. Do not envy the world your ftudies :
I hey wiU tend to the benefit of men, againft whom
you can have no complaint ; I mean, of all pofteWty •
and, perhaps, at your time of life, nothin^r dfe is worth
your care. What is every year of a wife man's life
but a cenfure or critic on the paft? Thofe v> hofe date is
the fhorteft, live long enough to laugh at one half of it:
xhe boy defpifes the infant, the man the boy, the phi-
lofopher both, and the Chriftian all. You may now be-
gin to think your manhood was too much a puerility ;
and you will never fuffer your ape to be but a fecond
infancy. The toys and baubles of your childhood
are hardly now more below you than thofe toys of
our riper and our declining years ; the drums and rat-
tles of ambition, and the dirt and bubbles of avarice.
At this time, when you are cut off from a little fociety,
and made a citizen of the world at large, you fhould
bend your talents not to ferve a party, or a few, but all
mankind. _ Your genius fhould mount above that mift,
in which Its participation and neighbourhood with earth
hath long involved it : To ftiine abroad, and to heaven,
ought to be the bufinefs and the glory of your prefent
lituation Remember it was at fuch a time that the
greateft lights of antiquity dazzled and blazed the moft •
m their retreat, in their exile, or in their death. But
why do I talk of dazzling or blazing? it was then that
they did good, that they gave light, and that they be-
came guides to mankind. , Thofe aims alone are wor-
thy of fpirits truly great, and fuch I therefore hope
wiU be yours. Refentment indeed may remain, per-
haps cannot be quite extinguifiaed, in the nobleft minds;
but revenge will never harbour there: Higher principles
thaa
^ap. V. , S T E N O G
than thofe of the firft, and better principles than thofe
of the latter, will infallibly influence men whole
_ thoughts and whofe hearts are enlarged, and caufe them
to prefer the whole to any part of mankind, efpecially
to fo fmall a part as one's finale felf. Believe me, my
Lord, I look upon you as a fpii-it entered into another
life, as one .juft upon, the ed^e of immortality, where
the paffions and affcftions mufl: be much more exalted,
and where you ought to defpife all little views and all
mean retrofpedb. Nothing is worth your looking back ;
R A P H Y.
and therefore look forward, and make (as you can) the
world look after you ; but take care it be not with
pity, but with efteem and admiration. I am, with the
greateft fincerlty and paffion for your fame as well a3
happinefs, your, &c.
The above molt charming and moft affeftionate let-
ter was written about a month before Atterbury bi-
fhop of Rochefter was fent into banifhoient, and is unt--
verfally admired.
79t
S T E
- STENTOROPHONIC tube, a fpeaking trumpet;
thus called from Stentor, a perfon mentioned by Homer.
See Trumpet.
J STEP, in a (hip, a block of wood fixed on the decks
or bottom of a fhip, and having a hole in its upper fide,
fitted to receive the heel of a mail or capftern. The
fteps of the main and foremafts of every fhip reft upon
the kelfon, to which they are firmly fecured by knees,
bolts, or fpike-nails. The ftep of the mizen-maft ufually
refts upon the lower deck.
STEPHANIUM, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 47th or-
der, Stellata. The calyx is monophyllous, turbinated,
and quinquepartite ; the corolla is monopetalous, fun-
nel-fhaped, having its tubes curved and ventricofe : the
pericarpium is a bilocular berry containing two feeds,
flattened on one fide and round on the other. This
genus is nearly allied to that oi Pfychotrta. There is
only one fpecies, viz. Guianmfe^ a native of the warmer
parts of America.
STEFHANOPHORUS, in antiquity, the chief
prieft of Pallas, who prefided over the reft. It was
ufual for every god to have a chief prieft ; that of Pal-
las was the Stephanophorus juft mentioned, and that of
Hercules was called Dadouchus. — Stephanophorus was
alfo a prieft that aflifted the women in the celebration of
the feftival Thefmophoria.
STEPHANUS (Byzantinns), an able grammarian,
who lived in the 5th or 6th century. Pie wrote a Dic-
tionary, in which he made a great number of obferva-
tions, borrowed from mythology and hiftory, which
fhowed the origin of cities and colonics, of which we
have nothing remaining but a mean abridgment by
Hermolaus the grammarian ; but from that work the
learned have received great light ; and Sigonius, Ca-
faubon, Scaliger, Salraafius, &c. have employed them-
felves in illuftrating it.
STEPHEN, king of England. See
n° 108, &c.
Stephen, or St Stephen's Day ^ a feftival of the Ghrii
flian church, obferved on the 26th of December, in
memory of the fir ft martyr St Stephen.
STEPHENS, a family of printers defervedly celc'-
brated. They floufiflied at the revival of learning,
and contributed a great deal towards difpelling the cloud
of ignorance which had fo long overlhadowed Europe*
Some of the claffics before the 1 6th century were in a
great meafure loft, and all of them were exceedingly
corrupted. By their abilities and indefatigable induftry
thefe, defeats were fupplied,and.the learned were furnilh-
S T E
cd with beautiful and correft editions of the Greek and Stephen*
Roman authors. Thus the world was not only fuppHed
with an inexhauftible fund oramufement and inftruftion
in thefe ancienc writings ; but it is to the ardour which
they infpired, and to the model of elegance which they
difplayed, that the prefent advanced ftate of hterature
is in a great meafure owing^
Henry Stephens, the firft of thefe illuftrious men,
was born in France, foon after the difcovcry of print-
ing, perhaps about the year 1465. He fettled as a
printer at Paris, and was probably patronized by Louis
XII. A great proportion of the books which he pub-
lifhed were Latin : They are printed in the Roman
letter, and are not inelegant, though fome of them
abound rather too much in contraftions. He died about
the year 1520, and left behind hira three fons, Francis,
Robert, and Charles. His widow married Simon de
Colines {Coltnaus in Latin), who thus got pofleflion
of Henry's printing:houfe, and continued the profeffion
till his death.
Gf Francis, the eldeft fdn, little more is known
than that he carried on bufinefs along with his father-in-
law CoHnaeus, and that he died at Paiis in 1550.
Robert Stephens, the fecond fon, was born in 1505.
In his youth he made great proficiency in the Roman,
Greek, and Hebrew languages, and at the age of 1 9
had acquired fo much knowledge, that his father-in-law
entrufted him with the management of his prefs. An
edition of the New 'i'eftament was publiftied under his
infpeftion, which gave great offence to the Paris divines^
who accufed him- of herefy, and threatened to prevent
the fale of the book. Soon after he began bufinefs him^
felf, and rnarried Perrete the daughter of Jodocus Ba-
diusj^ a printer and an author. She was a woman of
learning, and underftood Latin, which indeed was the
neceflary confequence <5f her fituation. Her hufband
always entertained a number of learned men as correctors •
of the prefs : Being foreigners, and of different nations,
they made ufe of no other language but Latin ; which
Perrete being accuftomed to hear, was able in a fhort time
not only tounderftand, but even to fpeak with tolerable
eafe.
In 1 53 1 he publifhed his Latin " Thefaurus a ;
work of great importance, which he laboured at for two
years. The mark which he put upon all his books waa
a tree branched, with a man looking upon it, and thefe
words no/'t ahum fapere, to which he fometimes added
fed time. In 1539, Francis I. made him his printer, .
and ordered a new fet of elegant types to be founded
for him. His frequent editions of the New Teftament
gave great offence to the dodors of the Sorbonne, who-
2- accufed;
S T E ^ [ 79
Stffplien?, accufed 'him of herefy for his annotation?, and infifted
^""^T"^ upon the fuppreflion of fome of his books. Although
Henry the French kintr in fome meafnre proteAed him,
theperfecutionof thefe divines rendered him fo unhappy,
not to mention the expence and lofs of time which an
almoft coiiftant attendance at court unavoidably occa-
fioned, that in 1552 he abandoned his country and went
to Geneva. Here he embraced the Proteftant religion,
and thus iuftified in fome meafure the fufplcions of his
theological enemies. It has been affirmed by feveral
writers that he carried along with him the royal types,
and the moulds alfo in which they were caft ; but it is
certain that ne never afterwards made ufe of thofe types.
Befides, is it poffible that the author of fo daring a
theft couW have been not only proteAed in Geneva, but
even courted and honoured by the moll eminent men ot
the age ? Is it credible that fuch a crime could have been
concealed for 60 years; or that Henry, the fon and heir
cf the perpetrator, would have enjoyed the favour of
the French king, if Robert Stephens had afted fuch a
ihameful part ? If he was burnt in effigy at Paris, it was
not for theft, but for having changed his religion. Af-
ter his arrival at Geneva, he pubhfhed an account of the
difpute between him and the Paris divines, which does
as much honour to his abilities as his Thefaurus does
to his learning. He died in 1559, after a life of
the moft extraordinary induftry. The books of which
he was the editor were not fewer than 360. Many
of them were ancient claffics in different languages. Se-
veral were accompanied with annotations which he
colleded, and all of them were correAed by collating
manufcripts. He was fo anxious to attain perfect ac-
curacy, that he ufed to expofe his proofs in public, and
reward thofe who dlfcovered a miftakc. His books con-
fequently were very correft. It is faid that his New
Teftament, called 0 Mirificam (becaufe the preface begins
'with thefe words), has not a fingle fault. ^
It was Robert Stephens who firft divided the New
Teftament into verfes during a journey between Paris
and Lyons. The advantages of this improvement are
fully counterbalanced by its defeats. It has deltroyed
the unity of the books, and induced many commenta-
tors to confider every verfe as a diftinA and independent
aphorifm. To this in fome meafure is to be afcribed the
many abfurd interpretations and ci-eeds that have been
forced out of that book.
By his laft will his eftate was left exclufively to fuch
of his children as ftiould fettle at Geneva. He left be-
hind him three fons, Henry, Robert, and Francis.
Charles Stephens, the third fon of Henry, was,
like the reft of his family, familiarly acquainted with
the learned languages, 'i his recommended him to La-
zarus de Baif, who made him tutor to his fon, and in
1540 carried him along with him to Germany. He
lludied medicine, and praftifed it with fuccefs in France.
He did not, however, forfake the profeffion of his fami-
ly, but cxercifed it in Paris, where he became the editor
©f many books remarkable for neatnefs and elet^ance.
He wiote above thirty treatifes on different lubjeAs,
particularly on botany, anatomy, and hiilory. He died
in (564.
Robert Stephens, the fon of Robert the firft of
^that name, did not accompany his lather to Geneva,
,^at continued to profefs the Catholic rehgion, and to
]
S T E
refidc at Pang. His letter was remai'kably beautiful.— S^cphe
He was made king's printer, and died about 15*^9.
His brother Fr.anc4s was alfo a printer. He em-
braced the Proteftant relii^ion, and refided at Geneva.
Henry Stephens, the remainint* fon of Robert,
was born at Paris in 1 528. He became the moft learn-
ed and moil celebrated of all his family. From his very-
birth almoft he gave proofs of uncommon abilities, and
difplayed an ardent paffion for knowled ge, j 'he Medea
of Eurfpides, which he faw afted while at fchool, firll
kindled his love for poetry, and infpired him with the
defire of acquiring the lang^uage in which that tragedy
is written. He intreated his father not to condemn him
to ftudy Latin, which he already underftood from con-
verfation, but to initiate him at once into the knowledge
of Greek. His father willingly granted his requeft ;
and Henry applied with fuch vigour, that in a fhort
time he could repeat the Medea by heart. He after-
wards ftudied Greek under Peter Danefiuv, who was tu-
tor to the Dauphin, and finally heard the le£lures of
Tufanus and Turnebus. He became eager at an early-
age to underfland aftrology, and accordingly attended
a profeffor of that rayfterious art ; but he was not lonj»
in difcovering its abfurdity. At 19 he began his ti-a.
vels, which he undertook in order to examine foreign
libraries, and to become acquainted with learned men. He
ipent two years in Italy, and returned into France com-
pletely mafter of Itahan, and bringing along with him
copies of feveral fcarce authors, particularly a part o£
Anacreon, which before was thought loll.
He found his father publiftung an edition of the Nevr
Teftament, to which he prefixed fome Greek verfes.—
Soon after, he vifited England and the Netherlands,
wh-erc he met with John Clement, an Englifhman, to
whom he was indebted for the remaining odes of Ana-
ci-eon. During this journey he learned the Spanifti lan-
guage, which was very much fpoken at that time in the
Low Countries.
Whether Henry accompanied his father to Geneva or
not is uncertain ; at leaft he muft have returned imme-
diately to France, for we tind him loon after eftabliftied
at Paris, and publiftring the odes of Anacreon. In
1554 he went to Rome, and thence to Naples. This
journey was undertaken at the requeft, and in the
fervice, of the French government. He was difcovered,
and would have been arretted as a fpy, had he not by
his addrefs and flcill in the language of the country been
able to pafs himfelf for a native of Italy. On his re-
turn to France he affiimed the title of printer to Ulric
Fugger, a very rich and learned German nobleman, who
allowed him a confiderable penfion.
In 1560 he married a relation, as is generally fuppo-
fed, of Henry Scrimigeour, a Scotch nobleman, with
whom he was intimately acquainted. She was a woman,
as he himfelf informs us, endowed with the nobleit
fpirit and the moft amiable difpofitions. Her death,
which happened in 1566, brought on a difeafe that
had twice attacked him before. It was a difguft at all
thofe purfuits which had formerly charmed him, an aver-
fion to reading and the fight of books. It was pro-
bably occafioned by too conftant and ievere an applica-
tion to literary purfuits. In 1572 he publifhed his
Thefaurus Lingua Gracay one of the greateft works, per-
haps, that ever was executed by one man, if we confx-
I der
S T E I 7^
'henit. der the wfctched materials which more ancient diftiona-
ries could furnifh, if we coniidcr the iize and perfeAjoii
of the work, and the imnicnfe labour and learning which
niuft have been employed in the compilation. This
work had been carried on at a greater expence than he
could well bear. He expefted to be reimburfed by the
fale of the book, but he was unfortunately difappoint-
ed. John Scapula, one of his own fervants, extraded
from it whatever he thought would be moft ferviceable
to ftudents, and publifhed it beforehand in 4to. By^
this aft of treachery Henry was reduced to poverty.
About this time he was much beloved by Henry III-
oF France, who treated him fo kindly, and made 'him
fuch fiatterin.? promifes, that he refided frequently
at Court. But thefe promifes were never fulfilled,
owing to the civil wars which foon after diftradcd
France, and the unfortunate death of king Henry him-
felf. During the remainder of his life his fituation was
very unfettTed. We find him fometimesat Paris, fome-
times in Geneva, in Germany, and even in Hungary.
He died at Lyons in 1 598, at the age of 70. He was
fond of poetry from his very infancy. It was a cudom
of his to compofe verfes on horfeback, and even to write
them, though he generally rode a very mettlefome fteed.
His Thefaurus was his great work, but he was alfo the
authorof feveral other treatifes. His poems are numerous:
His Apology for Herodotus is a witty fatire on the
Roman Catholics. His Concordance to the New Tel-
tamcnt muft have been a laborious work, and has de-
fervedly endeared him to every Chriftian who wifhes to
acquire a rational and critical knowledge of the Scrip,
tures. The number of books whiqh he publifhed,
thoufrh fewer than his father, was great, and fuperior in
elegance to any thing which the world had then feen.
A great proportion of them were Greek ; he was the edi-
tor, however, of many Roman and even of forae eaftern
writings. His Greek clafiics are remarkably correct ;
the principal of them are Homer, Anacreon, jEfchylus,
Maximus Tyrius, Diodorus Siculus, Pindar, Xenophon,
Tbucydides,' Herodotus, Sophocles, Diogenes Laertius,
Plutarch, Plato, Apollonius Rhodius, jEfchynes, Ly-
fias, Callimachus, Theocritus, Herodian, Dionylius
Hallicarnaffenfrs, Dion Caflius, Ifocrates, Appian, Xi-
phiiin, &c. His temper in the latter part of his life is
reprefented as haughty and fevere, owing probably to
his difappointments. He left behind him a fon and two
daughters, one of whom was married to the learned
ifaac Cafaubon,
Paul Stephens, the fon of Henry, continued his
father's pr»feffion at Geneva. He was a man of learn-
ing, and wrote tranQations of fevei-al books, and publiih-
ed a confiderable number of the ancient claffics ; but his
editions poffefs little of his father's eleoance. He died
in 1627, at the age of 6c, after felling his types to
oneChouet a printer — His fon Antony, the lalt printer
of the family, abandoned the Protellant religion, and re-
turned to France, the country of his anceftors. He re-
ceived letters of naturalization in 161 2, and was made
printer to the king ; but managing his affairs ill, he was
reduced to poverty, and obliged to retire into an hofpi-
tal, where he died in 1674, miferable and Wind, at the
age of 8c.
SrspHENi's Medicine for the Stone, See A i. kali,
tip 17.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
3 1 S T E
STERCORARIANS, or Stercoravist/e, form- Stereo;*^
ed from Jkrcus " dung," a name which thofe of the ""''j'"
Romifh church anciently gave to fuch as held that the sterlin^^.
hoft was liable to digeftion, and all its confequences, ' ^— — <
like other food.
STERCULIA, in botany : A genu9 of plants be-
longing to the clafs of montccia, and order of monode/phta;
and in the natural fyftem under the 38th order, tricocce^.
The male calyx is quinquepartite ; there is no corolla,
but there are i; filaments. The female calyx is quin-
quepartite ; there is no corolla ; the germen is placed
on a pillar, and the capfule is qulnquelocular, and many-
feeded. There are three fpecles, the balanghas, foe-
tida, and platanifolium, all foreign plants.
STEREOGRAPHIC projection. Is the projec-
tion of the circles of the fphei-e on the plane of fome
one great circle, the eye being placed in the pole of that
circle. See Projection of the Sphere.
STEREOMETRY, 2T£.c,^,rp,a, formed of
folidt and ^£Tpov meafure, that part of geometry which
teaches how to meafure folid bodies, i. e. to find the fo-
lidity or folid contents of bodies ; as globes, cylinders,
cubes, vell'els, fhips, &c.
STEREOTOMY, formed from rvio?, and r->.ur^
feaioTif the art or aft of cutting folids, or making fec-
tions thereof ; as walls and other membranes in the pro-
files of architeftuvc.
STERILITY, barrennefs, in oppofition to fertility.
It has been alferted by many authors, that all monflers
produced by a mixture of different fpecles of animals,
fuch as mules, are barren ; but this does not hold uni-
verfally, even with the mule, which is the inftance moll
generally adduced. See Mule.
Sterility in women fometimes happens from a rolfcar-
rlage, or violent labour injuring fome of the genital
parts ; but one of the moll frequent caufes is the fup-
prefTion of the menltrual flux. — There arc other cauics
arlfing from various difeafes Incident to ihofe par'-s ; by
which the uterus may be unfit to receive or retain the
male feed ; — from the tubal fallopianae being too fhort,
or having loft their ercftive power ; in either of which
cafes no conception can take place ; — from univerfal de-
bility and relaxation ; or a local debility of the genital
fyftem ; by which means, the parts having loll their
tone or contraftile power, the femen is thrown off im-
mediately pojl coitum ; — from imperforatlon of the va--
gina, the uterus, or the tuba^ or from difeafed ovas, Sec.
Hence medical treatment can only avail in cafes arifing
from topical or univerfal debil;ty ; in correcting irregu-
larities of the menftrual flux, or in removing tumors,
cicatrices, or conftricllons of the pafTage, by the art of
furgery.
STERIS, in botany : A genus of plants belonglngr
to the clafs of pentanclriat and order of digynia. The
calyx is quinquepartite ; the coi-oUa wheel-lhaped ; the
berry is unilocular, and many -fecdcd. There is only
one fpecles, the javana, a foreign plant.
STERLING, an epithet by which genuine Englllh
money is diftinguifhed. It is unneceflary to mention
the various conjeftures of antiquaries about the origin
and meaning of this appellation. The moil probable Henry't
opinion feems to be this, that fome artifts from Ger- ^f/Jf-^g^i,
many, who were called EJierlings, from the fituation obtain, vol,
their country, had been employed in fabiicating ourlii. p. 544,
5 H money,
JLaibam't
Synopjis,
Vui. vii.
S T E [ 7
money, which confifted chiefly of fjlver pennies ; and
that from them the penny was called an ejierling, and
our money eflerl'mg oxjlcrling monfy.
STERN, the poll erior face of a fhip ; or that part
which is reprefented to the view of a ipeftator, placed
on the continuation of the keel behind. The ftern is
terminated above by the tafFarel, and below by the coun-
ters ; it is limited on the fides by the quarter-pieces, and
the intermediate fpace comprehends the galleries and
windows of the different cabins. See ^'AurER of a
Ship, Ship, and Ship-building.
STRRN-Fafly a rope uied to confine the ftern of a
fhip or boat to any wharf or jetty-bead, &c.
Stp.rn-Mo/?, in fea lanpuai/e, ufunlly denotes that
part of a fleet of fhips which is in the rear, or farthed
a-ftern, as oppofed to head-moft.
Stern- Po^y a long fiiraight piece of timber ereAed
©n the extremity of the keel, to fuftain the rudder and
terminate the ihip behind.
This piece, which is expreffed by B in the pieces of
the hull, Plate CCCCLIV. fig. i. ought to be well fe-
cured and fuppofted ; becaufe the ends of all the lower
planks of the fhip's bottom arc fixed in a channel, cut
on its furface ; and the whole weight of the rudder is
fuftained by it.
STF.RN-SheetSy that part of a boat which Is contained
between the ftern and the af'tmoft or hindmoft ieat of
the rowers. It is generally furnifhed with benches to
accommodate the pafiengers. See Boat.
STERNA, the Tern ; a genus of birds arranged
under the order of palmipedes. The marks of this ge-
nus are a ftraij^ht, (lender, pointed bill, linear noftrSs, a
{lender and (harp tongue, very long win^;s, a fmall back
toe, and a forked tail. There are 25 fpecies;, according
to Dr Latham ; the cafpia, cayana, furinamenfis, fuli-
jiinofa, afrlcana, ftolida, philippina, fimplex, nilotica,
boyfii, ftrlata, vittata, fpadicea, pifcata, hirundo, pa-
naya, cinerea, alba, minuta, fmenfis, auftralis, metopo-
leucos, hfiipes, nigra, and obfcura. Three of thefe
only are found in Great Britain ; the hirundo, minuta,
and fifTjpes.
I . The hirundo, common tern, or great fea-fvvallov/,
weighs four ounces one-quarter; the length Is 14 Inches;
the breadth 30 ; the bill and feet are of a fine crim-
fon ; the former tipt with black, rtraight, {lender, and
fharp-polnted ; the crown, and hind part of the head,
black ; the throat, and whole underiide of the body,
white ; the upper part, and the coverts of the wings, a
fine pale grey. The tail confifts of 12 feathers ; the
exterior edges of the three outmoft are grey, the reft
white ; the exterior on each fide is two inches longer
than the others : in flying, the bird frequently clofes
them together, fo as to make them appear one {lender
feather.
This is a very common fpecies ; frequents our fea-
coafts and banks of lakes and rivers during the fummer,
but moft common In the neighbourhood of the fea. It
is found alfo In various parts of Europe and Afia, ac-
cording to the feafon ; in the fummer as far as Green-
land and Spitzbergen, migrating in turn to the fouth of
Auftria and Greece. It lays three or four eggs about
the month of June, of a dull olive colour, ah Inch and
three quarters in length, marked with irregular black
fpots, intermixed with fome others of a fmaller fize, and
lefs bright ; the little end is almoft free from any mark-
04 ] S T E
ings. Thefe are laid among the grafs or mofs. The Stern
young are hatched in July, and quit the neft very foon
after. They are carefully fed by their parents, and fly
in about fix weeks. This bird appears to have all the
aftions on the water which the f/^allow has on land,
fliimming on the furface, and ieizing on every infeft
which comes in its way ; befides which, the moment it
fpies a fifh in the water, it darts Into that element, and
feizing its prey arifes as quickly to the place from
which it dipped.
Thefe birds are alfa found in A merica ; com.e into
New England in May, and go away in autumn, and ai e
called there the mackarcl gull. At Hudfon's Bay they
are known by the name of black-head. They are obferved
to lay their eggs in imall hollows on the (hore, fometimes
lined with a few leaves. They are often found in great
numbers on the ifletsinche middle of the rivers, and are
thought good'eating. The natives of Hudfon's Bay call
them Kenouch em: ou kenjk. They are bold, not fearing
mankind, and in the time of incubation will attack any
one, frequently darting down fo as to touch a perfon's.
hat, without his giving the leail offence.
2. The minuta, or fm.aller iea-fwallow, (called by Lin-
naeus/'aw/j minuta), weighs only two ounces live grains;
the leni^th 8 inches and a half; the breadth 19 and a
half. The bill is yellow, tipt with black ; the forehead
and cheeks white ^. horn the eyes to the bill is a black
line ; the top of the head and hind part black ; the breait
and under fide of the body clothed with feathersfo clofely
let together, and offuch an exquifite rich glofs and fo fine
a white, that no fatin can be compared to it: the back and
wings of a pale giey : the tail fiiort, lefs forked than
that of the former, and white : the legs yellow : the
irides duflcy. — Thefe two fpecies are very delicate, and
feem unable to bear the inclemency of the v/eather on
our fhores during winter, for we obferve that they quit
their breeding places at the approach of it, and do not?
return till fpring. I'he manners, haunts, and food of
this fpecies are the fame with thofe of the former ; but.
they are far lefs numerous.
3. 'I he jijfipes, or black tern. Is of a middle fize be-
tween the hrlt and iecond fpecies. The ufual length is
10 inches ; the breadth 24 ; the weight two ounces and
a halt The head, neck, breaft, and belly, as far as the
vent, are black ; beyond is white ; the male has a white
fpot under its chin ; the back and wings are of a deep
afli colour : the tail is Ihort and forked ; the exterior-
feather on each fide is white ; the others afh- coloured
the legs and feet of a duflcy red. Mr Ray calls this a
clown-footed gull, as the webs are depreffed in the mid*
die, and form a crefcent. Thefe birds frequent frefh
waters, breed on their banks, and lay three fmall eggs
of a deep ohve colour, much fpotted with black. They
are found during fpiinj; and fummer in vait numbers in
the Fens of Uncolnfhire, make an inceffant noife, and
feed on fties as well as water infeds and fmall fifh. Birds
of this fpecies are feen very remote trora land. Kalm
law flocks -'f Imndreds in the Atlantic Ocean, midway,
between England and America, and a later voyager faw
one 240 leagues from the Lizard, in the fame ocean.
STERNE (Laurence), an Englilh writer of a very
peculiar calf, was born at Clomwell, in the fouth of Ire-
land, on 24th November 1713. His father Rofjer Sterne
was the grandfon of Sterne archbifhop of York, who
has been fuppofed, we know not upon what grounds,,
to
S T E r 795
to'have been the avithor of the excellent book Intltled
'< The Whole Duty of Man." Laurence inherited no-
thins[ of his anceftor's manner of writing, but rather re-
fembled Rabelais, whofe wit he carried with him even
into the pulpit.
In 1722 he was fent to fchool at Halifax in York-
fhire, where he continued till 1732, when he was remo-
ved to Jefus CoUejre in Cambridge. How long he re-
fided in college, or what progrefs he made in literature
or fcience, is not known : his works difplay rather na-
tive genius than profound erudition. Upon quitting
the unlverfity he went to York, and being in orders was
prefented to the living of Sutton by the intereft of his
uncle Dr Sterne, a prebendary of that church. In 1 74 1
he,married, and was foon afterwards made a prebendary
of York, by the intereft aifo of his uncle, who was then
upon very good terms with him; but "quickly quarrel-
led with him (he fays), and became his bittereft ene-
my, becaufe he would not be a party man, and vvrite
paragraphs in the newfpapers." By his wife's means
he got the living of Stillington, but remained near 20
years at Swtton, doing duty at both places. He was
then in very good health, which, however, foon after
fdrfook him ; and books, painting, fiddling, and (hoot-
ing, were, as he tells us, his amufements.
In 1760, he went to London to publifh his two
firft volumes of " Triftram Shandy ;" and was that
year prefented to the curacy of Coxwold. In 1762 he
went to France, and two years after to Italy, for the
recovery, of his health ; but his health never was reco-
vered. He lanouifhed under a confumption of the
lungs, without the fUghteft deprefTion of fpirits, till
1 768, when death put a period to his terreftrial cxlft-
cnce.
The works of Sterne are very generally read. They
coniill of, I. The Life and Opinions of Triftram Shan-
dy; 2 Sermons; 3. A Sentimental Journey; 4. Let-
ters, publiftied fince bis death. In every ferious page,
and in many of much levity, the author writes in praife
©f benevolence, and declares that no one who knew him
could luppofe him one ol thole wretches who heap mis-
fortune upon misfortune : But we liave heard anecdotes
of him extremely well authenticated, which proved that
it was eafier for him to praife this virtue than to
praftife it. His wit Is univerfally allowed ; but many
readers have perfuaded themfelves that they found wit
m hi.s blank pages, while it is probable that he intend-
ed nothing but to amufe himtelf with the idea of the
fage conjectures to wliich thefe pages would give occa-
fion. Even his originaHty is not fuch as is generally
fuppofed by thofe fond admirers of the Shandean man-
uer, who have preiumed to compare him with Switt,
Arbuthnot, and Butler. He has borrowed both mat-
tv;r and manner from various authors, as every reader
may be convinced by the learne^d, elegant, and candid
comments on his works pubiifhed by Dr Farrier, in the
fourth volume of the Memoirs of the Literary and Phi-
lofonhical Society of Manchefter.
STERNOCOSTALES, commonly called the muf-
cult triangulares Jierni^ in anatomy, are five pairs of
flefhy planes, difpofed more or lefs obliquely on each fide
the fternum, on the iniides of the cartilages of the fe-
cond, third, fourth, fifth, and fixth true ribs.
STERNO-HYOiD.cus, in anatomy. See Table of
the Mufcles^ under the article Anatomy.
1 S T E
STERNOMANTIS, in antiquity, a defignati'onStemomar-
given to the Delphian prieftefs, m^re ufually called Pv- ^'^
THiA. — Sternomantis is alfo ufed for any one that had steward,
a prophefyino demon within him. ■ y
STERNOMASTOIDiEUS, a mufcle. See rabk
of the Mufcles, under Anatomy.
STERNOTHYRCIDEUS, a mufcle. See Table
of the Mvfcles, under Anatomy.
STERNUM. See Anatomy, n° 37.
STERNUTATIVE, or Sternutatory, a medi-
cine proper to produce fneezing. See Sneezing.
S fE TIN, or Stettin, a feaport town of Ger-
many, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and capital of
Hither Pomerania, with the title of a duchy, and a
caftle. It had lonjj a famous ichool, which the wars of
Germany never difturbed. The ancient dukes o*^ Po-
merania refided here ; and it was taken by the elector
of Brandenburg in 1676, but given to Sweden by the
treaty of Nimeguen, In 171 3 it fubmitted to the al-
lies ; and then the faid eleftor was put in pofleffion again
of this important place, which is a bulwark to the
Marche of Brandenburg ; and the fortifications have
been greatly improved. It is now a flourifhing place,
and carries on a confiderable trade. It is feated on the
river Oder, 72 miles north of Francfort, and 70 north
by eaft of Berlin. E. Long, 14. 3H. N. Lat. 53. 35.
The duchy is 125 miles in length, and borders upon
Mecklenburg, and partly upon Brandenburg. 'Phe
breadth is from 17 to 25 miles, and it is divided by
the river Oder into two parts.
STEW, a fmall kind of fifh-pond, the peculiar ufe
of which is to maintain fifh, and keep them in readinefs
for the daily ule of the family, &c.
Stews (from the French ejluves, i. e. therma, hal'
neumj, thofe places which were permitted in En'T.
land to women of profeffed incontinency, and that for
hire would prottitute their bodies to all comers; fo call
ed, becaufe difTolute perfons ai-.' wont to prepare them
felves for venereous afis by bathin\r ; and hot baths were
by Homer reckoned among the effeminate fort of plea-
fures. Thefe ftcws were fupprelTed by King Hen. VIII.
about the year 1546.
STEWARD (jenefcallus^ compounded of the Saxon
Jleda, i. e. " room;" or flead and aveard, " a ward" or
"keeper"), an officer appointed in another's ftead or
place, and always taken for a principal officer within his
jurifdiftion. Of thefe there are various kinds. The
greateft officer under the crown is the lord high- fte ward
of Engl,and, an office that was anciently the inheritance
of the earls of Leicefter, till forfeited by Simon de
Mountfort to King Henry III. But the power of this
officer is fo very great, that it has not been judged fafe
to truft it any longer in the hands of a fubjed, except-
ing only pro hue vice, occafionally : as to officiate at a
coi-onation, at the arraignment ©t- a nobleman for high-
treafon, or the like. During his office, the fteward
bears a white ftafi" in his hand ; and the trial, &c. end-
ed, he breaks the ftaff, and with it his commiffion ex-
pires. .There is likewife a lord-fteward of the king's
houfehold, who is the chief officer of the king's court,
has the care of the king's houfe, and authority over all
the officers and fervants of the houfehold, except fuch
as belong to the chapel, chamber, and ftable.
Steward, an officer in a ftilp of war, appointed by
the pur£er to diftribute the different fpecies of provi.
5 H a fiona
/
one s
Commenta-
ries, vol. iv
S T E [796
flons to the officers and crew ; for which purpofe he is
furnifhed with a mate and proper afiiltaiits.
Court of the Lord High Strivakd of Great Britain, Is
a court inftituted for the trial of peers Indltted for trea-
fon or felony, or for mifprifion of either. The office of
t!iis ureat magiftrate Is very ancient, and v/as formerly
heredltaiy, or at leail held for life, or dum bene fe gejft-
rit: but now it is ufually, and hath been for many cen-
turies pafi, granted pro hac vice only; and It hath been
the conftant prafticc (and therefore feems now to have
become necelTary) to grant it to a lord of parliament,
elfe he is incapable to try fuch delinquent peer. When
fiich an indictment is therefore found by a grand jury
of freeholders in the King's- bench, or at the affizes be-
fore the julHces of oyer and terminer, it is to be removed
by a writ of certiorari Into the court of the lord high-
Iteward, which has the only power to determine it. A
peer may plead a pardon before the court of King's-
bench, and the judges have power to allow it, in order
to prevent the trouble of appointing an hlgh-lkward
merely for the purpofe of receiving fuch plea : but he
may not plead in that Inferior court any other plea, as
guilty or not guilty of the Indidment, but only in this
court ; becaufe, in confequence of fuch plea, it is pof-
fible that judgment of death might be awarded againft
him. The king, therefore, in cafe a peer be indifted of
trcafon, felony, or mifprifion, creates a lord high-ileward
pro hac vice by commiffion under the great feal ; which
recites the indi£lment fo found, and gives his Grace
power to receive and try it fecundum, legem et confuetudi-
nem Anglic. Then when the indiftment is regularly re-
moved by writ of certiorari, commanding the inferior
court to certify it up to him, the lord high-ftevvard dl-
refts a precept to a fergeant at arms, to fummon the
lords to attend and try the indided peer. This pre-
cept was formerly IlTucd to fummon only 18 or 20 fe-
lefted from the body of the peers ; then the number
came to be indefinite; and the cuitom was for the lord-
high-fteward to fummon as many as he thought proper
(but of late years not lefs than 23) ; and that thofe
lords only fhould fit upon the trial j which threw a
monftrous weight of power into the hands of the crown,
and this its great officer, of felefting only fuch peers as
the then predominant party fliould moft approve of.
And accordingly, when the earl of Clarendon fell into
difgrace with Charles II. there was a defign formed to
prorogue the parliament, in order to try him by a fe-
left number of peers ; it being doubted whether the
whole houfe could be induced to fall in with the views
of the court. But now, by ftatute 7 W. III. c. 3. up-
on all trials of peers for treafon or mifprifion, all the
peers who have a right to fit and vote in parliament
ihall be fummoned at ieaft 20 days before fuch trial, to
appear and vote therein ; and every lord appearing fhall
vote iw the trial of fuch peer, firll taking the oaths of
allegiance and fupremacy, and fubfcribing the declara-
tion againft popery.
During the feffion of parliament, the trial of an in-
difted peer is not properly in the court of the lord high-
ftcward, but before the court laft mentioned of our lord
the king in parliament. It is true, a lord high-fteward
is always appointed in that cafe to regulate and add
weight to the proceedings : but he is rather in the na-
ture of a fpeaker pro tempore, or chairman of the court,
%haa the judge of it; for the colIe£live jx)dy of the peets
S T E
are therein the judges both of law and faf^, and the S^ewar
high-iteward has a vote with the reil in right of his
peerage. But in the court of the lord high-fteward,
which Is held In the recefs of parliament, he is the fole
judge of matters of law, as the lords triors are in matters
of faft ; and ag they may not interfere with him in re-
gulating the proceedings of the court, fo he has no
right to intermix i^Ith them in giving any vote upon
the trial. Therefore, upon the convidlion and attain-
der of a peer for mufder in full parliament, it hath been
holdcn by the judges, that in cafe the day appointed in
the judgment for execution fhould lapfe before execu-
tion done, a new time of execution may be appointed
by either the high court of parhament during its fit-
ting, though no high-fteward be exitting, or, in the re-
cefs of parliament, by the court of King's bench, the
record being removed into that court.
It has been a point of fome controverfy, whether the
bifliops have now a right to fit in the court of the lord-
high-fteward to try indictments of trealbn and mlfpri-
fion. Some incline to imagine them included under
the general words of the ftatute of King William " a!l
peers who have a right to fit and vote in parliament ;"
but the expreffion had been much clearer, if it had been
" all lords," and not " all peers ;" for though bifhops,
on account of the baronies annexed to their bifhoprics,
are clearly lords of parliament, yet their blood not be-
ing ennobled, they are net univerially allowed to be
peers with the temporal nobihty : and perhaps this
word might be inferted purpofely with a view to ex-
clude them. However, there is no inftance of their fit-
ting on trials for capital offences, even upon impeach-
ments or indictments In full parhament, much lefs in the
court we are now treating of ; for indeed they ufually
withdraw voluntarily, but enter a proteft, declaring
their right to ftay. It Is obfervable, that in the iith
chapter of the conftitutions of Clarendon, made in par-
liament iith Hen. II. they are cxprefsly excufed, ra-
ther than excluded, from fitting and voting in trials,
when tliey come to concern life or limb : epifcopi, ftcut
caieri baronesy debent interejfe judiciis cum baroriibus, quouf-
que perveniatur ad diminutionem membrorum vsl ad mor-
tem. And Becket's quarrel with the king hereupon
was not on account of the exception (which was agree-
able to the canon law), but of the general rule, that
compelled the bilhops to attend at all. And the deter-
mination of the houfe of lords in the earl of Danby's
cafe, which hath ever fince been adhered to, is confo-
nant to thefe conftitutions ; *' that the lords fplritual
have a right to ftay and fit in court in capital cafes, till
the court proceeds to the vote of guilty or not guilty."
It muft be noted, that this refolution extends only to
trials in full parliament ; for to the court of the lord
high-fteward (In which no vote can be given, but mere-
ly that of guilty or not guilty), no bifhop, as fuch, ever
was or could be fummoned : and though the ftatute of
King William regulates the proceedings in that court,
as well as in the court of parliament, yet it never in-
tended to new-model or alter its conttitution; and con-
fequently does not give the lords fplritual any right, in
caies of blood, which they had not before. And what
makes their exclufion more reafonable is, that they have
no right to be tried themfelves in the court of the lord
high-fteward, and therefore furely ought not to be
judges there. For the privilege of being tlius tried
4 depends.
S T E
[ 797 J
S T E
depends upon nobility of blood rather than a feat in the
houfe, as appears ftom die trials oF popKh lords, of lords
under age, and (fmce the union) of the Scotch nobility,
though not in the number of the lixteen ; and from the
trials of females, fuch as the queen confort or dowager,
and of all peerefies by birth ; and peereffes by marriage
alfo, unlefs they have, v/hen dowagers, difparaged them-
felves by takins' a commoner to their fecond hufband.
STEif'ARD of the Chtltern Hundreds. See Chiltern
Hundreds,
STEWART (Dr Matthew), was in 1717 born at
Roth fay in the ifle of Bute, of which parilTi his Father
was the minitter. Being intended for the church, he
went through the ufual courfe of a gi-ammar-fchool edu-
cation, and was in 1734 received as a ftudent into the
univerfity of Glafgow. There he had the happinefs of
having for his preceptors in moral fcience and in mathe-
matics the celebrated profeffors Hutchefon and Simfon;
by the latter of whom he was inllruAed in what may
not improperly be called the arcana of the ancient gco-
Mr Stewart's views making it neceffary for hirri to
P remove to Edinburgh, he was introduced by Dr Sim-
fon to Mr Maclaurin, that his mathematical ftudies
Ucount of might fuffer no interruption ; and he attended the lec-
},■ Stcw-.rt tures of that great matter with fuch advantage as might
the FJtn- expefted from eminent abiUties, direfted by the
"/'r^f' judgment of him who made the philofophy and geo-
metry of Newton intelligible to ordinary capacities.
' Mr Stewart, however, had acquired,, from his intimacy
with Dr Simfon, fuch a predileftion for the ancient
geometry, as the modern analyfis, however powerfully
recommended, could not leflen ; and he kept- up a re-
gular correfpondence with his old malVer, giving him an
account of his progrefs and his difcoveries in geometry,
and receiving in return many cutious communications
refpefting the Loci Plant and the porifms of Euclid.
See PoRisM and SiMsoN.
While the fecond invention of porifms,. to which more
genius was perhaps required than to the iirft difcovery
of them, employed Dr Simfon, Mr Stewart purfued the
fame fubjedl in a different and new diredion. In doing
fo, he was led to the difcovery of thofe curious and iii-
terefting propofitions which were publifhed under the
title oi General Theorems in 1746. They were given
without the demonftrations ; but did not fail to place
their difcoverer at cnce among the geometers ot the
firft rank. They are for the mod part porifms, though
Mr Stewart,, careful not to anticipate the difcoveries of
his friend, gave them no other name than that of theo-
fems.
Our author had before thie period entered Into the
church ; and obtained, through the patronage of the
duke of Argyle and the earl of Bute, the hving of
Rofeneath, a retired country paiifh in the weft of Scot-
land : but in 1747 he was eledled to the mathematical
chair in the univerfity of Edinburgh, which had become
vacant the year before by the death of Mr Maclaurin.
The duties of this office gave a turn fomewhat different
to his purfuits, and led him to think of the moft fimple
and elegant means of explaining thofe difficult propo-
fitions which were hitherto only acceffible to men deep-
ly vetfed in the modern analyfis. In doing this, he was
purfuing the obje£t which of all others he moft ardent-
tns, V )'.
^ Mr
ly wIHied to attain, the application of geometry to Stewart,
fuch problems as the algebraic calculus alone had been "
thought able to refolve. His folution of Kepler's pro-
blem was the hrft fpecimen of this kind which he gave
to the world ; and it was impoflible to have produced
one more to the credit of the method he followed, or of
the abilities with which he applied it. On this problem
the utmoft rtfources of the integral calculus had been
employed. But though many excellent folutions had
been given, there was none of them at once dire£l in
its method and fimple in its principles. Mr Stewart
was fo happy as to attain both thefe objefts ; and his
folution appeared in the Ifecond volume of the EflTays of
the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh for the year
1756. In the firft volume of the fame colleftion there
are fome other propofitions of Mr Stewart's, which are
an extenfion of a curious theorem in the fourth book of
Pappus. They have a relation to the fubjc£l of po-
rifms, and one of them forms the 91ft of Dr Simfon's.
Reitoration. They arc befldes very beautiful propo-
rtions, and are dcmonftrated with all the elegance and
llmplicity of the ancient analyfis.
The profecution of the plan which he had formed
of introducing into the higher parts of mixed mathe-
matics the ftricl and fimple form, of ancient demonftra-
tion, produced the TraSs Phyftcal and Mathematical^.
which were publifhed in 1 76 1, and the Effay on the Sun's
DlftancR, which was publifhed in 1763. In this laft
workit is acknowledged that he employed geometry 011
a talk which geometry cannot perform ; but while it is.
granted that his determination of the fun's diftance is
by no means free from error, it may fafely be afferted
that it contains a great deal which will always intereft
geometers, and will always be admired by them. Few
errors in fcience are redeemed by the difplay of fo much
ingenuity, and what is more lingular, offo much found
reafiming. The inveftigation is everywhere elegant,,
and will probably be long regarded as a fpecimen of the
moft arduous inquiry which has been attempted by mere
geometry.
The Sun's D'tjlance was the laft work which Dr
Stewart publifhed ; and though he lived to fee feveral
animadvet-fions on it made pulalic, he dechncd entering
into any controverfy. His difpoiition was far from po-
lemical ; and he knew the value of that quiet which a
literary man (liould rarely fuffer his antagonifts to in-
terrupt. He ufed to fay, that the deciiion of the
point in queftlon was now before the public ; that if
his inveftigation" was right It would never be overturned,
and that if it was wrong it ought not to be defended.
A few months before he publifhed the effay juft men-
tioned, he gave to the world another work, intitled
Propo/itlones Geometrica More Veterum Demonjh ata. This
title, it is fald, was given to it by Dr Simfon, who re-
joiced in the publication of a work fo well calculated
to promote the ftudy of the ancient geometry. It con-
fifts of a feries of geometrical theorems for the moft
part new ; Inveftigated firft by an analyfis, and after-
wards fynthetlcally dcmonftrated by the inverfion of the
fame analyfis.
Dr Stewart's conftant ufe of the geometrical analy-
fis had put him in poffeflion of many valuable propoft.
tions which did not enter into the plan of any of the
w«rks that have been enumerated. Of thefe not a few,-
have
k
Stewart
li
Stickle-
back.
S T I [798
Irave found a place In the writings ef DrSImfon, where
they will for ever remain to mark the friendfhip of
theie two mathematicians, and to evince the efteem
which Dr Simfon entertained for the abihties of his
pupil.
Soon after the publication of the Sun^s Dljlance^ Dr
Stewart's health began to dechne, and the duties of his
-office became burdenfome to him. In the year 1772
lie retired to the country, where he afterwards fpent the
-greater part of his life, and never refumed his labours
in the univerfity. But though mathematics had now
ceafed to be his bufinefs, they continued to be his amufe-
ment till a very few years before his death, which hap-
pened on the 23d of January 17S5, at rhe ape of 68.
The habits of ftudy, in a man of original genius,
•are objec?:s of curiofity, and dcferve to be remembered.
Concernintj thofe of Dr Stewart, his writini:^s have
made it unneceflary to remaik, that from his youth he
had been accuftomed to the mod intenfe and continued
■application. In confequence of this application, added
to the natural vigour of his mind, he retained the me-
TOory of his difcoveries in a manner that will hardly be
^believed. He rarely wrote down any of his invelliga-
tions till it became neceffary to do fo for the purpofe of
publication. When he difcovered any propofition, he
.would put down the enunciation with great accuracy,
and on the fame piece of paper would conftru£t very
'neatly the -figure to which it referred. To thefe he
'trufted for recalling to his mind at any future period
'the demon f!' ration or the analyfis, however complicated
•it might be. Experience had taught him, that he
■might place this confidence in hi-mfelf without any dan-
ger of difappolntment ; and for this fingular power he
was probably moie indebted to the activity of his in-
^-ention than the mere tenacioufnefs of his memory. Fho'
'he was extremely Ihidious, he read few books, and veri-
fied the obfervatiou of M. D'A'.embert, that of all the
iiien of letters, mathematicians read leaftof the writings
-c)f one another. His own invefligations occupied him
lufficiently ; and indeed the world would have liad rea-
son to regret the mifappHcation of his talents, had he
employed in the mere acquifition of Imowledcre that
time which he could dedicate to works of invention.
Stewart, in Scots law. See Law, N°clvi!i. 5.
STEWARTI A, in botany : A genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs of monoiielphia^ and order o{ pulyan-
dria ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 37th
order, Column'tfers. The calyx is fimple ; the ftvle is
ilmple, with a quinquefid iligma ; the apple is without
juice, quinquelobed, monofpermous, burfting open with
a fpring five ways. There is only one fpecies, the ma'
/acoclendronj which is a foreign plant.
S iTBADIUM, among the Romans, a low kind of
table couch or bed of a circular form, which fucceeded
to the triclinia, and was of different fizes, according to
the number of guefts they were defigned for. They
were called hexaclina^ oBacUna, or enneacindi, according
as they held fix, eight, or nine guefts, and fo of any
other number.
STIBIUM, a name for Antimony.
STICHOS, a name given by the old writers to a
pedtoral confeftion, the principal ingredient of which
was the herb marrubium or horehound,
STICKLEBACK, in ichthyology. See Gastz-
JLOSIEUS.
3
S T I
FooT-STICKS, in printing, flips of wood that He Foor./licl
between the foot of the page and the chafe, to which- il
they are wedged faft by the quoins, to keep the form Hrm, ,
in conjunftion with the fide-fticks, which are placed at
the fide of the page, and fixed in the iame manner by
means of quoins.
STIFFLE, or GREAT MUSCLE, in the manege, is
the part of the hind fecj of a horfe which advances to-
wards his belly. This is a moft dani;erous part to re-
ceive a blow upon.
STIGMA, a brand or impreffion with a hot iron ; a
mark of infamy. See Stigma pizing.
Stigma, in botany, the fummit or top of the ftyle,
accounted by the fexualifts the female organ of genera-
tion in plants, which receives the fecundating duft of
the tops of the Itamina, and tranfmits its vapour or ef-
fluvia through the ftyle iuto the heart of the feed-bud,
for the purpofe of impregnating the feeds.
^ STIGMAT.A, in natural hlftory, the apertures in
different parts of the bodies of infedls communicating
with the trachea? or air-vefftls, and ferving tor the of-
fice of refpiration.
Stigmata, in antiquity, certain marks impreffed on
the left (boulders of the foldiers when lifted.
Stigmata, were alfo a kind of notes or abbrevia-
tions, confifting only of points, difpofed various ways^
as in triangles, fijuares, crofies, Sec.
Stigmata, is alfo a term introduced by the Fran-
cifcans, to exprefs the marks or prints of our Saviour's
wounds, faid to have been miraculoufly impreffed by
him on the body of their feraohic father St Francis
STIGMATIZING, among the ancients, was in-
flitled upon flavea as a punlfhment, but more frequently
as a mai-k to know them by: in which cafe, it was
done by applying a red-hot iron marked with certain
letters to their fore heads, till a fair imprefiion was made;
and then pouring ink into their furrows, that the in-
fcription mii»ht be the more confpicuous.
Soldiers were branded in the hand with the name or
charadf er of their genei-al.
After the fame manner, it was cuftomary to ftigma-
tize the worfhippers and votaries of fome of the gods.
The maks ufed on thefc occafions were various; fome-
times they contained the name of the god, fometimes
his particular enfign, as the thunderbolt of Jupiter, the
trident of Neptune, the ivy of Bacchus, &c. or they
marked themfelves with fome myftical number, whereby
the god's name was defcribed. To thefe three ways of
ftigmatizing St John is fuppofed to refer (Rev. chap,
xiii. ver, 16, 17.). Theodovet is of cpinion, that the
Jews were forbidden to brand tliemfelves with ftigmata,
becaufe the idolaters, by that ceremony, ufed to con-
fecrate themfelves to their falfe gods.
Among fome nations, ftigmatizing was confidered
as a uiftinguilhing mark of honour and nobility. In
Thrace, as Herodotus tells us *, it was praftifed by none * I-ib. v-
but perfons of credit, nor omitted by any but perfens
of the meaneft rank. The ancient Britons are alfo faid
to have imprinted on the bodies of their infants the
figures of animals, and other marks, with hot irons.
STIL DE Grain, in the colour trade, the name of a
compofition ufed for painting in oil or water, and is
made of a decoftion of the lycium or Avignon berry,
in alum-water, which is mixed with whiting into a
pafte, and formed into twifted fticks. It ought to be
3 cholen
S T I
[ 7
chofen oF a fine gold yellow, very fine, tender, and fri-
able, and free from dirt.
STILAGO, in botany ; a genus of plants belong-
ing to the clafs oi gynandr 'ta, and order of trlandria.
There is one female. The calyx is nionophyllous, and
almoft three-lobed. There is no corolla, and the berry
is globular. There is only one Ipecies, the bunius.
STILBE, in botany ; a genu? of plants belonging
to the clafs of po'y^famia, and order of dtmcia. The
exterior calyx of the hermaphrodite flower is triphyl-
lous ; the interior is quinqnedentate and cartilaginous.
The con)lla is funnel-fliaped and quinquefid. There
are four ilannr.a ; and there is one feed in the interior
calyx calyptrate. The female flower is fimilar, has no
interior calyx nor fruit There are three fpecies, the
pinaPcra, ericoides, and cornua, all foreign plants.
STILE. See Style.
STILL, the name of an apparatus ufed in chemi-
ftry and in the dlllillation of ardent fpirits. See Che-
mi stry-/«^«x at D'lJlUlal'ton and Still.
STiLL-Bottnms, in the diftillery, a name given by the
traders to what remains in the ftill after working the
wafh into low wines, 'i'hefe .bottoms are procured in
the greatell quantity trom the malt wafh, and are of fo
much value to the diililler in the fattening of hogs, &c.
that he often finds them one of the moft valuable arti-
cles of the biifinefs.
S riLLINGFLEET (Edward), bifhop of Wor.
cetter, was the fon of Samuel Stillingfleet gentleman,
and was born at Cranborn in Dorfetfhire in 1635. He
was educated at St John's College, Cambridjje ; and
having received holy orders, was, in 1657, prefented
to the rectory ot Sutton in Nottinghamfhire. By
pubhfning his Origlnes Sacr.f, one of the ableft defences
«f revealed religion that has ever been written, he
foon acquired fuch reputation, that he was appointed
preacher of the Rolls Chapel; and in January 1665
was prefented to the reftory of St Andrew's, Hol-
born. He was afterwards chofen lectiiKr at the
Temple, and appointed chaplain in ordinary to king
Charles II. In 1668 be took the degree of doftor
of divinity ; and was foon a-ter engaged in a difpute
with thole of the Romifh religion, by publifliing hig
difcourfe concerning the idolatry and fanaticifm of the
church of Rome, which he afterwards defended againft
feveral antagoniils. In 1680 he prea'ehed at Guild-
hall chapel ?. feimon on Phil. iii. 26. which he pub-
iifned under the title of Tie Mifdnef of Separation ; and
this being immediatdy attacked by feveral writers, he
in 1683 publifhed his Unreafonablenefs of Separation.
In i 685 appeared his Or/gines Britnnnica, or the Anti-
quities of the Britifh Chuich, in folio. During the
xeign of king James II. he wrote feveral trafts againft
popery, and was prolocutor of the convocation, as he
had likevvife been under Charles II. After the Revo-
lution he was advanced to the bifliopric of Worcefter,
and was enoaged in a difpute with the Socinians, and
alfo with Mr Locke ; in which lafl; contell he is gene-
lally thought to have been unfuccefsful Ke died at
Weflminfter in 1699, and was interred In the cathedral
of Worcefter, where a monument was erected to his
memory by his fon. Dr Stillingfleet wrote other works
befides thofe here mentioned, which, with the above,
have been reprinted in 6 vols* folio.
S.TiiLmGFx.E£T (Benjamin), an ingenious natura-
99 ] s T I
lift, was grandfon of the preceding. His father Ed-
ward was fellow of St John's College in Cambridge,
F. R. S. M. D. and Grefham profeflbr of phyfic : but
marrying in 1692, he loft his lucrative offices and his
father's favour ; a misfortune that aflFe£fed both him-
felf and his pofterity. However, going into orders,
he obtained, by his father's means, the hving of New-
ington- Butts, which he immediately exchanged for
thofe of Wood-Norton and Swanton in Norfolk. He
died in 1 708.
Eenjamiij, his only fon, was educated at Norwich
fchool, which he left in 1720, with the character of
an excellent fcholar. He then went to Trinity-Col-
lege in Cambridge, at the requeft of Dr Bentley, the
mafter, who had been private tutor to his father, do-
meftic chaplain to his grandfather, and much indebted
to the fainily. Here he was a candidate for a fellow-
fhip, but was rejefted by the matter's influence. This
was a levere and unexpected difappointment, and but
httle alleviated afterwards by the DoCtor's apology, that
it was a pity tha.t a gentleman of Mr Stillingfieet's part*
fliould be buried within the walls of a college.
Perhaps, however, this ingratitude of Dr Bentley
was not of any real dificrvice to Mr Stillin^'fleet. By
being thrown into the world, he formed many ho-
nourable and valuable conneftions. He dedicated fome
tranflati'ons of LinnKUs to the late lord Lyttleton,
partly, he fays, from motives of private refpeft and-
honour. Lord Barrington gave him, in a very po^
lite manner, the place of the mafter of the barracks
at Kenfington ; a favour to which Mr Stillingfleet,
in the dedication of his Calendar of Flora to that
nobltman, alludes with equal politenefs, as well as
with the warmeft gratitude. His Calendar of Flora
was !oimed at Stratton in Norfolk in the year 1755,
at the hofpitahle feat of his very worthy and ingenious
friend Mr Marfliam, who had made feveral obferva*
tions of that kind, and had communicated to the public
his curious obfervations on the growth of trees. But
it was to Mr Wyndham of Felbrig in Norfolk that
he appears to have had the greateft obligations : he
travelled abroad with him, fpent much of his time at
■ his houfe, and was appointed one of his executors (Mr
Garrick was another), with a confiderable addition ta
an annuity which that gentleman had fettled upon him.
in his lifetime.
Mr SLillin':rfleet's genius feems,. if we may judge from-
his works, to have led him principally to the ftudy of
natural hiftory ; which he profecuted as an ingenious:
philofopher, an ufeful citizen, and a good man. Iit
this walk of learning he m.entions, as his friends, Dr.
Watfon, Mr (afterwards D.r) Solander, Mi HudfoHs^
Mr Price of Foxley, and fome others to whom may;
be added the ingenious Mr Pennant. Nor can we.-
omit the flattering mention which the late Mr Gray
makes, of him in one of his letters, dated from London,
in 1761 : *' I have lately made an acquaintance wids
this philofopher, who lives in a garret here, in the win-
ter, that he may fupport fome near relations- who de^
pend upon him. He is akvays employed, confequent-
ly (according to my old. maxim) always happy, alwaya-
cheerful', and feem*s to me a very worthy honeft man».
His prefent fcheme is to fend fome perfons, properly
qualified, to refide a year or two in Attica, to niakiS'
themfelves acquainted with, the climate, produdions,
ciid.
Stilling-
fleet.
S T I
[ 8^
fleet
il
Stilpo,
Stljlingf- and natural KIRory of the country, that we may under-
ftand Ariflotle, Theophraftus, &c. who have been hea-
then Greek to hs for fo many at^es ; and this he has ^ot
propofed to lord Bute, no unhktly perfon to put it In
execution, as he is himfelf a botanift."
Mr StiUinofleet pubhfhed a volume of mifcellaneous
tra£i:s, which if, in much efteem, and does great honour
to his head and heart. 1 hey ai-e chiefly tranHations of
feme eflays in the ^mcenkates /icaciemica, publifhed by
Liinnasus, interfperfcd with fome obfervations and ad-
ditions of his own. In this volume he fhows alfo a
tafte for clafiical learnincr, and entertains us with fom.e
elegant poetical efrufions of his own. But his EfTay on
Converfation, publiOied in the firft voKune of Dodfley's
CoUeftion of Poems, entitles him to a diftlnguifhed rank
anrong our Enghfli poets. This poem is addreffed to
Mr Wyndhamj v.'ith all that warmth of friendfiiip whfch
diftinguiftes Mr Stillini'fleet. As it is chiefly didac-
tic, it dees not admit of fo many ornaments as fome
compofitions of other kinds. However, it contains
much good fenfe, fliows a confiderable knowledge of
mankind, and has feveral paflages that in point of har-
mony and eafy verfification would not difgrace the wri-
tings of our mofl admired poets. Here more than once
Mr StilHngfleet fliows himfelf fl;ill fore for Dr Bentley's
cruel treatment of him ; and towards the beautiful and
moral clofe of it (where it is fuppofed he gives us a
Iketch of himfelf) feems to hint at a mortification of a
more delicate nature, which he is faid to have fuffered
from the other fex.
To thefe difappointments it was perhaps ov/ing that
Mr StilHngfleet neither married nor wejit into orders.
His London refidence was at a faddler's in Piccadilly ;
where he died in 1771, aged above 70, leaving feveral
valuable papers behind him. He was buried in St
James's church, without the flightefl monument of his
having exUled.
STILLINGIA, in botany ; a genus of plants be-
longing to the clafs of moncecia, and to the order of mo-
nodel[>bia. The male calyx is hemifpherical and multi-
florous. The corolla is tubulous, and erofe or gnawed.
The female calyx is uniflorous and inferior. The co-
rolla is fuperior. The fl^yle is trifid, and the capfule
three-grained. There is only one fpecics, the fylvatica.
SflLYARD. See SxEvj.-Tnrd.
STILPO, a celebrated philofopher of Mcgara, flou-
rlfhed under the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes. In his
youth he had been addifted to licentious pleafures, from
which he rtligtoufly refrained from the moment that he
ranked himfelf among philofophers. When Ptolemy
Soter, at the taking of Megara, offered him a large fum
of money, and requefted that he would accompany him
into Egypt, he accepted but a fmall part of the offer,
and retired to the ifland of -iEgina, whence, on Ptole-
my's departure, he returned to Meeara. That city be-
ing again taken by Demetrius the fon of Antigonus,
and the philofopher required to give an account of any
€{fe6\s which he had loft during the hurry of the plun-
der, he replied, that he had loft nothing ; for no one
could take from him his learning and eloquence. So
great was the fame of Stilpo, that the moft eminent
philofophers of Athens took pleafure in attending upon
his difcourfes. His pecuhar doftrines were, that fpe-
clfs or univerfals have no real exiftence, and that one
:o ] S T I
thing cannot be predicated of another. With refpeft Stilohafav
10 the former of tliele opinions, he feems to have taught . . .
the fame dodriue with the fe£l afterwards known by
the appellation of Nomtnaf'ifls. To prove that one
thing cannot be predicated of another, he faid, that
^oodnefs and war, for Inftance, are different things, which
cannot be confounded by affertlng the one to be the
other : he argued farther, that goodnefs is an univerfal,
and univerfals have no real exiftence ; confequentlv,
fmce nothing cannot be predicated of any thing, good-
nefs cannot be predicated of man. Thus, whilft \.\n^-Eiifidct $
fubtle logician was, through his whole argument, pre- ^'J^,'"'y^f\
dicating one thing of anotlier, he denied that any one ^^^^f^^^*
thing could be the accident or predicate of another.
If Stilpo was ferlous in this reafoning ; if he meant any
thing more than to expofe the fophiftry of the fchooIs»
he muft be confeffed to have been an eminent mafter of
the art of wrangling ; and it was not wholly without
reafon that Glycera, a celebrated courtezan, when flie
was reproved by him as a corrupter of youth, replied,
that the chai-ge ml^iht be juftly retorted upon himfelf,
who fpenf his time in filling their heads with fophiftical
quibbles and ufelefs fubtleties. In ethics he feems to
have been a Stoic, and in religion he had a public and
a private doftrine, the former for the multitude, and
the latter for his friends. He admitted the exiftence
of a fupreme divinity, but had no reverence for the Gre-
cian fupcrftitlons.
STILOBATUM, In archltefture, denotes the body
of the pedeftal of any column.
STILTON, a town of England, In the county of
Huntingdonflu're, 75 miles from London, fouth-weft
of Yaxley, on the Roman highway from Caftor to
Huntingdon, called Ermins-Jlrett, fome parts of which.
In this neighbourhood, appear ftill paved with ftone.
This place Is famous for cheefe which is called Englijh
Parmefan, and is brought to table full of mites or mag-
gots. For making Stilton cheefe, we have the followr-
ing receipt in the firft volume of the Repojitory of Arts
and ManufaSlurer :
" Take the night's cream, and put It to the mornlng'9
new milk, with the rennet ; when the curd is come, it
is not to be broken, as is done with other cheefes, but
take it out with a foil dilTi altogether, and place it in a
fieve to drain gradually ; and as it drains, keep gradu-
ally preffin.T it till it becomes firm and dry ; then place
it in a wooden hoop ; afterwards to be kept dry on
boards, turned frequently, with cloth binders round It,
which arc to be tightened as occafion requires, and
changed every day until the cheefe become firm enough
to fupport itfelf ; after the cloth, is taken off, the cheefe
Is rubbed every day all over, foi- two or three months,
with a brufti ; and if the weather be damp or moift
twice a-day ; and even before the cloth is taken off, the
top and bottom are well rubbed every day."
STIMULANTS, In medicine, fubftances which In-
creafe the aftion of certain parts of the body. In par-
ticular, they quicken the motion of the blood, increafe
the aftion of the raufcular fibres, and afFed. the nervous
fyftem.
STIMULI, in botany ; a fpecics of armature or
offenfive weapon, with which fome plants, as nettle,
caffada, acalypha, and tragia, are furnifhed. Their
ufc, fays Linnaeus, is by their venomous pundtures to
keep
S T I [ Soi ] S T I
keep ofT naked animals ihat would approach tu hurt Msry. Th<y delight to fit at home In the chimney.
corner, never troubling their heads about foreiijn affairs.
The chief town id GratZ.
STIRLING, a town of Scotland, fituated on the
river Forth, 35 miles north-weft of Edinburgh, in
V/. Lon^. 3. 59- N. Lat. 56. 6. It is alfo called
fitirf.'nt'
them.
STING, art apparatus in the bodies of certain In-
fras, in form ot a little fpear, ferving them as a wea-
pon of offence.
SriNG'Rtiy, in ichthyoloiry. See Raia.
S ITNK-POT, an earthen jar or (hell, charged with
powder, grenadoes, and other materials of an oflen-
livc and fuffocatino; fmell, It is frequently ufed by pri-
vateers, in the weftern ocean, in the attack of an enemy
whom he defigns to board ; for which purpofe it is tur-
nifhed with a light fufe at the opening or touch-hole.
See BoARniNG.
STINT, a fpecles of the Trisga.
STIPA, Feather Grass, in botany: A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of triand' tuy and order of
Jigynia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
4th order, Gramma. The calyx is bivalved. The ex-
terior valve of the corolla is terminated by an awn ; the
bafe is jointed.
There are nine fpecies, the pensata, jnncea, capillata,
tiriftella, tcnaciflima, avenacea, membranacea, arguens,
and fpicata. Of thefe one only is BritiOi, the pennnta
«r common feather grafs. The beards are feathered.
The plant rlfes to the height of 10 inches, grows on
jnountains, and flowers in July or Auguft.
STIPEND, among the Romans, fignifies the fame
An'ith tribute ; and hence Jiipcndarii were the fame with
tr'tbuiarli.
SrtPEND, in Scots law. See Law, § clix. 12
Sterling and Striveling ; from the former of which Boe-
thius falfely derives the uame Sterling money ; becaufe,
fays he, Ofbeit, a Saxon prince, after the overthrow of
the Scots, eftablifhed a mint there. The name of
Striveling is faid to have been derived from the frequen-
cy of ftrires or conflifts in the neighbourhood. The
town contains about 4000 inhabltante. It has a raa-
nutafture of tartans and fnalloons, and employs about
30 looms in that of carpets. The great ftrect is very
broad. In it is the tolbooth, where is kept the ftand-
ard for the wet meafures of Scotland. The other ftrects
are narrow and irregular. — Stirling is in miniature a re-
femblance of Edinburgh ; being built on a rock of the
fame form, with a fortrefs on the fummit. 'i'he ori-
gin of the caftle is unknown. The rock of Stirlinjr
was ftrongly fortified by the Pifts, amongft whom ar-
chitedture and fevcral other ufeful arts had made a con-
fiderable progrefs. As it lay in the extremities of theif
kingdom, the poffefTion of it was the occafion of fre-
quent contefts betwixt them and their neighbours the
Scots and Northumbrians ; each of whofe dominions
did, for fome time, terminate near it.
When the Scots, under Kenneth II. overthrew the
Piftifh empire near the middle of the ninth century,
S'iTPULA, in botany, one of the fulcra or props of they endeavoured to obliterate evety memorial of that
plants, defiu'ed by Linnaeus to be a fcale, or fmall leaf,
ilatiened on each fide the bafe of the footltalks of the
Slower and leaves, at their hrll appearance, for the ptir-
jwjfe of .fupport. Elmgren rellricts it to the footftalks
of the leaves only.
STIPULATiON, in the civil law, the aft of fli-
pulating, that is, of treating and concluding terras
und conditions to be inferted in a contradl. Stipula-
tions were anciently performed at Rome, with abun-
dance of ceremonies ; the iuit whereof was, that one
jparty fliould interrogate, and the other anlwer, to give
his confent, and oblige himfelf. By the ancient Ro-
man law, nobody could ftipulate but for himfeU ; but
iis the Tabelliones were public ftrvants, they were al-
lowed to ftipulate for their mafters \ and tlie notaries
iucceedmg the I'abellionca have inherited the fame pri-
vilege
people. They not only gave new names to provmces
and towns, but, with all the rage of batbarians, demo-
lifhed many ma.niificent and ufeful edifices which had
been reared up by them, and this fortrefs among the
reft. It was, however, foon rebuilt, though upon an
occafion not very honowable to the Scets.
Upon the death of Kenneth II. in 855, his brother
Donald V. mounted the throne of Scotland. In the
beginning of his reign the kingdom was invaded by
Ofbrecht and Ella, two Notthumbrian princes, who,
unitin..^ their forces with the CuHibriart Britons, and a
number of Pidls, who upon their expulfion from their
native country had taken refuge in England, advanced
to Jedburgh, where Donald encountered them ; and,
a^^ter a fierce and bloody battle, obtained a complete
victory : but, having taken up his ftation in Berwick,
in fupine fecurity, the Northumbrians, informed of the
STIRIA, a province of Germany, in the circle of carelefs pofture in which the Scottifh army lay, furpri-
Auftria, with the title of a duchy. It is bounded on fed them by a hafty march, difperfed them, and made a
the north by the archduchy of Auftria, on the eaft hv prifoncr of the king. Purfuing the advantage they had
Hungaiy, on the fouth by Carmola, and on the wtft gained, they marched northward, and Jubdued aU be-
by Carinthia and the archbiftiopric of SaUfburg ; being
J 2 J milts in length and 1 7 in breadth. It is faid to
contain 22 cities, 95 towns, 338 caftles, 15 convents,
and 2co,ooo inhaltitants. Though it is a mountain-
ous country, yet there is a great deal of land fit for til-
fore them to the Frith of Forth and the town or Sti
ling. But the forlorn fituation of the Scots, without a
king and without an army, obliging them to fue for
peace, they obtained it, upon condition that they fhould
pay a fum of money for the ranfom of the king, and
lage, and the foil is fo-good, that the inhabitant? never yield up all their dominions upon the fouth fide of the
were in want of corn. It contains mines ut very good Forth to the conquerors.
iron ; whence the arms made there are in great efteem. The Northumbrians taking poffefiion of the ternto-
The women differ oreatly from the Auftrians, and are ties ceded to them by this ireaty, rebuilt the caftle of
very plain and downright. Thev have all fwellings on Stirling, and planted it with a ftrong garrifon, m or-
their throats, called bronchoceles. ' i he men are alio very der to prcferve their new conquefts, upon the frontiers
fimple, and are very zealous wor.Tiippers of the Virgin of which it was fituated. Our authorities alfo inform
Vol. XVII. Part IL 5 1 '^''^
S T I [802
Stirling, xis, that they erefted a ftone bridge orer the Forth,
upon the futnmit of which a crofs was raifed, with the
following infcription in monkifli rhyme.
Anglos a Scot'ts feparat crux tfta remot'u ;
Armis hie Jiant Bruti, Scott Jlant hie, cruce tutt.
Which is thus tranflated by Bellenden.
I am free marche, as paflengeris may ken,
To Scottis, to Britonis, and to Ingllfraen.
None of the ancient Enghfli hiftorians mention this
conqueft. The whole ftory, as well as the infcription,
wears much of a monkifh garb ; yet its authenticity is
not a little confirmed by the arms of the town of Stir-
ling, upon which is a bridge, with a crofs, and the laft
line of the above Latin diitich is the motto round it.
We muft not, however, imagine, that in thofe times
that fortrefs bore any refemblance to the prefent ftruc-
ture, which is adapted to the ufe of fire-arms. Its
fize and form probably refembled thofe caftles which,
under the feudal conftitution, the Engli{h and Scottifh
barons ufed to trtSt upon their eftates For dwelling-
houfes ; and which, in thofe barbarous ages, they found
neceffary to fortify for their defence, not only againft
foreign invaders, but Often againft the attacks of their
own neighbours. It is direftly fuch a Gothic figure as
this which reprefents the Cajlrum Strivelenfe upon the
arms of Stirling.
This fortrefs, after it had continued in the poffeflion
of the Northumbrian Saxons about 20 years, was, to-
gether with the whole country upon the fouth fide of
the Forth, reftored to the Scots, upon condition of their
afiifting the Saxons againft their turbulent invaders the
Danes. Upon the arms of Stirling are two branches
of a tree, to reprefent the Nemus Strivelenfe ; but the fi-
tuation and boundaries of that foreft, which was pro-
bably a wing of the Caledonian, cannot be afcertained.
Upon the fouth of Stirling, veftiges of a foreft are ftill
difcernible for feveral miles. Banks of natural timber
ftill remain in the caftle park, at Murray's wood, and
near Nether Bannockburn ; and flumps of trees, with
much bruftiwood, are to be feen in all the adjacent
fields.
When Kenneth III. received inteiria;ence of the
Danes having invaded his dominions, he appointed the
caflle of Stirlinir to be the place of rendezvous for his
army ; and he marched from thence to the battle of
Loncarty, where he obtained a vidory over thofe ro-
vers, in the end of the lolh century.
In the I 2th century, this caftle is fpoken of as a
place of great importance, and one of the flrongeft for-
treffes in the kingdom. In IJ74, a calamity, not unu-
fual amongft the Scottifli monarchs, befel Wilham, who
at that time occupied the thrqne. He was taken pri
foner in an unfuccefsful expedition which he made into
England ; and, after having been detained • 2 months
in captivity, was releafed, upon ftipulating to pay a
large fum of money for his ranfom ; and, until pay-
ment thereof, delivering into the hands of the Englifti
the four principal fortrefies in the kmgdom, which in
thofe days were Stirling, Edinburgh, ' Roxburgh, and
Berwick. This was the firf} great afcendant that Eng.
land obtained over Scotland ; and indeed the moft im-
portant tranfadion which had pafTed between thefe king-
doms from the Norman conc^ueft.
1 S T I
Though the Scottifli monarchs, in their frequent per-
ambulations through the kingdom, often vifited Stirling,
and held their courts for fome time in the caftle; yet it
^d not become a royal refidence till the family of Stu-
art mounted the throne, and it was from different princes
of this family that it received its prefent form. It was?
the place of the nativity of James II.; and, when raifed
to the throne, he frequently kept his court in it. It is
well known to have been the place where that prince
perpetrated an atrocious deed, the murder of William
earl of Douglas, whom he ftabbcd with his own hand.
The royal apartments were at that time in the north-
weft corner of the caftle, and are now the refidence of
the fort-major. The room where the murder was com-
rnitted ftill goes by the name of Douglas's room. See
Scotland, n"' 304, 305.
James III. contrading a fondnefs for- the caftle on
account of its pleafant fituation, made it the chief place
of his refidence, and added feveral embellifhments to it.
He built within it a magnificent hall, which in thofe
days was deemed a noble ftrudure, and is ftill entire.
It now goes by the name of the parliamenuhoufe^ having
been deligned for the accommodation of that fupreme
court. It was covered with an oaken roof of exqui-
fite workmanftiip, which, though very little decayed,
was a few years ago removed to make way for one
of more modern ftrudure. James alfo erefted a college
of fecular priefts in the caftle, which he called the chapeU
royal, and which proved one caufe of his own ruin. As
the expences neceffary for maintaining the numerous of-
ficers of fuch an inftitution were confiderable, he annex-
ed to it the revenues of the rich priory of Coldingham
in the Merfe, which at that time happened to become
vacant. This priory had for a long time been holden
by perfons connefted with the family of Hume ; and
that family, confidering it as belonging to them, ftrong-
ly oppofed the annexation. The difpute feems to have
lafted feveral years; for one parliament had paffed a vote,
annexing the priory to the chapel-royal, and a fubfequent
one cnafted a ftatute prohibiting every attempt that was
contrary or prejudicial to that annexation.
James V. was crawned in the caftle of Stirling ; and
the palace, which is the chief ornament of it, was the
work of that prince. Tliis is a ftately and commodi-
ous ftrudure, all of hewn, {tone, with much ftatuary-
work upon it. It is built in form of a fquare, with a
Imall court in the middle, in which the king's lions are
faid to have been kept ; and hence it ftill goes by the
name ot the lions dm. The palace contains many large
and £legant apartments ; the ground-ftory is now con-
verted into barrack-rooms for the foldiers of the garri-
fon ; the upper affords a houfe for the governor, with
igs for fome of the fubaltern officers.
Oppofite to the palace, upon the north, ftands aa
elegant chapel, which was built by James VI. for the
baptifm of his fon prince Henry in 1 5 94. In this
chapel is preferved the hulk of a large boat, which
that whimfical monarch caufed to be built and placed
upon carriages, in order to convey into the caftle the
provifions for that folemnity.
A ftrong battery, with a tier of guns pointing to the
bridge over the Forth, was erefted during the regency
of Maiy of Lorraine, mother to queen Mary. It is call-
ed the French battery, probably becaufe conftruaed by-
engineers of that nation. The laft addition was made
to
Sfirli'n
S T I
[ 803 j
S T O
to the fortifications in the reign of queen Anne. For-
merly they reached no farther than the old gate, upon
which the fiag-ftafF now {lands : but in that reign they
were confiderably enlarged upon the fide towards the
town ; and barracks, which are bomb proof, with feve-
ral other conveniences for a fiegc, were ere£ted.
Upon the fouth fide of the caftlc lies a park inclofcd
with a ftone-wall, called the king's pari, and near to the
foot of the rock on which the caftle Hands, lay the
royal gardens; veftiges of the walks and parterres, with
a few flumps of fruit-trees, are ftill vifible ; but by long
negledl, and the natural wctnefs of the foil, the place is
now little better than a marfli. In the gardens is a
mount of earth in form of a table, with benches of
^arth around it, where, according to tradition, the
court fomctimes held fetes-chdmpetres. In the caftle-
hill is an hollow, comprehending about an acre of
ground, and having all the appearance of an artificial
work, which was ufed for joufls, tournaments, and
other feats of chivalry.
Northward of the caftle lies the Govan, or perhaps
more properly the Goivling hill (a) ; in the middle of
which is a fmall mount called Hurly Haaky, upon whicJj
duke Murdoch and his two fons v/ere executed for trea-
fonable practices in the reign of James I.
The profpeA from the cattle is moft' delightful, as
well as extenfive, being greatly beautified, efpecially
upon the eaft, by the windings of the Forth; which
are fo many, that thouah the diftance by land from
Stirling to Alloa is, in a ftraight line, not quite fix
miles, it is faid to be 24 by water. As this river ge-
nerally runs upon plain ground, it rolls its ftream in fo
flow and filent a manner, that what Silius Italicus faith
of the Ticinus is applicable to it, if, inftead of lucentl in
that poet, we fhould for once read lutofo ; for the clay-
banks, together with the tide, which flows above Stir-
ling, render the Forth perpetually muddy :
f^lx credos lab'i, ripis tarn mitis opacis
Somniferam duett lutojo gurgite lympham.
The lordfhip and caftle of Stirling were a part of the
ufual dowry of the queens of Scotland, at lealt aftei the
family of Stuart came to the throne, in which they were
invcfted at their marriage.
Robert lord Eiflcine was appointed governor of the
caftle by king David XL and the office continued in that
family till 1715.
This fortrefs hath been the fcene of many tranfac-
tiens. Being by its fituation confidered as a key to
the northern parts of the kingdom, the poffeffion of it
liath been always efteemed of great importance to thofe
who fought to be mafters of Scotland. It was undoubt-
edly a place of ftrength when the art of war by ordnance
was in its infancy; but though it refitted the utmoft ef-
forts of the rebels in \ 746, it could not now hold out
three days if befieged by an army of a tew thoufand
men conduced by an engineer of knowledge and inte-
grity.
STIRLINGSHIRE, a county of Scotland, of
which Stirling is the capital. It extends 2 0 miles in
length and 1 2 in breadth ; being bounded on the weft
by part of Lennox and Clydefdale ; on the eaft, by Srirrup
Clackmannanlhire, the river Forth, and part of Lothi- ^^^^
an ; on the fouth-eatt, by Lothian ; and on the north, , , ^ ' ^
by Monteith. The face of the country is open and
agreeable, diverfified by hill and dale, well watered with
ftreams and rivers ; the principal of which is the Forth,
rifing in the neighbourhood of a high mountain called
Ben-Lomond^ and, running eaftward, forms the frith of
Edinburgh. The fouthern part is hilly, affording plenty
of game, and pafturage for fheep, horfes, and black cattle.
The eaftern part is fertile, producing plentiful harvefta
of corn, and great abundance of coal. Lead-ore is found
in different parts of the (hire ; and the rivers abound with
pike, trout, and lalmon.
STIRRUP, in the manege, a reft or fupport for the
horfeman's foot, for enabling him to mount and for
keeping him firm in his feat.
Stirrups were unknown to the ancients. The want
of them in getting upon horfeback was fupplied by a;i;i-
lity or art. Some horfes were taught to ftoop to take
their riders up; but the riders often leapt up by the help
of their fpears, or were alTifted by their flaves, or made
ufe of ladders for the purpofe. Gracchus filled the
highways with ftones, which were intended to anfwer
the fame end. 'i'hc fame was alfo required of the fur-
veyors of the roads in Greece as part of theli duty.
Menage obferves, that St Jerome is the firtt author
who mentions them. But the paflage alluded to is not to
be found in his epiftles ; and if it were there, it would
prove nothing, becauie St Jerome lived at a time when
ftirrups are fuppofed to have been invented, and after
the ufe of faddles. Montfaucon denies the authenticity
of this paflage ; and, in order to account for the igno- ,
ranee of the ancients with regard to an inttrument fo -^"jl'^'yani
ufeful and fo eafy of invention, he obferves, thut while Art of
cloths and houfings only were laid upon the horfes backs, Hotjemart"
on which the riders were to fit, ftirrups could not have-'*'*' '*
been ufed, becaufe they could not have been fattened^*
with the fame fecurity as upon a faddle. But it is more
probable, that in this inftance, as in many others, the
progrefs of human genius and invention is uncertain
and flow, depending frequently upon accidental cau-
fes.
Stirrup of a Ship, a piece of timber put upon a ftiip's
keel, v/hen fome of her keel happens to be beaten off,
and they cannot come conveniently to put or fit in a
new piece ; then they patch in a piece of timber, and
bind it on with an iron, which goes under the ftiip's
keel, and comes up on each fide of the ftiip, where it
is nailed ftrongly with fpLkes ; and this they call a ftir-
rup.
STOB^US (John), a laborious Greek writer, who
lived at the end of the fourth century, compofed many
works, of which there are only his Colle<Sions remain-
ing, and even thefe are not as he compofed them ; many
things being inferted by later authors. This work con-
tains many important fentiments colle<fted from the an-
cient writers, poets, and philofophers.
STOCK, in gardening, &c. the ftem or trunk of a
tree. Whatftock is moft proper for each kind of fruit,
ought as well to be confidered and known, as what loil
5 I 2 is
(a) So called from the wailings and lamentations (in Scotch ^ow/i»^x^ that were made for Duke Murdoch.
S T O
[ Sq+ ]
S T O
Stnrlr,
Stockholm.
Cexe's Tra
vfh, vol. ii
is moft fuitable to trees; for on thefe two things the fu-
ture vigour of trees, and the q[oodnefs of fruit, equally
depend, 'i'he beft. way for thofe who intend to plant,
is to raife their own ilocks, by which they will be better
afTured of what they do ; but if they Ihould buy their
trees of niirlerymen, they fhould diligently inquire
upon what ftockb they were propagated. SccGraft-
IHG.
Stock, in trade. See Cjpit^z Slock.
SiocK-Broktr. See Broker and Stocks.
SrocK-D'ne, in zoology. See Colcmba.
Stock- yrjbbiiijr, the art or myftery of tralEcking in
the public flocks or funds. See Fund and Stock- Job-
Stock Gilly-floiver, inhotzny. See Cheiranthus.
S rOCKHOLM, the capital of Sweden, is filuated
in the province of Upland, in E. Lonp^. 19. 30. and N.
l^at. 59. 20. Its foundation is by the beft, Swedifh
writers generally attributed to Birger Jarl, regent of
the kingdom about the middle of the 13th century du-
ring the minority of his fon Waldcmar, who had been
raifed to the throne by the ftates of the kingdom ; but
it was not before the laft century that the royal refidence
was transferred from Upfala to this city.
This capital, which is very long and irregular, occu-
pies, befide two peninfalas, feven fmall rocky iflands,
fcattered in the Maeler, in the llreams which iiTue from
that lake, and in a bay of the gulf of Bothnia. A va-
riety of contrafted and enchanting views are formed by
numberlefs rocks of granite riling boldly from the fur-
face of the water; partly bare and craggy, partly dotted
with houfes, or feathered with wood. 1 he harbour is
an inlet oF the Baltic : the water is clear as cryltal, and.
of fuch depth that Ihips of the largeft burthen can ap-
proach the quay, which is of coniiderable breadth, and
•lined with fpacious buildings and ware houfes. At the
■ extremity of the harbour feveral (Ireets rife one above
another in the form of an amphitheatre; and the palace,
a magnificent building, crowns the funimit. Towards
the fea, about two or three miles from the town, the
harbour is contraded into a narrow llrait, and, winding
among high rocks, difappears from the fight j and the
profpe£t is terminated by diftant hills, overfpread with
toreft. It is far beyond the power of words, or of the
pencil, to dehneate thefe fingular views. The central
ifland, from which the city derives its name, and the
Kitterholm, are the handfomeft parts of the town. Ex-
cepting in the fuburbs, where the houfes are of wood
painted red, the generality of the buildings are rf ftone,
or brick ftuccoed white. The royal palace, which ftands
in the centre of Stockholm, and upon the highefl fpot
of ground, was begun by Charles %l. : it is a large
quadrangular ftone edifice, and the ftyle of architedure
is both elegant and magnificent.
It is the habitation not only of the royal family, but
alfo of the greater part of the officers belonging to the
houlehold. It hkewife comprehends the national or fu-
preme csurt of juftice, the colleges of war, chancery,
treafury, and commerce ; a chapel, armoury, library,
and office for the public records ; but the greater num-
ber of inferior officers and fervants beloni^ing to the
teurt, arc, with the foot guards, quartered on the
burghers. The caftle, and all the ftately edifices in
the kingdom, are covered with copper. The palace of
the nobility, ia which this order fits during the feffion
of the diet, fa an deg^nt building adorned on the oat- -'^'tocljji'ili
fide with marble ftatues and colurTinSi and on the infide -torkin
with painting and fculpture. This and three other pa-
laces ftand on the banks of the lake, and are built on
the fame model, fo as to corapofe an uniform piece of
archite<B:ure. The bank, built at the expence of the
city, is a noble edifice, and joins with many fumptuous
houlcs belonging to the nobility in exhibitino a fplendid
appearance. The houfes of the burghers are generally
built of brick in the city ; but in the fuburbs they are
commonly made up of timber, and therefore very fubjedt
to confta,rrations. Thefe houfes are o^ten framed in Fin-
land, according to the plan and dimenfions prefcribed %
whence they are tranfported in pieces to Stockholm
by water, and there fet up by the carpenters. Thefe
wooden habitations, if kept in proper repair, w II lad
30 or 40 years, and are deemed warmer, neater, and
more healthy, than thofe of brick or {tone. To prevent
the danger of conflagrations, the city is divided into i 2
wards. In each of thefe there is a mafter and four af-
fiftants, who forthwith repair to the place where the fire
breaks out; and all porters and labourers are obliged to
range themfelves under the mafter of the ward to which
they belong. A fire-watch patroles the ftreets by night,
to give warning or affiftance as it may be wanted ; antj
a centinel is maintained in the fteeple o^' everv church,
to toll the bell on the firft appearance of any inch acci-
dent. The police of Stockholm is entirely fubjecled
to the regulations of the grand governor, nffifted by a
deputy and bailiff of the caftle. This city is tiie Itaple
of Sweden, to which all the commodities of the king--
dom are brought for exportation, and where almoft all
the imports from abroad are depofited. The port or
haven formed by the lake Mseler is large enough to
contain 1000 fail of (hipping ; and furnifhed with a key
or wharf about an Engliih mile in length, to which the
veifels may lie with their broudfides. The greateft in-
conveniences attending this fituation are, the diftance
from the fea, which is not within lefs than i o miles of
the town ; the want of tides ; and the winding of the
river, which is remarkably crooked. It opens into the
Bakic; and the entrance, which is dangerous and rocky,
the Swedes have fecurtd with two fmall forts : within,
it is per.feffly fafe and commodious, 'i'he northern fu-
burbs are remarkable for the king's gardens, and for the
great number of arciians who have chofen their habita-
tions in this quarter. In the fouthern fuburbs the Mu-f-
covite commodities are fold ; and here is a magnificent
exchange where the merchants daily affemble.
STOCKING, that part of the clothing of the leg
and foot which immediately covers and fcreens them
from the rigour ot the cold. Anciently, the only ftock-
ings in ufe were made of cloth, or of milled ftuffs fewed
together ; bat fince the invention of knitting and wea-
ving ftockings of filk, wool, cotton, thread, &c. the ufe
of cloth ftockings is quite difcontinued. Dr Howel,
in his Hiftory of the World (vol. ii. p. 222.) relates,
that queen Elizabeth, in 1501, was prefented with a
pair of black knit filk ftockings by her filk-wo-
man, and thenceforth ftie never wore cloth ones any
more. The fame author adds, that king Henry VIII.
ordinarily wore cloth hofe, except there came from
Spain, by great chance, a pair of filk ftockings. His
fon, king Edward VI. was prefented with a pair of
long Spanilh, lilk ftockings by Sir Thomas Grefham,
and
S T O ( 8c
e!<!n?, and the ppefent was then much taken notice of. Hence
"tit?- it fhould feem, that the invention of knit filk ilockings
' originally came from Spain. Others relate, that one
Wiiham Rider, an apprentice on London bridge, fee-
in o- at the h.oufe of an Itahan merchant a pair of knit
worfted {lockings from Mantua, took the hint, and
niade a pair exaftly hke them, which he prefented to
William 'eaii of Pembroke, and that they were thefirft
of that kind worn in Enoland, anno 1564.
The modern ftockinjrs, whether woven or knit, are
formed of an infinite number of little knots, cdlUdJUlches,
loops, or TTKjQjti^ intcrmindcd in one another.
Knit ftockings are wrought with needles made of
poliilied iron, ox brals wire, which interweave Uie
threads and form the mefhes the Ifocking confifts^ of.
At what time the art of knitting was invented it is
perhaps impofiible to determine, though it has been
ufually attributed to the Scots, as it is faid that the
firil works of this kind came fiom Scotland. It is
added,, that it was on this account that the company
of ftocking-knitters, eUabUlhed at Paris 1527, took for
their patron St Fiacre, who is faid to have been the
fonof a king of Scotland. But it is moft probable that
the method of knitting {lockings by wires or needles
was {irft brought from Spain.
Woven ftockincrs are generally very fine ; they are
manufacfured on a frame or machine made of poli{lied
iron, the {^iruAure of which it is needlefs to defcribe, as
it may be feen in aim oft every con fide table town in
Great Bricain. The invention of this machine is, by
Mr Anderfon, attributed to William Lee, M. A. of
St John's College, Cambridge, at a period jo early as
1 589. Others have given the credit of this invention
to a {Indent of Oxford at a much later period, who, it
is laid by Aaron Hill*, was driven to it by dire necelTi-
"^"z- ty. 'i his young man, falling in love with an inn keep-
m'mLl c^'s daughter, married her though (he had not a penny,
r<,frefi^f and he by his marriage loft a ftllowniip. They foon
Btecb 'OU{^^ into extreme jjoverty ; and their marriage produ-
•^^""'^ cing the confequences naturally to be expefted from it,
the'amorous pair became miferable, not fo much on ac-
^' count of their fafferings, as from the melancholy dread
of what would become of their yet unborn infant.
Their only means of fupport were the knitting of ftock-
ings, ,at which the woman was very expert : " But
fitting''conRantly together from morning to night, and
the {cholar often fixing his eyes, with ttedfaft obferva-
tion, on the motion of his wife's finger's in the dexte-
rous management of. her needles, he took it into his
imagination, that it was not impoai'Dle to contrive a
little loom which might do the work with much more
expedition, 'i'his thought he communicated to his wife,
and joining his head to her hands, the endeavour fuc-
ceeded to their wifh. Thus the ingenious ftocking-
loom, which is fo common now, was firft invented ; by
which he did not only make himfelf and his family hap-
py, but has left his nation indebted to him for a benefit
which enables us to export filk ftockings in great quan-
tities, and to a yaft advanta e, to thole very countries
from whence before we uied to bring them at coniider-
able lofs in the balance of our traffic."
STOCKS, or Public Funds in England. By the
yvoxdijiock was originally meant a particular fum of
woney contributed to the eftablifhing of a fund to enable
5 ] ST O
a company to carry on a certain trade, by mrans of g^^J^^j^
which the perfon became a partner in that trade, and , ""^^ \^
received a fliare of the profit made theieby, in proper.
tion to the money employed. But this term has been
extended farther, though improperly, to fignify any
fum of money which has been lent to the government,
on condition of receiving a certain intereft till the moneys
is repaid, and which makes a part of the national debt.
As the fecurity both of the government and of the
public companies is efteemcd preferable to that of any
private perfon, as the ftocks are negotiable and may be
fold at any ti^ie, and as the intereft is always punftuaU
ly paid when due ; fo they are thereby enabled to-
borrow money on a lower intereft than what could be
obtained from lending it to private peifons, where there
muft be always fome danger of lofmg both principal'
and inter eff.
But as every capital ftock or fund of a company is-
raifed for a particular purpofe, and limited by parlia-
ment to a certain fum, it neceftarily follows, that when
that fund is completed, no ftkick can be bought of the
company; though {liares already purchafed may be
transfen-ed from one perfon to another. This^ being
the ca!"e, there is frequently a great difproportion be-
twewithe oi-iginal value of the {hares and what is given
for them when transferred : tor if there are more buyer*
than fclleis, a perfon who is iridiiTerent a'oout felling
will not part with his fhare without a conf:derable pro-
fit to himfelf; and on the C(>» trary, if many are dif-
pofed to fell, and few inclined to buy, the value of
fuch faares will naturally fall in proportion to the
impatience of thofc who want to turn their ftock into
fpecic-
A ftock may likewife be afFefted by the court of
cliancery ; for if that court fhould order the money,
which is under their diteftion, to be laid out in any par-
ticular ftock, that ftock, by having more purchafers,
will be raifed to a higher price than any other of the -
like value.
By what has been faid, the reader w ill perceive hovw
much the credit and intereft of the nation depends oa
the fupport of the public funds While the annuities
and intereft for money advanced is there regularly paid,
and the principal infured by both prince and people
(a fecurity not to be had in other nations), foreignera •
will lend us their property, and all Europe be intereft-
ed in our welfare ; the paper of the companies will be
converted into money and merchandife, and Great
Britain can never want cafh to carry her fchemes inta
execution. See the article Fund.
Stocks, a frame ereAed on the fiiore of a river or
harbour, whereon to build ftiipping. It generally con-
lifts of a number of wooden blocks, ranged parallel to
each other, at convenient diftances, and with a gradual
declivity towards the water.
Stocks, a wooden machine to put thelegsofoff"endera
in, for fecuring diforderly perfons, and by way of pu-
uifhment in divers cafe3, ordained by Ifatute, <>cc.
STOCKTON upon Tees, a handlome town ia
the county of Durham, about 1 6 miles iouth of the
city of Durham. It is now a port of confiderable
trade ; though, at the Reftoration, it was a defpicable
village, the beft houfe in which could hardly boaft of
any thing better than clay- walls and a thatched ropf.
^ ^ About;
Stoebe
II
'Stone.
S T O [ 8
About 40 years ago it fent out in one year 7 5 vefTels
for the port of London ; and the tiade is much increa-
_ fed fince.
S rOEBEjBAsTARD^THioPrAN, in botany: Agenus
of plants belonging to the clafs fyn^enefia, and order
o\ polygamta feg'egata ; and in the natural fyftem ran-
gmg under the 49th order, compofita. The calycle is
uniflorous ; the coroUets are tubular and hermaphro-
dite ; the receptacle is naked, and the pappus is fea-
thery. There are nine fpecies, the asthiopica, ericoi-
des, proftrata, gnaphaloides, gomphrenoides, fcabra,
reflexa, rhinocerotis, and difticha ; all plants of foreiirn
growth.
S rOICS, the name given to a fed of Grecian phi-
lofophers, from Sro«, " the porch in Athens," which
the founder of the fed chofe for his fchool. For the
peculiar tenets of this fea, fee Metaphysics, Chap. TV.
Part 3. Moral Philosophy, n"^ 8. and Zend.
_ STOLBERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and territory of Thurinyia,
of which it is the capital place. It is feated between
two mountains,58 miles north-weft of Leipfic. E. Lon?.
n. 8.N. Lat. 51.42. ^
STOLE, a facerdotal ornament worn by the Romifh
parifti-priefts above their furplice, as a mark of fuperiori-
ty in their refpedive churches ; and by other priefts
over the alb, at celebrating of mafs, in which cafe it
goes acrofs the ftomach ; and by deacons, over the
left fhoulder, fcarf-wife : when the pricft reads the
gofpel for any one, he lays the bottom of his ftole on
his head. The ftole is a broad fwath, or flip of fluff,
hanging from the neck to the feet, with three croffes
thereoH.
Groom of the Stole, the eldeft gentleman of his Ma-
jefty's bed-chamber, whofe office it is to prefeut and
put on his majefty's firft garment, or ftiirt, every
morning, and to order the things in the cham-
ber.
STOMACH, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° 91.
STOMACHIC, medicines that ftrengthen the fto-
mach and promote di;{eftion, &c.
Stomachic corroboratives are fuch as ftrengthen the
tone of the ftomach and inteftines ; among which are
carminatives, as the roots of galangals, red gentian, ze-
doary, pimpinella, calamus aromaticus, and arum. Of
barks and rinds, thofe of canella alba, falfafras, citrons,
Seville and China oranges, &c. Of fplces, pepper,
ginger, cloves, cinnamon, cardamums, and mace.
STONE (Edmund), a diftinguifhed felf- taught ma-
thematician, was born in Scotland ; but neither the place
nor time of his b.'rth are well known ; nor have we
any memoirs of his life, except a letter from the Che-
valier de Ramfay, author of the Travels of Cyrus, in a
letter to father Caftel, a Jefuit at Paris, and publiflied
in the Memoirs de Trevoux, p. 109, as follows: True
genius overcomes all the difadvantages of birth, fortune,
and education ; of which Mr Stone is a rare example.
Born a fon of a gardener of the duke of Argyle, he ar-
rived at eight years of age before he learnt to read.
By chance a fervant having taufrht young Stone the
letters of the alphabet, there needed nothing more to
difcover and expand his genius. He applied himfelf
to ftudy, and he arrived at the knowledge of the moft
fubhme geometry and analyfis, without a mafter, with-
c6 ] S T O
oiflt a conduftor, without any other guide but pure Ston
genius.
"At 18 years of age he had made thefe confidera-
ble advances without belns: known, and without know-
ing himfelf the prodigies of his acquifitions. The duke
of Argyle, who joined to his military talents a general
knowledge of every fcience that adorns the mind of a
man of his rank, walking one day in his garden, faw
lying on the grafs a Latin copy of Sir Ifaac Newton's
celebrated Principia. He called fome one to him to
take and carry it back to his library. Our young gar-
dener told him that the book belonged to him. < To
you ?' replied the Duke. « Do you underftand geo-
metry, Latin, Newton V I know a Httle of them, re-
plied the young man with an air of fimplidty arifing
from a profound ignorance of his own knowledge and
talents. The Duke was furpril'ed ; and having a tafte
for the fclences, he entered into con verfation with the
young mathematician : he aflced him feveral queftioiis,
and was aftoniflied at the force, the accuracy, and the
candour of his anfwers. ' But how, faid the Duke,
came you by the knowledge of all thefe things V Stone
replied, 'A fervant taught me, ten years fince, to read:
does one need to know any thing more than the 24
letters in order to learn every thing elfe that one wifties?'
The Duke's curiofity redoubled — he fat down upon a
bank, and requefted a detail of all his proceedings in
becoming fo learned.
" I firft learned to read, faid Stone : the mafons
were then at work upon your houfc : I went near
them one day, and I faw that the architeft ufed a rule,
compaffes, and that he made calculations. I inquired
what might be the meaning and ufe of thefe things ;
and I was informed that there was a fcience called
Arithmetic : I purchafed a book of arithmetic, and I
learned it. — I was told there was another fcience called
Geometry : I bought the books, and I learnt geometry.
By reading I found that there were good books in
thefe two fciences in Latin : I bought a diftionary, and
I learned Latin. I underftood alfo that there were
good books of the fame kind in French : I boujht a
di£lionary, and I learned French. And this, my lord,
is what I have done : it feems to me that we may
leai-n every thing when we know the 24 letters of the
alphabet."
This account charm.cd the Duke. He drew this
v/onderful genius out of his obfcurity ; and he provided
hiin with an employment which left him plenty of time
to apply himfelf to the fciences. He difcovered in
him alfo the fame genius for mufic, for painting, for
architefture, for all the fciences which depend on cal-
culations and proportions."
" I have feen Mr Stone.. He is a man of great
fimplicity. He is at prefent fenfible of his own know-
ledge ; but he is not pulfed up with it. He is poflef-
fed with a pure and diftinterefted love for the mathe-
matics, though he is not folicitous to pafs for a ma-
thematician ; vanity having no part in the great labour
he fuftains to excel in that fcience. He i^efpifes for-
tune alfo ; and he has folicited me twenty times to re-
queft the duke to give him lefs employment, which
may not be worth the half of that he now has, in order
to be more retired, and lefs taken off from his favourite
ftudies. He difcovers fometimes, by methods of his
S T O [ 80
own, truths which others have difcorercd before him.
He is charmed to find on thefe occafions that he is not
a firft inventor, and that others have made a greater
progrefs than he thought. Far from being a plagiary,
he attributes ingenious folutions, which he gives to cer-
tain problems, to the hints he has found in others, al-
though the connexion is but very diftant," &c.
Mr Stone was author and tranflator of feveral ufeful
works; viz. I. A New Mathematical Didlionary, in
1 vol. 8vo, firft printed in 1726. 2. Fluxions, in i
vol. bvo, 1730. 'I'he Direft Method is a tranflatlon
from the French, of Hofpital's Analyfe des Infiniments
Petits ; and the Inverfe Method was fupplied by Stone
himfelf. 3. The Elements of Euclid, in 2 vols. 8vo,
3731. A neat and ufeful edition of thofe Elements,
with an account of the life and writings of Euclid, and a
de'^ence of his elements againft modern objeftors, Befide
other fmaller works. Stone was a fellow of the Royal
Society, and had inferted in the Philofophical Tranf-
aftions (vol. 41, p. 218) an " Account of two fpecies
of hnes of the 3d order, not mentioned by Sir Ifaac
Newton or Mr Stirling."
Stone (Jerome), the fon of a reputable feaman, was
born in the parllh of Scoonie, in the county of Fife,
North Britain, His father died abroad, when he was
but three years of age, and his mother, with her young
family, was left in very narrow circumftances. Jerome,
like the reft of the children, having got the ordinary
fchool education, reading Engli(h, writing, and arlth-
metic, betook himfelf to the bufinefs of a travelling
chapman. But the dealing in buckles, garters, and
fuch fmall articles, not fuiting his fuperior genius, he
foon converted his little ftock into books, and for fome
years went through the country, and attended the fairs
as an itinerant bookfeller. There is great reafon to be-
lieve that he engaged in this new fpecies of traffic,
more with a view to the improvement of his mind than
for any pecuniary emolument. Formed by nature for
literature, he pofFcffed a peculiar talent for acquiring
languages with amazlngr facility. Whether from a de-
fire to underlland the Scriptures in their original lan-
guages, or from being informed that thefe lanp[uagcs are
the parents of many others, he began his philoloaical
purfuits with the ftudy of the Hebrew and Greek
tongues ; and, by a wonderful effort of genius and ap-
plication, made himfelf fo far mafter of thefe, without
any kind of affiftance, as to be able to interpret the
Flebrew Bible and Greek Teftament into Englifh ad
apeituram libri. At this time he did not know one word
of Latin. Senfiblc that he could make no great pro-
grefs in learning, without the knowledge of at leaft the
grammar of that language, he made appHcation to
the parilh fchoolmafter for his affiftance. Some time
afterwards he was encouraged to profecut^ his ftudies
at the Univerlity of St Andrew's. An unexampled
proficiency in ever)' branch of literature recommended
him to the efteem of the profeffors ; and an uncommon
fund of wit and pleafantry rendered him, at the fame
time, the favourite of all has fellow ftudenis, fome of
whom fpeak of him to this day with an enthufiaftic de-
gree of admiration and refpeft. About this' period
fome very humorous poetical pieces of his compofition
were pubhftied in the Scots Magazine. Before he had
finlflied his third feffion, or term, at St Andrew's, on an
7 ] S T O
application to the College by the mafter of the fchool
of Dunkeld for an ufher, Mr Stone was recommended
as the beft qualified for that office ; and about two or
three years after, the mafter being removed to Perth,
Mr Stone, by the favour of his Grace the Duke of
AthoU, who had conceived a high opinion of his abili-
tic?, was appointed his fucceffor.
When he firft went to Dunkeld, he entertained but
an unfavourable opinion of the Gaelic language; which
he confidered as nothing better than a barbarous inarti-
culate gibberifh ; but being bent on inveftigating the
origin and defcent of the ancient Scots, he fuffered not
his prejudices to make him negleft the ftudy of their
primitive tono-ue. Having, with his ufual affiduity and
fiiccefs, mattered the grammatical difficulties which he
encountered, he fet himfelf to difcover fomething of the
true genius and chat after of the language. He coUeft-
ed a number of ancient poems, the produftion, of IriHi
or Scottifh bards, which, he faid, were daring, innocent,
paffionate, and bold. Some of thefe poems were tranf-
lated into Engliih verfe, which feveral perfons now alive
have fcen in manufcript, before Mr Macpherfon pub-
lilhed any of his tranflations from Offian.
He died while he was writing and preparing for the
prefs a treatife, intitled, '* An Inquiry into the Origi-
nal of the Nation and Languag^e of the ancient Scots,
with Conjeftures about the Primitive State of the Cel-
tic and other European Nations ;" an idea which could
not have been conceived by an ordinary genius. In this
treatife he proves that the Scots drew their original, as
well as their language, from the ancient Gauls. Had
Mr Stone lived to finifh this work, which difcovers great
inr{enuity, immenfe reading, and indefatigable induftry,
it would have thrown light upon the dark and early pe*
riods of the Scottifh hillory, as he opens a new and plain-
path for leading us throuj'h the unexplored labyrinths
of antiquity. But a fever put an end to his hfe, his la-
bours, and his ufe'ulnefs, in the year 1757, being then'
only in the 30th year of his age. He left, in manu-
fcript, a much efteemed and well-known allegory, inti-
tled " The Immortality of Authors," which has been
publlfhod and often reprinted fince his death, and will
be a lafting monument of a lively fancy, found judge-
ment, and correal tafte. It was no fmall ornament of
this extraordinary charadter, that he paid a pious regard
to his aged mother, who furvived him two years, and
received an annual penfion from the Dutchefs of Atholl
as a teftimony of refpedt to the memory of her fon.
STONEIIIVE, or Stonehaven,, a fmall town in
the county of Kincardine, in Scotland, i ^ miles fouth
from Aberdeen. It was built in the time of Charles 11.
and ftands at the foot of fome high cliffs, in a fmall bay,
with a rocky bottom, opening a little in one part, fo-
that fmall veflels may find admittance, but only at high
water. A pier laps over this harbour from the north
fide to fecure them after their entrance. Tlie town con^
tains about 800 inhabitants. The manufadtures are fail?
cloths and Ofnaburghs, knit worfted and thread ftocki-
STONES, in natural hiftory, bodies which are infir
pid, not dudlile, nor inflammable, nor foluble in water.
But as this is the definition given of earths by chemifts
and naturalifts, we muft refer the reader to the articles,
Ea&th, and Mikeralogy, Part II. clafs i. for a
view
Stone
11
Stones.
S T O
r sc8 ]
S T O
view of tKe clafTification of ftones. Here we will only
make a few obfervatlons concernirifj their natural hi'
Itory.
As philofophers have perplexed themfelves irinch
about the onein and formation of the earth (a fubjeCt
certainly far beyond the ken of the human intelledl, at
leaft if we believe that it was made by the Almighty
power of God), lo they have alfo propofed theories to
explain the origin of ilones. When philofophers limit
their inquiries within the boundaries of faience, where
they are led by the fober and fafe condu(!5l of obferva-
tion and experiment, their conclufions may be folid and
• may be ufeiul ; but when, throwing experiment and
obfervation afide, they rear a theory upon an airy no-
thing, or upon a fmgle detached fadf, their theories will
vanifn before the touch of true philofophy as a roman-
tic palace before the rod of the enchanter. Sometimes
from whim., or caprice, or vanity, they attempt to con-
found every tliini^ : They wifli to prove that the foul
is mere matter, that plants are animals, and that foffils
are plants, and thus would banifh two lubftances, fpirit
and dead matter, entirely from the world ; as if the
Author of Nature were actuated by fordid views of
parfmiony in the wor ks of creation, thou;^h we evidently
fee that a generous protulion i? one of the charadlerif-
tic marks of thefe works. Wc leave the taflc of con-
founding the different clafles of being to thofe philo-
fophers wliofe minds are too contraAed to compre-
hend a ijreat variety of being at one view, cr who pre-
fer novelty to every thing elle. We content ourfelves
■with the old opinion, that the foul is a fpiritual fubftance;
that plants are plants, and that ftones are ftones.
We have been led into thefe remarks by finding that
•fome philofophers fay that ft«nes are vegetables ; that
they grow and incrcafe in fize hke a plant. This
theory, we believe, was firft offered to the world by
M. 'L'ournefort, in the year 1702, after returning from
his travels in the eaft. It was founded on a curious
faft. In furveying the labyrinth of Crete, he ob-
ferved that the names which vifitors had engraved
upon the rock were not formed of hollow but of pro-
minent letters like bafto relievos. He fuppofes that
thefe letters were at firft hollowed out by knives ; that
the hollows have fince been filled up by the growth of
the {tone ; and hense he concludes that ftones vegetate.
We wifh we were fully afTured of the fa£l that the let-
ters were at firft hollowed, before we attempt to ac-
count for their prominency. But even allowing the fup-
polltion to be true that they were at firft hollow, we
reply it is only a Tingle fa£l:, and that it 1*3 siltogether Sto'
impiulofophical to deduce a general fyftem fromafingle —
fa6f.
In the fecond place, this protubcrancy of the charaf-
ters is very improperly called vegetation, for it is not
produced by a procefs in any refpeft like the vegetation
of a plant. Vegetation fuppofes veffels containing'
fluids and growth by expanfion ; but who ever heard
of vefTels in a ftone, of fluids movinji^ in them, or ot the
diffei-ent parts expanding and fwellin r like the branch
or trunk of a tree ? Even the faft which Tournefort
mentions proves nothing. He does not pretend to fay,
that the rock itfjelf is increafing, but only that a few
fmall hollows are filled with new ftony matter, which
rifes a little above the furrounding furface of the rock.
This matter evidently has been once liquid, and at length
has congealed in the channel into which ic had run. —
But is not this eafily explained by a common procefs,
the formation of ftalaftites ? When water charged with
calcareous matter is expofed to the a£lion of air, the
water evaporates, and leaves the calcareous earth be-
hind, which hardens and becomes like a ftone.
Having thus examined the principal fa£l upon which
M. Tour;:Tefort founds his theory, it is unneceflfary to
follow him minutely through the reft of his fubjeft.
*He compares the accretion of matter in the labyrinth
to the confolidation of a bone when broken, by a callu*
formed of tbe extravafaled nutritious juice. This oh-
fervation is thought to be confirmed, by finding that
the projetfting matter of the letters is whitifh and the
rock itfelf greyiOi. But it is eafy to find comparifons.
The d<fSculty, as Pope fays, is to apply them. There-
femblance between the filling up of the hollow of a
ftone, and tlie confolidation of a broken bone by a cal-
lus, we confefs ourfelves not philofophers enough to fee.
Were we writing poetry in bad tafte, perhaps it might
appear. The circnmftance, that the prominent matter
of the letters is whitifh, while the rock is greyifh, we
flatter ourfelves ftrengthens our fuppofition that it con-
fifts of a depoiition of calcareous matter. Upon the
whole, we conclude, we hope logically, that no fuch
theory as this, that ftones are vegetables, can be drawn
from the fuppofed fad refpedling the labyrinth. We
have to regret, that the account which we have feen of
the fubjeft is fo imperfeft, that we have not fufhcient
materials for a proper inveftigation. Tournefort has
not even told us of what kind of ftone or earth the ac-
cretion confifts; yet this fuigle information would pro-
bably have decided the queftion (a).
Artljicial
(a) To give a more diftind notion of Tourncfort's theory, we fhall fubjoin his conclufions : From thefe ob-
fervations (he fays) it follows, that there ate Hones which grow in the quarries, and of 'confequence that arc
fed ; that the fame juice which nourifhes them fervcs to rejoin their parts when broken ; juft as in the bones of
animals, and the branches of trees, when kept up by bandages ; and, in a word, tlxat they vegetate. There is,
then (he fays), no room to <loubt but that they are organized ; or that they draw their nutritious juice from
the earth, 'i his juice muft be firfl filtrated and prepared in their furface, which may be here efteemed as a
kind of bark ; and hence it muft be conveyed to all the other parts. It is highly probable the juice^whlch fill-
ed the cavities of the letters was brought thither from the bottom of the roots ; nor is there any more difficulty
in conceiving this than in comprehending how the fap fhould pafs from the roots of our largtft oak^ to the
very extremities of their highefi branches. Some ftones, then (he concludes), muft be allowed to vegetate and
-grow like plants : but this is not all ; (he adds), that probably they are generated in the fame manner ; at leaft,
that there are abundance of ftones whofe generation is inconceivable, without fuppofing that they come from a
kind of feeds, wherein the ot:ganical parts of the ftones are wrapped up as thofe of tlie largeft plants are in
ithcir feeds.
S T O [8
jilrtijictal Stonk. See Stucco.
Biafl'tc Stone. See Elafuc ^arsib.
Philofopber's Sro.\s. See Philosopher's SfoffE.
Precious Stonrs. See Gem.
Rorklng Stove, or I.og-in, a ilone of a prodigious
fize, fo exadlly poifed, tJiat it Would rock or fhake with
the fmailefl. force. Of thefe (lones the ancients give us
fonfie account. Ph'ny fays, that at Harpafa, a town of
Afia, there was a rock of fuch a wonder:ul nature, th?.t
if touched with the finder it would fhake, but could
not be moved from its place with the whole force of the
body*. Ptolemy Hcpheftion mentionsf a gygonian ftone
near the ocean, which was aoltated when ftruck by the
ftalk of an afphodel, but could not be removed by a
great exertion of force. The word gygonius feems to
be Celtic ; for gwingog fignifies motitans, the rocking-
ftone.
Many rocking ftones ate to be found in different
parts of this ifland'; fome natural, others artificial, or
placed in their pofition by human art. In the parlfh of
St Leven, Cornwall, there is a promontory called Caf-
tle Treryn. On the wei^ern fide of the middle group,
near the top, lies a very large ftone, fo evenly poifed
that any hand may move it from one fide to another ;
yet it is fo fixed on its bafe, that no lever nor any me-
chanical force can remove it from its prefent fituation.
it is called the Logan-fione, and is at fuch a height from
the ground that no perfon can believe that it was raifed
to its prefent pofition by art. But there are other rock-
ing ftones, which are fo rtiaped and fo fituated, that
there can be no doubt but they were erefted by human
ftrength. Of this kind Borlafe thinks the great ^fy'tt
or Karn-lehauy in the parifti of Tywidnek, to be. It
is 39 feet in circumference, and four feet thick at a
medium, and ftands on a fingle pedeftal. There is alfo
a remarkable ftone of the fame kind in the ifland of St
Agnes in Scilly. The under rock A is lo feet 6
• inches high, 47 feet round the middle, and touches the
ground with no more than half its bafe. The upper
rock C refts on one point only, and is fo nicely balanced,
that two or three men with a pole can move it. It is
cl^'^ht feet fix inches high, and 47 in circumference. On
the top there is a bafon D hollowed out, three feet ele-
ven inches in diameter at a medium, but wider at the
br-!m, and three feet deep. From the globular fhape of
this upper ftone, it is highly probable that it was round-
ed by human art, and perhaps even placed on its pedef-
tal by human ftrength. In Sithney parifti, "near Hel-
fton, in Cornwall, ftood the famous logan, or rocking
ftone, commonly called Mm Amher, q. d. Men an Bar,
or the tnp-Jlone. It was eleven feet by fix and four high,
and fo nicely poifed on another ftone that a little child
could move it, and all travellers who came this way de-
fired to fee it. But Shrubfall, Cromwell's governor of
Pendennis, with much ado caufed it to be undermined,
to the great grief of the country. There are fome
marks of the tool on it, and, by its quadrangular ftiape,
it was probably dedicated to Mercury.
That the rocking ftones are monuments erefted by
"the Druids cannot be doubted ; but tradition has not
-informed us for what purpofe they were intended. Mr
Toland thinks that the Druids made the people believe
•-that they alone could move them, and that by a mira-
cle ; and that by this pretended miracle they condemned
Vol. XVII. Part IL
09 ] S T O
«r acquitted tlie accufed, and brought criminals to con- Stone,
fefs what could not otherwife be extorted from them, ^—'•v*"
How far this conjeAure is right vve fhall leave to thofe
who are deeply verfed in the knowledge or antiquities
to determine.
Sonorous Stone, a kind of ftone remarkable for emit-
ting an agreeable found when ftruck, and mijph ufed
in China for making mufical inftruments which they call
king.
The various kinds of fonorous ftones known in
China differ confiderably from one another in beauty,
and in the ftrength and duration of their tone ; and
what is very furprifing, is, that this difference cannot
be difcovered either by the different degrees of their
harduefs, weight, or finenefs of grain, or by any other
qualities which might be fuppofed to determine it.
Sorne ftones are found remarkably hard, which are ve-
ry fonorous ; and others exceedingly foft, which have
an excellent tone ; fome extremely heavy emit a very
fweet found ; and there are others as light as pumlce-
ftone which have alfo an agreeable found.
The chemifts and naturallfts of Europe have never
yet attempted to difcover, whether fome of our ftones
may not have the fame properties as the fonorous ftones
of the extremities ot Afia. It however appears,
that the Romans were formerly acquainted with a fo-
norous ftone of the clafs ot hiang-che. Pliny (lays
the Abbe du Bos, in his Reflexions on Poetry and
Painting, when fpeaking of curious ftones) obferves that
the ftone called chakobhonas, or brazen found, is black
and that, according to the etymology of Its name, it
fends forth a found much i-efembling that of brafs
when it is ftruck. The pafTage of Pliny is as follows :
ChalcQphonas nigra ejl ; Jed elija ttr 'is tinnilum redtiit.
Some fonorous ftones were at length fent into France,
and the late Duke de Chaulnes examined them with par-
ticular attention. The following are fome of his obferva-
tions : "The Academy of Sciences, Mr Rome de Lifle,
•and feveral other learned mineralogifls, when allied
if they were acquainted with the black ftone of which
the Chinefe king was made, for anfwer cited the paf-
fage of Pliny mentioned by Boethlus de Bott, Llnnsp-
us, and in the Diftionary of Bomare, and added what
Mr Andcrfon fays in his Natural Hiftory of Iceland
refpefling a bluifli kind of ftone which is very fono-
rous. As the black ftone of the Chinefe becomes of a
bluifti colour when filed, it Is probably of the fame fpe-
cics. None of the reft who were confulted had ever
feen it- The Chinefe ftone has a great refemblance at
firft light to black marble, and like it is calcareous ;
but marble generally is not fonorous. It alfo external-
ly refembles touchttone, which is a kind of bafaltcs, and
the baialtes found near volcanos ; but thefe two ftones
are vitrifications."
The duke next endeavoured to procure fome infor-
mation from the ftone-cutters. They all rephcd, that
blue- coloured marble was very fonorous, and that they
had feen large blocks of it which emitted a Vs^ry ftrong
found; but the duke having ordered a king to be con-
ftru£ted of this kind of ftone, it was foun-d that it did
not poffefathat property. By trying the black marble
of Flanders, a piece was at length found which emitted
an agreeable found : it was cut into a king, which is al-
molt as fonorous as thofe of China. All thefe obferva-
K tions
S T O
F 81
Stort.
Jlnierfuns
Commerce^
"Bol. iv.
tlons give us reaf«n to believe that the flones of which
the king are formed are nothing elfe but a black kind
of marble, the conftituent parts of vi^hich are the fame
as thofe of th? marble of Europe, but that fome dif-
ference in their organization renders thera more or lefs
fonorous.
Sivine-STOKE [lapis faiUus ), or fetid Jlone, fo called
from Its exceflively fetid fmell, calcareous earth im-
pregnated with petroleum. It is found, i. Solid,
■with the particles fcarcely vifible, of a black co-
lour, as the marble does in Flanders, and in the pro-
vince of Jutland in Sweden. 2. With vifible grains of
a blackilh brown colout, found likewife in fome places
of Sweden. 3. With coarfe fcales, found alfo in Swe-
den. Great part of the Kmeftones found in England
belong to this clafs, and emit a very fetid fmell when
ftruck violently, but it foon goes off in the fire.
Stone Marrow. See Clay, fpecies 4.
SroNR-lV-ire, a fpecies of pottery fo called from its
hardnefs SecDnFT-lVare, Porcelain, and Pottery.
Clay is a principal in2,rc(Jient in pottery of all kinds
which has the property of hardening in the fire, and of
receivin'^ and prefervin? any form into which it is
moulded. One kind of clay refifts the moft violent
aftion of the fire after being hardened to a certain de-
gree, but is incapable of receiving a fufficient degree
of hardnefs and folidity. A fecond kind affumes a
hardnefs refembling that of flint, and fuch a compaft-
nefs that veflcls made of it have a gloffy appearance
in their fraflure refembling porcelain. Thefe two
fpecies owe their peculiar properties of refifting heat
without melting, to fand, chalk, gypfum or ferrugi-
nous earth, which they contain. A third fpecies of clay
begins to harden with a moderate fire, and melts en-
tirely with a ftrong fire. It is of the fecond fpecies
that ftone-ware is made.
The moft famous manufaftory of ftone-ware, as well
as of other kinds of pottery, is at Burflera in Stafford-
(hire, 'i'his can be traced with certainty at lead two
centuries back ; but of its firft introduction no tradi-
tion remains. In 1686, as we learn from Dr Plot's
Natural Hiftory of Staffordfhire publifhed in that year,
only the coarfe yellow, red, black, and mottled wares,
were made in this country ; and the only materials
employed for them appear to have been the different
coloured clays which are found in the neighbourhood,
and which form fome of the meafures or ftrata of the
coal-mines. Thefe coarfe clays made the body of the
ware, and the glaze was produced by powdered lead-
ore, fprinkled on the pieces before firing, with the ad-
dition of a little manganefe for fome particular colours.
The quantity of goods manufactured was at that time
fo inconfiderable, that the chief fale of them, the Doc-
tor fays, was " to poor crate-men, who carried them
vn their backs all over the country."
About the year 1690, two ingenious artifans from
Germany, of the name of Eller, fettled near Burflem,
and carried on a fmall work for a little time. They
brought into this country the method of glazing ftone-
ware, by calling fait into the kiln while it is hot, and
fome other improvements of lefs importance ; but find-
ing they could not keep their fecrets to themfelves, they
left the place rather in difguft. From this time vari-
ous kinds of ftone-ware, glazed by the fumes of fait in
the manner above-mentioned, were added to the wareis
o 1 S T O
before made, The white kind, which afterwards Be-
came, and for nnny fucceedin^ years continued, the
ftaple branch of pottery, is faid to have owed its ori'Tin
to the following accident. A potter, Mr Aftbury,
travelling to London, perceived fomething amifs with
one of his horfe's eyes, an hoiller at Dunftable faid he
could foon cure him, and for that purpofe put a com-
mon black flint ftone into the fire. The potter obfer-
ving it, when taken out, to be of a fine white, immedi-
ately conceived the idea of improving hJ^ ware by the
addition of this material to the whiteft clay he could
procure : accordingly he fent home a quantity of the
flint ftones of that country, where they are plentiful
among the chalk, and by mixing them with tobacco-
pipe clay, produced a white ftone war.e much fuperior
to any that had been feen before.
Some of the other potters foon difcovered the fource
of this fuperiority, and did not fail to follow his ex-
ample. For a long time they pounded the flint ftones
in private rooms by manual labour in mortars ; but ma-
ny of the poor workmen fuffered feverely from the duft
of the flint getting into their lungs, and producing
dreadful cou^^hs, confumptions, and other pulmonary
difordcrs. Thefe difaiters, and the increafed demarul
for the flint powder, induced them to ti-y to grind it
by mills of various eonftruftions ; and this method being
found both effeftual and fafe, has continued in praAice
ever fince. With thefe improvements, in the begins
ning of the prefent century, various articles were pro*
duced for tea and coffee equipages. Soon after at-
tempts were made to furnifh the dinner table alfo ; and
before the middle of the century, utenfils for the tabic
were manufactured in quantity as well for exportation*
as home confumption.
But the fait glaze, the only one then in ufe for this
purpofe, is in its own nature fo imperfeCt, and the
potters, from an injudicious competition among them-
felves for cheapnefs, rather than excellence, had been fcs
inattentive to elegance of form and neatnefs of work-
manfhip, that this ware was rejetted from the tables of
perfons of rank ; and about the year 1 760, a white
ware, much more beautiful and better glazed than
ours, began to be imported in confiderable quantities
from France.
This inundation of a foreign manufacture, fo much
fuperior to any of our own, muft have had. very bad
cfFeCts upon the potteries of this kingdom, if a new one^
ftill more to the public tafte, had not appeared foon af-
ter. In the year 1763, Mr Jofiah Wedgwood, who
had already introduced feveral improvements into this
art, invented a fpecies of earthen ware for the tabla
quite new in its appearance, covered with a rich and
brilliant glaze, bfaring fudden alternations of heat and
cold, manufactured with eafe and estpedition, and con-
fequently cheap, and having every requifite for the
purpofe intended. To this new manufa<9;ure the queen
was pleafed to give her name and patronage, com-
manding it to be called ^teen^s ware, and honouring
the inventor by appointing him her majefty's potter.
The common clay of the country is ufed for the
ordinary forts ; the fiaer kinds are made of clay from
Devonfhire and Dorfetfhire, chiefly from Biddeford j
but the flints from the Tharaea arc all brought rough
by fea, either to Liverpool or Hull, and fo by Bar*
ton. There is no conjecture formed of the original rea^
^ foffli
S T O [ 8i
fon of fixmg the matiuFadure in tins fpot, except for
the convenience of plenty of coals, which abound under
all the country.
The flints firft are ground in mills, and the clay pre-
pared by breaking, wafhing, and fifting, and then they
are mixed in the requifite proportions. The flints
are bought firft by the people about the country, and
by them burnt and ground, and fold to the manufac-
turers by the peck.
The mixture is then laid in large quantities on kilns to
evaporate the moiflure; but this is a nice work, as it mull
not be too dry ; next it is beat with large wooden ham-
mers, and then is in order for throwing, and is mould-
ed into the forms in which it is to remain : this is the
TOoft difficult work in the whole manufafture. A boy
turns a perpendicular wheel, which by means of thongs
turns a fmall horizontal one, juft before the thrower, with
fuch velocity, that it twirls round the lump of clay he
lays on it into any form he direfts it with his fingers.
There are 300 houfes which are calculated to em-
ploy, upon an average, twenty hands each, or 6000
in the whole ; but of all the variety of people that
work in what may be called the preparation for the
employment of the immediate manufadlurers, the total
number cannot be much fliort of 1 0,000, and it is in-
creafing every day. Large quantities are exported to
Germany, Ireland, Holland, RulTia, Spain, the Eaft
Indies, and much to America ; fome of the finefl: forts
to France.
Stone in the Bladder. See Medicine, n° 400. SuR-
xstKY-Index ; and Alkali, n° 17, 18, 19.
Stone, in merchandize, denotes a certain weight
for weighing commodities. A flone of beef at Lon-
don is the quantity of eight pounds : in Herefordfhire
1 2 pounds : in the North 1 6 pounds. A ftone of glafs
is five pounds ; of wax eight pounds. A ttone of wool
{according to the ft;atute of i i Hen. VIL) is to weigh
1 4 pounds ; yet in fome places it is more, in others
lei's ; as in Glouceflierfhire 1 5 pounds ; in Herefordfhire
12 pounds. Among horfe-courfers a fl:one is the weight
of 14 pounds.
Thereafon of the name is evident. Weights at firft
were generally made of fl;one. See Deut. xxv, 13. where
the word tranflated weight, properly fignlfies a Jlone.
SroNE-Chatter, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
STONEHENGE, a celebrated monument of anti-
quity, fliands In the middle of a flat area near the fum-
mit of a hill fix miles diftant from Salifbury. It is in-
clofed by a circular double bank and ditch near 30 feet
broad, after crofiing which we afcend 30 yards before
we reach the work. The whole fabric confifted of two
circles and two ovals. The outer circle is about 108
feet diameter, confifting when entire of 60 ftones, 30
uprights and 30 impofts, of which remain only 24 up-
rights, 17 ftandim^ and 7 down, 3^ feet afunder, and 8
impofts. Eleven uprights have their 5 impofts on them
by the grand entrance. Thefe ftones are from 1.3 to 20
feet high. The lefler circle is forr:«what more than 8
feet from the infide of the outer one, and confifted of
40 lefler ftones (the higheft 6 feet), of which ojily 19
remain, and only 11 ftanding : the walk between thefe
two circles is 300 feet in circumference. The Adytum
or Cell is an oval formed of 10 ftones (from 16 to 22
feet high), in pairs, with impoftsj which Dr Stukeley
SfORC
hengc.
1 ] S T O
calls trilithons, and above 30 feet high, rlfing In height
as they go round, and each pair feparate, and not con- ^
nefted as the outer pair ; the higheft 8 feet. Within
thefe are 1 9 more fmaller fingle ftones, of which only 6
are ftanding. At the upper end of the r^dytumis the
altar, a large flab of blue coarfe marble, 20 inches thick,
t6 feet long, and 4 broad; prefled down by the weight
of the raft ftones that have fallen upon it. The whole
number of ftones, uprights, impofts, and altar, is exaft-
ly 140. The ftones are far from being artificial, but
were moft probably brought from thofe called the Grey
Weathers on Marlborough Downs, 1 5 or 16 miles off ;
and if tried with a tool they appear of the fame hard-
nefs, grain, and colour, generally reddifli. The heads
of oxen, deer, and other beafts,have been found on dig-
ging in and about Stonehenge ; and human bones in
the circumiacent barrows. There are three entrances
from the plxin to this ftrufture, the moft confiderable
of which is from the north-eaft, and at each of them
were raifed on the outfide of the trench two huge
ftones with two fmaller within parallel to them.
It has been long a difpute among ;the learned, by
what nation, and for what purpofe, thefe enormous
ftones were coUeded and arranged. The firft account
of this ftrufture we meet with is in Geoffroy of Mon-
mouth, who, in the reign of King Stephen, wrote
the hiftory of the Britons in Latin. He tells us,
that it was erefted by the counfel of Merlin the Bri-
tifli enchanter, at the command of Aurelius Ambro-
fius the laft Britlfli king, in memory t)f 460 Bri- ,
tons who were murdered by Hengift the Saxon. The
next account is that of Polydore Virgil, who fays that
the Britons eredled this as a fepulchral monument of
Aurelius Ambrofius. Others fuppofe It to have been
a fepulchral monument of Boadicea the famous Britilh
Queen. Ini'^o Jones is of opinion, that It was a Roman
temple ; from a ftone 1 6 feet long, and four broad, pla-
ced in an exaft pofitlon to the eaftward, altar-fadiion.
Mr Charlton attributed ic to the Danes, who were two
years mafters of Wiltfliire ; a tin tablet, on which were
fome unknown chara6ters, fuppofed to be Punic, was
digged up near it in the reign of Henry VIII. but Is
loft ; probably that might have given fome information
refpefting its founders. Its common name, Stonehenge^
is Saxon, and figniues a '* ftone gallows," to which
thofe ftones, having tranfverfe Impofts, bear fome re-
femblance. It is alio called in Welch choir gottr^ or
" the giants dance."
Mr Grofe thinks that Dr Stukeley has completely
proved this ftru6lure to have been a Britifh temple in
which the Druids officiated. He fuppofes it to have
been the metropolitan temple of Great Britain, and
tranflates the words choir gour " the great choir or
temple." The learned Mr Bryant Is of opinion that it Grr/A
was ereCled by a colony of Cuthites probably hefovt Antiquituti
the time of the Druids; becaufe it was ufual with them"'o'-
to place one vaft ftone upon another for a religious me-^"'*°"
morlal; and thefe they- often placed fo equably, that even-
a breath of wind would fometlmes make them vibrate. Of
fuch ftones one remains at this day in the pile of Stone-
henge. The ancients diftingulfhed ftones eretled with a
religious view, by the name of amber; by which was fig-
nlfied any thing folar and divine. The Grecians called,
them w£Tf5(( u/^Spoaiu;^ petra amhrojlx, Stonehenge, ac-
5 K 2 cording
Stodk
Stove.
S T O [8
cordiii;? to Mr Bryant, is compofed of thefe an:ber
ftoiies : hence the next town is denominated Amhrtjhu-
_j ry ; not from a Roman Ambrofius, for no inch perfon
ever exiitid, but from the ambrojia petrjt., in whofe vi-
cinity it flood. Some o!" thefe were rocking ftones ;
and there was a wonderful monument of this i'ort near
Penzance in Cornwall, which ilill retains the name of
main.amber, or the faered ftones. Such a one is men-
tioned by Apolloniusi Rhodlua, fuppofed to have been
raifed in the time of the Argonautae, in the ifland Tc-
nos, as the n;onument of the two-winged fons of Boreas,
flain by Hercules ; and there are others in China and
other coimtries.
S TOOK, a term ufed in many parts of the king-
dom for a ihock of corn containing i 2 Iheaves.
STOOL, in medicine, an evacuation or difcharge of
the fasces by the anus.
^ Stool, in mining, is ufed when the miners leave off
digi^infi- deeper, and work in the ends forward. The
end before them is called the Jlool.
Stool, in fhip-building, the name of the fupporters
of the poop and top lanterns.
STOOPING, in falconry, is when a hawk, being
itpon her wings at the height of her pitch, bends down
violently to take the fowl.
STOPPERS, in a (hip, certain fhort pieces of rope,
which are ulually knotted at one ©r both ends, accord-
ing to the purpofe for which they are defigned. They
are either ufed to fufpend any heavy body, or ta retain
a cable, fliroud, &c, in a fixed pof:tion.. Thus, the
anchors., when firft hoifted up from the ground, are
hung to the cat-head by a ftopper attached to the lat-
ter, which paffing throunh the anchor-ring, is after-
wards fattened to the timber head ; and the fame rope
ferves to faften, it on the bow at fea ; or to fufpend it
Ijy the riag wliich is to. be funk from the fhip to the
bottom. The ftoppers of the cable have a large knot
5ind a laniard at one end, and are fattened to a ring-bolt
in the deck by the other. They are attaclied to the cable
by the laniard, which is fattened fecurely round both
by fcveral turns pafTed behind the knot, or about the neck
of the ttopper; /by which means the cable isrettrained
from running out of the fhip when fbe rides at anchor.
The ftoppers of the fhroud have a knot and a la-
niard at each end. They are only ufed when the
Ihrouds are cut afunder in battle, or difabled by tempe-
ftuous weather ; at which time they are laflied, in the
iame manner as thofe of the cables, to the feparated
parts of the fhroud, which are thereby reunited, fo as
to be fit for immediate fervice. This, however, is only
a temporary expedient.
STOPS. See PuNCTUAT ion; and Scripture, n^i^S.
STORAX. See Styrax.
STORK, in ornithology. See Ardea.
S rOVE for heating apartments, greer.houfes, hot-
houfes, fruit-walls, &c.
When treating of the n^echanical properties of air,
we explained in fufiicient detail the manner in whicfi
the expanfion produced in a mafs of air by heat pro-
duces that motion up our chimneys which is called the
draught of the chimney; and, in the article Smoke,
we confidered the circumftances which tend to check, to
promote, or to direft this current, fo as to free us
kom the iinoke and vitiated air which neceffarily accoja.
12 ] S T O
panics the confumption of the fuel. In Pnkitmatics
we alfo attended to the manner in which our t res im-
mediately operate in warmino our apartments. At
prefent, when about to defcribe a method of warming
intriniically different, we mutt pay fome more attention
to thediftingulfhing circumttance. Without pretendmg
to explain the phyfical connedion of heat and light, it
may fufEee to obferve, that heat, as well as light, is com-
municated to dittant bodies in an Inftant by radiation.
A perfon pafling hattily by the door of a filafs-houfe
feels the glow of heat in the very moment he fees the
dazzling light of the f urnace mouth, and it is interrupted
by merely fcrcening his face with his hand. In thia
way is an apartment partly warmed by an open fire ;
and wc avoid the oppreffive heat by fitting where the
fire is not feen, or by interpofing a fcrecn, Wc are
apt to connedl this fo flrongly in the imagination with
the light emitted by the fire, that we attribute the heat
to the immediate aftion of the light. But this opinion
is fhown to be gratuitous by a curious experiment made
before the Royal Society by Dr Hooke, and afterwards,
with more care and accurate examination, by MrScheele.
They found, that by bringing a plate of the moll tranfpa-
rent glafs brifkly between the fire aad one's face, the heat
is immediately intercepted without any fenfiblc diminu-
tion of the light. Scheele, by a very pretty inveftigation,
difcovered that the glafs made the feparation, and did
it both in refraftion and refledion ; for he found, that
when the light of the fame fire was colle£led into a fo-
cus by means of a poliflied metal concave fpeculum, a.
thermometer placed there was injlantly affcded. But
if we employ a glafs fpeculum foiled in the ufuud m.an-
ner with quickfilver, of the fame diameter and focal
diftance, and of equally brilliant refledlion, there is
hardly any fenfible heat produced in the focus, and
the thermometer mutt remain there for a very long while
before it is fenfibly affeded. When we repeated this
curious experiment, we found, that a!ter the glafs
has remained a long while in this . pofition, whether
tranfmitting or refleding the Hght, it lofes in a great
meaiure its power of intercepting the heat. By varying
this obfervation in many of its circumftances, we think
ourfelves entitled to conclude, that the glafs abforbs the
heat which it intercepts, and is very quickly heated by
the abforption. While it rifes in its own temperature,
it intercepts the heat powerfully ; but when it is, as it
were, faturated, attradting no more than what it imme-
diately imparts to the air in corporeal contad with it,,
the heat pafies freely through along with the light. If
the glafs be held fo near the fire that the furrounding
air is very much heated, no fenfible interruption of heat
is perceived after the glafs is thus faturated. We found
the cheek more quickly fenfible than the thermo-
meter of this inilaraaneous radiation of the heat vvhich
accompanies the light, or is feparated trom it in this
experiment. It is a very inftrudive experiment in the
phyfiology of heat.
We cannot lay how far this radiation of heat may
extend, nor whether the accompanyment of light is ab-
folutely neceifary. The mathematician moceeds on the
fuppofition that it extends as far as the radiation of
light, and that, being alfo redih'neal, the denfity of
the heat is proportional to that of the light. But
thdGe ttotioHS are fiamewhat gratuitous j and there are
si'pearangc&
S T O [8
appearances which render them doubtful. When with
a lens of an inch in diameter v/e form a locus on a piece
of black unpolirtied marble of an inch diameter, the ma-
thematician muft allow that no more rays fall on the
marble than if the lens were away : therefore the
marble fhould be equally . warmed in either cafe.^ But
it is by no means fo, as we have repeatedly found by
cxpofmir it during equal times, and then dropping it
into water. The water "which is heated by the marble
on which the focus has been formed will be iound to
have acquired from it much more heat than from the
other. The tops of lofty mountains which are never
fhaded by clouds, but enjoy perpetual funfhine and fe-
renity, inllead of being warmer than the valleys below,
are covered with never-melting fnow ; and we have fome
grounds to fufptdl thnt the genial influence of the fun
requires the co-operation of the atmofphere, and to
doubt whether there is any warmth at the moon, on
which no atmo'phere like ours can be obferved. Per-
haps the heat -which cheers us, and fertih/.es our earth,
is chemically lepaiated From our atmofphere by its elec-
ti-ve attraftion for the light of the fun. Our fucceffors
in the (hidy of meteorology need not fear that the fub-
jeft of their refearch will be f<)on deprived of fcientific
allurements. We know but. little of it after all the
progrefs we have made during this laft century, and it
ilill prefents an ample field of difcuffion.
We faid that the accompanymcnt of light is not de-
xnonflrably neceffary. We are certain that heat may be
imparted without any fenfible light, in a manner which
we can hardly fuppofe any thing but radiation. If a
piece of very hot iron be placed- a little without the
principal focus of a metallic concave fpeculum, and a very
fenfible air-thermometer be placed in its conjugate focus,
it vvillinflantlyfhow an elevation of temperature, altheugh
the iron is quite imperceptible to an eye which has even
beeii along while in the dark. No fuch rife of tempe-
rature is obferved if the thermometer be placed a little to
one fideof the focus of the fpeculum ; therefore the pheno-
menon is precifely fimilar to the radiation of light. We
are obliged therefore to acknowledge that the heat is ra-
diated in this experiment in the fame way that hght is in
the common optical experiments.
■ Although this is the molt ufual way that we in this
country employ fuel for warming our apartments, it is
by no means the only way in which the heat diffufed
from this fuel may be imparted to dittant bodies. It is
not even the moft eft'edtual method ; it is diffufed alfo
by- immediate communication to bodies in conta^ft.
The air in immediate contaft with the burning fuel is
heated, and imparts fome of its heat to the air lying
bcYond it, and this is partly fhared with the air which
is ftill farther off ; and this difFufion, by communication
in contaSu, goes on till the remote air contiguous to the
walls, the floor, the ceiling, the furniture, the eom-
Tiany, all get a fhare of it in proportion to their attrac-
tions and their capacities. And as the air is thus con-
tinually fupplied, and continually gives out heat, the
walls, &c. become gradually warmer, and the room
becomes comfortable and plcafant. But we apprehend
that no greiat proportion of the heat aft ually acquired
by the room is communicated in this way. This dif-
fufion by conta£l is but flow, efpecially in air w^hich is
very dry ; fo flow indeed, that the air in the immediate
€ighbourhood of the fuel ig hurried up the chimney
3 ] ST O
fore it has time to impart any of the heat received in Srove.
contaft. We know that the time employed in diffu-
fnig itfelf ill this way through fl:agnant air to any mo-
derate diftance is very confidijrable. We imagine there-
fore that the heat communicated to our rooins by aa
open fire is chiefly by radiation, but in a way fome- '
thing different from what we mentioned before. We
imagine, that as the piece of glafs in Dr Hooke's ex-
periment abforbs the heat, fo the whole mafs of air
which fills the room intercepts the radiated heat in every
part of the room where the fire is feen, and is as it
were faturated with it throughout, and ready to impart
it to every body immerfed in it.. V/ e cannot otherwife
account for the equability of the heat in the different
parts of the room. Mere radiation on the folid bodies
would warm them in the inverfe duphcate ratio of
their difliances from the fire ; and diffufidn by contaftj
if compatible with the rapid current up the chimney,
would heat the room ftill more unequably. Recolleft
how flowly, and with what rapid diminution of in-
tenfity, the colour of blue vitriol is communicated
to water even to a very fmall diftance. But bccaufe all
parts of the air of the room abforb radiated heat, what
is faturated at a higher temperatui-e, being nearer to
the fire, rifes to the ceiling, fpreads outwards along the
ceiling, and has its place fupplied by the air, which is
thus pufhed towards the fire from the places which are
not (Jreftly illuminated.
Far different is the method of warming the room by ■
a llove. Here the radiation, if any, is very feeble or
fctinty ; and if a paifage were allowed up the chimney tor
the warmed air, it would be quickly carried off. This
is well known to t*\e Englifh who refide in the cold cli-
mates of St Peterfburgh, Archangel, &c. They love
the exhilarating flutter of an open fire, and often have
one in their parlour ; but this, fo far from> warmiag
the room during the extreme cold weather, obliges them
to heat their ii'cves more frequently, arid even ab-
ftrafts the heat frcxn a whole fuite of apartments. But
all paflages this way is fhut up when we warm a room
by ftoves. Tlie air iuMnediately contiguous to thie itovc
is heated by contaft, and this heat is gradually, though
flowly, diffufed through the whole room. The difrKfiori
would however be very flow indeed, were it not for the
great expanfibility of air by heat. But the air fur-
rounding the ftove quickly expands and riles to the ceil-
ing, while the nerghbouring air Aides in to fupply the
place, nay is even puflred in by the air which goes
outwards aloft. 'Phus the whole air is foon mixed,
and the room acquires ^moft an equal temperature
throuohout.
The warming by ftoves muft therefore be managed
upon very different principles from thofe adopted in
the emoloyment of open tires. The general principle
is, ly'?, To employ the fuel in tlic moft effeflual manner
for heating the extertial part of the ftove, which is im-
mediately efficient in warming the contiguous air ; and,
2cl, To keep in the room the air already warmed, at
leaft as much as is confiitent with wholefomenefs and
cleanlinefs.
The firft purpofe is aceomplifhed by conducing the
flue of the furnace round its external parts, or, ia fhort,
by making every par-t of the flue external. Of all
lorms, that of a long pipe, returned backwards and for-
wards, up and down (provided wly that- the place oF
S T o r 8
Stove. ii5 laft cllfcharire be confiderably higher than its entry
from the fire-place), would be the raoft cffeftual. We
have fcen a very fraali ilove conilru^ed in this way, the
whole being inclofed in a handfome cafe of polifhed
iion plate, pierced a«d cut into ele<T?.i;t foliage like the
cock of a watch, fo that the odd Ifloking pipes were
completely concealed. Though only three feet long,
one foot thick, and fix feet high, it warmed a very lofty
Foom of 24 feet by 18, and confumed lefs than half the
fuel of a ttove of the more ufual make, which did not
fo fully warm a fmaller chamber.
^ It would occupy a volume to defcribe the immenfe
variety of (loves which ingenuity or architeftonic tafte
has conftrufted. We (hall content ourfelves with
givin;;; a fpecimen of the two chief claffcs into which
ihey may be diftin2ui(hed.
The air of ti roorfi may be equally warmed, either by
applying it to the furface of a fmall ftove made very
hot, or to the ftirface of a much larger ftove more mo-
derately heated. The firft kind is chiefly ufed in Hol-
land, Flanders, and the milder climates of Germany and
Poland. The lafb are univerfally ufed in the frozen
chmates of Ruffia and Sweden. The firft are generally
made of call- iron, and the lad of brick- work covered
with glazed tiles or ftucco.
Plate Fig. I. reprefents a fmall German fl,ove fully fuffi-
eeccixxiv. cient for warming a room of 24 feet by 18. The bafe
is about three feet broad and 14 inches deep, that is,
from back to front, and fix or fevcn feet high. The
decoration is in the fa(hion of that country ; but the
operative ftru£ture of it will admit of any ftyle of orna-
itifnt. A, is the fire-place, and the wood or charred
coal is laid on the bottom, which has no barf. Bars
•would admit the air too freely among the fuel, and would
both confume it too faft and raife too grt-at a heat.
That no heat may be ufelefsly expended, the fole of
the fire-place and the whole bottom of the ftove is rai-
fed an inch or two above the floor of the room, and the
air is therefore warmed by it in fucceflion, and rifes up-
wards. For the fame reafon the back of the ftove is
not in contail with the wall of the room, or of the
niche in which it is placed. Tlie fire-place is (hut up by
a door which fits clofely to its cafe, and has a (mail
wicket at the bottom, whofe aperture is regulated by
a Aiding plate, fo as to admit no more air than what
fufFices for flowly confuming the fuel. The flame and
heated air rife to the top of the fire-place three or
four inches above the arch or mantle-piece, and get
out laterally by two narrow pafTages B, B, immediately
below the top plate of the bafe. 'I'he curre^it bends
downward on each fide, pafTes at C, C, under the
partition plates which divide the two fide chambers,
and then rilxrs upwards through the outer divifion of
each, and paffes through narrow flits D, D, in the top
plate, and from thence along the two hollow piers E,
E. The two lateral currents unite at the top of the
arch, and go through the fingl^ pafTage F into the
larger hollow behind tlie efcutcheon G. From this place
it either goes ftraight upwards into the vent in the wall
by a pipe on the top of the ftove, or it goes into the
wall behind by a pipe iuferted in tlse back of the ftove.
The propriety of this conftru£tion is very obvious.
The current of hot air is applied to exterior parts of
the (love everywhere except in the two fide chambers
cf the bafe, where the partition-plates form one fide of
[4 ] S T 0
the canal Even thia mi^ht be avoided by making S«Qve,
each of thefe fide-chambers a detached hollow pillar.
But this would greatly increafe the trouble of conftruc-
tion and joining together, and is by no means neceflary.
I'he arch H has a graceful appearance, and affords a
very warm fituation for any thing that requires it, fuch
as a drink in a fick perfon's bed-chamber, &c. Perfons
of a certain clafs ufe this place for keeping a difh warm ;
nay, the lower part of the arch is frequently occupied
by an inclofed chamber, where the heat rifes high
enough even for drefiing vi6luals, as will be eafily ima-
gined when we refled that the fole of it is the roof of
the fire place.
The ftove now dcfcribed is fupplied with fuel and
with air by the front door opening into the room. That
there may be room for fuel, this middle part projefts
a few inches before the two fide chambers. Thef^ laft,
with the whole upper part of the ftove, are not more
than ten inches deep. 'Fhe paflages, therefore, from
the fire-place are towards the back of it ; fo that if wc
have a mind to fee the fire (which is always cheerful),
the door may be thrown open, and there is no danger
of the fmoke coming out after the current has once
warmed the upper part of the ftove. When the ftove is
of fuch dimenfions that the bafe is about two feet and a
half or three feet high, the fire place may be furnifhed
with a fmall grate in the Britifli ftyle. If the door is
fo hung that it can not only be thrown back, but hft-
ed off its hinges, we have a ftove grate of the coraple-
tcft kind, fully adequate, in our mild climate, to warm
a handfome apartment, even with an open fire ; and
when we hang on the door, and ftiut up the fire-place,
a ftove of the dimenfions already given is almoil too
much for a large drawing-room.
We have frequently remarked, that one fide of thefe
ftoves grows much warmer than the other, and that it
was difficult to prevent or remedy this ; and we ima-
gine that this is an unavoidable defeQ in all ftoves with
a double flue. It is fcarcely poffible to make the fire
fo equable in the fire-place, that one fide (hall not be a
little warmer than the other, and a briflter current will
then be produced in it. This muft increafe the con-
fumption of the fuel on this fide, which will increafe
the current, will heat this fide ftill more, and thus go ou*
continually till the fuel on this fide is expended ; after
which the other fide will obtain and increafe the fupe-
riority. The flue is made double, that the fire-place
may occupy the middle of the front ; and it will be
difficult to gain this point qf fymmetry with one flue.
The inconvenience may, however, be corrcded by damp-
ing valves placed in fome part of the upright funnels
E, E.
In the colder winters on the continent, it is thought
neceflary to increafe the effedl by making the fire-place
open to the back of the ftove. Its mouth or door com-
municates with or is joined to an opening of the fame
dimenfions formed in the wall, and the door is on the
other fide in an antichamber or lobby. In Weftpha-
lia, and other places of Germany, the apartments arc
difpofed round a fpacious lobby, into which all their fire-
places open, and are there fupplied with fuel. By this
conftrudlion it is plain that the air of the room, already
-warmed by the ftove, is not carried off, and the room
is more heated. But this method is very unfavourable
to checrfulnefs and health. The fame air confined, and
repeatedly
S T O [ Si
repeatedly breathed and compounded with all the vola-
tile emanations of the room, quickly lofes that refrefh-
ing quality that is fo defirable, and even fo neceffary
for health. It is never renewed except by very partial
admixtures when the room doors are thrown open, and
becomes difagreeable to any perfon coming in from the
open air ; and in the houfes of the lefs opulent becomes
really offenfive and naufeous.
Something of this is unavoidable in all rooms heated
by ftoves. Even in our apartments in this ifland, per-
fon s of delicate nerves are hurt by what they call the
clofe air of a room ; and it is long before the fmell of
dinner is quite removed from a dining-room, notwith-
ftandin? the copious current up the chimney. This
muit be incomparably more fenfible in a room heated
by a ftove ; and this inconvenience is peculiarly fenfible
witk refpeft to the ftove which we are confidering at
prelent, where we employ a fmall furface heated to a
great degree.
Such ftoves are feldom made of any thing elfe than
caft-iron. This (in thofe parts at leaft which are in
immediate contaft with the fuel) is in a ftate of conti-
nual calcination, and even throwing off fcales. This in-
deed is not feen, becaufe it is the bottom or fole of the
fire-place which is fo heated : but the efFeft on the
air of the room is the fame. The calcination of
the iron is occafioned by the combination of pure
■vital air with the iron. This is ab!lra£led from
the general mafs of atmofpheric air in the room, of
which it ufually conftitutes about |-ths. By this ab-
ftra£tion the remainder becomes lefs fit for fupporting
animal 111^ or flame, and may even become highly dele-
terious. In every degree the remainder becomes lefs
refrefhing, and grows dull and oppreffive. This is al-
ways accompanied by a peculiar fmell, which, though
not difgufting, is unpleafant. It refembles the fmell of
burnt feathers, or more exaftly the fmell we feel if we
rub violently for fome time the palms of our hands to-
gether when perfeftly dry.
For fimilar reafons thcfe iron ftoves occafion a fickly
fmell, by burning every particle of duft which falls on
the hot parts ; and if they be wiped with a woollen
clotii, or any cloth not perfeAly fr-ee from every kind
of greafy or oily matter, a fmell is produced for a day
or days afterwards; fo that without the moft fcrupulou«
attention we fuffer by our very cleanlinefs.
For fuch reafons we think that the ftovf s of brick-
work covered with ftucco or with glazed tiles are vaftly
preferable. Thefe are much ufed in the genteeler houfes
in Flanders and Holland, where they are made in the
moft elegant forms, and- decorated with beautiful fculp-
ture or enamel ; but it is. plain that they cannot be fo
effeftual, nor equally warm a room with the fame ex*
pence of fuel. Earthen ware, efpecially when covered
with porous ftucco, is far inferior to metal in its power
of conducing heat. If bulk of bricks, they muft be
vaftly more bulky when the fire-place and flues are of
the fame dimenfions. The moft pcrfeft way of; con-
ftruciing them would certainly be to make them of pot-
tery, in parts exaAly fitted to each other, and joined by
a proper cement. This mode of conftruding would ad-
mit of every elegance of form or richnefs of ornament,
and would not be fo bulky as thofe which are built of
' bricks. The great difficulty is to prevent their crack-
5 ] S 1 a
in^ by the heat. Different parts of the ftove being of ^^Stov^^
very different heats, they expand unequally, and there 'V—
is qo cement which can withRand this, efpecially when
we recollea that the fame heat which expands the
baked earth caufes the clay or cement, with which the
parts of the ftove are put together or covered, to con-
traft. Accordingly thofe earthen ware ftoves feldonv
ftarid a winter or two without cracking in fome place
or other, even when ftrengthened by iron hoops andr
cramps judicioufly difpofed within them. Even hoop-
ing them externally, which would be very unfightly,
will not prevent this ; for nothing can refift the expan-
fion and contraaion by heat and cold. When a crack
happens in a ftove, it is not only unfightly, but highly
dangerous ; becaufe It may be fo fituated, that it will
difcharge into the room the air vitiated by the fire.
For thefe and other reafons, we can fcarcely hope to-
make ftoves of brick-work or pottery which ftiall bear
the neceflfary heat without cracking ; and their ufe.
muft therefore be confined to cafes where very moderate
heat is fufficlent. We need not defa-ibe their conftruc-
tion. It is evident that It ftiould be more fia.ple than
that of iron ftoves ; and we imagine that In the very
few cafes in which they are likely to. be employed in
this country, a fingle fire place and an arch over it, di-
vided. If we pleafe^ by a partition or two- of thin tile
to lengthen the flue, will be quite enough. If the ftove
is made In whole or in part of potters ware, a bafe for
the fire-place, with an urn, column, obelifl^, or pyramid
above it, for Increafiu'^ the furface, will alfo be fufficlent..
The failure commonly happens at the joinings, where^
the diff"erent pieces of a different heat, and perhaps ot
a different baking, are apt to expand unequally, and
by working on each other one of them muft give way..
'1 herefore, Inftead of making the joints clofe and ufing,
any cement, the upper piece fhould ftand in a groove,
formed in the undermoft, having a little powdered chalk
or clay fprlnkled over It, v/hich will effeftually prevent
the paflage of any air ; and room being thus-given for-
the unequal expanfion, the joint remains entire- This
may be confidered as a general direftion for all furnace-
work, where it Is in vain to- attempt to hinder the mu-
tual working of the parts.
We have feen ftoves in fmall apartments at St Peterf-
burg, which were made internally of potters ware, in a
great variety of forms, and then covered with a thick
coat of ftucco, finiihed externally with the, utmoft ele-
gance of ornament, and we were infornied that they were
very rarely fubjedt to crack. They did not give." much
heat, on account of the very low condu<fting power of
the porous ftucco ; but we imagine that they- would be
abundantly warm for a moderate room in this country.
When fitted up In thefe fituations, and with thefe
precautions, the brick or pottery ftoves are incompa-
rably more fweet and pleafant than the Irorr ones.
But in the intenfe colds- of P.uffia and Sweden, or
even for very large rooms in this kingdom, ftoves of
thefe fmall dimenfions arc oot fufliciently powerful, and
we muft follow the praftice of thofe coufntrles where
they arc made of great fize, and very moderately heat-
ed. It Is needlefs to defcribe their external form, which
may be varied ai pleafure. Their intern^ ftrufture is
the fame in all, and is diftinftly defcribed in Pneuma-
tics, n" 364, Wc ftiaU only enlarge a little on the
pecii-
S T O [ 8i6
p*c«lian'tle3 conneded with the general principle of
their conftruftion.
The iiove is intended as a fort of maTazIneft in
■vvliich a great quantity of heat may be quickly accu-
niulatfd, to be afterwards {lowly communic^ited to the
air of the room. The ftove is therefore bnilt extremely
rnaffive ; and it is found that they are more powerful
when coated with clay as wet as can be made to han*
- together. We imagine the reafon of this to be, that ve^-
ry wet clay, and more particularly flucco, mull be ex-
ceedingly porous when dry, and therefore a very flow
conduftor of heSt. Inftead of fticking on the glazed
tiles with no more clay or ftucco than is fufficient to
attach them, each tile has at its back a fort of box
baked in one piece about two or three inches deep. It
is reprorfented in fig. 2. This is filled with mortar,
and then lluck on the brick-work of the ftove, which
has a great number of iron pins or hooks driven into
the joints, which may fink into this clay and keep it
firmly attached when dry. This coating, w^^ith the maf-
five brick- work, fqrms a great mafs of matter to be
heated by the fuel. The loweft chamber, which is the
fire place, is fomewhat wider, and confiderably thicker
than the ftories above, which arc merely flues. When
the fire- place is finifhed and about to be arched over, a
flat iron bar of fmall thicknefs is laid along the top of
the fide-wall on both Tides, a fet of finifhing bricks be-
ing moulded on purpofe with a notch to receive the
iron bar. Crofs bai-s are laid over thefe, one at each
end and one or two between, having a bit turned down
at the ends, which takes hold of the longitudinal bars,
and keeps them from being thruft outwards either by
the preflure of the arch or by the fwelling in confe-
quence of the heat. In fig. ^. A is the crofs feftion
of one of the long bars, and EC is part of one of the
crofs bars, and GD is the clench which confines the
bar A. This precaution is chiefly neceflary, becaufe the
contraAion of the ftove upwards obliges the walls of
the other ftories to bear a little on the arch of the
fire-place. The building above is kept together in
like manner by other courfes of iron bars at every
iecond return of the flue. The top of the ftove
is finifhed by a pretty thick covering of brick-work.
The laft paflage for the air at H (fee Pneumatics,
fig. 62.) has a ring lining; its upper extremity, and pro-
jeding an inch or two above it. Tht flat round it is
covered with fand. When we would ftop this paflage,
a cover ftiaped like a bafon or cover for diflies at table
is whelmed over it. The rim oF this, refting on the
fand, cfFeftually prevents all air from coming through
and getting up the vent. Accefs is bad to this damper
" by a door which can be ftiut tight enough to prevent
the heated air of the room from wafting itfelf up the
vent. When the room is too warm, it may be very ra-
, .pidly cooled by opening this door. The warm air rufh-
es up wich great rapidity, and is replaced by cool air
from without.
The management of the ilove is as follows. About
eiiht o*clock in the morning the piftchnkk, or fervant
•who has the charge of the ftoves, takes off the cover,
fhuts the damper-door, and opens the fire-place door.
He then puts in a handful of wood fhavings orftraw,
and kindles if. 'i'his warms the ftove and ""vent, and
begi;is a current of air through it. He tlicn lays
.>a -few. chips on the fols of the fire place, immediately
1
S T O
within the doorj and behind this he arranges the billcta
of birchwood, with their ends inwards. Then he lays on
more wood in the front, till he thinks there is cnoup-h.
He fcts fire to the chips, fhuts the door, and opens the
fmall wicket at its bottom. The air blows the flame
of the chips upon the billets behind them, and thus
kindles them. They confume flowly, while'the billets
in front remain intouched by the fire. The fervant,
having made his firft round of the rooms, returns to
this ftove, and opens the door above to admit air into
the vent. This is to fupply its draught, and thus to
check the draught in the body of the ftove, which is
generally too ftrong at this time, and would confume
the fuel too faft. 15y this time the billets in the front
are burning, firft at the bottom, and the reft in fuccef-
fiou as they fink down on the embers and come oppo-
fite to the wicket. The room does not yet feel^ny
cfFeft from the fire, the heat of which has not yet reach-
ed its external furface ; but in about half an hsur this
grows warm. The upper door is fliut again, that no
heat may now be wafted. The pietchnik by and by
fpreads the embers and aflies over the whole bottom of
the fire-place with a rake, by which the bottom is great-
ly heated, and heats the air conti;^uous to it externally
(for it ftands on little pillars) very powerfully. He
takes care to bring up to the top of the afhes every bit
of wood ot coal that is not yet confumed, that all may
be completely expended. He does this as brifl<ly as
poffible, that the room may not lofe much warmed air
by keeping open the fire-place door. At his laft vifit,
when he obferves no more glowing embers, he fhuts the
fire-place door and wicket, and puts the damper on the
pafTage above, and fhuts its door.— All this is over iu
about an hour and a half after kindling the fire. All
current of air is now at an end within the ftove, and it
is now a great mafs of brick-work, heated to a great
degree within, but only about blood-warm externally.
The heat gradually fpreads outwards, and the external
furface of the ftove acquires its greateft heat about three
o'clock in the afternoon j after which it gradually cools
till next morning.
This heat feldom is fb great that one cannot bear
to touch the ftove with his cheek, and to keep it there.
In confequence of this it can burn none of the duft:
which unavoidably falls on the ftove, and we are never W
troubled with the fickening fmells that are unavoidable
when we employ the fmall caft iron ftoves much heated.
The great expence of heat in a room arifes from the glafs
windows. The pane is fo thin that the external air keeps
it continually cold, and thus the windows are continu-
ally robbing the air of the room of its heat. This ex-
pence of heat is reduced to lefs than one third by double
cafements. 'i.'he inner cafement is about as much cold-
er than the room as the outer cafement is warmer than
the air o^" the fields; and we havb the fingular advanta-^-e
of having no ice formed on the glaffes. But to eiifure
tin's laft advantage, the feams of the inner cafement muft
be parted with paper, and thofe of the outer cafement
muft be left unpafted. If we do the contrary, we fhall
certainly have ice on the outer cafement ; the reafon of
which is vafily feen.
We have been thus particular in our defcription of
the mana;»tement, becaufe the reafons of fome particulars
are not very obvious, and the praftice would not readily
occur to us in this country; fo that a perfon who, on the
5 faith
S T O [ 8r
N->ve. faith of our recommendation, ilioulcl prefer one of thefe
■ ftoves to the German ftove, whofe mana<rement is fimple
and obvious, might be greatly dllappolnted. But by fol-
lowing this method, we are confident that the Rufiian
ilove will be found much fuperior both in warmth and
agreeable air. The fpreading out of the embers, and wait-
Intr tin all Is reduced to afhes before the doors are (hut,
Is alfo abfolutely neceflary, and a negleft ot It would
expofe us to Imminent danger of fuffocatlon by fixed air;
and this is the only Inconvenience of the Ruffian ftove,
from which the other ftove Is free. The fixed air has
no fmell; and the firft Indication of Its prefence is a flight
giddlnefs and laffitude, which difpofes us to fit down
and to fleep. Thl^ would be fatal; and we muft Imme-
diately open the upper paffage and the fire-place door,
fo as to produce a ftrong current to carry the vitiated
alr^f the room up the chimney. Throwing up the
- fafties, or at leaft opening all the doors, Is proper on
fuch an occafion.
If we burn pit-coal, either raw or charred, this pre-
caution Is ftlll more neceffary; becaufe the cinder Is not
fo eafily or fo foon completely confumed. This fuel
will require a little difference In the management from
wood fuel, but which Is eafily feen by any perfon of re-
fleaion. The fafe way would be to rake out all half-
burnt coal before fhutting up the doors.
Tf we ufe raw pit-coal, great care is neceffary to
prevent the accumulation of foot In the upper part of
the ftove. It Is an Inacccffible place for the chunney
fweep; and If we attempt to burn It out, we run a great
rifle of fplitting that part of the ftove which Is the moft
nightly conftrufted. It is advifable therefore to burn
it away every day, by giving a briflc draught with an
open door for five minutes. With wood or coak there is
no danger.
It will not be Improper in this place to give lome in-
ftrudlons for the conftruaion of ftoves for warming fe-
veral floors in a great manufaaory, fuch as a cotton-
mill, or a public library or mufeum.
In fuch fituatlons we think cleanllnefs, wholefome-
nefs, and fweetnefs of air, no lefs neceffary than in the
drawing room of a man of opulence. We therefore re-
rommend the brick-ftove in preference to the iron one;
and though it would not be the beft or moft economi-
cal praaice to heat it but once a-day, and we fliould ra-
ther prefer the German praaice of conftant feeding, we
llill think It highly proper to limit the heat' to a very
moderate degree, and employ a large furface.
If the difpofition of the rooms allows us the conve-
Tiiency of a thick party-wall, we would place the ftove
in the middle of this wall. In an arch winch pierces
through the wall. Immediately above this arch we
would carry up a very wide chimney through the whole
belrht. This chimney muft have a paffage opening
into each floor on both fides, which may be very accu-
rately ftiut up by a door. The ftove belng_ fet up under
the arch. It muft have a pipe comlnunicaung with its
flue, and rifing up through this chimney. Could an
earthen pipe be properly fupported, and fecured from
fplitting by hoops, we fliould prefer it for the reafons
already iilven. Imt as this is psrhaps expeaing too
tnuch, we muft admit the ufe of a caft iron pipe. This
is the real chiir:ney or flue of the ftove, and rnuft be of
as great diameter as poffible, that it may aa, by an ex-
. ' ':->n five furface, all the way up.
Vol. XVII. Part XL
7 1 S T O
The ftove ftands imder the arch In the wall ; but the
air that is warmed by its furface would efcape on both ""
fides, and w^ould be expended in that fingle floor. To
prevent this, the ftove muft be inclofed In a cafe : this
may be of brick-work, at the diftance of two or three
inches from the ftove all round. It muft be well flnit
in above, and at the foundation muft have a row of fmall
holes to admit the air all around it. This air will then
be warmed over the whole fpace between the ftove and
the cafe, pais up the chimney, and there receive addi-
tional heat from the flue-pipe .which is in the middle.
Great care muft be" taken that the fire-place door have
no communication with the fpace between the ftove and
its cafe, but be inclofed in a mouth-piece which comes
through the cafe, and "opens into the feeding room.
Thus^all the air which goes up to the rooms will be
pure and wholefome, provided we take care that every
thing be kept clean and fweet about the air holes below.
Obferve that thofe air-holes which are near the furnace
door muft be inclofed in a wooden trunk which takes
in its air at fome diftance from this door ; for fince the
current between the ftove and cafe may be alinoft as great
as the current within the ftove (nay, when a puff of wind
beats down the chimney, it may even exceed it), there
isa rifli of fome vitiated air and fmoke being drawn into
the cafe.
If the ftove cannot be placed in the arch of a party-
wall, it may be fet adjoining to a fide or outer wall,
and furniflied with a cafe, a large chimney, and a flue-
pipe, in the fame manner. Lut in this cafe a greit
deal of heat is wafted on this outer wall, and carried off
by the external air. In this fituation we would recom-
mend to line that part of the wall which is behind the
ftove (at tvvo or three inches diftance), and the whole
ol the chimney, with platter on laths. Thefe fliould be
nailed on battens properly faftened on the wafl, leaving
a fpace of an Inch between the laths and the wall The
plafter flaould be of the moft fpungy kind, having in it a
qucintltyof clay in powder inftead of the full proportion
of laud. Horfe-dung, waflied with water and llrained
through coarfe flannel, leaves a great portion of unafli-
milated ve;Tetable fibre, which will mix very Intimately
in the plafter, and make ita fubftance very unfit for con-
duaing heat. There is no danger of catching fire by this
lining. We have feen a m.oft tremendous fire rage for
three hours, in contaa with a partition of lath and
plafter (on the plafter-fide however), without difcolour-
ing the thin laths on the other fide. Wc once faw a
cottage chimney on fire, and burn till the foot was
confumed. This chimney was nothing biit a pipe of a
foot wide, made of lathes, and plaftered on the infide
and outfide; and it paffed through a thatched roof. We
therefore recommend this in place of the brick-cafe for
inclofing the ftove. It would fave heat; and as it might
be made in pieces on detached frames, which could be
joined by iron ftraps and hinges, any part of the fteve
could be laid open for repairs at pleafure.
We have no hefitatlon in faying that a ftove conftruc-
ted in this manner would be greatly fupcrior in power
to any we have feen, and would be free from many of
their difgufting defeas. We beg leave therefore to con-
clude this part of the fubjea by deicribing one which
was to have been erefted in one of the churches of the
city of Edinburgh.
Fig. 4. is a flietch of the plan of the church contam-
5L
Stove.
Stove.
s T o r
^ ed in the parallelogram AFED. P marks the place
of the pulpit, and LMNO the front of the galleries.
Thefe are carried back to the iide walls AB and DC.
But at the end oppofite to the pulpit they do not
reach fo far, but leave a fpace BFEC about 12 feet
wide. Below the back of the galleries, on each fide,
there is a paffage ABGH, KICD, feparated from the
featcd part of the church by partitions which reach from
the floor to the galleries, fo that the fpace HGIK is
completely (hut in. The church is an ancient Gothic
building-, of a light and airy ftrufture, having two raws
of large windows above the arcades, and a fpacious
window in the eaft end above the pulpit. The congre-
gation complain of a cold. air, which they feel pourit^g
down upon their heads. This is more particularly felt
by thofe fitting in the fronts of the oalleries. We ima-
gine that tliis arifes chiefly from the extenfive furface
of the upper row of windows, and of the cold Itone.
walls above, which robs the air of its, heat as it glides
up along the fides of the church. It becomes heavier
by collapfing, and in this ftate defcends in the middle
of the church.
I'he ftove S Is placed againft the middle of the weft
wall at the dittance of a few inches, and is completely
inclofed in a cafe of lath and plafter. The vent, which
is to carry off the fmoke and burnt air, is conveyed up
or along; the wall, and threugh the roof or fide-wall,
but without any communication with the caie. In like
manner the fire-place door is open to the paflage, with-
oot communicating with the cafe; and care is taken that
the holes which admit the air into the cafe are fo dif-
pofed that they fiiall run no rifli of drawing in any air
fiom the fire-place door.
From the top of this cafe proceed two trunks Q^R,
each of which is two feet broad and fix inches deep,
coated within and without with the moft Ipunpy plafter
that can be compofed. For this purpofe we fhould re-
commend a compofition of pov^dered charcoal and as
much clay and quicklime as will give it a very flight co-
hefion. We know that a piece of this may be held in
. the hand, without inconvenience, within an inch of where
it is of a plowing red heat. — Thefe trunks open into
another trunk XVTYZ, which ranges along the parti-
tion immediately under the galleri^^s, and may be form-
ed extern-illy into a corniche, a little maflive indeed, but
not unfightly in a building of this ftyle. This trunk is
coated in the fame manner. It has fevcral openin.^s
o, a, &c. which have Aiders that can be drawn afide by*
means of handles acceffible from the outer paflape. — At
the extremities X and Z of this trunk are two perpen-
dicular trunks which come up through the galleries, and
are continued to a confiderable height. At their junc-
tion with the horizontal trunk are two doors large
enough to admit a lamp. Each perpendicular trunk has
alfo a valve by which it can be completely ftopped.
The fl:ove is managed as follows : Early in the morn-
ing the fuperintendant fhuts all the Aiders, and fets a
lamp (burning) in each of the trunks X and Z; and
fhuts the doors. He then puts on and kindles the fire
in the ftove, and manages it either in the Ruffian or
German method Perhaps the latter is preferable, as
being liable to feweft accidents from miftake oc neEjIeft.
The lamps fet in the lower ends of the upright trunks
prefently warm them, and produce a current of air up-
wards. This muft be fupplied by the horizontal trunk,
818 ] S T O
which muft take it from the cafe round the ftove. Thus
a current is begun in the direftion we wifti. By and
by the air in the cafe acquires heat from the ftove, and
the current becomes extremely bri/k. When the ma-
nager perceives this, he removes the lamps, ftiuts the
valves, and opens the holes a, a, &c. beginning with
the moft remote, and proceeding flowly towards the
ftove from each extremity of the horizontal branches.
1 he heated air now ifl'ues by thefe holes, glides along
the ceilmg below the galleries, and efcapes, by rifinj
up along the fronts of the galleries, and will be fenfibly
felt by thofe fitting there, coming on their faces with a
gentle warmth. It will then rife (in s^reat part) ftraight
up, while feme of it will glide backwards, to the com-
fort of thofe who fit behind.
The propriety of ftiutting the valves of the upright
trunks is evident. If they were left open, no air
would come out by the holes a, a, &c. ; but, on the con-
trary, the air would go in at thefe holes to fupply the
current, and the ftove be rendered ufelefs. The air de-
livered by thefe holes will keep clofe to the ceiling, and
will not, as we imagine, incommode thofe who fit be-
low the galleries. But if it fliould be found to render
theie parts too warm, holes may be pierced through the
ceiling, by which it will rife among the peoole above,
and muft be very comfortable. It will require the care-
lul attention of fome intelligent perfon to bring all this
into a proper train at firft, by finding the proper aper-
tures ot the different holes, fo as to render the heat
equable through the whole fpace. But this being once
aicertained the difficulty is over.
The air trunks muft be very capacious, but may be
contrafted towards the extremities as their lateral dif-
charges diminifh ; and the row of holes which admit
the air to the cafe round the ftove muft be fully able to
fupply them.
It muft be obferved, that in this conftrudion the
afcenfional force is but fmall. It is only the height of
a fliort column of warm air From the ground to the gal-
Icnes. At firft indeed it is great, having the unlimit-
ed height of the perpendicular trunks at X and Z j
but during the ufe of the ftove it is reduced to nine
or ten feet, it is neceffary, therefore, that the ftove
be highly heated, perhaps coniiderably beyond the Ruf-
fian pradice, but yet inferior to the heat of the Ger-
man iron ftoves. But ftiU we ftrongly recommend the
brick or pottery ftoves, on account of the wholeforae
fweetnefs o^ the air which they furniOi ; and we are
certain that a ftove of moderate dimenfions, eight feet
long, fqr inftance, by eight feet high, will be iufficient
for warming a church, holding i 200 or i ^oo people. If
the ilovc could be placed lower, which in many fitua-
tions is very prafticable, its tft'eft would be proportion-
ally greater, becaufe all depends on the rapidity of the
current. When we are limited in height, we muft ex-
tend the ftove fo much the more in length, and make
the air trunks more capacious. Thefe and many other
circumftances of local modification muft be attended to
by the eieftor of the ftove ; and without the judicious
attention of an intelligent artift, we may expeft nothing
but difappolntment. It is hardly poffible to give in-
ftruftions fuited to every fituation ; but a careful attenr
tion to the general principle which determines the af-
cenfional force will free the artift from any great riik of
failure.
We
Stov?
S T O [8
We may fay the fame thing of ftoves for confervato-
ries, hot houfes, hot walls, Sec. and can hardly add any
thing of confequence to what we have already faid on
thefe heads in the article Pneumatics.
We muft not, however, difmifs the fubjeft without
taking notice of the veiy fpecinus projeAs which have
been frequently offered for drying malt by ftoves. Many
of thefe are to be feen in the publications of the Aca-
demies of Stockholm, Upfal, Copenhagen, and fome
have been ere<3;cd in this kingdom ; but they have not
been found to anfwer.
We apprehend that they cannot anfwer. To dry
malt, and make it fit for the ales and beers for which
this ifland is fo famous, it is by no means enough that
we give it a proper and an equable fupply of heat. —
This alone would bake it and make it flinty, caufing
the moifture to penetrate the mealy particles of the
grain ; and, by completely diffolving the foluble parts,
would render each kernel an uniform mafs, which would
dry into a flinty grain, breaking like a piece of glafs. —
A grain of malt is not an inert pulp. Tt is a seed, in
an adtive ftate, f:^rovving, and of an organized ftrufture.
We wilh fo ftop it in this ftate, and kill it, not by
heating it, but by abftrafting its moifture. We thus
leave it in its granulated or organized form, fpungy, and
fit for imbibing water in the mafh tub, without running
into a pafte.
To accomplifh thefe purpofes, the conftruflion of our
malt kilns ff-ems very well adapted. The kiln is the
only flue of the furnace, and a copious current of air is
formed through among the grains, carrying off with it
the water which is evaporating by the heat. But this
evaporation, being chiefly in confequence of the vapour
being immediately diffolved by the pafling air, will ftop
as foon as the current of air ftops. This current has to
make its way through raoift grain, laid in a pretty thick
bed, and matted together. Sdme force, therefore, is
ncceffary to drive it through. This is furnifhcd by the
draught of the kiln. Siibftituting a ftove, immediate-
ly applied to the malt, will not have this effi?<£t. Tlie
only way in which we think this can be done different
from the prefent, is to have a horizontal flue, as has
been propofed in thefe projefts, fpread out at a fmall
diftance below the grate on which the malt is laid, and
to cover the whole with a high dome, like a glafs houfe
dome. This being filled with a tall column of hot air,
and having no paflage into it but through the malt,
would produce the current which we want. We are
convinced that this will make much lefs fuel ferve ; but
we are by no means certain that the fulphureous and
carbonic acid which accompanies the air in our common
kiln is not a neceflary or a ufeful ingredient in the pro-
cefs. It is well known that different coaks, cinders, or
charcoals, impart dift'erent quaHties to the malts, and
are prcfened ejch for its own purpofe. Were this a mat-
ter of indifference, we know a method of rapidly dry-
ing malt much more economical and expeditious than
by either kiln or ftove. But this has nothing to do with
our prefent fubjedl, of which we now take leave.
STOURBRIDGE, or Sturbich, the name of a
field near Cambridge, noted for its famous fair kept an-
nually on the yth of September, and vi^hich continues
for a fortnight. The commodities are, horfes, hops,
sron, wool, leather, cheefe, &c. This place is alfo
ftoted for an excellent fpecies of clay capable of refift-
19 ] S T O
ing an intenfe heat. It is ufed in making pots for
glafs-houfes, fire-bricks, &c. and is fold al an high
price.
S row, the name of a market-town in Gloncefter-
ftiire in England, fituated in W. Long. i. 50. N. Lat.
51. 54. It is alfo the name of a fine feat of the Mar-
quis of Buckingham in Buckinghamfhire. Here are the
beft gardens in England, adorned with bufts, ftatues,
obeliflfs, pavilions, and temples. It is two miles from
the town of Buckingham.
STOW (John), the induftrioas hiftorian, fon of
Thomas Stow merchant- tay lor of St Michael's, Corn-
hill, in London, was born about the year 1525. Of
the early part of his life we know veiy little, except that
he was bred to his father's bufinefs, which in the year
1560 he relinquifhed, devoting himfelf entirely to the
ftudy of our ancient hiftorians, chronicles, anna's, char-
ters, regifters, and records. Of thefe he made a conil-
derable collection, travelling for that purpofe to differ-
ent parts of the kingdom, and tranfcribing fuch manu-
fcrip s as he could not purchafe. But this profeffiou of
an antiquary being attended with no prefent emolument,
he was obliged for fubfiftence to return to his trade .
It happened, however, . that his talents and neceffities
were made known to Dr Parker archbifliop of Canter,
bury ; who being himfelf an antiquary, encouraged and
enabled Mr Stow to profecute his darhng ftudy. In
thofe times of perfection, thou.^h Elizabeth was then
upon the throne, honeft JoHn Stow did not efcape dan-
ger. His colledion of Popifh records was deemed
caufe of fnfpicion. His yo«nger brother Thomas pre-
ferred no lefs than 140 articles againft him before the
ecclefiaflical commiffion ; but the proof being infufii.
cient, he was acquitted. In 1565 he firft publiflied his
Summary of the Chronicles of England. About the
year 158+ he began his Survey of London, In 1 3 85
he was one of the two colleftors for a great mufter of
Limeftreet ward : in the fame year he petitioned the
corporation of London to beftow on him the benefit of
two freemen, to enable him to publifli his iurvey ; and
in 1589 he petitioned again for a penfjon. Whether he
fucceeded, is not known. He was principally concern-
ed in the fecond edition of Holinflied's chronicle, pub-
liflied in 1587. He alfo correded, and twice augment-
ed, Chaucer's works, pubHflied in 1561 and in 1597.
His furvey of London was firft publiflied in 1598.
To thefe laborious works he would have added his
large Chronicle, or Hlftory of England ; but he lived
only to publifli an abftrad of it,' under -the title of
Flares Hiftoriarmn, The folio volume, which was
printed after his death, with the title of Stoiv's Chro-
niclcy was taken from his papers by Edmund Howes.
Having thus fpent his life and fortune in thefe laborious
purfuits, he was at laft obliged to folicit the charitable
and well difpofed for relief. For this purpofe, king
James I. granted him, in 1603, a brief, which was re"^
newed in 1604, authorlfing him to colleft in churches
the benefadions of his fellow-citizens. He died in April
1 605, aged ho ; and was buried in his parifli-church of
St Andrew's, Underlhaft, where his widow eretled a
decent monument to his memory. John Stow was a
moft indefatigable antiquarian, a fafthful hiftorian, and
an honeft man.
STOWMARKET, a town of Suffolk, in England,
frtuated in E. Long. i. 6. N. Lat. 52. 16. It is a large
5 L 2 hand-
Stow
S T R [ 82
handfomc place, fituated between the branches of the ri-
vers Gypping and .Orwell, and is remarkable for having
the btft cherries in England.
STOWAGE, the general difpolitlon of the feveral
materials contained in a-lhip's hold, with regard to their
figure, magnitude, or foHdity.
In the ftowa^K oi different i^rtlcles, as ballafi, caflcs,
cafes, bales, and boxes, there are feveral general rules
to be ohferved, according to the circumftances or qua-
lities of thofe materials. The caflvs which contain any-
liquid are, according to the fea phrafe, to be lung-up
and Inlge-free, i. e. clofely wedged up in an horizontal
polVtion, and reftino; on their quarters: fo that the bilges
v'here they are thickeft being entirely free all round,
cannot rub againll each other by the motion of the vef-
fcl. Dry goods, or fuch as may be damaged by the
water, are to be carefully inclofed in calks, bales, cafes,
or wrappers; and wedged off from the bottom and tides
of the ihip, as well as from the bow, mafts, and pump-
well. Due attention mull hkewlfe be had to their dif-
pofition with regard to each other, and to the trim and
centre of gravity of the fliip ; fo that the heaviell may
always be neareft the keel, and the lightcll gradually
above them.
STRABISMUS, fquintlng. See Medic in E-//2-
Jex.
STRABO, a celebrated Greek geographer, philo-
fopher, and hiftorian, was born at Am?.fia, and was de-
fgended fiom a family fettled at Gnoffus in Crete. He
was the difciple oF Xenarchus, a Peripatetic philofo-
pher, and at length attached himfelf to the Stoics. He
coxitrac!;ed a ftritt friendfhip with Cornelius Gallus, go-
vernor of Erypt, and travelled into feveral countries to
obferve the lituation of places, and the cuftoms of na-
tions. He flourifhed under Augullus, and died under
Tiberius about the year 25, in a very advanced age. —
He compoled fevetal works, all of which are loit ex-
cept his Geography in 17 books; which are juftly
elleemed very precious remains of antiquity. The two
firft books are employed in fhowing, that the ftudy of
geography is not only worthy of, but even neceffary to,
a philolopher ; the third defcribes Spain ; the fourth,
Gaul and the Britannic ifles ; the fifth and fixth, Italy
and the adjacent ifles ; the feventh, which Is imperfedl
at the end, Germany, the countries oF the Getse and
lUyrii, Taurica Cherfonefus, and Epirus ; the eighth,
ninth, and tenth, Greece with the neighbouring ifles;
the four following, Afia within Mount Taurus ; the
fii'teenth and fixteenth, Ada without Taurus, India,
Ferfia, Syria, Arabia ; and the feventeenth, , Egypt,
^Ethiopia, Carthage, and other places of Africa. Stra-
bo's work was publiflied with a Latin vcrfion by Xy-
lander, and notes by Ifaac Cafaubon (or rather by
Henry Scrimzeer, from whom Cafaubon chiefly ftole
them), at Paris,.. 1620, in folio. But ihc beft edition
is that of Amfterdam in 1707, in two volumes folio,
by the learned Theodore Janfoiu'us ab Alrnelooveen,
with the entire notes of Xylander, Cafaubon, Meurfius,
Cluver, Holilenius, Sahr.afms, Bochart, Ez. Spanheim,
Cellarius, and others. this edition is fubjoined the
Chreffomaih^, or epitome of Strabo; which according to
Mr Dodwell» who has written a very elaborate and
learned diflcrtati6n about it, was made by fome unknown
perfon between the years oF Chritt 676 and 996. It
has been found of fome ufe, not only in helping to cor-
red the original, but in fupplying in fome meafure the
o 1 S T R
defe^l in the feventh book. Mr Dod'-.r ell's dilTei-ta-
lion is prefixed to this edition.
STRADA (Famlanus), a very ingenious and learn-
ed Jefuit, was born at Rome the latter end of the 1 6th
century, and taught rhetoric there, in a pubhc man.,
ner, for fifteen years. He wrote feveral pieces upon
the art of oratory, and publifhed fome orations with
a view of lUuftratin;^ by example what he had inculca-
ted by precept. But his Prolufiones Academicx and
hi? Hijloria de Bello Belgico are the works which rai-
fed his reputation, and have preferved liis memory.
His hiftory oF the war of Flanders wars publifhed at
Rome; the firft decad in 1640, the fecond in '647;
the whole extending from the death of Chai"les V.
which hapeened in 1 ^58, to the year 1590. It is
written In good Latin, as all allow; bat its merit in
other telpefts has been varioufly determined. His
Prolufiones Academka fliow great ingenuity, and a
malterly flcill in claffical literature ; that prolufion efpe-
daily In which he Introduces Lucan, Lucretius, Clau-
dian, Ovid, Statius, and Virgil, each oF them verfii^y-
ing according to his own fl:rain. They have been of-
ten printed. We know not tlie year of Strada's birth
or of his death.
STRAHAN (William), an eminent printer, was
born at Edinburgh in the year 17 1 5. His father,
who had a fmall appointment In the cultoms, gave his
fon tlie education which every one of decent rank then
received in a country where the avenues to learning
were eafy, and open to men of the moll moderate cir-
cumftances. After having pafi'ed through the tuition
of a grammar fchool, he was put apprentice to a
printer ; and when a very young man, removed to 3
wider fphere in that line o" bufinefs, and went to foUovsr
his trade In London. Sober, diligent, and attentive,
while his emoluments were For fome time very fcanty,
he contrived to live rather within than beyond his in-
come ; and though he married early, and without fuch
a provifion as prudence might have looked for in the
eftabhfhment of a family, he continued to thrive, and to
better his circumftances. This he would often mentioii
as an encouragement to early matrimony ; and ufed to
fay, that he never had a child born that Providence did
not fend fome Increafe of income to provide for the in-
creale of his houfehold. With fufhcient vigour or mindj
he had that happy flow of animal ipirlts that is not
cafily difcouraged by unpromifing appearances.
His abilities In his profelTion, accompanied with
perfe£l integrity and unabating diligence, enabled
him, after the firft dlfTicultles were overcome, to ad-
vance with rapid fuccefs. And he was one of the mofl
flourifliing men of the trade, when, in the year 1770,
he purchafed a fhare of the patent for king's printer
of Mr Eyre, with whom he maintained the moft cordial
intimacy dui-ing the reft of his lIFe. Befide the emolu-
ments arifing from this appointment, as well as from a
very extenfive private bufinefs, he now drew largely
from a field which required fome degree of fpeculatlve
fagaclty to cultivate on account of the great literary pro-
perty which he acquired by purchafing the copy-rights
of the moft celebrated authors of the time. In this his
liberality kept equal pace with his prudence, and in fome
cafes went perhaps rather beyond it. Never had fuch re-
wards been given to the labours of literary men as now
were received from him and his affociatcs in thofe pur»
chafes of copy-rights from authors.
Having
S T R [ §i
Having now attained the firft great objeft of bafi-
nefs, wealth, Mr Strahan looked with a very allowable
ambition on the ftations of political rank and eminence.
Politics had long occupied his aclive mind, which he
had for many years piirfued as his favourite amulement,
by correfpondin^ on that fubjeft with fome of the firft;
characters of the apfe. Mr Strahan's queries to l)r
Franklin in the year 1769, refpefting the difcontents
of the Americans, publifhed in the London Chronicle
of 28th July 177^, fhow the juit conception he enter-
tained of the important confequences of that difpute,
and his anxiety as a good fubje^l to inveftigate, at that
early period, the proper means by which their- grie
vances might be removed, and a permanent harmony
reftored between the two countries. In the year 1775
he was elected a member of parliament for the borough
t): Malni(bury in Wiltfhire, with a very illuftrious col-
icaaue, the Hon. C. J Fox ; and in the fucceeding
parliament, for Wootton BafTet, in the fame county,
in this ftation, applying himfelf wilh that induflry
which was natural to him, he was a nfefnl member,
and attended the houfe with a fcrupulous punftnality.
His talents for bufinefs acquired the confideration to
which they w«re intitled, and were not ilnnoticed by
the minifler.
In his political connexions he was conftant to the
friends to whom he had iirft been attached- He was
fteady fupporter of that pa!ty who were turned out
of adminiftration in fpringi784, and loll his feat in
the houfe of commons by the diffolution of parliament
xvith which that chan ije was followed : a fituation
which he did not (how any defire to refume on the
return of the new parliament ; arifing from a feeling
■of fome decline in his health, which had rather fuffered
from the lon;T fittings and late hours with which the
political warfare in the precedin.T had been attended.
\Vithont any fixed difeafe, his ilrength vilibly declined ;
snd though his fpirits lurvived his ftrength, yet the
\-igour and aftivity of his mind were alfo confiderably
imparcd. Both continued gradually to decline till his
death, which happened on the 9th of July 1785 in the
7 ill year of his age.
Endued with much natural fagacity, and an attentive
obfervation of life, he owed his rife to that ftation of
opulence and refpefl which he attained> rather to his
<jwn talents and exertion, than to any accidental occur-
rence of favourable or fortunate circumftances. His
mind was not imintornied by letters ; and from a habit
af attention to ftyle,. he acquired a confiderable portion
of critical acutenefs in the difcernment ot its beauties
and defers. In one branch of wvitinij he particularly
excelled — the epiftolary ; in which he not only fhowed
the precifion and clearnefs of butinefs, but pofieiTei a
neatnefs as well as a fluency of expreflion which few let-
ter-writers have been known to furpafs. Letter- writing
was one of his favourite amufements ; and among his
correfpondents were men of fuch eminence and talents
as well repaid his endeavours to entertain them. Among
thefe, as before-mentioned, was the juftly celebrated
jDr Franklin, originally a printer like Mr Strahan,
whofe friendfhip and correfpondence, notwithftanding
the difference of their fentiments in political matters,
he continued to enjoy till his death. One of the latell
letters which he received from his illuftrious and vent-
rabie friend, contained a humorous allegory of the ilate
7
1 1 S T' R
of politics in Britain, drawn from the profeffion of print- Strahan-
ing ; of which, though the Dotlor had quitted the ex- , H.
ercife, he had not forgotten the terms. .
The judicious difpoficion which Mr Strahan made of
his property, affords an evident proof of his good fenfe
and propriety. After providing munificently for his
widow and childern, his principal ftudy feems to have
been to mitigate the afHiClion of thofe (and many there
were) who would more immediately have felt his lofs,
by bequeathing them liberal annuities for their lives ;
and (recolledting that all of a profeffion are not equally
provident) he left looo 1. to the Company of Stationers, '
the intereft to be divided among infirm old printers.
As the virtuous conneftions of the life and the heart
are always pleafing to trace — of Mr Strahan it mav
briefly befaid, that his cspacity, diligence, and probitv,
railed him to the head of his profeffion. The good
humour and obliging difpofition which he owed to na-
ture, he cultivated with cate, and confirnKd by habit.
His fympathetic heart beat time to the joy, and forrow
of his friends. His advice was always ready to direct
youth, and his purfe open to relieve indigence. Living
in times not the pureft in the Englifh annals, he efcaped
unfuUied through the artifices of trade and the cor-
ruption of poHtics. In him a ttrong natural fagacity,
improved by a'n extenfive knowledge of the world,
ferved only to render refpe£lable his unaffected fimplici-
ty of manners, and to make his Chriftian philanthropy-
more diicerning and ufeful. The uninterrupted health,
and happinefs which sccompained him for half a cen-
tury in the capital, proves honefty to be the beft policy,
temperance the greateft luxury, and the effential duties
of life its molt agreeable amufement. In his elevated ■
fortune, none of his former acquaintance ever accufed
him of negledl. Fie attained profperity without envyj^.
enjoyed wealth without pride, and drfpenf<:d bounty
without oflentation.
SF^RAIKS, in the military art, ai-e ftrong plates of
iron, fix in number, fixed with large nails called Jlratk~
nails, on the circumference of a cannon-wheel, over the
joints, of the fellows; both to ftrengthen the wheel,
and to fave the fellows from wearing on hard ways or
ftreets.
STRAIN, a pam occafioned by the violent extenfion .
of fome membranous ©r tendinous part.
S -TRAIN, Strefs, in mechanics, are terms indifcriminate-
ly uled to expreis the rorce which is excited in any part
of a machine or ftrudlure of any kind tending to break
it in that part. Thus every part of a rope is equally
flrained by the weight which it fufpends. Every part
of a pillar is equally flrained by the load which it fup-
ports. A mill axle is equally twilled and ftrained in
every part which lies between the part of the wheel ac-
tuated by the moving power and the part which is re-
filled by the work to be performed. Every part of a
lever or joift is differently flrained by a force afting on
a diftant part.
It is evident tlxat we cannot make the ftrufture fit
for its purpofe, rmlefs ftrength in every part be at .
leall equal to the ft efs laid on, or the ftrain excited in
that part. It is no lefs plain, that if we are ignorant
of the principles which determine this ftrain, both in in-
tenfity and direflion, in relation to the magnitude and' .
the fituation of its remote caufe, the only fecurity we
have for fuccefs is to give to every part of the affem-
blags r
S T R
[ S22 ]
S T R
blage fuch folldity that we can leave no doubt of its fuf-
ficiency. But daity experience fhows us that this vague
fcciirity is in many cafes uncertain, if wc are thus igno-
rant. In all cafes it is flovcnly, unlike an artitt, attend-
ed with ufelefs expencc, and in machines is attended
with a lofs of power which is wafted in changing the
motions of a needlefs load of matter.
- It muft therefore greatly tend to the improvement of
all profeflions occupied in the ereftion or employment
of fuch ftruftures to have a diftinft notion of the ftrains
to which their parts are expofed. Frequently, nay ge-
Strangf
ranges of planks on the bottom and fides of a fliip, or Strakos
the continuation of planks joined to the ends of each
other, and reaching from the ftcm to the ftern-poft and
fafhion- pieces ; the loweft of thefe, which is called the
gar hoard-fir eak, is let into the keel below, and into the
ftem and ftern-poft. They fay alfo a fliip heeh a Jirale,
that is, hangs or inclines to one fide the quantity of a
whole plank's breadth.
Strakes, or Jlreks, in mining, are frames of boards
fixed on or in the ground, where they wafh and drefs
the fraall ore in a little ftream of water, hence called
nerally, thefe ftrains are not immediate, but arife from Jlraked ore.
the aftion of forces on diftant parts, by which the af-
femblage is ftralned, and there Is a tendency to rupture
in every part. This ftrain is induced on every part, and
is there modified by fixed mechanical laws. Thefe it is
our bufinefs to learn ; but our chief obje£l in this invef-
tigation is to determine the ftrength of materials which
it is neceffary to oppofe in every part to this ftrain ; and
how to oppofe this ftrength in fuch a manner that it
fhall be exerted to the beft advantage. The notions of
ftrain and ftrength therefore hardly admit of reparation;
for it is even by means of the ftrength of the interme-
diate parts that the ftrain is propagated to, or excited
in, the part under ccnfideration. It is proper therefore
to confider the w^hole together under the article 5ri?£JVGrff
of Materials in mechanics.
STRAINING, is the clarification of a liquor, by
paifing it through a fieve or filter. The word is de-
rived from the FrcKch, eftreindre ; which is formed
from ex, " out of," and Jlringere, " to prefs."
STRAIT, a narrow channel or arm of the fea, fhut
up between lands on either fide, and affording a paffagc
out of one great fea into another.
There are three kinds of ftraits. I. Such as join
one ocean to another. Of this kind are the ftraits of
Magellan and Le Maire. 2. Thofe which join the
ocean to a gulf : the ftraits of Gibraltar and Babelman-
clel are of this kind, the Mediterranean and Red Sea
being only large gulfs. 3. Thofe which join one jult
to another ; as the ftraits of Caffa, which join the Pa-
lus MjEotis to the Euxine or Black Sea. The paffage
of ftraits is commonly dangerous," on account of the
ra.pidity and oppofite motion of currents. The moft
celebrated ftrait in the v.'orld is that of Gibraltar,
which is about from 24 to 36 miles long, and from
15 to 24 broad, joining the Mediterranean fea with
the Atlantic ocean. The ftraits of Magellan, difco-
vered in 1520 by F. Magellan, were ufed fome time
as a paffage out of the North into the South Sea ;
but fi nee the year 1616, that the ftrait of Le Maire
lias been difcovered, the former has been difufcd ; both
becaufe of its length, which is full three hundred miles,
and becaufe the navigation thereof is very dangerous,
from the waves ot the North and South Seas meeting
in it and claflring. The ftrait at the entrance of the
Baltic is called the Sound. That between England
and France, Le ^as de Calais, or the Channel. There
are alfo the ftraits of Weigats, of Jcffo, of Anian, of
Davis, and Hudfon, &c.
STRAKES, or Streaks, in a fhip, the uniform
STRALSUND, a ftrong and rich fea-port town of
Germany, in Hither Pomerania, and was formerly an
important trading- place. In 1678 it was forced to fur-
render to the eleftor of Brandenburg, alter 1800 houfea
had been burnt to afhes in one night's time. After this
the Swedes defended it to the laft extremity ; and
Charles XII. in 17 14, came hither after its return out
of Turkey. But the crown of Sweden not being able
to hold out againft five great powers, it was forced to
fubmit in 1715. In 1720 it was rendered back to Swe-
den, but in a very poor condition. It is almoft fur-
rounded by the fea and the lake Francen, and has a har-
bour feparated from the ifle of Rugen by a narrow
ftrait. It is 15 mil^s north- weft of Grippfwald, and
4:0 north-eaft of Guftrow. E. Long. 13. 28. N. Lat,
54. I 7.
STRAMONIUM, in botany ; a fpecies of Datu-
ra.
STRAND (Saxon), any ftiore or bank of a fea or
great river. Hence the ftreet in the weft fubuibs of
London, which lay next the ffrore or bank of the
I'hames, was called the Strand. An immunity from
cuftom, and all impofitions upon goods or veflels by land
or water, was ufually exprefled by Jirand or Jlream.
S rRANDED (from the Saxon Jirand), is when a
(hip is by tempeft, or by ill fteerage, run on ground,
and fo perifties. Where a veflTel is ftranded, juftices of
the peace, &c. ftiall command conftables near the fea-
coafts to call afliftance for the prefervation of the fhip ;
-and officers of men of war are to be aiding and aflifting
thereto.
Si'RANGE (Sir Robert), who carried the art of
engraving to fo great perfeftion in this country, was a
man of fuch general merit, that a life of him, not mere-
ly eftimating his charafter as an arti't, but alfo pour-
tray ing his private virtues and ^omeftic habits, would
be both ufetul and entertaining. Such a life, we have
reafon to believe, will be prefented to the public Mo-
deft as he was ingenious, he ufed indeed to fay that the
works of an ar'tift ftiould ferve for a life and monument
to him. His works no doubt will perpetuate his name
whilft any tafte for the fine arts remains. In the mean
time, we cannot but here give a fhort f]<etch of his
hiftory, the accuracy of which may be depended on.
Sir Robert Strange was born in the ifland of Pomona
in Orkney, July the 14th 1721; and died at London
July the 5th I 792. He was lineally defceuded from
David Strange or Strang, a younger fon of the family
of the Stranges or Strangs(A) of lialcaflcy, in the coun-
ty
(a) The name of Strange or Strang is indifcriminately ufed in the old charters and deeds of the Balcalky fa«
mlly, now in the pofleflloii of Sir Robert Anftruther of Balcaficy, baronet.
S T R [ 823 ] S T R
ange. ty of Fife, who^ettled in Orkney at the time of the at Rome, we cannot but record the following anecdote.
Reformation. But as there were no males remaining
of the elder branch of the Stranges of Balcaflcy, Sir
Robert became the male reprefentative of it, and was
found by a legal invelligation to have a right to the ar-
morial bearings and every other mark of honour belong,
ing to that ancient family.
He received his claflical education at Kirkwall in
Orkney under the care of a learned, worthy, and much
refpe6^ed gentleman, Mr Murdoch Mackenzie, rtlll alive
(1795), who has rendered infinite fervice to his coun-
The ceiling of the room of the Vatican library, in
which the coUedion of engravings are kept, is elegant-
ly painted by Signor Rotfanelli. It reprefents the pro-
grefs or engraving ; and the portraits of the moft emi-
nent artifts in that line are there introduced, among
which is that of our artift. Under his arm he holds a
portfolio, on which his name is infcribed. He is the
only Britifh artift on whom this honour has been con-
ferred.
In France, where he refided many years at different
Strans*.
try by the accurate lurveys and charts he h?.s given of periods, his talents likewife received every mark of at-
the iflands of Orkney and of the Britifh and Irifh tention that could be beftowed on a foreigner. He
'''' n'- ■ V • . A Af .X. 1 A/r c r ^ was made a member of the royal academy of painting
Origmally intended for the law, Mr Strange foon be- at Pans.
came tired of that profeflion, and perceived that his ge- His majefty King George III. ever attentive to the
nius decluvely led him to the aits of drawing and en- progrefs of the fine arts in Britain, and fenfible of the
graving. For this purpofe he was introduced to the
late Mr Richard Cooper at Edinburgh, the only perfon
there who had then any taRe in thr.t line of the fine
arts. He was bound with him as an apprentice for fix
years ; during which time he made fuch progrefs in his
new pTofeflion, that his friends entertained the higheft
cxpeftation of his fuccefs; nor were they difappointed.
In the year 1 747 he married Jfabtlla, only daugh-
ter of William Lumlfden, fon of Bifhop I.umifdcn; and
foon after his marriage he went to France, where with
the moft ardent application he profecuted his ftudies,
chiefly at Paris, under the direAIon of the celebrated
Le Bas, who engraved many excellent prints from
the Dutch painters. It was from Le Bas he had- the
firft hint of the ufe of the inftrument commonly called
tie dry needle ; but which he afterwards greatly impro-
ved by his own genius, and which has added fuch fu-
perior beauties to his engravings.
In the year 1751 Mr Strange removed with his fa-
mily from Edinburgh and fettled at London, where he
engraved feveral fine hiftorical prints, which juftly ac-
quired to him great reputation. At this period hifto-
rical engraving had made little progrefs in Britain, and
he may be properly confidered as Its father.
The admiration he always had for the works of tlie
great Italian painters made him long de!ire to vifit Ita-
ly, the feat ot the fine arts ; and the farther he advan-
ced in hfc, he became the more perfuaded that a jour-
ney to that country was effential to an artift who had
the laudable ambition to excel in his profefiion. He
therefore undertook this journey in the year 1760. In
Italy he made many admirable drawings, feveral of
which he afterwards engraved. Thefe drawings are
now in the poffeflion of Lord Dundas.
Everywhere in Italy fingular marks of attention were
beftowed on Mr Strange ; not only by great perfo-
nages, but by the principal academies of the fine arts in
that country. He was made a member of the acade-
mies of Rome, Florence, and Bologna, and profelTor m
the royal academy at Parma.
To fhow the eftimation in which his talents were held
advantat^^es of which engraving particularly has been to
this country, even in a commercial light ; and defirous
to give a mark of his royal approbation of the merit of
Mr Strange, whom he confidered as at ^he head of his
profeflion and the great improver of it— was gracioufly
pleafed to confer the honour of knighthood oh him the
5th of January 1787.
Such was Sir Robert Strange as an artift ; nor was
he lefs dlftinguiftied by his truly amiable moral quali-
ties, which endeared him to all who had the happinefa
to know him.
With regard to his works, he left fifty capital plates,
ftill in good condition, which are carefully prefei ved in
his family. They are engraved from piftures by the
moft celebrated painters of the Roman, Florentine,
Lombard, Venetian, and other fchools. They are hi-
ftorical, both facred and profane, poetical, allegorical.
From his earlicft efUbllftiment in life. Sir Robert
carefully preferved about eighty copies of the fineft and
moft choice impreffions ot each plate he engraved ;
which, from leng^th of time, have acquired a beauty,*
mellownefs, and brilliancy, eafier feen than defcribed.
He did this with a view of prefenting them to the pub-
lic at a period when age ftiould difable him from add-
ing to their number. Thefe he collefted into as many
volumes, and arrantred them In the order in which they
were engraved. To each volume he prefixed two por-
traits of himfelf, on the fame plate, the one an etching,
the other a finilhed proof, from a drawing by John
Baptifte Greufe. This is the laft plate he engraved; and
which Is a proof that neither his eyes nor hand were
impaired by age. It hkewife Oiows the ufe he made
both of aquafortis and the graver. Each volume, be^
fides a dedication to the king, contains an introduaion
on the progrefs of engraving, and critical remarks on
the piaures from which his engravings are taken.
Thefe volumes were ready to be given to the public,
when Sir Robert's death and confequent circumftances
delayed this magnificent publication; a publication
which does fo much honour to the arcift, and to the
country which gave him birth (b)
STRANGER,
(b) Sohcitous to make all our biographical articles the vehicles of truth, and particularly defirous to do juftice
to the memory of our illuftnou^ countryman Sir Robert Strange, we applied for information refpedin^ him to
the perfon whom we confidered as the moft capable of furniftiing it, and to whom we imagined that our applica-
tion would be m a high degree grateful. With fome difficulty we obtained, as a favour to outfelves, the Iketcb
S T R
r 02
£-r--iigeT STRANGER, In law, denotes a perfon ^vllo is not
SI privy or party to an aft. Thus a ftrana;er to a judge-
till!^!!^' ment is lie to whom a judprmeHt does not belong ; in
which fenfc the word llands direfdy oppofed to party
or privy.
STRANGLES, in Farriery. See that article,
• KiV.
STR-ANGURY, a fupprefiion of urine. rSct Me-
Uici NE, n° 1 19 •
STRAP, among furgeonf, a fort of band ufed to
P. 1 etch out limbs in the fetting of broken or disjointed
bones.
Strap, in a fhip, the rope which is fpliced about any
block, and made with an eye to taften it anywhere on
occafion.
Straps, in the manege. The ftraps of a faddle are
fmall leather ftraps, nailed to the bows of the laddie,
with which we make the girths fall to the faddle. ^
STRAPADO, or Strappado, a kind of military
punifhment, wherein the criminals hands being tied be-
hind him, he i^hoii-kd jap \vith a rope to the top of a
' lonfs- piece of wood, and let fall again almoll to the
ground ; fo that, by the weight of his body in the
'{[\ock, his arms are diflpcated. Sometimes he is to un-
dergo three ftrapadoes or more.
STR ASBURG, an ancient, large, handfome, popu-
lous, and llrong city of France in Alface. It contains
about 200 ftreets, part of which are very narrow, and
moll of the houfes are built after the ancient tafte.
However, there are a great number of handtonve bulld-
iuixs, fuch as the hotel of the marfhal of France, who is
commander of the city ; the botel of the cardinal of
Rouen, the biihops palace, the Jcfults college, the royal
■hofpital, the hotel of Heffe-Darmiladt, the arfenal, the
4 ] S T u
town-houfe, and the cathedral. It has a wooden bridge St-iafliu;
over the Rhine, which is thought to be one of the fincil
in Europe ; as is likcwife the cathedral church, whofe
tower is the handfometl in Germany, and the clock is
greatly admired by all travellers. Some look upon it
as one of the wonders of the world, and the fteeple is
^allowed to be the higheft in Europe. The clock noK
only fhows the hours of the day, but the motion of the
(un, moon, and liars. Among other th-ngs there is aii
aniel, which turns an hour-glafs every hour ; and the
twelve apoftles pi'oclaim noon, by each of them ftriking
a blow with a hammer on a bell. There is likewife a
cock, which is a g^ece of clock-work, that crows every
hour. There are 700 fteps up to the tower or fteeple,
it being 500 feet high. It was a free and imperial city;
but the icing of France became mafter of it in 1681,
and greatly augmented the fortlhcations, though before
it had as many cannon as there are days in the year,
'i he inhabitants were formerly Proteftants, and carried
on a great trade ; but moft of them have been obaged
to embrace the Romifli fuperftition. though there is ft ill
a fort of toleration. Such was Strafburg before the
French revolution ; what it is now we have not leifur'^
to inquire. It is feated ®n the river 111, .55 miic*
north of Bafil, 112 fouth-well of Mentz, and 235 eaii
of Paris. E. Long. 7. 51. N. Lat. 48. 35.
STRATA, in natural hiftory, the feveral btds or.
layers of different mattei-s whereof the earth is compo.
fed. See Quarry.
The ftrata whereof the earth is compofed are fo very
different in different countries, that it is impofUble to
fay any thing concerning them that may be generally
applicable : and indeed the depths to which we can pe-
netrate arc fo fmall, that only a very few can be known
to
of his life, which wehavejaid before our readers, upon the exprefs condition that we {hould not a^ter a^n^le ^ord
of it; as the compofition, we were told, would do honour to our •u^orL We have obferved the condition and
therefore cannot claim this honour to any of the' ufual writers in the Encyclopedia Bntannica It Sir kobert 9
more intimate friends ftiall be pleafed with the ar-ticle, their gratitude wiU be due not to us, but to lome of his
neareft rektions ; and what may appear its defeds to others (for the taftes of rnank.nd are very different), we
truft will be fupplied by the following authentic catalogue of his works : Plate i. Two Heads of the -MVLhox—on^
an etching, the other a- finifhed proof, fi ont a drawing by John Baptilte Greu^ , 2. Ihe Return from Market, by
Wouvermans ; ^. Cupid, by Vanloo ; 4. Mar)- Magdalen, by Guido ; 5. Cleopatra, by the farrre ; 6. 1 he Ma,
donna, by the fame ; 7. The Angel Gabriel, by the fame ; 8. The Virgin holding in her hand a book, and at-
tended by angels, by Carlo Maratt ; 9. I he Virgin with the Child afleep, by the fame ; i o. Liberality and Mo-
cleftv, by Guido ; 1 1. Apollo rewarding Merit and punifhing Arrogance, by Andrea Sacchi ; 12. I he Fin-din|r
of Romulus and Remus, by Pietro da Cortona ; 15. Caefar repudiating Pompeia, by the lame ; 14. 1 aree Chil-
dren of King Charles I. >y Vandyke ; I 9. BeUfarius, by Salvator Rofa ; 16. St Agnes, by Dominich.no ; 17.
The Tudpment of Hercules, by Nicolas Pouffin ; 18. Venus attired by the Graces, by Guuio ; 19 and 20. Jul-
tice and Meeknefs, by Raphael ; 21. The Offspring of Love, by Guido ; 22. Cupid fleeping, by the fame :
12. Abraham giving up the Handmaid Hagar, by Guercino ; 24. Efther a Suppliant before Ahafuerus, by the
fame ; 25. Jofeph and Potiphar's Wife, by Guido ; 26. Venus Bhnding Cupid, by Titiar, ; 27. Venus, by the
fame 28. Danae, by the fame ; 29. Portrait of King Charles 1. by Vandyke ; 30. Phe Madonna, by Correg-
jrio ; \ r. St Cecilia, by Raphael ; 32- Mary Magdalen, by Guido ; 33- Our Saviour appearing to his Mother
tfte^ his Refurreftion, by Guercino; 34. A Mother and Child, by Parmegiano ; 35. Cupid Meditatmg by
Schidoni ; 36. Laomedon King of Troy detefted by NeptUne and Apollo, by Salvator Rofa ; 37. ihe Death
•of Dido, by Guercino; 38. Venus and Adonis, by Titian ; 30. Fortune by Guido ; 40. Cleopatra, by the
fame 541. Two ChildreH at School, by Schidoni ; 42. Mary Magdalen, by Cerreggio ; 43. Portrait of King
Charles I. attended by the Marquis of Hamilton, by Vandyke ; 44- QH^^" Henrietta, attended by t^^e ^ ""ce of
Wales, and holding in her Arms the Duke df York, by the fame ; 45- ^^P^J^/'« °^ u J 7ff i'"' ,^
Weft ; 46. The Annunciation, by Guido ; 47. Portrait of Raphael Saacio i^'Urbino, by himfelf ; 4S. Sappho,
by Carlo Doici ; 49. Our Saviour afleep, by Vandyke ; 50. St John iri the Defert, by Munllo,
S T R [ 8
to lis at any rate ; thofe that lie near the centre, or even
a great way from it, being for ever hid. One rcafon
why we cannot penetrate to any great depth Is, that as
we go down the air becomes foul, loaded with perni-
cious vapours, inflammable air, fixed air, &c. which de-
ftroy the miners, and there is no poflibility of-going on.
In many places, however, thefe vapours become perni-
cious much fooner than in others, particularly where
fdphureous minerals abound, as in mines of metal, coal,
But however great differences there may be among
the under ftrata, the upper one is in fome refpefts the
fame all over the globe, at leaft in this refpeft, that
it is fit for the fupport of vegetables, which the others
are not, without long expomre to the air. Properly
fpeaking, indeed, the upper ftratum of the earth all
round, is compofed of the pure vegetable mold, though
in many places it is mixed with large quantities of
ether ftrata, as clay, fand, gravel, &c. ; and hence pro-
ceed the differcHces of foils fo well known to thofe who
praftife agriculture.
It has been fuppofed, by fome naturalifts, that the
•iiiutient ftrata of which the earth is compofed were
originally formed at the creation, and have continued
in a maimer immutable ever fmce ; Jautthis cannot pof-
'2^y hn>e been the cafe, fince we find that many of the
Itrata are ftrangely intermixed with each other ; the
bones of animals both marine and terreftrial are fre-
quently found 'at great depths in the earth ; beds of
oyfter-fhells are found of immenfe extent in feveral coun-
tries ; and concerning thefe and other fhell-fifh, it is re-
markable, that they are generally found much farther
from the furface than the bones or teeth either of ma-
rine or terreftrial animals. Neither are the (hells or
other remains of filh found in thofe countries adjoining
to the feas where they grow naturally, but in the moft
diftant regions. Mr Whitehurft, in his Inquiry into the
Original State and Formation of the Earth, has given
the follownng account of many different kinds of ani-
mals, whofe ftiells and other remains or exuv'ta are found
J n England ; though at prefent the living animals are
not to be found except in the Eaft and Weft Indies.
^ Catalogue of Extsanrous Fossils, Jljotuing ivhere
they ivere dug up ; alfo their native Climates, Mqftly
feleBed from the curious^ Cabinet of Mr Neilson^ in
King-l^reet, Red-Lion Square.
Their names, and Places where found
Chambered NAtrriLUs. Sheppy
Iflands ; Richmond in Surrey ;
Sherbone in Dorfetfhire,
Tk tTH OF SiiARKS. Sheppy Ifland,
Oxfordlhire, Middlefex, Surrey
Northamptonfhire,
Sea-Tortoise, feveral kinds; the
Hauuifhill, Loggerhead^ and Green
fpecies. Sheppy Ifland,
MangroveTreb OysTEns. Shep
py Ifland,
Coxcomb I'ree Oysters. Ox-
fordfhire, Gloucefterfhire, Dor
fetfhire> and Hanover,
Vertebra WPalates^/^Or-
BEs. Sheppy Iflands, and many
other parts of England,
VoL.XVII. Part II.
Native Climate?.
Chinefe Ocean, and
other Parts of that
great fea.
Eafl and Wefl In-
dies.
25 ] S T R
Theirnamcs, and Places where found. Native Climates. Strata.
Crocodile. Germany, Derby- 1
fhire, Nottlnghamfhire, Oxford- >
fhire, and Yoilcfhire, - ^ j
Alligator's Teeth. Oxford-l Eq^ and Wejl In*
fhire, Sheppy Ifland, - \ dies.
The BandedBuccinum. Oxford- / „, ^ , ,.
fhire, and the Alps, - f
The Dipping-Snail, and Star-I ^ , r
Fish. Sheppy Ifland. - |
Tail BucciNUM. Sheppy Ifland, 7 r- n r i-
Hordel Cliff, Hampfhire, - j ^«'^'^'-
Nothing has more perplexed thofe who undertake to
form theories «f the earth than thefe appearances. Some
have at once boldly afferted, from thefe and other phe-
nomena, that the world is eternal. Others have had re-
courfe to the unlverfal deluge. Some, among whom is
the Count de Buffbn, endeavour to prove that the
ocean and dry land are perpetually changing places ;
that for many ages the higheft mountains have been
covered with water, in confequence of which the ma-
rine animals juft mentioned were generated in fuch vafl
quantities, that the waters will again cover thefe moun-
tains, the habitable part of the earth become fea, and
the fea become dry land as before, &c. Others have
imagined that they might be occafioned by volcanoes,
earthquakes, &c. which confound the different ftrata,
and often intermix the produdions of the fea with thofe -
of the dry land.
Thefe fubjefts have been difcuffed under the article
Earth, to which therefore we refer the readtr ; and
fliall conclude with fome account of the ftrata in thofe
places where they have been moft particularly obferved.
Under the article Natural History, Se6t. I. it
is obferved, that the upper ftrata of the earth and moun-
tains generally confift of rag-ftone, the next of flate,
the thirS of marble filled with petrifaftions, the fourth
again of flate, and the next of free-ftone. But we are
far from confidering this as a rule which holds univcr-
fally. The ftrata differ exceedingly in a great number
of places ; fome inilances of which we fhall give from
Mr Whitehurft — At Alfreton Common in Derbyfhire, / •
the ftrata are, - the Ori.
ginal State
A Table of the Strata at Alfreton Common. "."'^ Format
tlon of (be
Numb. Feet. Inch. EarM, p.
1 Clay - - n 211.
2 Katch^lv, fragments of jlone
3 Bind indurated clay
4 Stone, argillaceous concreted clay
Wefl Indies.
Wefl Indies.
Coafl of Guinea*
Eafl and Wefl In-
dies.
5 Bind .
6 Bind - - .
7 Stone, a black colour
o Bind
9 Stone
10 Bind - _
1 1 Bind • -
12 Coal - .
13 Bind - - -
14 Stone -
15 Stone
16 Bind - . -
17 SmutT, a black fubflance^ refembling a
ftratum of coaUdufl
]
7
0
9
0
>3
4
6
0
8
8
25
0
5
0
2
0
2
0
5
0
5
0
1
6
I
6
23
0
^4
0
7
0
3
0
5M
Carried over 138 o
S T R [ S
Strata. Numb. Peet. Inch,
—v— ^ , Brought over - 1,38 o
18 SiND - --30
19 Stone - - - 20 o
30 Bind . - - 16 o
21 Coal - - - 7 4
184 4
yl Tjble of the Strata at West Haliam.
Numb. F^et. Inch.
1 Clay - - - 7 ^
.2 Bind - - - 48 o
3 Smott - - - 16
i\ C-LvacH, or indurated day - 4 °
5 Bind - - 30
6 Stone - - - 23
7 Bind - - - 10
8 Stone - - - i o
9 Bind - - - 3 o
10 Stone - - -10
11 Bind - - - - 16 O
11 Shale - - -20
13 Bind - - - 12 o
14 Shale - - ' 3 ^
15 C-LvacHf Jlone and fometimes canh - 54 o
16 Soft Coal - - -40
17 Clay - - -06
J 8 Soft Coal - - - 4 6
19 Clunch an<i Bind - - 21 o
20 Coal - -10
21 Bind - - 10
22 Strengy broad BinT) - 25 o
23 Coal - - - 60
222 3
Mr Forfter has given an account of fome of the ftra-
ta of the South-Sea iflands, the fubftance of which may-
be feen in the following table.
South Georgia.
J. No foil, except in a few crevices of the rocks.
2. Ponderous flate, with fome irony particles, in hori-
zontal ftrata, perpendicularly interfered with veins
of quartz. >.
Southern IJle of New Zealand.
1. Fine light black mould, in fome places nine inches
deep, but generally not fo much.
2. An argillaceous fubftance, nearly related to the clafs
of Talcons, turned into earth by the aftion of the
air.
3. The fame fuhftance farther indurated, in oblique
ftrata, generally dipping to the fouth.
Easter Island.
1. Reddifh-brown dufty mould, looking as if It had
been burnt.
%. Burnt rocks, refembling flags or drofs and other
volcanic matters.
Marquesas.
1. Clay mixed with mould.
2. An earthy argillaceous fubftance mixed with tarras
and puzzolana.
Otaheite.
The (hores are coral rock, extending from the reef en-
circling thefe ifles to the very high water-mark.
6 ] S T R
There begins the fand, formed in fome places from Stiata,
fmall fhells and rubbed pieces of coral ; but in otihers — -v-*^
the (bores are covered with blackifh fand, coafifting
of the former fort mixed with black, fometimes glit-
tering, particles of mica, and here and there fome :
particles of the refraftory iron ores called in Eno-.
land Skim, the ferrum micaceum of Linnaeus, and I
Kall the molybdisnum fpuma lup'i of the fame author, |
The plains from the fliores to the foot of the hills |
are covered with a very fine thick ftratum of black |
mould, mixed with the above-meotioned fand, which %
the natives manure with fkells. The firft and lower |
range of hills are formed of a red odireous earth, |.
fometimes fo intenfely red, that the natives ufe it to i
paint their canoes and cloth. The higher hills con- I
iift of a hard, compaft, and ft ilf clayey fubftance, i
hardening into ftone when out of the reach of the fun I
and air. At the top of the valleys, along the banks |
of the rivers, are large maffes of coarfe granite ftones I
of various mixtures ; in one place are pillars of a |
grey, folid bafaltes ; i^nd, in feveral others, fragment* *
of black bafaltes.
Friendly Islands and New Hebrides.
The fame with the above.
Mallicollo.
Yellowifh clay mixed with common fand.
Tanna, a Vulcanic JJJand.
The chief ftrata here are clay mixed with aluminous
earth, interfperfed with lumps of pure chalk, 'I "he
ftrata of the clay are about fix inches, deviating very-
little from the horizontal line.
New Caledonia and the adjarent Ifles.
The fliores confift of fliell-fand, and particles of quartz;
the foil in the plains a black mould mixed with this
fand. The ftdes of the hills compoCed of a yellov/
Ojphreous clay, richly fpangled with fmall particles of
cat-filver, or a whitifh kind of daze, the mica argentea I
of Linnseus. The higher parts of the hills confift: |
of a ftone called by the German miners gefleljleia, com- |
pofed of quartz and great lumps of the above cat- f
filver. The latter is fometimes of an intenfely red or I
orange colour, by means of an iron ochre.
" From the above account, " fays Mr Forfter," it
appears, I think, evidently, that all the high tropical
ifles of the South Sea have been fubjefl to the adion
of volcanoes, Pyritical and fulphureous fubftances,
together with a few iron-ftones, and fome veftigcs of
copper, are no doubt found in feveral of them : but
the mountains of New Caledonia are the moft likely to
contain the richeft metallic veins ; and the fame opi-
nion, I fufpedl, may be formed of the mountains in New
Zealand."
In the city of Modena in Italy, and for fome miles
round that place, there is the moft fingular arrange-
ment of ftrata perhaps in the whole world. From the
furface of the ground to the depth of 14 feet, they meet
with nothing but the ruins of an ancient city. Being
come to that depth, they find paved ftreets, artificers
fliops, floors of houfes, and feveral pieces of inlaid work.
After thefe ruins they find a very folid earth, which
one would think had never been removed ; but a little
lower they find it black and marfliy, and full of briars-
Signior Ramazzini in one place found a heap of wheat
entire at the dept^^ of 24 feet ; in another, he found
filbert-
S T R
filbert-trees with their nuts. At the
28 feet, they find a bed of chalk, about 11 feet deep,
which cuts very eafily ; after this a bed of marfhy earth
of about two feet, mixed with ruflies, leaves, and
branches. After this bed comes another of chalk,
nearly of the fame thickne'fs ; and which ends at the
depth of 42 feet. This is followed by another bed of
marfliy earth like the former ; after which comes a new
chalk-bed, but thinner, which alio has a marfliy bed
underneath it. This ends at the depth of 63 feet ;
after which they find fnnd mingled with fraall gravel,
and feveial marine fiiells. This ilratum is ufually about
five feet deep, and underneath it is a vaft refervoir of
water. It is on account of this water that the foil is
fo fre.quently dug, and the ilrata fo well known in this
part of the world. After comin;jr to the fandy bottom
above-mentioned, the workmen pierce the grownd with
a terebra 01 auger, when the water immediately fprings
up w^ith great force, and fills the well to the brim.
The flow is perpetual, and neither incrcafes by rain,
nor decreafes by drought. Sometimes the autrer meets
with great trees, which give the workmen much trou!:le ;
they alio fometinies fee at the bottom of thefe wells
g.Feat bones, coals, flints, and pieces of iron.
It has been afTerted by fome, that the fpeclfic gra-
vity of the ftrata conftantly increafed with the depth
from the furface. But Dr Leigh, in his Natural Ht-
ilory of Lancafhire, {"peaking of the coal-pits, denies
the Ilrata to lie according to the laws of gravitation ;
obferving, that the ftrata there are firft a bed of marie,
then free-llone, next iron-ftone, then coal, or channel
mire, then fome other ftrata, then coal again, &c.
This determined Mr Derham to make a nicer inquiry
into the matter: accordingly, in 1712, he caufed di-
vers places to be bored, laying the feveral ftrata by
themfelves ; and afterwards determined very carefully
their fpecific gravity. The refult was, that in his yard
the ftrata were gradually fpecifically heavier and heavier
the lower and lower they went ; but in another place
in his fields, he could not perceive any difference in the
fpecific gravities.
Acquainting the Royal Society therewith, their ope-
rator Mr Haukfbec was ordered to try the ftrata ot a
coal pit, which he did to the depth of 30 ftrata : the
tliicknefs and fpecific gravity of each whereof he gives
; us in a table in the Ehiloiophical Tranfa£lidns ; and
from the v/hole makes this inference, that it evidently
appears the gravities of the feveral ftrata are in no
manner of order, but purely cafual, as if mixed by
chance.
STRATAGEM, in the art of war, any device for
deceiving and furprifmg an enemy. The ancients dealt
very much in ftratagems ; the moderns wage war more
openly, and on the fquare. Frontinus has made a col-
lection of the ancient ftratagems of war.
STRATEGUS, rparw>of, in antiquity, an officer
among the Athenians, whereof there were two chofen
yearly, to command the troops of the ftate.
Plutarch fays, there was one chofen from out of each
tribe ; but Pollux feems to fay they were chofen indif-
ferently out of the people. Tlie people themfelves
inade the choice ; and that on the laft day of the year,
Stratk
[ '827 ] S T R ,
deptli of about in a place called Pnyx. The two Jl'rategt did not com-
mand tcJgether, but took their turns day by day ; as ^ "
we find from Herodotus and Cornelius Nepos. Some-^^^"^"^'
times indeed, as when a perfon was found of merit
vaftly fuperior, and exceedingly famed in war, the com-
mand v;as given to him alone : but it was ever a rule,
not to put any perfon in the office but whofe eftate was
in Attica, and who had childi-ea, that there mii^ht be
fome holla^es and fecurities for his conduft and fideli-
ty. Conftantine the Great, belides many other privi-
leges granted to the city of Athens, honoured its
chief magiftrate with the title of M.faf XTf«/«r;f, Mag-
nus Dux.
STRATH, in the Scottifli language, fignlnes a long
narrow valley, with a river running along the bottom.
STRA THEARN, a beautiful and extcnfive valley
in Perthfliire, bounded on the north by the loity rid
of mountains called the Grampians, and on the fouth by
the Ochils, whicli are rounded on the tops and covered
with verdure. It is cnlled Strath'arn from the river
Earn, which runs through the middle of it from weft to
eaft for about 30 miles. On each fide of the banks of
this beautiful liream are many villages and country-feats
diftinguilhed for romantic fituatioiis. Were we to fingle
out any of the villages, we would mention Crieff, which
ftands on a fine floping ground on the north fide of the
Earn, and has been much admired by travellers for
its fituation, and the variety, contraft, fingularity, and
beauty of the profpech which it affords.
STRATHNAVER, a fubdiviiion or diftrid of the
county of Sutheiland in Scotland; bounded on the
north by the ocean, on the eaft by Caithnefs,'on the
fouth by Sutherland properly fo called, and on the weft
partly by Rofs and partly by the ocean.
STRATIOi'ES, Water-soldier, in botany: A
genus of plants belonging to the clafs of polyandria,
and to the order of bexagynta ; and in the natural fyf-
tem ranging under the firft ord«r, palms. The Ipatha is
diphyllous : the perianthlum is trifid. There are three
petals, and the berry is fix-celled and inferior. There
are three fpecies, the aloides, the acoroides, and alif- .
moides. The alo'tdes alone is of Britifti extradlon,
which is alfo called the ivater aloe, or frejh-ivater fohlier.
The root confifts of long fibres tufted at the ends. The
leaves are thick, triangular, pointed, and prickly at the
edges. The flowers are white and floating on the wa- < .
ter, and bloffom in June. This plant may be feen in
flow rivers and fens.
STRATO, a philofopher of Lampfacus, difciple and
fucceffor in the fchool of Theophraftus, about 248 years
before the Chriftian era. He applied himlelf with un-
common induftry to the ftudy of nature ; and after the
moft mature inveftigations, he fupported that nature was
ananlmate, and that there was no god but nature. (See
'■Plastic Nature). He was appointed preceptor to Pto- -
lemy Philadelphus, who not only revered his abilities
and learning, but alfo rewarded his labours with un-
bounded hberahty. He wrote different treatifes, ali
now loft.
STRAWBERRY, in botany. See Fragaria.
SjRAWBERRY-Tree. See Arbutus.
END OF THE S E V E N T E EN TH V O L U M E,
ERRATA.^
Vol. III. p. 124.. col. 2. I. tt. For " yet brouglit,*' read " not yet brought.^"
p. 258. col. 1. 1. 20. For " in the 50th," read " in the 57th."
Vol. IX. p. 470. col. i. 1. 20. A correfpondent fays, for " fummer affizes," read " fpn'ng afiizes."
Vol. X. p. 7. col. 2. I. 22. from bottom. For " ifofceles reftangle," read " ifofceles triangle.**
p. 119. col. 1. 1. 13. from bottom. For " ugt^pi®','" read " «fi9^of.**
p. 471. col. 2. 1. 27. For " prevents," read " perverts."
p. 542. col. I. 1. I. from bottom. Erafe the fentence beginning with " It is an earldom."
p. 549. col. 2. 1. 37. For " him," read " he."
Vol. XIII. p. 204. col. 2. 1. 17. For "after the 364th, in the year 440," read " in the year 312, or, as Ce-
drenus fays, in the year 393."
Vol. XIV. p. 67. col. 2. I. 27. For " St Claget," read " Dr Claget."
Vol. XVL p. 196. col. 2. 1. 23. Inftead of the fentence beginning with " In the mean time," read " On
the 9th June Admiral Montague fell in w^ith the French fleet returning
to port, amounting to 19 fail of the line."
p. 682. col. I. 1. 37. For " Milan," read «< Mifnaw."
p. 696. col. 2. 1. 3. For " o-xwTTJxer,'' read " o-xta'Tix^f j" and for arxcXTOfiav^*> read " <rx(;rTO^a;.'»
Vol; XVII. p. 180. col. 2. 1. 16. from bottom. For ** covers them," read '« it covers."
p. 524. col. 2. 1. 12. For *• where," read "when."
p. 533. col. 2. 1. 30. After the word " likewife" add " pofTible."
p. 556. col. 2. 1. 18. from bottom. Erafe the fentence beginning with tha word " Candidates."
p. 671. col. 2. 1. 23. Erafe the word " regius.'*
p. 678. col. a. 1. 12. For " avj/tXef^'* read " ayythof,'*
p. 728. col. 2. 1. 18. For « Balydrenc," read " Balydrone."
p. 729. col. 1. 1. 41. For " 1669," read " 1769."
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